Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

CAE LAB MANUAL

ANNEXTURE

S.NO Name of Experiment Page No. Date of Submission Remarks

Introduction to Computer aided

1 01-07
Drawing/Design

Introduction to Computer aided

2 08-14
Engineering

3 To study the CAE Applications 15-16

Introduction to Finite Element

4 17-19
analysis

Introduction to Computational
5 20-24
Fluid dynamics

6 Process Optimization 25-27

7 Product Optimization 28-28

 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

1. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

INTRODUCTION: Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided design and

drafting (CADD), is the use of computer technology for the process of design and design-
documentation. Computer Aided Drafting describes the process of drafting with a computer.
CADD software provides the user with input-tools for the purpose of streamlining design
processes; drafting, documentation, and manufacturing processes. CADD output is often in the
form of electronic files for print or machining operations. CADD software uses either vector
based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics
showing the overall appearance of designed objects.

CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and
engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes,
dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to
design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-
dimensional (3D) space.

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including

automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design,
prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special
effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power of
computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using
techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance,
CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics
(both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry.

The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called
computer-aided geometric design (CAGD). In CAD, many commands are available for drawing
basic geometric shapes. Examples include CIRCLE, POLYGON, ARC, ELLIPSE, and more.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

USES: Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is
used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question.

CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within the
Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools,
which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as:

 Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)

 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) machines
 Photo realistic rendering
 Document management and revision control using Product Data Management (PDM).

CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the
preparation of Environmental Impact Reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended
buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to represent what that
locale will be like were the proposed facilities allowed to be built. Potential blockage of view
corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD.

CAD has also been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are
history, features, parameterization, and high level constraints, the construction history can be
used to look back into the model's personal features and work on the single area rather than the
whole model. Parameters and constraints can be used to determine the size, shape, and the
different modeling elements. The features in the CAD system can be used for the variety of tools
for measurement such as tensile strength yield strength, also its stress and strain and how the
element gets affected in certain temperatures.

AUTO-CAD

AutoCAD is a software application for computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting, in both 2D
and 3D formats. The software product is developed and sold by Autodesk, Inc., the largest
design automation company in the world, the headquarters of which are located in the

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

Californian city of Sausalito. First released in December 1982 by Autodesk in the year following
the purchase of the first form of the software by Autodesk founder, John Walker. AutoCAD is
Autodesk's flagship product and by March 1986 had become the most ubiquitous microcomputer
design program in the world, utilizing functions such as "poly-lines" and "curve fitting". Prior to
the introduction of AutoCAD, most other CAD programs ran on mainframe computers or
minicomputers, with each user's unit connected to a graphics computer terminal.

According to its own company information, Autodesk states that the AutoCAD software
is now used in a range of industries, employed by architects, project managers and engineers,
amongst other professions, and as of 1994 there had been 750 training centers established across
the world to educate users about the company's primary products.

CAD uses four basic elements for preparation of any drawing and are as follows:

1. Line
2. Curves
3. Text
4. Filling point

ADVANTEGES OF AUTO-CAD

1. Improve productivity in drawing/design.

2. Shorter preparation time in drawing /design.
3. Reduced manpower requirements.
4. Modifications in drawings are easy.
5. More efficient drawing operation.
6. Low wastage.
7. Improve accuracy and quality of a drawing.
8. Assist in documentation of drawings.
9. Hatching with different filling patterns.
10. Printing can be done at any stage.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

11. Revisions are possible easily.

12. Machining and tolerances on the required surfaces.
13. Less error in drawings.
14. Clarity of drawings.
15. Instruments are not required.

DISADVANTEGES OF AUTO-CAD

1. Dependency on electricity.
2. Computer knowledge and operating is necessary.
3. Configuration: 32 bit word computer is necessary because of large amount of computer
memory and time.
4. The size of software package is large.
5. Skill and judgment is required to prepare the drawing/design.
6. Huge investment.

