Cultural Contacts

Volume I
 Cultural Contacts

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 Cultural Contacts

contents
Volume I
PREFACE............................................................... xi Kasyapa ........................................................... 79
CREDITS............................................................... xii Gautama Siddhartha........................................ 80
Kumara............................................................. 80
SECTION I
Works...........................................................80
INDIA-CHINA CULTURAL EXCHANGES.............1
Kai Yuan Zhan Jing.......................................... 80
Timeline of Chinese Dynasties and Other
Jiuzhi Calendar................................................ 81
Key Events.............................................................. 2
Sardulakarnavadana......................................... 82
General Introduction.............................................. 3
Sardulakarnavadana, Pictures
SECTION II of Constellations............................................... 83
COMMERCIAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN Prince Shetoujian’s Twenty-Eight
INDIA & CHINA.............................................19 Constellations Scripture................................... 84
Overview.............................................................. 22 Constellation Scripture .................................... 84
Brahman Siddhanta.......................................... 87
A. Products...................................................30
Bodhi Tree........................................................ 30 B. Medical Sciences.......................................88
Sala Tree.......................................................... 31 Cikitsāvidyā...................................................... 88
Asoka Tree....................................................... 32 Indian Medical Science and its
Clover............................................................... 32 Transmission to China...................................... 89
Cucumber......................................................... 33 Personalities..................................................93
Pepper.............................................................. 34 Ge Hong........................................................... 93
Bhallataka ....................................................... 35 Tao Hongjing.................................................... 93
Cotton.............................................................. 36 Sun Simiao....................................................... 94
Saffron ............................................................. 38 Wang Tao......................................................... 96
Zebu................................................................. 39 Li Shizhen........................................................ 96
Porcelain ......................................................... 40 George Hatem.................................................. 97
Silk .................................................................. 40 Tang Youzhi..................................................... 98
Embroidery ..................................................... 41 Nagarjuna - the Physician................................ 99
Cat’s Eye .......................................................... 42 Buddhacinga.................................................... 99
Fine Cloth......................................................... 43 Jīva................................................................ 100
Buddhasena.................................................... 101
B. Early Modern Era......................................43 Jīva Jīvaka .................................................... 101
Opium Trade.................................................... 43 Works......................................................... 102
India-China Cotton Yarn Trade........................ 45 Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency........... 102
Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co................................. 46 Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions............ 103
E D Sassoon & Co............................................. 46 Arcane Essentials from the
Parsis................................................................ 47 Imperial Library............................................. 104
Shikarpuri Financiers....................................... 48 Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Treatise on
Ismaili Traders................................................. 48 Ophthalmology.............................................. 105
The Tatas.......................................................... 49 Sutra of Buddhist Medicine............................ 106
The Harilelas.................................................... 50 Bower Manuscript.......................................... 107
Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy......................................... 50 Siddhasàra...................................................... 108
K R Cama......................................................... 51
Jivaka Pustaka............................................... 109
H N Mody......................................................... 51
Essentials of Prescriptions by Various
Paul Chater...................................................... 52
Medical Scientists .......................................... 110
Ellis and Elly Kadoorie..................................... 52
C. Technological Exchanges......................... 111
SECTION III
Qi Min Yao Shu.............................................. 111
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY..............................55
Sugar Making................................................. 111
Overview.............................................................. 58
Tea Cultivation............................................... 112
A. Mathematics and Astronomy.....................71 Zhu Kezhen.................................................... 113
Ancient Indian Mathematics and Astronomy...... 71
SECTION IV
Terms, Items..................................................75
EXCHANGES BASED ON BUDDHISM............. 115
Zero.................................................................. 75
Overview............................................................ 118
Portraits of Constellation Gods......................... 75
Personalities..................................................76 A. Sects....................................................... 132
Zhen Luan ....................................................... 76 Chinese Buddhism.......................................... 132
Yixing............................................................... 77 Tiantai School ............................................... 136
Dharmacandra ................................................. 78 Faxiang School .............................................. 139

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Tibetan Buddhism.......................................... 141 D. Personalities........................................... 200

rnying ma pa Sect.......................................... 142 Indian Personalities...................................... 200
sa skya pa Sect............................................... 143 Sakyamuni...................................................... 200
bkav brgyud pa Sect....................................... 144 Mahamaudgalyayana..................................... 204
dge lugs pa Sect.............................................. 146 Asoka............................................................. 204
jo nang pa Sect............................................... 147 Asokan Inscriptions........................................ 206
thi byed Sect.................................................. 148 Kasyapamatanga............................................ 207
Theravada Buddhism in Yunnan.................... 149 Dharamaratna................................................ 207
Acharya Buddhism ........................................ 151 Nagarjuna....................................................... 208
Deva .............................................................. 211
B. Buddhist Sacred Places............................ 151 Dharmakala ................................................... 212
Lumbini.......................................................... 151 Dharmamitra ................................................. 213
Kapilvastu...................................................... 152 Buddhabhadra................................................ 214
Bodhgaya....................................................... 153 Gunavarman................................................... 215
Vajrasana....................................................... 154 Dharmaraksa.................................................. 216
Gaya............................................................... 155 Gunabhadra.................................................... 217
Mrigdava........................................................ 156 Punyatara....................................................... 218
Sarnath........................................................... 156 Sanghadeva.................................................... 219
Shravasti........................................................ 157 Dharmayasas.................................................. 220
Rajgriha.......................................................... 158 Vimalaksa....................................................... 220
Griddhkuta Hill.............................................. 159 Buddhayasas................................................... 221
Vaishali.......................................................... 160 Sanghavarman................................................ 222
Kushinagar..................................................... 161 Asanga ........................................................... 222
Mahabodhi Vihar .......................................... 162 Vasubandhu................................................... 224
Nalanda.......................................................... 164 Buddhajiva..................................................... 225
Vikramasila Mahavihar.................................. 165 Gunavriddhi................................................... 225
Bhavaviveka................................................... 226
C. Monasteries............................................ 166
Narendrayasas................................................ 227
Mount Wutai.................................................. 166
Paramartha .................................................... 228
Mount Putuo.................................................. 169 Buddhabhadra................................................ 229
Mount E'mei................................................... 171 Dignaga ......................................................... 230
Mount Jiuhua................................................. 172 Ratnamati....................................................... 231
White Horse Temple....................................... 173 Bodhiruci........................................................ 231
Famen Temple ............................................... 174 Gautamaruci................................................... 233
Jianchu Temple ............................................. 175 Bodhidharma.................................................. 233
Daxingshan Temple ....................................... 175 Jnanagupta .................................................... 234
Asoka Temple................................................. 176 Prabhakarmitra.............................................. 236
Tanzhe Temple .............................................. 176 Silabhadra...................................................... 237
Lingyin Temple ............................................. 177 Gunaprabha.................................................... 237
Caotang Temple ............................................ 178 Dharmagupta................................................. 238
Shaolin Temple ............................................. 178 Dharmakirti.................................................... 239
Yongning Temple ......................................... 179 Candrakirti..................................................... 239
Jiming Temple............................................... 180 Divakara......................................................... 239
Xiangguo Temple .......................................... 180 Cunda............................................................. 240
Fayuan Temple ............................................. 181 Subhakarasimha ............................................ 240
Dacien Temple............................................... 181 Atigupta......................................................... 242
Xingjiao Temple ............................................ 182 Jnanaprabha................................................... 242
Kaiyuan Temple ............................................ 182 Prajnanadeva.................................................. 243
gtsug lag khang.............................................. 183 Bhagavaddharma .......................................... 243
Potala Palace.................................................. 184 Nati ............................................................... 243
bsam yas dgon................................................ 189 Buddhatrata................................................... 244
mtho ldings dgon........................................... 189 Vajrabodhi..................................................... 244
Miaoying Temple .......................................... 190 Buddhapala.................................................... 245
bya khyung dgon............................................ 191 Jnanacandra................................................... 246
Dabaoen Temple ........................................... 192 Simharashmi.................................................. 246
vbras spungs dgon.......................................... 193 Manicinta....................................................... 247
se ra theg dgon............................................... 193 Pramiti........................................................... 247
bkra shis lhun po dgon................................... 194 Amoghavajra.................................................. 248
sku vbum dgon............................................... 195 Santiraksita.................................................... 249
dgon lung dgon.............................................. 196 Prajna............................................................. 251
chu bzang dgon.............................................. 196 Bodhiruci........................................................ 252
gsar khog dgon............................................... 197 Kamalasila...................................................... 252
dpal yul dgon................................................. 197 Sarivarma....................................................... 253
Yonghegong Temple....................................... 198 Padma............................................................ 253
Eight Temples of Chengde.............................. 198 Padmasambhava............................................ 254

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Vimalamitra................................................... 255 Yijing.............................................................. 304

