CLASS 10 - SCIENCE

FORMULA BOOK
FOR CBSE BOARD
1. CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS When a substance is decomposed by absorbing
light energy, it is called photodecomposition
h h Characteristics of Chemical Reactions : reaction or simply photolysis.
Sunlight
–– change in state 2AgCl(s) 2Ag(s) + Cl2(g)
–– change in colour Silver chloride Silver Chlorine
(White) (Grey)
–– evolution of a gas
–– Displacement reactions :
–– change in temperature
The chemical reactions in which one element
–– formation of a precipitate
takes the position or place of another element
h h Types of Chemical Reactions : present in a compound are called displacement
–– Combination reactions : reactions.
When two or more substances (elements or These reactions occur mostly in solution form
compounds) combine to form a single product,
and a more active metal displaces or removes
the reactions are called combination reactions.
less active metal from its salt solution.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Carbon Oxygen Carbon dioxide
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Zinc Copper Zinc Copper
–– Decomposition reactions : sulphate sulphate
When a single reactant breaks down to give –– Double displacement reactions :
two or more simpler products, the reactions are Reactions in which there is an exchange of
called decomposition reactions. Decomposition ions between the reactants are called double
reactions require energy either in the form of displacement reactions.
heat, light or electricity for breaking down the
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
reactants.
Silver nitrate Sodium Silver chloride Sodium nitrate
When a decomposition reaction is carried out chloride (White ppt.)
by heating, it is called thermal decomposition
–– Precipitation reactions :
reaction.
Reaction that produces a precipitate is called a
CaCO3(s) Heat CaO(s) + CO2(g)
precipitation reaction.
Limestone Quick lime
The insoluble substance formed is known as a
When a substance in the molten state or in
precipitate.
aqueous solution is decomposed by passing
electric current, it is called electrolytic Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s ) + 2KNO3(aq)
decomposition reaction or simply electrolysis. Lead Potassium Lead Potassium
nitrate iodide iodide nitrate
2H2O(l ) Electric 2H2(g) + O2(g) (Colourless) (Colourless) (Yellow ppt.)
current
Water Hydrogen Oxygen

Science 1
h h Oxidation and reduction Reactions : Gain of oxygen
–– Reactions in which one reactant gets oxidised (Oxidation)

while the other gets reduced are called oxidation- Fe2O3 + 2Al 2Fe + Al2O3
reduction reactions or redox reactions. Loss of oxygen
–– Oxidation is defined as the addition of oxygen (Reduction)

to a substance or removal of hydrogen from a Fe2O3 Oxidising agent

substance in a chemical reaction. Al Reducing agent
–– Reduction is defined as the addition of h h Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions :
hydrogen to a substance or removal of oxygen
from a substance in a chemical reaction. –– Exothermic reactions : Reactions in which heat
–– The substance which either gives oxygen or is released along with the formation of products
gains hydrogen in a reaction, is known as an are called exothermic reactions.
oxidising agent. –– Endothermic reactions : Reactions in which
–– The substance which either gives hydrogen energy is absorbed during the chemical reaction
or gains oxygen in a reaction, is known as a are known as endothermic reactions.
reducing agent.

2. ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

COLOURS OF SOME COMMON INDICATORS IN ACIDIC AND BASIC SOLUTIONS
Nature of Indicators
substance Blue litmus Red litmus Methyl orange Phenolphthalein Turmeric China rose Red cabbage
Acidic Red No change Red Colourless No change Dark pink Red
Basic No change Blue Yellow Pink Red Green Green

h h Chemical properties of Acids and Bases –– pH = 0-7, Acids

Metal + Dilute acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen –– pH = 7, Neutral
Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogencarbonate + Acid –– pH = 7-14, Bases
→ Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water Some Important Acids, Bases and Salts
Neutralization reaction : h h Sodium Hydroxide :
Base + Acid → Salt + Water –– Chemical formula : NaOH, Common name:
Metallic oxides are basic oxides : Caustic soda, Action on litmus : Turns red
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + water litmus blue, Solubility : Soluble in water (Highly
Non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides alkaline)
Non-metallic oxide + Base Salt + Water h h Bleaching Powder :
h h pH scale –– Chemical formula : CaOCl2 (Actual composition
pH can be defined as logarithm of reciprocal of is quite complex), Chemical name : Calcium
H3O + ions in aqueous solution. oxychloride, Solubility : Soluble in water
or h h Baking Soda :
1 –– Chemical formula : NaHCO3, Chemical
pH = log or pH = –log [H3O +]
[H3O+ ] name  : Sodium hydrogencarbonate or Sodium
or [H +] = 10 –pH bicarbonate, Action on litmus : Turns red litmus
In pH scale, less is the value of pH more is the acidic blue, Solubility : Sparingly soluble in water
nature of the substance. In pH scale : (Weakly basic)

2 Science
h h Washing Soda : Name Formula
–– Chemical formula : Na2CO3·10H2O, Chemical Hydrated copper sulphate CuSO4 ·5H2O
name : Sodium carbonate decahydrate, Action Washing soda Na2CO3 ·10H2O
on litmus : Turns red litmus blue, Solubility : Gypsum CaSO4 ·2H2O
Sparingly soluble in water (Weakly basic)
Plaster of Paris CaSO4 · 1 H2O
h h Water of Crystallization : 2
Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 ·7H2O
–– It is the fixed number of water molecules present
in one formula unit of a salt. Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 ·7H2O