2D COMMANDS

Line: line is specified by giving its two end points or the distance between first and second

point. A line can be drawn by using two commands.

Command – line (enter) or L enter

Command – Specify first point
- Specify second point or enter.
Poly-line: The poly-line is a continuous segment of line and it is drawn similar to the line
command. It can be straight, curved, tapered, and wide. Fillets and chamfer can be aided where
needed on a poly line. Hatching can be easy to perform on this line.
Circle: Draws circles of any size.

Arc: Draws an arc (any part of a circle or curve) through three known points.

Angle/Length of chord/ <End point >: (pick the arc endpoint)

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
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Erase: This command delete the selection part of drawing. The object can be erase or removed
by use of this command.
Pan: Panning allows you to quickly move around the drawing area at the same magnification
you currently have set. Type in PAN (or P) <ENTER> and a hand will appear on the screen. Left
click and hold to move around your drawing.

Zoom: This option asks you to select an object or objects, then press <ENTER> and the screen
will zoom to those objects only. This is great for when you want to work on object.
Zoom In: Clicking this icon will zoom in to the drawing by about 50%. This option is only
available as an icon and cannot be invoked by the command line.
Zoom Out: Similar to 'Zoom In' - this icon will zoom out of your drawing and allow you to see
about 50% more of your drawing space.
Scale: A numeric zoom factor, a scale value less than one zooms out (reduced) and greater than
one zooms in (enlarged) the drawing.
All: Zooms out to original drawing limits.
Dynamic: Graphical selection of any portion of drawing as your next window.
Center: Picking a center point and a picture top and bottom by selecting two end point of a
height can given as a value.
Extents: Showing everything in the file ignoring the limits.
Array: Creates a repeating pattern of the selected objects (Home > Modify > Array) in rectangle
and polar fain. Each object in an array can be manipulated independently. This is a type of copy
command.
Stretch: Stretches an object after you have selected a portion of it (Home > Modify > Stretch)

Mirror: Creates a mirror image of an object or selection set. The mirror command creates a
mirror image of objects. Mirror command is useful for objects that present symmetry. You draw
half of the object and you mirror the other half.
Move: This AutoCAD command will allow you to move objects at specified distance in a
specified direction.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

Extend Command: The extend command is use to lengthen drawn lines to meet the edges of
other objects. When you use Extend command, you select lines as boundary edges and extend
other lines to those edges.
Trim Command: The Trim command is use to shorten drawn lines to meet the edges of other
objects.
Offset Command: The Offset command creates new object parallel to the original object at
specified distance and direction.
Copy Command: In AutoCAD you can use Copy command to create duplicates of objects at
different locations from the original.
OSNAP: Instantly locates exact points relative to existing objects (points).
Object Snap Modes: Endpoint, Midpoint, Center, Quadrant, Intersection, Insertion, Perpendicular,
Tangent, Nearest, Node, and None.
3D MODELING
Designer manipulates shapes in three dimensions.

Classifications:
1. Wireframe
2. Surface
3. Solid Modeling

4. Non-manifold

Wireframe modeling:

A wire frame model is a visual presentation of a three dimensional or

physical object used in 3D computer graphics. It is created by specifying each edge of the
physical object where two mathematically continuous smooth surfaces meet, or by connecting an
object's constituent vertices using straight lines or curves. The object is projected onto the
computer screen by drawing lines at the location of each edge. The term wireframe comes from
designers using metal wire to represent the 3 dimensional shape of solid objects.3D wireframe
allows to construct and manipulate solids and solid surfaces.3D solid modeling technique
efficiently draws high quality representation of solids than the conventional line drawing.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

Using a wire frame model allows visualization of the underlying design structure of a 3D model.
Traditional 2-dimensional views and drawings can be created by appropriate rotation of the
object and selection of hidden line removal via cutting planes.