Munisri........................................................... 256 Fazang ........................................................... 309
Candragupta................................................... 256 Huiri .............................................................. 310
Dharmapala.................................................... 256 Shenhui.......................................................... 310
Danagupta...................................................... 257 Wukong ......................................................... 311
Devasanti ...................................................... 258 yeshe tshogyal................................................ 312
Manjusri......................................................... 259 Virocana......................................................... 313
Atisha ............................................................ 259 Li Chengmei................................................... 314
Tilopa............................................................. 262 lo chen rin chen bzang po.............................. 314
Naropa........................................................... 262 Daoyuan......................................................... 315
Dharmadeva................................................... 263 Xingqin........................................................... 315
pha damba sangje ......................................... 263 Cihuan............................................................ 315
Maitrabhadra ................................................ 265 Jiye................................................................. 315
Niguma........................................................... 265 Guangyuan .................................................... 316
Sukha Siddhi.................................................. 265 Fayu............................................................... 316
Omkarasri...................................................... 265 Jiansheng....................................................... 316
kha che pan chen shaky shi .......................... 265 Jicong............................................................. 316
Sudhasri ........................................................ 265 Chongda......................................................... 317
Buddhasri....................................................... 266 Weijing........................................................... 317
Sunyadisya .................................................... 266 vbrog mi shakya ye shes................................ 317
Sahajasri......................................................... 267 Huaiwen......................................................... 318
Devadasa........................................................ 267 Jiquan............................................................ 318
Samghapala ................................................... 267 Daoyuan......................................................... 319
Sakyayasas..................................................... 268 vbrom ston pa rgyal bavi vbyung gnas.......... 319
Virupa (bir wa ba) ......................................... 268 nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba....................... 320
Western Region Personalities......................... 269 mar pa chos kyi blo gros................................ 320
An Shigao....................................................... 269 Macig Labdron............................................... 321
Lokaksema..................................................... 269 rngog blo ldan shes rab.................................. 323
Kang Senghui................................................. 270 rngog legs pvishes rab ................................... 323
Zhiqian .......................................................... 271 rgya brtson vgrus seng ge............................... 324
Srimitra.......................................................... 271 cha pa chos kyi seng ge.................................. 324
Kumarajiva..................................................... 272 kun dgav rgyal mtshan................................... 324
She Gong........................................................ 276 Yuanyi............................................................ 325
Kalayasas........................................................ 276 klong chen rab vbyams pa............................. 326
Dharmanandi................................................. 276 red mdav ba gzhon nu blo gros...................... 326
Dharmaruci.................................................... 277 tsong kha pa................................................... 326
Buddhavarman............................................... 277 Zhiguang........................................................ 328
Dharmayasas.................................................. 278 dge vdun rgya mtsho...................................... 329
Samgha........................................................... 279 bson nams rgya mtsho.................................... 329
Siksananda..................................................... 279 pan chen blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan.... 330
Jnanabhadra.................................................. 280 ta ra na tha..................................................... 330
Li She............................................................. 281 yon ldan rgya mtsho...................................... 332
Siladharma .................................................... 281 grags pa vod zer............................................. 332
Wutitichanyu.................................................. 282 ngag dbang rgya mtsho.................................. 332
Purnacandra................................................... 282
blo bzang bstan pvi rgyal mtshan.................. 333
Chinese Personalities.................................... 282
lcang skya ngag dbang blo bzang
Liu Ying.......................................................... 282
chos ldan........................................................ 333
Zuo Rong........................................................ 283
si tu chos kyi vbyung gnas............................. 334
Zhu Shixing.................................................... 283
lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje............................... 335
Dharmaraksha................................................ 284
vju mi pham vjam dbyangs
Daoan ............................................................ 285
rhamgyal rgya mtsho .................................... 335
Zhidun ........................................................... 286
Fahe............................................................... 287 E. Scriptures................................................ 336
Faxian............................................................ 288 Tripitaka......................................................... 336
Huirui ............................................................ 291 Buddhist Canon in Chinese............................ 337
Baoyun........................................................... 292 bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur ........................ 338
Zhimeng......................................................... 292 Buddhist Canon in Mongolian........................ 339
Kang Falang .................................................. 293 Buddhist Canon in Manchu Language............ 340
Huisheng ....................................................... 293 Buddhist Canon in Tangut Language............. 341
Fali ................................................................ 294 Buddhist Canon in Dai Language................... 341
Sengmeng ...................................................... 295 Ullambana Sutra............................................ 342
Tanlang.......................................................... 295 A Biography of Tripitaka Master.................... 342
Zhiyan............................................................ 295 Biographies of Eminent Monks of the
Daorong ........................................................ 296 Great Tang Seeking Scriptures in the
Xuanzang....................................................... 296 Western Regions ............................................ 343

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A Record of the Buddhist Religion D. Works..................................................... 474

as Practised in India and the Lao Zi............................................................. 474
Malay Archipelago......................................... 346 Analects.......................................................... 476
Bodhimargadipasastra.................................... 349 Vedas.............................................................. 477
Moksalankarasastra........................................ 350 Rig Veda......................................................... 481
bu ston chos vbyung...................................... 351 Brahmanas..................................................... 482
rgya gar chos vbyung..................................... 352 Upanishad...................................................... 483
chos vbyung dpag bsam ljon bsang................ 352 Yogasutra....................................................... 488
thuvu bkwan grub mthav............................... 353 Vaisheshika Sutra........................................... 491
gu bkrvi chos vbyung..................................... 353 Nyaya Sutra ................................................... 496
Brahma Sutra................................................. 497
F. Doctrines................................................. 354 Bhagavadgita.................................................. 500
grub mthav smra ba ...................................... 354 Hiran yasaptati .............................................. 501
gzhung bkav pod lnga.................................... 355 Dasapadarthasastra ....................................... 502
gzhan stong gi lta ba...................................... 356
rgyud.............................................................. 357 E. Events..................................................... 504
Way of Great Perfection ............................... 360 Debate between Buddhism and Daoism......... 504
lam vbras........................................................ 361 SECTION VI
phyag rgya chen po ...................................... 361 LINGUISTICS............................................... 509
sbor drug ....................................................... 362 Overview............................................................ 512
naro chosdrug................................................ 362 Ancient Chinese Translation............................... 515
smon lam chen mo......................................... 362
A. Terms - Concepts..................................... 517
SECTION V Shabdavidya .................................................. 517
PHILOSOPHY.............................................. 365 Siksa .............................................................. 518
Overview............................................................ 368 Nirukta .......................................................... 519
Vyakarana ..................................................... 519
A. Theory.................................................... 375
Brahmi Script ................................................ 520
Pancavidya..................................................... 375
Kharosthi Script............................................. 521
Hetuvidya....................................................... 376
Hetuvidya of Tibetan Buddhism ................... 383 B. Personalities........................................... 522
Collected Topics of Tibetan Buddhism .......... 383 Xuanying........................................................ 522
Adhyàtma Vidyà ........................................... 384 Huilin............................................................. 523
Metaphysics of the Wei and Jin Dynasties .... 384 Zhiguang........................................................ 524
Neo Confucianism of Song and Shouwen......................................................... 524
Ming Dynasties .............................................. 389 Panini ............................................................ 525
Jainism........................................................... 393 Patanjali ........................................................ 526
Six Orthodox Schools..................................... 399
C. Dictionaries............................................ 526
Samkhya......................................................... 402 Sanskrit-Tibetan Dictionary .......................... 526
Yoga............................................................... 407 Nighantu ....................................................... 527
Vaisheshika.................................................... 413 Siddharastu ................................................... 527
Nyaya............................................................. 418 Shabdavidya Sastra ...................................... 528
Mimamsa ....................................................... 424
Vedanta ......................................................... 425 Volume II
Six Stramana Masters..................................... 432 SECTION VII
Lokayata......................................................... 435 LITERATURE............................................... 531
Ajivaka........................................................... 438 Overview............................................................ 534
B. Concepts................................................. 440 A. Literary Genre......................................... 547
Brahmatmaikya.............................................. 440 Fictional Narratives of the
Samsara ......................................................... 441 Supernatural World........................................ 547
Vimukti.......................................................... 444 The Legend of the Tang Dynasty.................... 548
C. Personalities........................................... 446 Transformational Texts.................................. 548
Laozi............................................................... 446 Stories of Gods and Demons .......................... 549
Confucius ...................................................... 450 Maudgalyayana Opera................................... 549
Ma Dexin ....................................................... 455 Indian Mythology........................................... 550
Kang Youwei.................................................. 456 Buddhist Literature in India .......................... 555
Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan) ....................... 457 Indian Folk Literature.................................... 556
Zhang Binglin (Zhang Taiyan) ....................... 460 B. Personalities........................................... 557
Liang Qichao.................................................. 461 Chen Duxiu.................................................... 557
Swami Vivekananda....................................... 462 Lu Xun ........................................................... 559
Aurobindo...................................................... 466 Su Manshu...................................................... 561
Surendranath Dasgupta.................................. 471 Guo Moruo .................................................... 564
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan.............................. 471 Xu Dishan ...................................................... 565
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya ......................... 473 Lin Yutang ..................................................... 567

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Mao Dun ....................................................... 568 Cao Miaoda.................................................... 668