3. METALS AND NON-METALS

COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS

Property Metals Non-metals

Physical state Metals are generally solids (except Non-metals (except bromine which is a
mercury and gallium which are liquids) liquid) are either solids or gases at room
at room temperature. temperature.
Lustre Metals have lustre and can also be Non-metals (except iodine and graphite) do
polished. not have lustre and also cannot be polished.
Hardness Metals (except lithium, sodium and Non-metals (except diamond and boron) are
potassium) are generally hard. generally soft.
Malleability and Metals are malleable (can be hammered Non-metals are neither malleable nor ductile.
ductility into thin sheets) and ductile (can be They are actually brittle.
drawn into wires).
Melting points Metals (except mercury and gallium) Non-metals (except graphite and boron) have
and boiling points generally have high melting and boiling low melting and boiling points.
points.
Density Metals generally have high densities. Non-metals generally have low densities.
Conductivity Metals are good conductors of heat Non-metals (except graphite and gas carbon)
and electricity. are bad conductors of heat and electricity.
Sonorosity Metals are sonorous ( i.e ., produce Non-metals are non-sonorous ( i.e ., do not
sound when hit with a hard object). produce any sound when hit with a hard object).
COMPARISON OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS

Property Metals Non-metals

Nature of ions Metals are electropositive elements and Non-metals are electronegative elements and
hence, lose one or more electrons to form hence, gain one or more electrons to form
positive ions. negative ions.
Nature of Metals mostly form basic oxides. Some Non-metals form either acidic or neutral oxides.
oxides metals such as Zn and Al form amphoteric
oxides.
Reaction with Most of the metals displace hydrogen Non-metals (except fluorine) generally do not
water from water or steam. react with water or steam.

Science 3
 Reaction with Metals which lie above hydrogen in the Non-metals do not react with dilute acids and
dilute acids reactivity series displace hydrogen from hence, do not displace hydrogen from dilute
dilute acids. acids.
Nature of Highly electropositive elements (i.e., K, Non-metals form covalent hydrides which are
hydrides Na, Ca, etc.,) react with hydrogen to quite stable.
form ionic hydrides which are generally
unstable.
Nature of Metals generally combine with chlorine to Non-metals combine with chlorine to form
chlorides form solid ionic chlorides which conduct covalent chlorides. These are either gases or
electricity in the aqueous solution or in liquids. Non-metal chlorides do not contain
the molten state. ions, therefore, they do not conduct electricity.
Oxidizing Metals have a strong tendency to lose Non-metals have a strong tendency to accept
and reducing electrons and hence they behave as electrons and hence they behave as oxidizing
behaviour reducing agents. agents.
h h The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of their decreasing activities.
Potassium K → Most Reactive Metal
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Metals more reactive Aluminium Al

REACTIVITY DECREASES
than hydrogen Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Metals less reactive
than hydrogen
Silver Ag
Platinum Pt
Gold Au → Least Reactive Metal
h h Extraction of Metals :
–– The position of a metal in the reactivity series determines the method used for its extraction.

Potassium (K)
Sodium (Na) The metals at the top of the reactivity series are so reactive that they are never
Calcium (Ca) found in nature as free elements. These metals are obtained by the electrolysis
Increasing Reactivity of Metals

Magnesium (Mg) of their molten or fused oxides or chlorides (electrolytic reduction).

Aluminium (Al)

Zinc (Zn) The metals in the middle of the reactivity series are moderately reactive. They
Iron (Fe) are found in the earth’s crust mainly as oxides, sulphides or carbonates. These
Lead (Pb) metals are extracted by reducing the metal oxides using suitable reducing agent
Copper (Cu) such as carbon (reduction).

Silver (Ag) Silver is also found in the combined state as its sulphide or oxide.
Gold (Au) Gold is found naturally in free state.

4 Science
 –– Several steps are involved in the extraction of pure metal from ores :

They cannot be obtained from their compounds by heating Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated
with carbon. For example, carbon cannot reduce the oxides with large amounts of impurities such as soil, sand,
of sodium, magnesium, calcium, aluminium, etc., to the etc., called gangue. The impurities must be removed
respective metals. This is because these metals have more from the ore prior to the extraction of the metal. The
affinity for oxygen than carbon. These metals are obtained by ORE processes used for removing the gangue from the ore
electrolytic reduction. are based on the differences between the physical or
chemical properties of the gangue and the ore. Different
Concentration
separation techniques are accordingly employed.
of ore

They are very

These are usually present unreactive.
as sulphides or carbonates Metals of Their oxides
Sodium, magnesium and Metals of high Metals of medium
reactivity in nature. It is easier to low can be
calcium are obtained by the reactivity
obtain a metal from its reactivity reduced
electrolysis of their molten oxide, as compared to its
chlorides. The metals are to metals
sulphides and carbonates. by heating
deposited at the cathode (the Electrolysis of Therefore, prior to
negatively charged electrode), Sulphide alone.
molten ore reduction, the metal
whereas, chlorine is liberated sulphides and carbonates ores
Carbonate Sulphide
at the anode (the positively must be converted into
ore ore
charged electrode). metal oxides.
Pure metal Roasting
The carbonate ores are converted
into oxides by heating strongly in Calcination Roasting
limited air. This process is known Metal
as calcination.

The sulphide ores are converted into

Oxide of metal oxides by heating strongly in the Refining
presence of excess air. This process
The metal oxides are reduced to the corresponding is known as roasting.
metals by using suitable reducing agents such as
carbon.
Besides using carbon (coke) to reduce metal oxides
to metals, sometimes displacement reactions can Reduction to metal
The metals produced by various reduction processes are not
also be used. The highly reactive metals such as
very pure. They contain impurities, which must be removed
sodium, calcium, aluminium, etc., are used as
Purification to obtain pure metals. The most widely used method for
reducing agents because they can displace metals
of metal refining impure metals is electrolytic refining.
of lower reactivity from their compounds.

4. CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 3. They have low melting They have usually high melting
and boiling points. and boiling points.
h h Comparison of Properties of Ionic and
4. They are usually soluble in They are usually insoluble in
Covalent Compounds : organic solvents. organic solvents.
Covalent compounds Ionic Compounds 5. They are usually insoluble They are usually soluble in water.
1. They consist of true They do not have true molecules, in water.
molecules. but are aggregates of + ve and 6. They are bad conductors Their aqueous solutions are
– ve ions. of electricity in aqueous good conductors of electricity.
2. They are usually gaseous They are usually crystalline solution or in molten form. They also conduct electricity in
or liquids or soft solids. solids. molten state.

Science 5
h h Allotropes of Carbon :
DIAMOND

Strong bonds exist

Each carbon atom is between carbon
joined to four other atoms.
Tetrahedral arrangement of carbon atoms carbon atoms.
gives diamond a rigid three-dimensional 154 pm
network which makes it the hardest 109°28′
natural substance known.

As there are no free electrons

in a diamond crystal, it is a bad
conductor of electricity.

GRAPHITE
Each carbon in the layer of hexagonal rings is attached to three other
141.5 pm carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds. As only three valence electrons
are used for bond formation hence, the fourth valence electron is free
to move which makes it a good conductor of heat and electricity.
One of these bonds is a double
bond in order to satisfy the fourth
valency of carbon.
340 pm
The various layers of carbon atoms in
graphite are held together by weak Graphite has a
van der Waals forces of attraction two-dimensional
which make it smooth and slippery. sheet like (layered)
structure.

Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal

arrays being placed in layers one above the other.

FULLERENES
It contains 20 six-membered rings and 12 five-membered rings. Six-
membered rings are fused to both six-membered and five-membered rings
but five-membered rings are fused only to six-membered rings. In other
words, no two five-membered rings are fused together.

The C60 fullerene is the most stable

and was the first to be identified. It
contains 60 carbon atoms which are
arranged in the shape of a football
or a soccer ball, therefore, it is also
called buckyball.

6 Science
h h Differences between Diamond and Graphite : Oxygen 1. Alcohol OH
Diamond Graphite H
1. Diamond has three Graphite has layer 2. Aldehyde C
dimensional rigid structure. The layers can O
structure. slip over one another.
C
2. Diamond is hard. It is Graphite is sof t and 3. Ketone
hardest substance known. greasy. O
4. Carboxylic O
3. Diamond is a bad G r a p hi te is a g o o d acid C OH
conductor of electricity but
conductor of both
h h Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds :
good conductor of heat. electricity and heat.
–– The name of an organic compound is divided
4. Diamond has very high Graphite is less dense
into two parts :
density (3.514 g/cm3 ). (density = 2.226 g/cm3 )
– The first part (prefix) tells us the number of
than diamond. carbon atoms in a compound.
5. Diamond is a transpar- Graphite is an opaque.
ent substance. First part of the meth- eth- prop- but-
name
Number of carbon one two three four
Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes atoms in a compound
Func- Alkanes do C C C C – The second part (suffix) of the name tells us
tional not have any ↑ ↑ the homologous series of the compound.
Carbon-carbon Carbon-carbon
group functional triple bond Name of -ane -ene -yne -ol -al -one -oic acid
double bond
group. ending
They have only C Homo- alkane alkene alkyne alcohol aldehyde ketone carbo-
C and C H logous xylic
series
bonds. acid
H H Examples :
H C C H prop ene eth
ol
H H H
H H
H C C C H H C C O H
General CnH2n+2 C nH 2 n CnH2n–2
formula H H H H H
Propene Ethanol
Example Methane, Ethene, Ethyne,
ethane, propene, propyne, If functional group is
halogen we use prefix
propane, etc. butene, butyne, as chloro, bromo, etc.
etc. etc.
Thus, propene is an alkene with three carbon atoms
Some functional groups in carbon compounds
and ethanol is an alcohol with two carbon atoms.
Heteroatom Functional Formula of h h Chemical properties of Carbon Compounds :
group functional group
–– Combustion
Cl/Br/I Halo- Cl, Br, I
–– Oxidation
(Chloro/ (substitutes for
Bromo/Iodo) hydrogen atom) –– Addition Reaction
–– Substitution Reaction

Science 7
h h Properties of Ethanol :
Combustion
CO2 + H2O + Heat + Light
Functional group : –OH
Oxidation H H General formula : CnH2n+1 OH
CH3COOH + H2O
Na H C C O H Hot conc. H2SO4
H H Dehydration

CH3CH2O – Na + + H2 CH2 CH2 + H2O

h h Properties of Ethanoic Acid :

Functional group : COOH

Esterification H O General formula : CnH2nO2

CH3CH2OH
NaOH
CH3COOCH2CH3
Acid catalyst/D
H C C OH CH3COONa + H2O
(Ester)
Sweet-smelling H NaHCO3 Na2CO3
substance

CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

NaOH/D
Saponification
CH3CH2OH + CH3COONa

5. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

h h The Modern Periodic Table :
–– Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table
The groups – The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns known as groups.
•  The elements in a group have similar properties.
• They have similar properties because their atoms have the same number of valence electrons.
Group I II III IV V VI VII 0
Number of valence electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (or 2)
• The group number is the same as the number of valence electrons except for group 0, where the 0
tells that the atoms have a stable arrangement of 8 valence electrons (or 2 for helium).
Groups in the periodic table signify an identical outershell electronic configuration. On the other hand,
• 
the number of shells increases as we go down the group.
The periods – The Modern Periodic Table has 7 horizontal rows known as periods.
• As you go along a period from left to right, the number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit.
• Atoms of different elements with the same number of occupied shells are placed in the same period.
• The elements in a period do not have similar properties. Infact, there is a trend (gradual change) in
properties from metal to non-metal along the period from left to right.
• The properties change because the number of valence electrons increases.