Since wireframe renderings are relatively simple and fast to calculate, they are often used
in cases where a high screen frame rate is needed (for instance, when working with a particularly
complex 3D model, or in real-time systems that model exterior phenomena). When greater
graphical detail is desired, surface textures can be added automatically after completion of the
initial rendering of the wireframe. This allows the designer to quickly review chansolids or rotate
the object to new desired views without long delays associated with more realistic rendering. The
wire frame format is also well suited and widely used in programming tool paths for DNC
(Direct Numerical Control) machine tools.

Wire frame models were used extensively in video games to represent 3D objects during
the 1980s and early 1990s when properly filled 3D objects would have been too complex to
calculate and draw with the computers of the time. Wireframe models are also used as the input
for CAM(computer-aided manufacturing). There are mainly three types of 3D CAD models.
Wireframe is one of them and it is most abstract and least realistic. Other types of 3D CAD
models are surface and solid. This method of modeling consists only lines, points and curves
defining the edges of an object.

Surface Modeling:

A mathematical technique for representing solid-appearing objects, Surface

modeling is a more complex method for representing objects than wireframe modeling, but not
as sophisticated as solid modeling. Surface modeling is widely used in CAD (computer-aided
design) for illustrations and architectural renderings. It is also used in 3D animation for games
and other presentations. Although surface and solid models appear the same on screen, they are
quite different. Surface models cannot be sliced open as can solid models. In addition, in surface
modeling, the object can be geometrically incorrect; whereas, in solid modeling, it must be
correct.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

2. COMPUTER-AIDED ENGINEERING

Any use of computer software to solve engineering problems. With the improvement of graphics
displays, engineering workstations, and graphics standards, computer-aided engineering (CAE)
has come to mean the computer solution of engineering problems with the assistance of
interactive computer graphics.
CAE software is used on various types of computers, such as mainframes and super
minis, grid-based computers, engineering workstations, and even personal computers. The choice
of a computer system is frequently dictated by the computing power required for the CAE
application or the desired level and speed of graphics interaction. The trend is toward more use
of engineering workstations.
Design engineers use a variety of CAE tools, including large, general-purpose
commercial programs and many specialized programs written in-house or elsewhere in the
industry. Solution of a single engineering problem frequently requires the application of several
CAE tools
A typical CAE program is made up of a number of mathematical models encoded by
algorithms written in a programming language. The natural phenomena being analyzed are
represented by an engineering model. The physical configuration is described by a geometric
model. The results, together with the geometry, are made visible via a user interface on the
display device and a rendering model (graphics image).
CAE allows for many more iterations of the analysis-design cycle than was possible by
hand computation, especially when the CAE is coupled with optimization systems that drive this
cycle automatically. The benefits are translated into improved productivity and quality of design.

PROGRAM STRUCTURE-
A CAE program usually consists of a series of mathematical
models and a data structure. Figure 1 illustrates a simplified view of a typical CAE program
operating in an engineering workstation environment. First, a mathematical description of the
physical phenomena being analyzed is written. This engineering model may consist of equations

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
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such as Newton’s second law to describe the dynamics of a system or the Navier-Stokes
equations to analyze a fluid flow-field. Next, a model of the physical configuration is created.
This geometric model may consist of two- or three-dimensional (2D or 3D) curves, surfaces,
faceted approximations to surfaces, or solid elements. The results of the engineering analysis
are frequently displayed on the geometric model by color fringing to show the variation of a
scalar parameter. Large amounts of data are created during this modeling phase, and the need for
a data structure to store and retrieve them is greater than for the engineering model.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

Although the engineering and the geometry are fully described, they cannot be viewed on
the display until a model for rendering has been formulated and coded. A mathematical
description of the lighting conditions, the approximate intensities of light reflected by the nodes
of the geometric model, and the corresponding shades of color provide the graphics data
necessary for the model to be realistically shaded. Before viewing, the graphics data are
transformed from geometric model coordinates to a normalized coordinate system. Parameters
are set for an orthographic or perspective projection from 3D model coordinates to 2D
coordinates for final transformation to the display screen in device coordinates. The CAE
applications programmer accomplishes most of these tasks with the help of pre-coded algorithms
provided by graphics-support software. Interactive communication with the graphics image and
the geometric and engineering models occurs through a user interface written with the assistance
of the graphics software or windowing software provided with the workstation.