Xu Zhimo....................................................... 569 Sujiva............................................................. 668
Zheng Zhenduo ............................................. 570 Cui Lingqin..................................................... 669
Bing Xin ........................................................ 571 Nan Zhuo....................................................... 670
Ba Jin ............................................................ 573 Duan Anjie..................................................... 671
Ai Qing ......................................................... 575 Mei Lanfang................................................... 671
Yang Shuo ..................................................... 576 Zhang Jun...................................................... 674
Wu Xiaoling................................................... 576 Uday Shankar................................................. 676
Shi Zhen......................................................... 577 Ravi Shankar.................................................. 677
Mu Dan ......................................................... 578 Kamala Lakshman.......................................... 680
Asvaghosa...................................................... 579
C. Types of Songs and Dances...................... 680
Kalidasa.......................................................... 581
Lion Dance..................................................... 680
Bana .............................................................. 586
Triumphant March of Prince of Qin............... 681
Rabindranath Tagore..................................... 589
Nishangyuyi Melody...................................... 683
Thakur Gadadhar Singh ................................ 596
Brahman Sangeet........................................... 684
Mahendulal Garg ........................................... 597
Natyashastra................................................... 685
S C Chatterjee................................................. 597
Muhammad Iqbal........................................... 598 D. Painting • Sculpture................................. 686
Amar Singh.................................................... 599 Concepts and Schools.................................... 686
Munshi Premchand........................................ 599 Chinese Painting............................................ 686
Jaishankar Prasad ......................................... 601 Cao Zhongda Technique................................. 688
Yashpal .......................................................... 601 Iron Line Drawing.......................................... 688
Jainendra Kumar............................................ 602 Ancient Indian painting Technique................ 689
Mulk Raj Anand ............................................ 602 Gandhara Art................................................. 690
R K Narayan................................................... 603 Gupta Art....................................................... 691
Agyeya........................................................... 604 Nimnonnata................................................... 694
K A Abbas ...................................................... 605 Architecture................................................. 695
Krishan Chander............................................. 605 Dunhuang Caves............................................ 695
Maitreyi Devi ................................................ 606 Binglingsi Caves............................................. 696
V Akilan ........................................................ 607 Yungang Caves............................................... 697
Qizil Caves..................................................... 699
C. Works..................................................... 607
Dayan Stupa................................................... 699
The Tale of the Procurement of
Ajanta Caves ................................................. 700
Scriptures by the Tripitaka Master
Great Stupa of Kanishka ................................ 701
of the Great Tang........................................... 607
Sanchi Stupa................................................... 702
The Investiture of the Gods............................ 608
Personalities................................................ 702
The Drama of Journey to the West................ 609
Journey to the West ...................................... 609 Gu Kaizhi....................................................... 702
Expedition to the Western Oceans................. 611 Dai Kui........................................................... 703
Mahabharata.................................................. 612 Zhang Sengyou............................................... 704
Ramayana...................................................... 615 Cao Zhongda.................................................. 704
Jatakamala..................................................... 620 Wu Daozi........................................................ 705
Harsacarita .................................................... 620 Yuchi Yiseng.................................................. 706
Nagananda..................................................... 621 Yang Huizhi................................................... 706
Pancatantra.................................................... 622 Zhang Yanyuan.............................................. 706
Puranas.......................................................... 623 Qi Baishi......................................................... 707
Padmavat....................................................... 627 Xu Beihong..................................................... 707
Ramacaritamanas........................................... 627 Zhang Daqian................................................. 709
Sursagar......................................................... 628 Ye Qianyu...................................................... 709
Kabirgranthavali............................................ 629 M F Hussain................................................... 710
Abanindranath Tagore................................... 711
SECTION VIII Nandalal Bose ............................................... 712
VISUAL AND PERFORMING ARTS................. 631
Overview............................................................ 634 E. Films....................................................... 712
Chinese Films in India.................................... 712
A. Music • Dance • Drama............................. 650 Indian Films in China..................................... 713
Kucha Music ................................................. 650 Personalities................................................ 717
Buddhist Music............................................... 651 Bruce Lee........................................................ 717
Indian Music.................................................. 652 Zhang Yimou ................................................. 718
Saptaswaras.................................................... 656 Jackie Chan ................................................... 718
Tianzhu Music................................................ 657 Sachindranath Sengupta................................. 719
Indian Dance.................................................. 657 Satyajit Ray.................................................... 719
Bharatanatyam............................................... 663
Raj Kapoor..................................................... 720
Indian Drama................................................. 666
Works......................................................... 721
B. Personalities........................................... 668 Awara............................................................. 721
Wan Baochang............................................... 668 Do Bigha Zamin............................................. 721

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Jhansi Ki Rani................................................ 722 Wang Dayuan................................................. 800

Karwan........................................................... 723 Yang Dazhao (Atchew)................................... 801
3 Idiots........................................................... 723 Chinese Community in India.......................... 801
SECTION IX C. Works..................................................... 803
FOLK CUSTOMS, HEALTH & FITNESS............ 725 Records of the Western Regions of the
Overview: Folk Customs ............................. 728 Great Tang..................................................... 803
Buddhism and Chinese Popular Beliefs.......... 733
SECTION XI
Buddhism and Chinese Popular Festivals....... 737 DIPLOMATIC EXCHANGES........................... 807
sa ga zla ba Festival ...................................... 742 Overview............................................................ 810
zho ston Festival............................................ 742
bcu bavi lnga mchod Festival......................... 742 A. Concepts................................................. 817
Panchsheel (Five Principles of
Overview: Health & Fitness.......................... 743 Peaceful Coexistence)..................................... 817
Concept & Terms............................................ 749 Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai.................................... 817
Qigong............................................................ 749
Wushu............................................................ 750 B. Events..................................................... 818
Indian-style Massage...................................... 751 Visit of Chiang Kai-shek and his
Yoga............................................................... 751 wife to India .................................................. 818
Kalaripayattu ................................................ 757 Chinese Army in India 1942-1945................. 819
Works......................................................... 758 Establishment of India-China
Tendon-strengthening Sutra .......................... 758 Diplomatic Relations...................................... 819
Visit of Indian Leaders to China Since the
SECTION X Establishment of Diplomatic Relations........... 820
COMMUNICATIONS LINKS AND Visit of Chinese Leaders to India Since the
SITES OF INTERACTION............................... 761 Establishment of India-China
Overview............................................................ 764 Diplomatic relations....................................... 822
Silk Road............................................................ 771 Rajiv Gandhi’s Visit to China in 1988............ 825
India-China Transport and Communication Chinese Cultural Delegation’s Visit to India
Lines During World War II.................................. 775 in 1954........................................................... 825
A. Names of Places...................................... 776 C. Organisations, Institutions,
China.............................................................. 776 Delegations............................................. 826
Chang’an........................................................ 776 China-India Friendship Association................ 826
Luoyang.......................................................... 777 India-China Goodwill Mission........................ 827
Kashgar.......................................................... 778 Indian Residents Association, Tianjin............ 827
Yarkand.......................................................... 779 The Ghadar Party........................................... 828
Turfan............................................................ 779 Indian National Association of China............. 828
Shanghai........................................................ 780 Indian Youth League...................................... 829
Hong kong...................................................... 781 Indian Independence League.......................... 829
India............................................................... 782 India-China Friendship Society...................... 830
Magadha........................................................ 783 Indian Women’s Society for
Takshasila...................................................... 783 India-China Friendship................................... 831
Pataliputra..................................................... 784 Indian Medical Mission ................................. 831
Kalinga........................................................... 784 All India Dr Kotnis Memorial Committee ...... 832
Gandhara........................................................ 785
D. Personalities........................................... 832
Kashmir.......................................................... 786
Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty......................... 832
Chola.............................................................. 786
Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei Dynasty..... 834
Tamralipta (now Tamluk).............................. 787
Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty................. 835
Uddiyana........................................................ 788
Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty ............... 837
Kamarupa....................................................... 788
Empress Wu Zetian ....................................... 838
Kanchipuram.................................................. 789
Wang Xuance................................................. 840
Purushapura (now Peshawar)........................ 789
Li Yibiao ........................................................ 842
Kollam (Quilon)............................................. 790
Kublai Khan.................................................... 843
Bengala ......................................................... 791
Yang Tingbi.................................................... 845
Kochi.............................................................. 792
Emperor Chengzu of Ming Dynasty................ 845
Varanasi......................................................... 792
Zheng He........................................................ 846
Madras (now Chennai)................................... 794
Huang Maocai ............................................... 847
Ladakh........................................................... 795
Ma Jianzhong................................................. 848
Bombay (now Mumbai).................................. 796
Wu Guangpei.................................................. 849
Calcutta (now Kolkata).................................. 797
Soong Ching-ling............................................ 850
Assam............................................................. 798
Mao Zedong................................................... 851
B. Personalities and People.......................... 799 Zhou Enlai ................................................. 852
Zhang Qian..................................................... 799 Deng Xiaoping................................................ 853

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Gupta King .................................................... 854 Zhu Jieqin...................................................... 919