8 Science
 The zig-zag line
• This separates the metals from the non-metals, having metals on the left hand side. (There are far
more metals than non-metals.)
• The elements in groups I and II are all metals; those in groups VII and 0 are all non-metals.
• There is a change from non-metal to metal as we go down the group, in groups III to VI. (The zig-zag
line goes through these groups.)
h h Variation of Properties in a Group and a Period :
The properties of elements across a period and down a group can be summarised as follows.
Properties Variation in a Group Variation in a Period
l Valence electrons Remains same Increases
l Valency Remains same Increases from 1 to 4 then decreases
from 4 to 1
l Metallic character Increases Decreases
l Non-metallic character Decreases Increases
l Electropositive character Increases Decreases
l Atomic size Increases Decreases
l Ionisation energy Decreases Increases
l Electron negativity Decreases Increases

6. LIFE PROCESSES
Autotrophic nutrition Heterotrophic nutrition
1. It occurs in green plants, some bacteria and It occurs in animals and in plants which lack chlorophyll.
in some protists.
2. Chlorophyll is necessary for trapping solar
Chlorophyll is absent; as such they do not trap solar
energy. energy.
3. Food is self-manufactured using CO 2 and Food is obtained directly or indirectly by consuming
water as raw materials. autotrophs.
4. Digestion of food does not occur. Digestion is required to convert complex organic substances
present in food into simpler and soluble forms.
5. They are placed at the bottom of the food They are placed above producers in the food chain as
chain as producers. consumers.
Table : Differences between light and dark phase
Light phase Dark phase
1. It occurs over thylakoids. It occurs in matrix of chloroplasts.
2. The phase is dependent on light. The phase does not require light.
3. Temperature has little effect over it. It is influenced by temperature.
4. It produces NADPH and ATP (assimilatory power). It consumes NADPH and ATP.
5. Oxygen is evolved. Glucose is the end product.

Science 9
 Table : Differences between inhalation and exhalation
Inhalation (Inspiration) Exhalation (Expiration)
1. Intercostal muscles of the ribs contract Intercostal muscles of the ribs relax allowing
pulling the ribs and sternum upwards and the ribs and the sternum to return to their
outwards. original.
2. The radial muscles of diaphragm contract, The radial muscles of diaphragm relax and
and diaphragm is pulled down and flattened. diaphragm is pushed back to its original dome-
like position.
3. Volume inside the thorax increases. Volume inside the thorax decreases.
4. Intrathoracic pressure of the lungs decreases Intrathoracic pressure of the lungs increases
and outside air rich in oxygen rushes in and the inside air rich in CO2 and water-vapour
through the nostrils. is forced out through the nostrils.

 Blood pressure is the pressure against the wall of blood vessels produced by the discharge
of blood into them by contraction of the left ventricle.
Blood pressure is generally measured by determining the millimetres of mercury (Hg) displaced
in a pressure gauge called sphygmomanometer.
 The sound of blood flow can be heard through a stethoscope. This sound of blood rushing
through the arteries at peak pressure is due to ventricular contraction. This indicates systolic
blood pressure (120 mm of Hg). A screw is used for releasing pressure, and pressure in cuff
continues to drop. The sound fades, until it stops. The reading indicates the diastolic blood
120
pressure (80 mm of Hg). The normal blood pressure of a human being is written as .
80
Table : Differences between blood and lymph.
Characteristic Blood Lymph
1. Colour Red in colour Colourless
2. Components  Consists of plasma, erythrocytes,  Consists of plasma and
leucocytes and platelets. leucocytes only.
 Contains several plasma  Contains fewer plasma proteins
proteins and high concentration and low concentration of calcium
of calcium and phosphorus. and phosphorus.
3. Flow Flow rapidly. Flow is very slow.
4. Direction of flow Path of circulation is heart to body Path of circulation is body tissues
organs and from body organs back to heart.
to heart.

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

1. Takes place in presence of oxygen. Take place in absence of oxygen.
2. Its end products are carbon dioxide and Its end products are ethanol and carbon dioxide.
water.
3. More energy is released. Less energy is released.
4. It takes place in cytoplasm and mitochondria. It takes place only in the cytoplasm.
5. Complete oxidation of glucose takes place. Incomplete oxidation of glucose takes place.
 In the kidney, the wastes are converted in urine by three processes :
(i) Ultrafiltration : In it, large amount of water along with certain harmful substances like urea, uric
acid, K+, ammonium salts, creatinine, etc. and certain useful substances like glucose, amino
acids, Na+, etc. pass through glomerular capillaries and glomerular membrane into cavity of
Bowman’s capsule of nephrons under pressure. The filtrate so formed is called nephric filtrate
which is moved towards ureter.
(ii) Selective reabsorption : In it, large amount of water and sodium; whole of glucose and amino
acids and small amount of urea are passed back from nephric filtrate into blood capillaries. It
occurs either by back diffusion (i.e. water and urea) or active transport (i.e. Na+, glucose and
amino acids). It generally occurs in PCT of nephrons.
(iii) Tubular secretion : In this, certain harmful chemicals like uric acid, creatinine, K+, etc. are passed
from blood capillaries surrounding the nephron into nephric filtrate by active transport. It
generally occurs in DCT of nephrons.
Now, the fluid is termed as urine and is excreted out of the excretory organs.