In the past, CAE programs have been predominantly coded in the FORTRAN
programming language. The present trend is toward the C, C++, and Java programming
languages together with the UNIX and Windows operating systems.

GRAPHICS STANDARDS
Portability, the ability to move programs easily from one computer
to another, is important for CAE software. Although it has long been possible to make a
computational program code portable by using standard programming languages, this was not
previously possible for CAE software because of the lack of graphics standards. A proposed 3D
graphics standard (CORE), introduced to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), was
superseded by the adoption in 1985 of the 2D Graphical Kernel System (GKS) as an
international standard by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

A new 3D device-independent graphics standard, the Programmer’s Hierarchical

Interactive Graphics System (PHIGS), was proposed by ANSI in 1985 and adopted as an
international standard by ISO in 1988. Where possible, the concepts and nomenclature of
GKS have been used in PHIGS.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

The principal limitation to CAE software portability has been the wide variety of
graphics hardware and the direct dependence of CAE software on this hardware. Both GKS and
PHIGS give the programmer device-independent graphics primitives and coordinate systems as
well as a set of logical graphics input devices to replace the wide variety of input hardware. For
example, the pick action (selection of a graphics entity on the screen) could be physically
accomplished by a light pen, a cursor and tablet, or a mouse. Using graphics standards, the CAE
programmer will always specify a logical pick device regardless of the physical device used to
achieve the pick.

PHIGS has several important advantages over GKS for CAE software. It is a full 3D
system for viewing and modeling transformations, and allows both graphics and non-graphics
data to be stored in its data structure. The data structure can invoke other structures and store
transformations as attributes. The result is a hierarchical graphics data structure well suited for
animation and representation of entities with multiple components. A number of extensions to
PHIGS, called PHIGS PLUS (PHIGS+), were adopted as a separate international standard in
1990. PHIGS+ provides support for most of the rendering model and some of the geometric
model in a CAE program. PHIGS+ routines address lighting, shading, hidden surface
elimination, transparency, non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) curves and surfaces, and
improved user interaction and control. PHIGS and PHIGS+ were merged into a single
international standard, PHIGS, in 1997.

The emergence of PHIGS+ was in response to dramatically improved computer graphics

hardware capabilities in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and that were rapidly being incorporated
into the new breed of CAE workstations. Vendors did not wait for international committees to
address these new capabilities in their standards, but deployed their own proposed extensions in
the interim. While this made these new capabilities available to the CAE software developers, it
also prevented the CAE software from easily being ported from one hardware platform to
another, which is the main purpose of a standard.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
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Taking advantage of this noncompliance to the adopted international standard and the
slow rate at which new technologies and capabilities were addressed by these standards, an
industry consortium was established in 1992 to support a new graphics standard known as
OpenGL. The aim of OpenGL is to provide a timely integration of new technologies and
capabilities as they emerge and to avoid the problem of partial conformance to the standard.
GKS, PHIGS, and other standards have been plagued by partially conforming deployments,
which makes portability between platforms difficult and defeats a key purpose of standards. The
OpenGL Architecture Review Board, which draws its membership from nine leading computer
graphics hardware vendors, avoids this problem by permitting only the term OpenGL to be
applied to products that conform completely to the OpenGL standard. OpenGL is today the most
widely used and supported 2D and 3D graphics application programming interface (API).