King Harsavardhana (Siladitya)..................... 854 Yang Yunyuan................................................ 919
Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha..................... 858 Wei Guisun..................................................... 920
Chandrapida................................................... 858 Jao Tsung-I (Rao Zongyi)............................... 920
Luo Haoxin..................................................... 859 Wu Yan........................................................... 921
Rajendra Chola............................................... 859 W Pachow (Bazhou)....................................... 921
Devakara........................................................ 860 Wu Baihui...................................................... 922
Tie Ge............................................................. 860 Yang Ruilin.................................................... 923
Qasar Qaya..................................................... 860 Wu Juncai...................................................... 923
Ibrahim Sharqi............................................... 861 Ran Yun-hua.................................................. 924
Saifuddin Hamza Shah................................... 861 Yin Hongyuan................................................ 924
Jalaluddin...................................................... 863 Sun Peijun...................................................... 925
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi .................... 863 Huang Xinchuan............................................. 926
Raja Mahendra Pratap.................................... 868 Shih Shu-lu..................................................... 927
M N Roy......................................................... 868 Li Zhifu........................................................... 928
Benoy Kumar Sarkar ..................................... 869 Liu Anwu........................................................ 928
Jawaharlal Nehru........................................... 870 Jin Dinghan.................................................... 929
Subhash Chandra Bose................................... 871 Liu Guonan..................................................... 930
Dr M Ramachandra Cholkar .......................... 872 Wang Huaiting............................................... 930
Dr Madan Mohanlal Atal ............................... 872 Zhang Mantao................................................ 931
Dr Dwarkanath Shantaram Kotnis ................. 873 Shan Yun........................................................ 931
Dr Bejoy Kumar Basu .................................... 875 Li Yuanshan.................................................... 932
Dr Deben Mukherji......................................... 875 Jiang Zhongxin............................................... 932
K P S Menon................................................... 876 Zhao Guohua.................................................. 933
K M Panikkar................................................. 876 Zhou Dafu ..................................................... 934
Bishambhar Nath Pande ................................ 877 Kshitimohan Sen............................................ 934
Bhakti Bhushan Mandal ................................ 877 Kalidas Nag.................................................... 935
Rahul Sankritiyayana..................................... 935
SECTION XII
Tan Yun-shan ................................................ 936
MODERN ACADEMIC EXCHANGES................ 879
Prabodh Chandra Bagchi................................ 939
Overview............................................................ 882
Dr Raghuvira ................................................. 940
India Studies in China......................................... 884
Sujit Kumar Mukherji .................................... 941
China Studies in India ....................................... 887
Pandit N Aiyaswami Sastri ........................... 941
A. Organisations, Institutions...................... 890 Prahlad Pradhan............................................. 941
Peiping Lecture Association........................... 890 K Venkataramanan......................................... 942
Sino-Indian Cultural Society.......................... 890 Amitendranath Tagore................................... 942
Vidya Prakash Dutt........................................ 942
B. Personalities........................................... 891 V V Paranjpe.................................................. 943
Xu Chonghao ................................................. 891 Lokesh Chandra.............................................. 943
Feng Chengjun .............................................. 892 Narayan Chandra Sen..................................... 944
Taixu.............................................................. 892 Rajesh Saran................................................... 944
Huang Chanhua............................................. 894 Tan Chung...................................................... 944
Tao Xingzhi.................................................... 894 Biswadev Mukherjee..................................... 946
Hu shi ............................................................ 896 Vimla Saran.................................................... 946
Tang Yongtong............................................... 897 Haraprasad Ray.............................................. 946
Liang Shuming .............................................. 898 Mira Sinha-Bhattacharjea .............................. 947
Lü Cheng........................................................ 899 Giridhar Dattatrey Deshingkar ...................... 948
Chen Hansheng.............................................. 900
Govind Purushottam Deshpande ................... 948
Su Xuelin........................................................ 901
Haridas Mitra................................................. 949
Wen Yiduo...................................................... 903
Krishna Kinkar Sinha..................................... 949
Zhou Shujia.................................................... 904
Satiranjan Sen................................................ 949
Xiang Da......................................................... 905
Shanti Tseng................................................... 906 SECTION XIII
Chang Renxia (Chang Jen-hsieh) .................. 907 OTHERS...................................................... 951
Fa-fang........................................................... 908 Museums..................................................... 953
Chen Hongjin................................................. 909 National Museum of China............................. 954
Dongchu......................................................... 909 Quanzhou Maritime Museum ........................ 954
Xu Fancheng................................................... 910 Indian Museum.............................................. 955
Mi Wenkai...................................................... 911 National Museum of India.............................. 955
Yu Yu............................................................. 912 Salarjung Museum ......................................... 957
Fang Hao........................................................ 912 Xuanzang Memorial Hall................................ 958
Ji Xianlin........................................................ 913
Appendix................................................... 960
Jin Kemu........................................................ 916
Wei Fengjiang................................................ 918 Index......................................................... 992

ix
 Cultural Contacts

preface
In the last few decades there has been a significant momentum in India-China relations with
both sides attaching increasing importance to the potential for cooperation in the area of
Culture. On one hand, Culture has the ability to go beyond the restraining framework of
state-state relations by focusing on more broad-based people-to-people relations, and on the
other, it can also help to establish and develop a dialogue irrespective of and parallel to the
political relationship. In recent years, both India and China have decided to take advantage
of the strategic importance of Culture by designing new mechanisms of cooperation and
integrating them into the policy framework of bilateral relations. Therefore, the idea of
compiling an Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts was mooted in the Joint
Communiqué of the Republic of India and the People’s Republic of China issued on December
16, 2010, during the Chinese Premier H. E. Mr. Wen Jiabao’s visit to India. This was a major
and significant step forward. It was felt that compilation of the Encyclopedia would be a
giant effort towards “revitalising cultural ties” by revisiting, reliving and reemphasizing our
shared cultural experience. It is expected to not only make the history of many centuries of
India-China cultural contacts easily accessible to people of both the countries, but it is also
expected to build popular consciousness about our common cultural heritage.
This Encyclopedia reinforces the approach of “connected histories” and seeks to identify
encounters and linkages that have facilitated the mutual enrichment and growth of our two
cultures and societies. Therefore its focus has been on Movement (of people/ ideas/ objects),
Interaction (nature and sites of interaction), and Incorporation (processes of acculturation/
adaptation/reaction). In the context of the present, the backdrop of this shared experience
will help us to fully understand and appreciate the truly boundless possibilities of continuing
this journey together in today’s world.
The year 2014 is the year of friendly exchanges between India and China. It is highly
appropriate that the Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts is being compiled and
published now, which is a precious gift dedicated to the celebration of this occasion.
This has been an ambitious project with the objective of generating new ideas, new
research as well as consciousness of the importance of the shared historical experience
of India and China. In other words, it is a work in progress that hopes to benefit from
constructive suggestions of scholars and interested readers alike. Needless to say, errors may
have remained which we hope to rectify in future.
Joint Compilation Committee for the Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts
June, 2014

xi
 Cultural Contacts

Credits

Encyclopedia of India-China Cultural Contacts

Joint Compilation Committee

INDIA CHINA

Gautam Bambawale Zhang Fuhai

Joint Secretary (East Asia), MEA

Syed Akbaruddin Gong Li

Joint Secretary (External Publicity), MEA

Bishwadip Dey Chen Yingming

Director (XPD), MEA

Shilpak Ambule Qian Shuren

Deputy Secretary (East Asia), MEA

Sabaree Mitra Xue Keqiao

Madhavi Thampi Ge Weijun

Kamal Sheel Liu Jian

Arttatrana Nayak Jiang Jingkui

Editorial Committee & Expert Group

INDIA CHINA

Sabaree Mitra Xue Keqiao

(Chairperson) (Chairperson)

Madhavi Thampi Jiang Jingkui

Kamal Sheel Liu Jian

Arttatrana Nayak Ge Weijun

xii
 Cultural Contacts

Contributors

Chen Ming Niu Weixing

Li Hui Zhou Liqun
Liu Lei Madhavi Thampi
Huang Xinchuan Huang Xianian
Lalji Kalsang gyal
Deji zhuoma Lan Jifu
Xue Keqiao Sabaree Mitra
Zhang Ran Qiao Anquan
Bian Bu Ge Weijun
Guo Tong Tan Jie
Wang Bangwei Tong Wei
Ranjana Sheel Yao Weiqun
Jiang Julang Zhu Mingzhong
Vijaya Deshpande Liu Jian
Zhang Shujian Zhang Yuan
Li Yalan Li Baolong
Li Yuejin Jiang Jiangkui
Kamal Sheel Jia Yan
Ren Xiaoke Wang Jing
Zhang Minyu Zhao Jiazi
Arttatrana Nayak Jin Shanshan
Wang Yong He Yun
Sun Yutang R. K. Sinha
Yang Jianxing Rong Xinjiang
Han Zhigeng Wang Lingnan
Avijit Banerjee Yang Xiuting

Editorial and Research Assistance

Dhriti Roy
Severin Kuok
Saheli Chattaraj

Research Assistance

Debashish Chaudhuri Lin Heng

Nilanjana Basu Prashant Kaushik
Manish Srivastava Ayushman Baruah
Abhishek Singh Paulomi Ghoshal

xiii
Cultural Contacts
 Cultural Contacts

I
India-China
Cultural Exchanges

1
 Cultural Contacts

Timeline of Chinese Dynasties

and Other Key Events
ca. 2100-1600 BCE
Xia (Hsia) Dynasty
ca. 1600-1050 BCE
Shang Dynasty Capitals: near present-day Zhengzhou and Anyang
ca. 1046-256 BCE
Zhou (Chou) Dynasty Capitals: Hao (near present-day Xi’an) and Luoyang
Western Zhou (ca. 1046-771 BCE) Spring and Autumn Period (770-ca. 475 BCE)
Eastern Zhou (ca. 771-256 BCE) Confucius (ca. 551-479 BCE)
Warring States Period (ca. 475-221 BCE)