 Nervous system in humans consists of three parts:

(i) Central nervous system (CNS) consisting of brain and spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord
receive information from all parts of the body and integrate it.
(ii) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of nerves that arise from brain (cranial nerves)
and from spinal cord (spinal nerves). Through the nerves, the nervous system communicates
with the muscles.
(iii) Autonomic nervous system (ANS) made up of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous
systems. Though connected with the CNS, it works independently and regulates involuntary
activities of the body like heart beat, and peristaltic movements of alimentary canal.
 The central nervous system (CNS) in human beings consists of the brain and spinal cord.
Brain is the highest coordinating centre in the body. The brain is broadly divided into three
regions: fore brain, mid brain, and hind brain. Fore brain includes cerebrum and olfactory
lobes. Mid brain connects the fore brain to hind brain. Hind brain consists of three parts
called cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata.
Spinal cord is a cylindrical structure and a part of the CNS. It begins in continuation with
medulla oblongata and extends downwards, enclosed within vertebral column.

Table : Types of plant hormones

Plant hormones Physiological effects on plant growth and development

1. Auxin Promotes cell division, root formation, control apical dominance.

2. Gibberellins Stimulates cell division, cell elongation, counteract dormancy, induce
flowering, bring about increase in size of fruits, flower, etc.
3. Cytokinins Induce and control cell enlargement, cell differentiation, delay aging,
break dormancy.
4. Ethylene Induce fruit ripening, flowering, break dormancy.
5. Abscisic Acid (ABA) Inhibits growth, reverse the growth providing effects of auxins and
gibberellins.
 Table : Types of endocrine glands

Endocrine glands and Hormones secreted Principal functions

their locations
NECK & CHEST REGION
1 . Thyroid gland
 It is situated in the neck region (a) Thyroxine or T 4 T3 & T4 stimulates the rate of cellular
on the ventral side of the body. oxidation and metabolism.
It has two lateral lobes, one (b) Triiodothyro- Calcitonin lowers calcium level
on either side of the trachea. when by suppressing release of
nine or T3
(c) Calcitonin. calcium ions from the bones, calcium
level is high in blood.

2 . Parathyroid gland Parathyroid hormone Regulates calcium and phosphate

 These are four small oval (PTH) or levels in the blood. When blood
bodies which lie embedded in parathormone. calcium level is below normal, it
the lobes of the thyroid gland. mobilises the release of calcium into
the blood from bones. It has an
action opposite to that of calcitonin
on calcium metabolism.

3 . Thymus gland Thymosin Stimulates the development and

 It is situated in the upper chest differentiation of lymphocytes
near the front side of the heart. (white blood cells).
 It atrophies in the adult.

ABDOMINAL REGION
4 . Adrenal gland
 In human beings, a pair of
adrenal glands are present, one
on top of each kidney, so, also
called suprarenals. Each
adrenal gland has an outer
part called the cortex and an
inner part, medulla.
(i) Adrenal cortex (a) Glucocorticoids Regulates the metabolism of protein,
 It secretes 3 groups of steroid fats and carbohydrates in the body
hormones. and the level of blood sugar.
Regulates heart rate and blood
pressure.
(b) Mineralocorti-
Regulates water and mineral
coids (Aldosterone) balance in body.
 (c) Sex corticoids Stimulates the development of
secondary sexual characters both in
males and females.

(ii) Adrenal medulla Adrenaline Both these hormones together

 It secretes 2 hormones. (Epinephrine) and control emotions, fear, anger, blood
Nor-adrenaline pressure, heart beat, respiration and
relaxation of smooth muscles.
(Nor-epinephrine)

5 . Pancreas (a) Insulin Regulates the conversion of glucose

 It is a compound gland in the to glycogen; i.e., it lowers blood
abdominal region located glucose level.
posterior to the stomach. Its
(b) Glucagon
endocrine part is Islets of Regulates the conversion of glycogen
Langerhans, which secretes back to glucose i.e., it increases blood
2 hormones. glucose level.

Endocrine gland Exocrine gland Heterocrine gland

1. These are ductless. These have ducts. Partly exocrine part with duct and
partly endocrine or ductless part.
2. These secrete hormones These secrete their Exocrine part releases secretions in
generally into the blood- secretions in ducts. some duct, while endocrine part
stream. E.g., thyroid, E.g., liver, salivary and secretes hormones into the
pituitary, adrenal, etc. sweat glands. bloodstream. E.g., pancreas.

 Reflex arc is the nerve path involved in a reflex action for quick responses. A message from
the receptor is taken by sensory nerves to spinal cord, which sends information for response
by a motor nerve to the effector. E.g., touching of hot object by hand.

Spinal cord
(CNS)

Sensory neuron
Motor
Receptors of heat/pain
Neuron
in skin Relay neuron
Effector in muscles of arm

Fig. : Reflex arc

 Table : Differences between self pollination and cross pollination

Characteristic Self pollination Cross pollination

Occurrence Occurs within a flower or between two Occurs between two flowers of two
flowers of the same plant. different plants of the same species.
Agent of pollination No external agent of pollination required External agents such as wind, water,
(usually). insects and birds required.
Production of pollen Produced in small numbers, thus no Produced in large numbers (usually),
grains wastage of pollen grains occurs. thus, wastage of pollen grains occurs.
Appearance of flowers Flowers are not attractive (usually). Flowers are attractive with coloured
petals.
Fragrance and nectar Flowers do not (usually) produce scent or Flowers generally produce scent and
nectar. nectar.
Nature of offsprings Offsprings produced have genetic make- Offsprings produced may differ in
produced up identical to the parent plant, purity of genetic make-up, and variations occur.
race maintained, no variation occurs.

 Methods of contraception

– Barrier method: These are physical devices to prevent the entry of sperm into the female
genital tract during copulation. They also protect against sexually transmitted diseases e.g.,
condoms.
– Chemical method: Foam tablets, jellies, pastes, creams and spermicides are some common
chemicals used by females. These are placed in vagina. These chemicals adhere to the mucous
membrane and immobilise and kill the sperms.
– Surgical method: Surgical methods are safe in the long run but they may cause infections and
other problems if not done properly. These methods include – (i) Vasectomy and (ii) Tubectomy.
(i) Vasectomy is a small surgical operation performed in males. It involves removal of a small
portion of the sperm duct (or vas deferens) by surgical operation. The two cut ends are
then ligated (tied) with threads. This prevents the sperms from coming out.
(ii) Tubectomy is done in females where oviducts are cut and cut ends tied with threads.