HARDWARE
Computer systems ranging from workstations to mainframe computers are used
for CAE software. For example, the aerospace and automotive industries make wide use of very
large mainframe computers and large grid-based computer systems to support computer-
intensive CAE software such as finite element analysis and computational fluid dynamics. These
large computational resources are connected by high-speed data transmission lines to file servers
holding the model and resulting data. The pre-computation model description and the post-
computation interrogation of the results, and frequently the computations themselves, are usually
performed on ultra-high-end workstations capable of managing these vast amounts of data.
These workstations are typically 64-bit multiprocessor systems, with 12 to 24 gigabytes (GB) of
shared memory (RAM) and a UNIX operating system, which are connected to the file servers via
one or more 1- or 10-gigabit/second network connections. Ultra-high end workstations are
necessary when working with large, complex models and datasets, such as the solid modeling of
a complete automobile or aircraft.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

INTEGRATION OF CAE SOFTWARE

Frequently, all of these CAE tools are needed together

with specialized CAE applications programs to solve a single engineering problem. The
integration of these tools or the communication of data between them is a challenging problem.
To successfully integrate these programs, a centralized database is necessary. Data from the
various CAE tools are processed into and retrieved from this database through a database
management system. If the CAE software is proprietary and the data structure not easily
accessible, the proprietary programming interfaces may be used or, sacrificing of functionality
and interactivity, a data interchange standard may be used.
The Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) was developed under the leadership of the
National Bureau of Standards (today known as the National Institute of Science and Technology)
and was accepted as a standard by ANSI in 1981 (Y14.26M-1981). The goal of IGES is to allow
the transfer of geometric data between dissimilar CAD systems. IGES is widely available and is
generally capable of providing the translation of a snapshot of the model in one CAD system into
a static model that cannot be edited in another CAD system.

The standard for exchange of product model data (STEP) has been adopted as an
international standard by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 10303). The
aim of STEP is to provide a neutral, computer-interpretable representation and description of
product data throughout the life cycle of a product that is independent from any particular
system. It can be used for both data exchange and for archiving data over time. The latter is an
important issue when the product life cycle exceeds the life span of the software and hardware
that created the product data. Given this extremely broad objective, ISO 10303 is not a single
standard but a collection of interrelated documents that form multipart standard. A number of
these documents have been adopted as an international standard, while many others are still in
development. The table lists of some of the documents that have been adopted as part of ISO
10303.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
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The software industry’s support for adopted ISO 10303 documents has been significantly
slower than was the case for PHIGS (graphics standards). In the case of STEP, the software
vendors have been hesitant to support the standard, both because of the high upfront cost
associated with complying with the complexity of the standard, and because of their desire to
provide a comprehensive yet proprietary solution for the customer in which the customer’s data
is locked into. Thus far, it is primarily the large mechanical CAD/CAM/CAE vendors serving the
automotive industry that have given into customer pressure and competition to provide support
for STEP (AP 203, AP 214). Recently it appears that AP 210 and AP 212 have also started to
receive some initial vendor support.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

3. CAE APPLICATION

The CAE methods for electrical and electronics engineering are well developed. The geometry is
generally two-dimensional, and the problems are primarily linear or can be linearized with
sufficient accuracy. Chemical engineering makes extensive use of CAE with process simulation
and control software.

The fields of civil, architectural, and construction engineering have CAE interests similar
to mechanical CAE with emphasis on structures. Aerospace, mechanical, industrial, and
manufacturing engineering all make use of mechanical CAE software together with specialized
software.

An example of CAE is the design of an aircraft landing-gear mechanism. The first step is
definition of the problem and creation of a set of performance specifications.

Next, the conceptual design phase may be aided by specialized programs to determine a size
estimate of the landing gear based on specified loads and deflections.

The next phase is preliminary design. An applications program is used to analyze the
deflection and response of a shock-absorbing, energy-dissipating strut. Dynamic analysis of the
guiding mechanism and complete assembly is determined by a commercial code. When the
dynamic loads are determined, a finite-element stress analysis of each link of the mechanism is
done by using commercial finite-element method software.

Following the stress analysis, some links are changed in size and the dynamic analysis repeated
to determine new loads. Using the new loading, another iteration of the finite-element-method
software is made to verify that the stresses fall below the strength limits.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
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The next phase is the final design. All components of the assembly are drawn in 2D on a
CAD/CAM system and detailed, giving dimensions, material specifications, and other
instructions. An assembly drawing is created from the components, and mating of components is
verified.