221-206 BCE
Qin (Ch’in) Dynasty Capital: Chang’an, present-day Xi’an
Qin Shihuangdi dies, 210 BCE
206 BCE-220 CE
Han Dynasty
Western/Former Han (206 BCE-9 CE) Capital: Chang’an
Confucianism officially established as basis for
Chinese state by Han Wudi (r. 141-86 BCE)
Eastern/Later Han (25-220 CE) Capital: Luoyang
220-589 CE
Six Dynasties Period Period of disunity and instability following the
fall of the Han; Buddhism introduced to China
Three Kingdoms (220-265 CE) Cao Wei, Shu Han, Dong Wu
Jin Dynasty (265-420 CE)
Period of the Northern and Southern
Dynasties (386-589 CE)
581-618 CE
Sui Dynasty Capital: Chang’an
618-906 CE
Tang (T’ang) Dynasty Capitals: Chang’an and Luoyang
907-960 CE
Five Dynasties Period
960-1279
Song (Sung) Dynasty
Northern Song (960-1127) Capital: Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng)
Southern Song (1127-1279) Capital: Lin’an (present-day Hangzhou)
1279-1368
Yuan Dynasty The reign of the Mongol empire; Capital:
Dadu (present-day Beijing)
1368-1644
Ming Dynasty Re-establishment of rule by a Han ruling
house; Capitals: Nanjing and Beijing
1644-1912
Qing (Ch’ing) Dynasty Reign of the Manchus; Capital: Beijing
1912-1949
Republic Period Capitals: Beijing, Wuhan, and Nanjing
1949-present
People’s Republic of China Capital: Beijing

2
 Cultural Contacts

General
Introduction

I
ndia and China are both ancient civilisations it is accepted that ancient Indians had known
and as close neighbours there has been China since no later than the 4th century BCE. Some
friendly intercourses and cultural exchange Indian books such as Mahabharata, Ramayana
between their people for more than 2,000 and Arthashastra, had mentioned Cina (ie China)
years. During this period, cultural exchanges more than once. In the Arthashastra, which was
between India and China have been carried out at composed in about 4th century BCE, Chinese silk
various levels through different channels and with was documented, indicating that silk trade between
a rich content. There were political, diplomatic India and China already existed.
and people-to-people contacts, intercourse by land In ancient times, Indians and Chinese both
as well as by sea and material as well as spiritual divided the sky into 28 constellations in the same
exchange. It is a unique example in the history order, demonstrating mutual exchanges in the field
of cultural exchanges in the world and the story of astronomy.
of this shared cultural journey must be spread far In the centuries before Christ, cultural exchange
and wide. between India and China is characterised by a
While the history of India-China cultural combination of trade and efforts to establish
contacts has been extensively written about, most contacts with each other.
of the literature on it has been due to the efforts According to Shi Ji (Record of History), Zhang
of individual scholars or groups of scholars who Qian (unknown～114 BCE) started for the Western
from time-to-time have been motivated by their Regions in 135 BCE on a diplomatic mission and
academic and cultural legacy to embark upon these came back 13 years later. In Bactria (now Iran
projects. Documentation of the ancient period has and Afghanistan), he found cloth produced in
been more comprehensive on the Chinese side Sichuan and rods made of Qionglai bamboo. Local
while there have been some very interesting and people said such articles were from merchants
untold narratives of the colonial and modern who came from Sichuan and were doing business
period unearthed by some Indian scholars. in India. When the Emperor Wu of Han (Liu Che,
The present project has tried to draw upon all 156 BCE～87 BCE) learned of this, he sent envoys
that has been already done by Indian, Chinese and time and again to southwestern China to look
other scholars, while striving to fill some of the gaps for the passage to India, but was obstructed by
that remain. This encyclopedia aims to highlight local people. They all returned without
the depth and diversity of interactions between accomplishing anything.
India and China through the ages. It will not only The passage through which Zhang Qian went
bring the history of many centuries of India-China to the Western Regions was called the ‘Western
cultural contacts into the public domain, making Region Road’ that is the ‘Silk Road’. With this road
it easily accessible to people of both the countries, being opened, an increasing number of envoys
but it will also provide a much-needed boost to the were sent from China to India. According to Da
effort to build popular consciousness about our Yuan Biographies of Shi Ji when Zhang Qian was
shared cultural experience. on his second trip to the Western Regions, he
By way of introduction, this essay gives a sent his deputy envoy to India. After Zhang Qian,
chronological survey of the development of in the 1st century BCE, China on an average sent
cultural interactions between India and China from seven or eight missions to the Western Regions
the most ancient times through to the present. every year, with each mission consisting of more
than 100 persons and taking eight or nine years to
Before the Christian Era: accomplish a round trip. Frequent contacts enabled
Early Contacts Chinese to have a better knowledge of India. In the
It is difficult to determine when cultural exchange section on “Biographies of Western Regions” in Shi
between India and China actually began. However, Ji, the geographical setting, products, traditions

3
 Cultural Contacts

etc., of some Indian places and their relationship provide a grand feast along the road attracting
with the Han Dynasty, etc., were recorded. nearly 10,000 people to dine and watch.
In southwestern China, the “Dian-Mian Road”
(Yunnan-Burma) had existed for long as a route Buddhist Intercourse
to India through which private trade activities From 220 to 580 CE, cultural exchange had greatly
had been carried out. Moreover, in the 2nd century developed with increasing movement of people
BCE, there was also a sea route between China and and trade between India and China. Both sides now
India, which was referred to as “South Sea Road”. had a better knowledge of each other. However,
In the section on Geography in Han Shu (Book of the most prominent feature of this period was the
Han Dynasty), a clear sea route from Guangdong large-scale eastward movement of Buddhism which
to Kanci (now Kanchipuram in south India) as well was associated with a great number of Indian
as a specific shipping schedule was recorded. At monks coming to China to preach. According to
that time, goods shipped to India mainly included Eminent Monks, there were as many as 30 or 40
gold and silk fabrics and those brought from India such monks. They translated sutras, preached
mainly consisted of gem, crystal and glassware. Buddhist teachings, and brought into China the
knowledge and techniques related to Indian
The 1st ～ 6th centuries CE: astronomy, calendar, medicine, architecture,
Extensive Interactions Driven painting, sculpture and so on.
by Buddhism In the 3rd century CE, Chinese began to go
This phase in history is characterised by a westward to seek the dharma. Zhu Shixing set
combination of material and spiritual exchanges out in 260 and crossed the Gobi Desert to arrive
and the entry of Buddhism into China. at Khotan which was near India and had many
In the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, the Western Indian residents. There Zhu Shixing found a sutra
Region route had been interrupted from time to in Sanskrit and asked someone to bring it back
time but the southern sea route was available. In to China, while he remained in Khotan. About
1st - 2nd centuries CE, the King of Kanci sent people 20 years later, Dharmaraksa went to the Western
to bring a rhinoceros to China, in the year 59, the Regions for Buddhist sutras and there he visited
King of Gandhara sent a white elephant to China, various kingdoms and collected many sutras. He
and in the year 87, the Kushan King offered lions. was said to have learnt as many as 36 languages. A
Around the beginning of the present era, number of years later, he took 165 Sanskrit sutras
Buddhism was introduced into China. This is the back to China and translated them and preached
most significant event in the history of India-China Buddhist doctrines in Dunhuang, Chang’an and
cultural exchange. Initially, Buddhism won imperial other places.
recognition and was accepted by a few noblemen, In the 4th century CE, Kumarajiva was a
who took Buddha as a god and worshipped him representative of such pilgrims. At the age of nine,
together with Lao Zi. Later on, the followers of he went from Kucha with his mother to study
Buddha began to increase. According to the 6th dharma in India and began the return journey at
century CE work Eminent Monks, the first Indian the age of 12. In 385 CE, he arrived in Liangzhou
monks to come to China were Kasyapamatanga, (now Wuwei of Gansu Province). In 401 CE, Yao
Dharmaratna and then Anshigao (from Arsaces) Xing, the Emperor of Later Qin (366～416 CE),
and Lokaksema (from the Yuezhi). Other Indian invited him to Chang’an and gave him the status
monks then came to China and were engaged of Teacher of the State. Thereafter, Kumarajiva
mainly in translating Buddhist sutras. In the 1st settled in Chang’an, translating sutras and setting
century CE, China built its first Buddhist temple, up a translation workshop. He translated more
i.e. White Horse Temple and the first sutras were than 300 volumes of sutras, accepted disciples and
translated into Chinese. In the 2nd century CE, a preached Buddhist texts, with 3,000 followers.
man named Zhai Rong became a legendary figure Faxian went to India with nine other fellow
in the Buddhist history of China. He was in charge students to seek the Buddhist Vinaya. Some
of land and water transportation in Guangling (now of them returned midway, some fell sick and
Yangzhou of Jiangsu Province) and Danyang and died in India and some settled in India. Faxian
spent a large amount of money and material to build visited holy places in India, studied dharma
copper Buddha statues and pagodas and temples. and gathered and transcribed sutras. In 414 CE,
Within his jurisdiction, those listening to and he passed by Sri Lanka, Java and other places
studying Buddhist scriptures would be exempted and came back to China by sea. Later, he wrote
from compulsory labour service and more than a memoir i.e. A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms
5,000 families were converted into Buddhists. On (also called Biography of Faxian) and translated
the occasion of Buddha’s Birth Festival, he would many sutras. This memoir which included what