Genetic drift Natural selection

(i) It is a sudden and quick process. It is gradual and slow process.
(ii) It selects harmful or useful variations It selects only adaptatively useful variations.
by chance.
 Both connecting link and missing link are intermediate stages between the two groups of
organisms. Missing link is referred to such intermediate form which is now extinct, while
connecting link is that intermediate form which still exists.
Example of missing link-Archaeopteryx (link between class Reptilia and Aves)
Example of connecting link-Peripatus (link between phylum Annelida and Arthropoda), Euglena
(connecting link between plants and animals).

Inherited traits Acquired traits

1. These are obtained from the parents. These are developed during the life of an
individual.
2. These are genetic variations. These are somatic variations.
3. These develop due to crossing over phenomenon These develop due to use and disuse of organs
and mutations. and direct effect of environment.
4. These are passed on from one generation to the These are lost with the death of the
other. individual.

Artificial selection Natural selection

1. It is an artificial process. It is a natural phenomenon.
2. It is conducted by man on limited scale in specific It is conducted on large scale all over the
laboratories. earth.
3. Traits selected for improvement are beneficial Traits selected for evolution are beneficial
to man. to species.
4. Results are achieved in a short period. Results are achieved over a long period.

Homologous organs Analogous organs

1. Homologous organs have similar origin and Analogous organ have different origin and
internal structure. anatomy.
2. Homologous organs perform different Analogous organs perform similar functions.
functions.
3. Homologous organs are morphologically Analogous organs are morphologically
different. similar.
4. They give evidence of divergent evolution They give evidence of convergent evolution
(i.e., evolution in closely related species to (i.e., evolution in different species to adapt
adapt them for different habitat.) them for similar habitat).
 10. LIGHT - REFLECTION AND REFRACTION (e) at F at infinity real,
infinitely
hh Reflection large,
The phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same inverted
medium after striking the surface is called reflection of (f) between behind the virtual,
light. the pole mirror enlarged,
hh Laws of reflection of light : P and F erect

–– First law : The incident ray, the reflected ray, Position of Images with respect to object convex
and the normal (at the point of incidence), all mirror
lie in the same plane.
h h Formation of image by a convex mirror:
–– Second law : The angle of reflection is always
equal to the angle of incidence. Object Image Nature of
hh Relation between focal length and radius of position position image
curvature :
(a) between between the virtual,
–– The focal length of the spherical mirror is equal infinity focus and the smaller
R and the pole and erect
to half of its radius of curvature, i.e., f = .
2 pole
Position of Images with respect to object concave
Mirror (b) at infinity at the focus virtual,
hh Formation of image by a concave mirror : point-sized

Object Image Nature of 1 1 1

h h Mirror formula : + = , where v = distance
position position image v u f
(a) at infinity at F real, inverted of image from mirror,
and point
sized u = distance of object from mirror,
(b) between b e t w e e n F real, smaller f = focal length of the mirror.
infinity and C than the
h h Magnification (m) :
and the object,
centre of inverted he −v
m= = , where he and ho are heights of
curvature C ho u

(c) at C at C real, same image and object.

size of object,
h h Refraction
inverted
The change in direction of light when it passes from
(d) between C between C real,
one medium to another obliquely, is called refraction
and F and infinity enlarged,
of light.
inverted

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h h Laws of Refraction where n = refractive index.

–– First law : The incident ray, the refracted ray and h h Absolute Refractive Index
the normal at the point of incidence, all lie in
Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the
the same plane.
ratio of the speed of light in vacuum or air to the speed
–– Second law : The ratio of sine angle of incidence of light in the medium. It is denoted by n.
to the sine angle of refraction is constant for a speed of light in air c
given pair of media. Then, n = =
speed of light in medium v
sin i
i.e., sin i = constant or = n, It has no unit.
sin r sin r

FORMATION OF IMAGE BY CONVEX AND CONCAVE LENSES

Convex Lens Concave Lens
Nature and
Position of the Position of the Position of Position of Nature and
size
object image the object the image size

(a) at infinity at F real, point- at infinity at F virtual,

sized point-sized
and erect
(b) between between F real, diminished between between F virtual, erect
infinity and 2F and 2F inverted infinity and and O and smaller
O
(c) at 2F at 2F real, same-
sized, inverted
(d) between 2F between 2F real, enlarged
and F and infinity inverted
h h One can also say that the image is formed on the
side of the object, and is virtual and erect. In fact, this
is more practical from the observer’s point of view.
(e) at F at infinity real, infinitely
large, inverted
(f) between F and on the same virtual,
O side of the enlarged erect
object

1 1 1 h h Magnification produced by lenses :

h h Lens formula : − =
v u f height of image h v
– Magnification = or m = e =
where, v and u are image distance and object height of object ho u
distance from the lens respectively and f is the 1 1
h h Power of a lens (P ) : P = or dioptre
focal length of the lens. f (metre ) f