An alternative approach is to create a solid model of each component, assemble the solid
components, and run an automatic interference-clearance check; 2D drop-offs are then
automatically made of each component and manually detailed (at the workstation) by a drafter.
From the final part geometry, instructions for numerically controlled machine tools are generated
to produce the part.

Some systems may support tooling design and process planning. Finally, a design release
is made to the manufacturing department.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
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4. INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz
method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate
solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R.
W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of numerical analysis.
The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures".

By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally owned by the
aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of
computers and the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an
incredible precision. Present day supercomputers are now able to produce accurate results for all
kinds of parameters.

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for
specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is
able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to
manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify
the product or structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be
used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition.

There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3-D
modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a
relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however,
produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers
effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer can insert numerous
algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear
systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic deformation. Non-
linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material
all the way to fracture.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
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WORKING OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh (Figure 2). This
mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the structure
will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the
material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions which will receive
large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those which experience little or no
stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners,
complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that from each node, there
extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the
material properties to the object, creating many elements.

A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for minimization or
maximization:
 Mass, volume, temperature
 Strain energy, stress strain
 Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration
 Synthetic (User defined)
There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system.
 Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads
 Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis
 Enforced displacements
 Heat flux and convection
 Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads
Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some sample
elements are:
 Rod elements, Beam elements
 Plate/Shell/Composite elements
 Shear panel
 Solid elements
 Spring elements, Mass elements
 Rigid elements, Viscous damping elements

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Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the
structure such as:
 Isotropic, identical throughout
 Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees
 General anisotropic, different throughout

TYPES OF ENGINEERING ANALYSIS

 Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple
parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models
consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material
then vary with the amount of deformation
 Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and
impact. Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the
material which, in turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure.
 Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing
the effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where
crack propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the
damage tolerance of the material (Figure 5).
 Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material
or structure (Figure 1). This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-
state transfer refers to constant thermo-properties in the material that yield linear heat
diffusion.

RESULTS OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

 FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown stresses by
showing problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical
stresses within.
 This method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing costs
which would accrue if each sample was actually built and tested.

FEA SOFTWARES: ANSYS, NASTRAN, ABAQUS, CATIA, HYPERWORKS etc.

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

5. COMPUTETIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD)

FLUID DYNAMICS

1. Fluid dynamics is the science of fluid motion.

2. Fluid flow is commonly studied in one of three ways:
a. Experimental fluid dynamics.
b. Theoretical fluid dynamics.
c. Numerically: computational fluid dynamics (CFD).

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is the science of predicting fluid flow, heat transfer,
mass transfer, chemical reactions, and related phenomena by solving the mathematical equations
which govern these processes using a numerical process.

The result of CFD analyses is relevant engineering data used in:

1. Conceptual studies of new designs.
i. Detailed product development.
ii. Troubleshooting.
iii. Redesign.
CFD analysis complements testing and experimentation:
– Reduces the total effort required in the laboratory.

CFD - HOW IT WORKS

Analysis begins with a mathematical model of a physical problem. Conservation of

matter, momentum, and energy must be satisfied throughout the region of interest. Fluid
properties are modeled empirically. Simplifying assumptions are made in order to make the
problem tractable (e.g., steady-state, incompressible, in viscid, and two-dimensional). Provide
appropriate initial and boundary conditions for the problem.

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

CFD applies numerical methods (called Discretization) to develop approximations of the

governing equations of fluid mechanics in the fluid region of interest.

a. Governing differential equations: algebraic.

b. The collection of cells is called the grid.
c. The set of algebraic equations are solved numerically (on a computer) for the flow field
variables at each node or cell.
d. Systems of equations are solved simultaneously to provide solution. The solution is post-
processed to extract quantities of interest (e.g. lift, drag, torque, heat transfer, separation,
pressure loss, etc.).