4
 Cultural Contacts

Faxian had experienced, seen and heard along Vighna, Zhu Luyan, Zhi Qian, Kang Senghui,
the way to India as well as the state of Buddhism Baiyan, Samghavarman, Tan Di, Dharmaraksa,
and local customs then prevailing in India has a Nie Chengyuan, Zhi Qian and others. Among
significant value for studying the Indian history them, Dharmaraksa was the most important
of that age. translator. From the 4th to 6th centuries CE, there
were Dao’an, Boyuan, Srimitra, Samghabhuti,
Political Contacts Buddhabhadra, Dharmanandi, Samghadeva,
From the 3rd to 6th century CE, more frequent Samgharaksa, Zhu Fonian, Dharmayasa,
contacts were made between Chinese and Indian Kumarajiva, Punyatara, Dharmaruci, Vimalaksa,
states. In 428 CE, the Emperor Wen of Song (Liu Buddhayawa, Buddhabhadr, Dharmaksema,
Yilong, reign from 424 to 453 CE) received a Faxian, Gunavarman, Xie Lingyun, Zhimeng, Sanga
letter of credence from Candrapria, the King of Gendun, Gunabhadra, Paramartha, Bodhiruci and
Kapilavastu (now in the valley of the Kaveri River Narendrayasas. Among them, the most important
in south India). In 502 CE, the Emperor Wu of Liang were Dao’an and Kumarajiva who not only
received an official letter from the Gupta King translated many classic volumes but also proposed
which was recorded in Chinese official documents. their own translation theories.
The southern dynasties in China mainly maintained
contacts with kingdoms in the south of India via Architecture
the southern or maritime route. According to Wei Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, China built
Shu (the Book of the Wei Dynasty), from 451 to many temples. In 247 CE, during the reign of Sun
521 CE, envoys (including some merchants) from Quan (182～252 CE), the Jianchu Temple was
across India came to the Northern Wei, at least, built in Nanjing. Buddhist temples were built in
27 times and the Northern Wei also sent envoys Guangdong, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hunan,
to India time and again, mainly to the kingdoms Hubei and Sichuan while in the north, according
in the north of India through the Western to Luoyang Jialan Ji (Temples in Luoyang), in
Region route. Luoyang alone, there were 42 temples in the 3rd
During this period, Indian envoys brought century CE. In the Northern Wei Dynasty, this
to China many rare objects and animals while figure rose to as many as 1367. Buddhist temples
the Chinese exported to India mainly silk and in China formed a unique school of architecture by
silk products. combining the traditional Chinese style and artistic
characteristics of Indian buildings. The pagoda was
Technologies a form learned from India and later on, in China
Along with the translation of a large number of there were constructed various forms of pagoda.
sutras and the arrival of several Indian monks, Cave temples originated in India and spread to the
Indian astronomy, calendar and medicine were also Xinjiang region in China in about the 3rd century
brought into China. Sui Shu (Book of Sui Dynasty) CE and then were introduced into the heartland
mentions a number of books on astronomy and the of China, reaching the peak of development in the
calendar, such as Longshu Pusa Yaofang (Nagarjuna period from the 4th to 9th centuries CE. For instance,
Prescriptions) as well as books on medicine the Kizil Grottoes in Xinjiang, Dunhuang Grottoes
and fitness regimen, for example, Longshu Pusa and Majishan Grottoes in Gansu, Yungang Grottoes
Yangxingfang (Nagarjuna Mind Cultivation). These in Shanxi and Longmen Grottoes in Henan were
books were circulated in China and had an impact all accomplished during this period. These grottoes
on Chinese astronomy, calendar and medicine. were influenced by Indian architecture, sculpture,
According to Eminent Monks (Volume IV), Yu painting and so on.
Fakai “was a follower of Jivaka and a master of Temples then were a place for cultural activities
medical skill” and also good at acupuncture. as well as a seat of learning and practice by
He was the earliest one to combine traditional followers. Whenever there was a Buddhist event, a
Chinese medicine with Indian medicine. Tao grand celebration would be held and there would
Hongjing also introduced Indian theories in his be acrobatics, dancing and singing as well as a
works on medicine. procession of Buddha figures. Such practices were
learnt from India.
Translations
Translation was necessary for Buddhism to be Literature
introduced into China. During this period, Chinese Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, following
as well as monks from India were involved in the introduction of Buddhism into China, there
sutra translation. From the 1st to 3rd centuries appeared a quantity of “Zhi Guai”, i.e. ghost
CE among such translators were Dharmakala, stories, which were called “supplemental textbooks

5
 Cultural Contacts

for Buddhism” by the famous modern Chinese of the Tang Dynasty by Yi Jing, from 641 to 691 CE,
writer Lu Xun. These stories not only introduced more than 40 Chinese monks travelled to India. This
to Chinese people the Buddhist outlook on world, did not include others such as the famous Xuanzang,
life and morality and a way of thinking but also Hui Ri, Han Guang, Wu Kong and Zhi Xuan.
testified to the rich imagination and literary The rising passion for Buddhism in the Tang
creation of ancient Indians. Dynasty promoted cultural exchange between China
and India and quickened the fusion of the Chinese
Drawing and Painting culture with the Indian culture. Chinese Buddhism
Buddhism introduced new subjects and skills to became more mature and different sects arose e.g.
Chinese painting. From the 3rd to 6th centuries CE, Three Sastras, Tiantai, Hosso Shu (Dharmalaksana),
there were a number of painters who were good Avatamsaka, Vinaya, Dhyana, Pure Land and Esoteric
at painting Buddhist pictures. For instance, Cao Buddhism. In particular, the emergence of Dhyana
Buxing (3rd century CE), a native of Wuxing (now signalled that the sinicisation of Indian Buddhism
Huzhou of Zhejiang Province), under the influence had been basically accomplished.
of Indian sculpture, drew vivid folds on the clothes During this period, Buddhism was also introduced
of human figures, that came to be known as into Tibet. In the first half of the 7th century CE,
‘coming alive’. Dai Kui (326 ～396 CE), a native of Songtsan Gampo (617～650 CE) unified the greater
Suxian of Anhui, drew many figures of Buddha and part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and founded
carved a 60 feet tall wooden Amitabha. Gu Kaizhi the Tubo Kingdom with Lhasa at the centre. He
(about 345～406 CE), a native of Wuxi, caused a successively married the Princess Bhrukuti of Nepal
great sensation by his painting of Vimalakirti on the and the Princess Wencheng of the Tang Dynasty
wall of Waguan Temple in Nanjing. Zhang Sengyao and built Buddhist temples for them. In 755 CE, the
(about mid-5th century CE～mid-6th century CE), a young Trisong Detsen (742～797 CE) succeeded
native of Suzhou, was good at painting Buddhist to the throne. When he grew up, he began to
figures. He often went to temples to paint murals. believe in Buddhism, inviting Santaraksita and
He once produced a painting on the door of a Padmasambhava from India and building temples.
temple, which, from the distance, appeared to be To propagate Buddhism in Tibet, Trisong Detsen
in relief, while from nearby it appeared smooth invited masters from India including, among
and even. This skill was introduced from India. others, Vimalamitra and Dharmakirti, to teach
Buddhism and 12 Indian monks to preside over
Music and Dance the Tibetans’ monastic ceremony. Trisong Detsen
During this period, Buddhist music emerged in also twice sent monks to study in India. However,
China, largely due to Cao Zhi (192～232 CE), a since the Tibetan Bon faith was still powerful, in
man of letters during the Three Kingdoms. In 230 836 CE, some of its more powerful adherents began
CE, he adapted and composed the Prince Ode and to eradicate Buddhism which consequently nearly
other pieces of music. In the 6th century CE, the became extinct in Tibet. This period was called the
Emperor Wu of Liang (02 to 549 CE) reformed “first propagation” of Tibetan Buddhism.
the court music, added much Buddhist content Around the 7th century CE, Theravada Buddhism
and ordered the musician Shen Yue (441～513 expanded from Burma into southern Yunnan but
CE) to compose Buddhist music and play it at the soon disappeared due to wars and ensuing chaos.
royal court. After the 8th century CE, Buddhism began to spread
in the Nanzhao area of Yunnan and developed
The 6th ～10th centuries CE: quickly.
Heightened Political, Cultural
and Commercial Contacts Political Contacts
In 618 CE, the Tang Dynasty was founded and Sui Shu (Book of Sui Dynasty), in the section on
a powerful and prosperous era was ushered into Western Regions, mentioned that the Emperor
China. This dynasty adopted a policy of opening Yangdi of the Sui Dynasty (569～618 CE) sent
to the outside world. Many Indians came to China Wei Jie, Du Xingman and others to visit kingdoms
to trade, live or serve in an official capacity. This in the Western Region and there they obtained
period was characterised by enthusiasm for both besides sutras, agate cups and other things.
Buddhist and political contacts. According to Tang Shu (Book of Tang Dynasty),
Tong Dian and Cefu Yuangui, the Tang dynasty had
Buddhism many contacts with Indian states while the Indian
After Faxian, an increasing number of pilgrims rulers also sent many envoys to China. According
went to India. This reached a peak during the Tang to Jiu Tang Shu (Old Book of Tang), Siladitya
Dynasty. According to the Buddhist Monk’s Pilgrimage sent envoys to China in 641 CE and the Emperor