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h h Lenses in contact : h h Atmospheric Refraction :
1 1 1 –– Twinkling of stars
–– Focal length of two lenses : = +
F f1 f2 –– Advanced service and delayed sunset.
–– Sun appears oval at sunset and sunrise but
–– Power of two lenses : P = P1 + P2
circular at noon.
h h Scattering of light : Absorption of light and then
11. HUMAN EYE AND COLOURFUL WORLD
re-radiating it in different directions.
The human eye works on the refraction of light through h h Tyndall effect : It deals with the phenomenon of
a natural convex lens made of transparent living material scattering of light by colloidal particles.
and enables us to see things around us. h h Rainbow : A rainbow is a natural spectrum of
Power of Accommodation sunlight in the form of bows appearing in the sky
hh The ability of an eye to adjust the focal length of when the sun shines on raindrops after the rain.
the eye-lens with the help of ciliary muscles so as The raindrops act like small prisms.
to see nearby as well as distant objects is called the
12. ELECTRICITY
power of accommodation.
––Far point of human eye is infinity.
h h Electricity is a controllable and convenient form of
energy in homes, hospitals, industries and so on.
––Near point or least distance of distinct vision
of human eye is 25 cm. h h Electric current : It is the rate of flow of electric
charges. i.e., I = q / t. SI unit of electric current is
Defects of vision and their correction Ampere (A).
h h Myopia (Short-sightedness) : Myopia (short- h h Electric potential : Work done in moving a positive
sightedness) is a defect in which a human eye unit charge from infinity to that point.
can see nearby objects clearly but is unable to see
Work W
distant objects distinctly. –– Electric potential = or V =
Charge Q
––Myopia is corrected by placing a concave lens
–– SI unit of electric potential is volt.
of appropriate power before the eye.
h h Potential difference : Amount of work done in
h h H y pe r m et ro pia ( L o n g - sig hte d n es s ) :
moving a unit positive charge from one point to
Hypermetropia (long-sightedness) is a defect in
which a human eye can see far off object clearly, the other. V = W .
but is unable to see nearby object distinctly. Q
–– The SI unit of electric potential difference is
––Hypermetropia is corrected by placing a convex
volt (V).
lens of appropriate power before the eye.
h h Ohm‘s Law
h h Presbyopia : The power of accommodation of
At constant temperature, current flowing through a
the eye usually decreasing with ageing and ciliary
conductor is directly proportional to the potential
muscles lose the capacity to change the focal
difference across its ends.
length of a lens.
V
––Presbyopia is corrected by placing convex lens R= ; V = IR
of appropriate power before the eye. I
h h Resistance : Opposition to flow of current.
h h Astigmatism : Cannot focus on both horizontal l
R=r [ r (rho = resistivity of the conductor]
and vertical lines simultaneously. A
Resistance of a System of resistors
–– It can be corrected by using cylindrical lens.
h h Resistors in series : When a number of resistors
h h Dispersion : Splitting of white light into seven are joined end to end so that same current flows
component colours. through each.
Equivalent resistance is given by, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

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h h Resistors in parallel : Two or more resistors h h Right hand thumb rule : According to it, imagine
are said to be connected in parallel if the same a straight conductor in your right hand such that
potential difference exists across these resistors. the thumb points in the direction of current. The
––Equivalent resistance is given by
direction of curl of fingers of the right hand gives
1 1 1 1 the direction of magnetic field lines.
= + +
RP R1 R2 R3
Joule’s heating effects
h h The heat produced in a resistor is directly
proportional to the square of current for a given
resistance, to resistance for a given current and to
the time for which the current flows through the
resistor.
2 V2
H = I  Rt = × t = VIt Solenoid
R
Electric Power h h A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper
wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder is
h h The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or
called a solenoid.
consumed in an electrical appliance or circuit is
called the electric power. –– The magnetic field inside a solenoid is uniform.
Work Energy –– A current-carrying solenoid behaves like a bar
i.e., Power = = magnet with fixed polarities at its ends.
Time Time
W I Rt 2 Electromagnet
or P = = ⇒ P = I 2R
t t h h An electromagnet is a temporary strong magnet
V2 and is just a solenoid with its winding on a soft
or P = ⇒ P = VI iron core.
R
h h Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: The direction of the force
13. MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT experienced by a current-carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field is determined by Fleming’s
Magnet left-hand rule.
Substances which have tendency to attract other Field Field
magnetic substances e.g. iron, cobalt and nickel.
Properties of the magnet : Motion Current Force

h h A magnet has two poles, north pole and south pole.

Current
h h A freely suspended magnet always align itself in
north-south direction. h h Electric Motor
h h Like poles repel, while unlike poles of different –– Device which converts electrical energy into
magnets attract each other. mechanical energy.
h h Magnetic field lines –– Works on the principle that a current-carrying
conductor placed perpendicular to the magnetic
–– The path along which a free magnetic north
field, experiences a force.
pole will move in a magnetic field, is called
magnetic field lines. h h Electromagnetic Induction
–– Magnetic field lines always repel each other and –– The phenomenon in which electric current is
do not intersect. generated by varying magnetic field is called
electromagnetic induction.

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h h Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: Direction of induced h h Conventional sources of energy : The sources
current in a conductor is determined by Fleming’s which are used extensively since ancient times
right-hand rule. and major portion of our energy requirement are
Movement of met by them e.g., fossil fuels and hydroenergy are
conductor
Magnetic field Motion known as conventional sources of energy.
h h Fossil fuels : Fossil fuels are the non-renewable
Field sources of energy like coal, petroleum and natural
Current induced in gas.
conductor
Induced current
h h There are limited reserves of fossil fuels, so we
need to conserve them.
h h Electric Generator
–– A device which converts mechanical energy into Thermal power Plant
electrical energy. hh Thermal power plants are usually set up near coal
–– Works on the principle of electromagnetic or oil fields for the convenience of transportation.
induction. Hydro power Plant
h h Electric motor is a device which converts electrical h h Potential energy of water (conventional and
energy into mechanical energy. renewable source of energy) stored in a dam is
h h Principle of electric motor : Electric motor converted into kinetic energy of falling water and
works on the principle that a current carrying then, kinetic energy is converted into the electrical
conductor placed perpendicular to a magnetic field energy.
experiences a force. Biomass
h h Electric fuse : A safety device used to save the hh It is an organic matter which is used as a fuel to
electrical appliances from burning when large produce energy.
amount of current flows in the circuit.
hh This includes wood, agricultural wastes, cow dung,
–– Made of a material of low melting point. dead parts of plants etc.
–– Works on the principle of heating effect of
Wind Energy
current.
h h Wind is caused by unequal heating of the
atmospheric air near the surface of the Earth.
14. SOURCES OF ENERGY
h h Non-conventional sources of energy : The sources
Good Source of Energy which are not used extensively i.e., are limited
h h A good source of energy is one which can provide in use are called non-conventional sources. For
adequate amount of energy in a convenient form example, Solar energy, sea energy, geothermal
over long period of time. energy and nuclear energy, etc. These are called
as alternative sources of energy.
Sources of energy