DISCRETIZATION

1. Domain is discretized into a finite set of control volumes or cells. The discretized domain
is called the “grid” or the “mesh.”
2. General conservation (transport) equations for mass, momentum, energy, etc., are
discretized into algebraic equations.
3. All equations are solved to render flow field.

DESIGN AND CREATE THE GRID

1. Should you use a quad/hex grid, a tri/tet grid, a hybrid grid, or a non-conformal grid?
2. What degree of grid resolution is required in each region of the domain?
3. How many cells are required for the problem?
4. Will you use adaption to add resolution?
5. Do you have sufficient computer memory?

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

TRI/TET VURSES QUAD/HEX MESHES

1. For simple geometries, quad/hex meshes can provide high-quality solutions with fewer cells
than a comparable tri/tet mesh.
2. For complex geometries, quad/hex meshes show no numerical advantage, and you can save
meshing effort by using a tri/tet mesh.

APPLICATIONS OF CFD

Applications of CFD are numerous!

– Flow and heat transfer in industrial processes (boilers, heat exchangers, combustion equipment,
pumps, blowers, piping, etc.).
a. Aerodynamics of ground vehicles, aircraft, missiles.
b. Film coating, thermoforming in material processing applications.
c. Flow and heat transfer in propulsion and power generation systems.
d. Ventilation, heating, and cooling flows in buildings.
e. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) for integrated circuit manufacturing.
– Heat transfer for electronics packaging applications.
– And many, many more!

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

ADVANTAGES OF CFD

Relatively low cost

– Using physical experiments and tests to get essential engineering

Data for design can be expensive.
– CFD simulations are relatively inexpensive, and costs are likely to decrease as computers
become more powerful.
Speed

– CFD simulations can be executed in a short period of time.

– Quick turnaround means engineering data can be introduced early in the design process.
Ability to simulate real conditions

– Many flow and heat transfer processes cannot be (easily) tested, e.g. hypersonic flow.

– CFD provides the ability to theoretically simulate any physical condition.

Ability to simulate ideal conditions

– CFD allows great control over the physical process, and provides the

Ability to isolate specific phenomena for study

– Example: a heat transfer process can be idealized with adiabatic, constant heat flux, or
constant temperature boundaries.

Comprehensive information

– Experiments only permit data to be extracted at a limited number of locations in the system
(e.g. pressure and temperature probes, heat flux gauges, LDV, etc.).

– CFD allows the analyst to examine a large number of locations in the region of interest, and
yields a comprehensive set of flow parameters for examination.

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

LIMITATIONS OF CFD

Physical models

– CFD solutions rely upon physical models of real world processes (e.g. turbulence,
compressibility, chemistry, multiphase flow, etc.).
– The CFD solutions can only be as accurate as the physical models on which they are based.
Numerical errors

– Solving equations on a computer invariably introduces numerical errors.

– Round-off error: due to finite word size available on the computer.

Round-off errors will always exist (though they can be small in most cases).
– Truncation error: due to approximations in the numerical models. Truncation errors will go to
zero as the grid is refined. Mesh refinement is one way to deal with truncation error

Boundary conditions

– As with physical models, the accuracy of the CFD solution is only as good as the
initial/boundary conditions provided to the numerical model.

– Example: flow in a duct with sudden expansion. If flow is supplied to domain by a pipe, you
should use a fully-developed profile for velocity rather than assume uniform conditions.
Summary
CFD is a method to numerically calculate heat transfer and fluid flow currently, its main
application is as an engineering method, to provide data that is complementary to theoretical and
experimental data. CFD can also be used for purely scientific studies e.g. into the fundamentals
of turbulence. This is more common in academic institutions and government research
laboratories. Codes are usually developed to specifically study a certain problem.

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

6. PROCESS OPTIMIZATION

Discover the hidden factory within your plant! This is a common statement used to
describe process optimization. The idea behind process optimization is to modify a process as to
deliver higher yield, more product or higher return from existing assets or people.