6
 Cultural Contacts

Taizong of the Tang Dynasty wrote him a letter Around the 9th century CE, temples became places
along with an imperial jade seal. The Tang empire for cultural events and entertainment. Some big
also sent a number of envoys to India, and among temples such as the Ci’en Temple had their own
them, Wang Xuance was the most reputed. Wang theatre for music, dance and acrobatic performance.
Xuance went to India three or four times. Back in Acrobatics, dance and music although not drama in
China, he wrote Zhongtian Zhuguo Xingji (also titled the real sense, nevertheless provided the seeds for
Wang Xuance Xiguo Xingzhuan), consisting of 10 the birth of drama.
volumes, with three volumes of maps and charts
and covering religion, geography, politics, law, Literature
arts and customs. Regrettably, this book was lost In the Tang Dynasty, some great poets such as Li
and is not available any longer. Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi, Liu Yuxi and Han Yu had close
contacts with monks from India and also wrote
Drawing and Painting poems to Indian friends.
In the Tang Dynasty, Chinese painting was enriched There were also “Tang Chuan Qi” short novels
and diversified. There were great masters with new in which traces of Indian influence could be
schools constantly emerging, distinctive styles being discerned. For instance, Liu Yi Zhuan (Legend of
established and exotic skills being assimilated. Liu Yi) was a story about Liu Yi and his marriage
Yuchi Yiseng (during the 7th century CE) was a with the daughter of a dragon. The creation of the
native of Khotan. In his youth, he was recommended image of a dragon daughter had something to do
to visit Chang’an by the King of Khotan and was with Buddhist texts. Another example, in the Nanke
highly appreciated by the imperial court. At that Taishou Zhuan (Legend of Nanke Prefecture Chief),
time, his murals could be seen in the big temples of tells the story of a man who came across a kingdom
Chang’an and Luoyang. He was adept at painting of ants, where he eventually became an official,
the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, and had a style married and had his children. This was not just
characteristic of the Western Region. Wu Daozi (8th an example of fantasy but also broke through the
century CE) was a native of Yuxian of Henan and boundary between humans and animals, something
his legendary life was recorded in many documents. very reflective of the creative imagination of
About 100 years after his death, he was called ancient Indians.
the “Sage of Painting”. He often did paintings Under the influence of Buddhism, the Tang
at temples and his famous painting, “Birth of period saw a new genre of literature called
Gautama Buddha”, portraying Suddhodana and ‘Bianwen’. It was believed that reciting ‘Bianwen’
Mayadevi carrying the newly born Siddhartha to on the Buddhist stories of gods and ghosts such
the Mahesvara can still be seen. In this painting, as Xiangmo Bianwen and Mulian Jiumu Bianwen
the figures all have a Chinese image. There were disseminated the concepts of karma and samsara. It
many other skilled artists as well. has had a profound influence on literary production
in later generations of Chinese writers.
Music and Dance
Sui Shu (Book of the Sui Dynasty), in its “Music” Astronomy and Mathematics
section, recorded that in 581 CE the royal court Some Buddhist texts had subject matter related
of the Sui Dynasty put in place seven ensembles, to astronomy and calendar. These included, for
with Indian music as one of them and that 30 years example, Abhidharmakosa Sastra translated by
later, there were nine ensembles with Indian music Xuanzang, Fo Shuo Da Kong Que Zhou Wang Jing
still being included. translated by Yijing, Fo Mu Da Kong Que Ming
In the Tang Dynasty, Buddhist music became Wang Jing, Su Yao Jing translated by Bukong
very popular and many forms of music could be (Amoghavajra), Bei Dou Qi Xing Nian Song Yi Gui
traced to India. Some musical instruments were translated by Vajrabodhi, and Zhu Xing Mu Tuo Luo
also introduced from India. According to the fifth Ni Jing translated by Facheng (Dharma-Siddhi).
volume of the Life of Xuanzang, when meeting with Su Yao Jing consisted of two volumes and offered
Xuanzang Indian ruler Siladitya asked about the a detailed introduction of the Indian knowledge
musical composition Qinwang Pozhen Yue (Prince system on constellations, stars, the zodiac and
Qin Breaking through the Enemy Array) indicating astrology. It is an important reference work for
that Chinese music was well recognised in India the study of ancient Indian and Chinese astronomy
as well. and calendar.
According to Calendar I of Jiu Tang Shu, Volume
Drama 32, during the reign of the Empress Wu Zetian,
Cultural exchange between India and China resulted Gautama Luo created the Guang Zhai Calendar,
in the birth of Chinese drama and its enrichment. and during the reign of the Emperor Xuanzong, Yi

7
 Cultural Contacts

Xing produced the Da Yan Calendar; all of which Indian prescriptions, some of which used Indian
were influenced by ancient Indian astronomy medicinal herbs. Wang Tao (mid-7th century
and calendar. CE) was another medical doctor who adopted
Yi Xing was a reputed scientist and a learned the “four elements” theory and included many
monk in the Tang Dynasty. His 52-volume Kai Yuan Indian prescriptions.
Da Yan Li was incorporated into the “Calendar”
section of Tang Shu and his Su Yao Yi Gui, Qi Technologies
Yao Xing Cheng Bie Xing Fa and Bei Dou Qi Xing Hu Indians had known how to make cane sugar for
Mo Fa, each with one volume, were included in long. According to some sutras translated around
the Tantras. the 5th century CE, India’s technology of making
In the 8th century CE, three families from India cane sugar had already been introduced into China
served as court astronomers. They were Kasyapa, at that time.
Kumara and Gautama. According to written According to the Biography of Xuan Zang (volume
records and archaeological information, Gautama IV) in the Sequel of Eminent Monks, the Taizong
family members lived in China for five generations Emperor sent Wang Xuance to India to study
in the sequence of Gautama Yi, Gautama Luo, how to boil sugar. The Mahabodhi Temple sent
Gautama Siddha, Gautama Zhuan and Gautama two craftsmen and eight monks to visit to China
Yan while Gautama Yi had come to China from with Wang Xuance and help China with sugar
India in the early Tang Dynasty, four subsequent manufacturing.
generations all served as royal astrologers in the The invention of paper-making may have had
Tang Dynasty. links with India. In the mid-2nd century CE, paper
Of these five generations, Gautama Siddha was already in use in Khotan in the region of
(about mid-7th ～ early 8th centuries CE) was the present-day Xinjiang. It is very close to India and
most famous. He compiled the 120-volume Treatise so it is possible that Indians might have known
on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era, introducing various paper at that time. In the 7th century CE, Yi Jing
astrological theories and schools in ancient China went to India and found that paper was used there.
and recording Chinese observation of heavenly Some scholars tend to think that paper making was
bodies and their knowledge about the universe. brought into Tibet in the mid-7th century CE and
Such information is very valuable for the history later from there it was introduced into India.
of science. Navagraha Calendar, translated by Chinese silk and silk fabrics were introduced
him in 718 CE, is also of great research value. into India before our era but in the neighbourhood
With the translation of the Navagraha Calendar, of China, Khotan was the first place to practice
Chinese began to know of Indian arithmetic. It mulberry planting, sericulture and silk reeling. Tibet
showed how to write Indian numerals and listed and Yunnan had known how to feed silkworms and
10 numbers from zero to nine ie the predecessors reel silk. It is possible that Indians learned to make
of the current numerals 0 to 9. This proves that the silk from these places but it is uncertain when.
so-called Arabic numbers originally were invented
by Indians. Linguistics
Indians had paid attention to the study of phonetics
Medicine for long, and before our era, there were already
Ancient India was also known for ophthalmology. grammar books and a highly scientific alphabet
In the Tang Dynasty, oculist-monks from India used system. Buddhist culture from India, to some extent,
the so-called “Gold Grate Method” to cure cataract promoted linguistics in China and had a significant
and Bai Juyi and Liu Yuxi both wrote poems to impact, especially in respect of phonology, syntax
praise this. and lexicography.
A medical doctor Sun Simiao (about 581～682 The term “Zimu” (letter) first appeared in sutras
CE) wrote Qian Jin Yao Fang and Qian Jin Yi Fang translated in the early 5th century CE and was also
the former included recipes compiled by him recorded in Xitan Ziji by the monk Zhiguang in
on the basis of historical documents and private the Tang Dynasty. This proved that “Zimu” was
prescriptions in the year 652 CE, and the latter was directly related to the spread of Sanskrit. Two
composed 30 years later on the basis of his medical Tang dynasty documents discovered in Dunhuang,
practice. In the preface of Qian Jin Yao Fang, Sun Gui Sanshi Zimu Li and Shouwen Yunxue Caijuan,
cited medical theories in Buddhist texts, thinking both list 30 phonemes for Chinese. A monk named
that people would not fall ill if four elements inside Shouzhen (mid-9th～mid-10th centuries CE) further
their bodies i.e. earth, water, fire and wind were divided 30 phonemes into five categories, i.e.
coordinated while lack of coordination would lead Chun, She, Ya, Chi and Hou while “She” sound
to illness. The Qian Jin Yi Fan had a number of was subdivided into “She Tou” and “She Shang” ,