Conventional Sources Non-Conventional Sources

Bio energy
Commercial Non-Commercial Solar energy
Coal Fire wood Wind energy
Petroleum Straw Tidal energy
Electricity Dried dung Energy from urban waste

20 Science
 Table : Differences between autotrophs and heterotrophs.

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
1. They are producer organisms. They are consumer organisms.
2. They prepare their organic nutrients They do not prepare their organic nutrients
themselves. themselves.
3. They get only inorganic materials from They get both organic and inorganic materials
outside, using which they synthesize from outside.
organic materials inside their body.
4. These obtain energy from sunlight or These obtain energy from organic nutrients.
inorganic chemical reactions.
5. These usually add O2 to the environment. These add CO2 to the environment.
6. These include plants and blue green algae. These include animals, many protists, bacteria
and fungi.
7. These possess photosynthetic pigments Photosynthetic pigments are lacking in them.
(e.g., chlorophyll).
8. They constitute the first trophic level. They belong to second and higher trophic levels.

 Decomposers are microbes (bacteria and fungi), which act on the dead bodies of producers
and consumers to break the complex organic substances into simpler ones. They absorb
some of the substances and release others into the environment to be recycled and to be used
in future by the producers.
In this way, decomposers have a very important role in cycling the materials in the biosphere
and maintaining the food chain by providing raw materials for producers. They also make
the soil fertile and have become the integral part of ecosystem.
Table: Various sources of wastes.
Sources of wastes Types of wastes
1. Industrial  CO, CO2, SO2, H2S and hydrocarbons (air released from automobiles
wastes also).
 Hydrochloric acid, chlorine, nitrogen oxides, etc.
 Heavy metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, nickel, etc.
 Many organic compounds like phenol, naphtha, aromatic
compounds, etc.
2. Domestic  Sewage of sanitary facilities of residential, commercial, institutional
wastes and other public places.
 Sewage with many types of pathogenic organisms like bacteria,
encysted protozoans, viruses, eggs of helminthes, etc.
3. Agricultural  CO2, Methane (from paddy fields), organopesticides and chlorinated
wastes hydrocarbons, etc.
 Traces of fertilizers with nitrates, phosphates and sulphates of
potassium.
4. Commercial  Building wastes, printing press wastes, biomedical wastes of medical
wastes institutions and hospitals, etc.
 Food chain Food web
1. It represents series of organisms feeding on It is made up of number of interlinked food
one another. chains.
2. Members of higher trophic level feed upon Members of higher trophic level can feed
single type of organism of lower trophic level. upon organisms of lower trophic levels of
other food chains also.

Character Biodegradable wastes Nonbiodegradable wastes

1 . Microbial Undergo microbial degradation. Do not undergo microbial
decomposition degradation.
2 . Main sources Living organisms Industries, hospitals, nursing
homes etc.
3 . Examples Domestic sewage, animal wastes, Pesticides, plastics, aluminium
agricultural wastes, etc. cans, synthetic polymers,
heavy metals etc.

 Biomagnification or biological concentration or biological amplification is increase in the

amount of non-biodegradable substances in successive trophic levels of a food chain.
 Harmful effects of biomagnification:
(i) DDT interferes with the egg-shell formation in many birds. The shells remain thin and break
by bird’s weight during incubation. Dieldrin is about 5 times more toxic than DDT when
ingested and 40 times more poisonous when absorbed.
(ii) The chlorinated hydrocarbons are known to affect CNS (central nervous system), cause
softening of brain, cerebral haemorrhage, cirrhosis of liver, hypertension, cancer, malformation
of sex hormones, etc.
(iii) Biomagnification of mercury into fish through the food chain was responsible for large number
of deaths due to Minamata disease in Japan.
(iv) Selenium accumulates in the plants growing on selenium-rich soils. Through food chain,
such plants cause stunted growth, loss of appetite, gastro-intestinal disorders, etc. in the
animals grazing on such plants.

 For conservation of forests :

(i) It should be checked that illegal cutting of trees is banned and made a punishable act.
(ii) Stakeholders should take care of the maintenance of the forest.
(iii) Forest fires should be checked and controlled.
(iv) Nearby villages or people should be trained and educated to manage forests.
(v) Over-grazing in the forest should be presented.
(vi) Afforestation, social forestry and agroforestry should be promoted..
(vii) Soil erosion must be prevented.
l Strict application of conservation strategies may lead to strick ban on tree felling, wood cutting etc.
But such bans will adversely affect human economy. Besides we have been using forest products and
other resources from such a long period that now life seems impossible without them e.g., in absence
of timber we will not get furniture. To solve this problem idea of sustainable development has been
developed that harmonises human growth and resource conservation E.g., it says that we should
plant at least as many plants as we cut to maintain that plant population. hence, it is considered to be
an advanced idea of conservation.



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