Businesses and process managers need to work on process optimization at various stages
during manufacturing (but not limited to manufacturing). Business process optimization can
involve procurement, marketing, research and other business functions. The best companies
continue to strive for continuous process optimization exercises throughout their existence. A
company only focusing on process optimization cannot succeed. Similarly, a company focused
on acquisitions or innovative products cannot thrive without process optimization.

Act of process optimization describes use of various methods to maximize return, cycle
time, yield, or efficiency given multiple constraints.

PROCESS OPTIMIZATION TOOLS

Many relate process optimization directly to use of statistical

techniques to identify the optimum solution. This is not true. Statistical techniques are
definitely needed. However, a thorough understanding of the process is required prior to
committing time to optimize it. Over the years, many methodologies have been developed for
process optimization including six sigma, lean manufacturing, and others. All of these begin by
an exercise to create the process map.

Once the process inputs, outputs and intermediate responses are recognized for each step,
one needs to confirm the relationships. Very frequently, one believes there is a relationship, but
upon analysis one may not find a relationship. A correlation coefficient can help narrow the
relationship between inputs and outputs. Correlation coefficients are derived from linear
regression.

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

PROCESS OPTIMIZATION INSPIRATION

A good first inspiration source in process

optimization is to look for best practices in your industry. Knowing average yield of a process
can help identify goals and define a financial stake for process optimization.

Asking a new employee to look for process optimization opportunities or lead a process
optimization team is an excellent way to improve the process. A new employee will be more
accepting of alternatives opposite an employee working in the same area or process for 25 years.
A new employee with a broad background can further expand alternate thinking to redefine the
process and come up with a new optimum.

Third option for inspiration is to hire a consultant to provide recommendations for high
return opportunities. A consultant with Lean/Six Sigma method experience can help speed the
optimization process.

CRITICAL STEPS TO PROCESS OPTIMIZATION

By far, the most exciting step in process

optimization is the “what if” scenario modeling. Everyone likes to jump to this step.
Unfortunately, less time needs to be spend on “what if” scenarios while more time needs to be
spend to validate the model. By validating your model, I am referring to confirming not only
that the inputs and outputs are relating, but also confirming the transfer function (the relationship
between inputs and outputs). One needs to look at the applicability of the transfer function over
a broad operating range of each relevant parameter.

The next most critical step in process optimization is to document the optimum process
and establish appropriate limits on all input parameters. This step is referred as the “Control”
phase in Six Sigma.

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

TOOLS HELP WITH PROCESS OPTIMIZATION

. Proper tool selection - use the right tool for the job
· Proper metrics - track appropriate metrics
· Standardization - reduce number of variations
· Operation consolidation - consolidate steps
· Waste minimization
· Predictive maintenance
· Kitting - place smaller parts into a logical kit
· Flexible, but defined process optimization methodology

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 Prestige Institute of Engineering Management and Research, Indore
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
CAE LAB MANUAL

7. PRODUCT OPTIMIZATION

To maximize the performance and bottom-line contribution of operational assets,

organizations need to move beyond traditional operating approaches and embrace new methods
and technologies that enable the highest possible production yield at the lowest possible cost,
while operating in a safe and environmentally conscious manner.

Invensys Operations Management provides a wide range of solutions aimed at addressing

this challenges, combining our extensive global expertise and experience with state of the art
modeling and simulation software. The results are immediate and significant, including
improved yield, reduced energy consumption, reduced emissions and higher availability. Our
solutions include integration with your business systems to provide real-time business
intelligence, allowing you to optimize profitability in real time.

Our consulting and services team work with you throughout the process – identifying
opportunities for improvement, designing and implementing the required solutions and then
continuing with you to ensure that the expected returns are met and exceeded.

Key Benefits

 Return on investment in 3 months or less

 Improved availability and reliability
 Improved production yield and economic value
 Reduced energy consumption and emissions
 Allows you to predict and proactively address issues and opportunities

Key Capabilities

 First principle rigorous modeling software

 Packaged solutions for specific optimization challenges
 Proven global expertise – solution design, implementation and ongoing improvements
 Integration with existing systems – maximizing your return

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