8
 Cultural Contacts

“Chi” into “Chi Tou” and “Zheng Chi”, “Hou” into and easy to understand” as well as the “Five No”
“voiced” and “voiceless”. It is on the basis of this principle in translation.
that China developed its pinyin phonetic system Around the time of Xuanzang, translators
many generations later. mainly included Punaudaya, Zhitong, Wujigao,
Janabhardra, Rizhao, Buddhapalita, Devaprajn,
Lexicography Huizhi, Mitrasanta, Bao Siwei, Siksananda
To facilitate the understanding of sutras, Chinese and Bodhiruci. After Xuanzang, translators
monks compiled some dictionaries among which mainly consisted of Yijing, Zhiyan, Pramiti,
Yiqiejing Yinyi (also abbreviated as Xuanying Yinyi), Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi and Bukong
consisting of 25 volumes, was compiled by Xuan (Amoghavajra) with Amoghavajra being the most
Ying (7th century CE) around the year 648 CE. This famous, having translated 110 tantras (a total
book explained terms chosen from 450 Buddhist of 143 volume). After Amoghavajra, prominent
Hinayana texts with many quotations from ancient sutra translators included Zhihui, Lianhua Jingjin,
Chinese books. Huilin (737～820 CE) in his Wukong, Fajie, Prajna, Manyue and dharma-
100-volume Yiqiejing Yinyi (abbreviated as Huilin siddhi (Facheng).
Yinyi) selected terms from 1,300 Buddhist texts to
annotate them with a great number of quotations 10th ～17th centuries CE:
from ancient Chinese books. Till date this book is Frequent contacts across the sea
widely quoted for academic purposes. During this period, cultural exchange between India
To facilitate sutra translation, Chinese-Sanskrit and China continued to deepen. Though cultural
dictionaries were compiled. For instance, Yijing activities driven by Buddhism weakened and the
compiled the Fanyu Qianziwen using Sanskrit to practice of Chinese seeking to find the dharma
explain 1,000 Chinese characters. Similar to this in India was about to come to an end, sea-borne
were Tangfan Wenzi by Quanzhen, a monk in the traffic and booming trade were not comparable to
Tang Dynasty and Fanyu Zaming by Liyan. Indian any era in the past.
monks were also involved in compiling Chinese-
Sanskrit dictionaries. The one-volume Tangfan Buddhism
Shuangyu Duidui Ji was compiled by Antatàbodha According to Fo Zu Tong Ji (A General History of
and Pragunamishash. These two Indian monks Chinese Buddhism), from 972 to 1053 CE, some
had been translating sutras in China for long but Indian monks came to China to translate and preach
information about them was not recorded in any sutras, but no more came thereafter. Meanwhile,
works of history. the saga of Chinese monks’ westward pilgrimage
was nearing an end. As recorded in the Volume
Translations 43 of Fo Zu Tong Ji, in 966 CE, Emperor Taizu of
From the late 6th to early 7th centuries CE, Yan Cong the Song Dynasty arranged for 157 pilgrims to be
and Dharmagupta were the main translators. Yan sent to India. This was the last officially sponsored
Cong, in addition to presiding over the translation pilgrimage. A century later, Fan Chengda (1126
workshops in the Sui Dynasty and compiling Zhong ～1193) wrote Wu Chuan Ji on the basis of available
Jing Mu Lu, also translated 23 sutras. By imperial information and recorded the journey of one of
order, he translated She Li Rui Tu Jing and Guo Jia these pilgrims, Jiye. Jiye returned to China in
Xiang Rui Lu into Sanskrit, in a total of 10 volumes 976, but even later, other pilgrims came back from
and asked bhikshus from Rajagriha to bring them or went to India, indicating that travel then was
back to India. quite convenient. However, in the 11th century CE,
In the early Tang Dynasty, Prabhakaramitra of with the Muslim invasion of India, Buddhism there
Nalanda came to China. In 629 CE, the Emperor declined and during the reign of Emperor Renzong
Taizong decreed sutras to be translated at Da of the Song Dynasty (1023 - 1063), pilgrimages
Xing Shan Temple, with Prabhakaramitra as the from China to India, that had lasted six centuries,
chief translator. Prabhakaramitra died in 633 CE. virtually ceased. In Tibet, however, these activities
Twelve years later, Xuanzang returned from India still continued.
and presided over sutra translation. From this From the late 10th to late 15th century CE,
period on, Buddhist translation was of a very high Tibetan Buddhism had its “second propagation”.
order. At Xuanzang’s workshop, division of work During this time, its leading sects such as
was meticulous, the staff was disciplined and work Nyingma, Ganden, Sakya, Kagyu and Gelug, had
efficiently carried out. From 646 to 664 CE, under been formed. Smritijnanakirti, an Indian scholar
Xuanzang, 73 sutras, in a total of 1,330 volumes, came to Tibet in the latter half of the 10th century
were translated. Xuanzang also put forth his CE adept at panca-vidya and esoteric Buddhism,
own theory, requiring translation to be “truthful he disseminated Buddhism in Tibet, translated

9
 Cultural Contacts

many tantric texts and wrote Yu Yan Men Lun, sent envoys to India 11 times while various Indian
a Tibetan grammar book. Rinchen Zangpo kingdoms sent envoys to China 13 times.
(958～1055 CE) was one of the most important In early 15th century CE, China further extended its
figures in the revival of Tibetan Buddhism. He maritime navigation and Zheng He’s (1371～1433)
had been to India three times and successively seven expeditions to the Western Ocean served to
studied under 75 scholars there. Back in Tibet, expand India-China interaction. Zheng He visited a
he translated 50 sutrayanas and 108 tantrayanas. number of places in India. Fei Xin, Ma Huan and
In 1043, Atisa, once a Theravada preacher at Gong Zhen, who had accompanied Zheng He in these
Vikramasila, was invited to expound Buddhism in voyages, wrote Xing Cha Sheng Lan (The Description
Tibet; he had many followers, and his Pu Ti Dao of the Starry Raft), Ying Ya Sheng Lan (The General
Deng Lun (A Lamp for the Enlightenment Path) had Survey of the Ocean Shores) and Xi Yang Fan Guo Zhi
a great influence in Tibet. Between the 10th to 13rd (The Annals of Foreign Nations in the Western Ocean),
centuries CE, many youth went to study in Tibet respectively. These are important documents for the
and there were more than 160 translators, while study of India-China relations during that period.
over 60-70 Indian monks were doing translation Around the same time, Hou Xian had been to India
in Tibet. From 10th to 17th centuries CE, Indian on a diplomatic mission many times. According to
medicine, astrology, hetuvidya, phonology, Xing Cha Sheng Lan, Ying Ya Sheng Lan and Ming
literature, arts, language and writing, all had a Shi (History of the Ming Dynasty), Ming Dynasty
significant impact on Tibet. had contact with the following Indian kingdoms or
In the same period, esoteric Buddhism in the places: Delhi, Jaunpur, Bengal, Vijayanagar, Cochin,
Dali Kingdom (Yunnan) and Theravada in south Kollam, Cail (on the east coast of south India),
Yunnan also developed rapidly. Comorin, Chola (on the southwest coast of India),
After the mid-10th century CE, Neo-Confucianism Calicut and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
gained prominence, evolving and absorbing
Buddhist thinking in its course. In daily life, Commodity Trade
popular beliefs, customs, festivals, marriage and As sea travel became more convenient, bulk
funeral rites and other aspects were all impacted by commodity exchange began between China and
Buddhism. In the field of literature, Zhi Guai and India. According to Zhu Fan Zhi (The Barbarian
Chuanqi novels (Song Dynasty), Zaju Opera (Yuan Countries) by Zhao Rukuo of the Song Dynasty,
Dynasty) and vernacular novels (Ming Dynasty) in the port of Quanzhou there were many foreign
assimilated Buddhist ethics and recalled and retold merchants, including those from India and Indian
the golden days of Buddhist pilgrimage. In arts, monks preaching Buddhism. Evidently, Quanzhou
cave temples continued to be built and paintings then was a centre of commerce as well as religious
still preserved many Buddhist themes. activities. According to Ling Wai Dai Da (volume II)
by Zhou Qufei of the Song Dynasty, at that time,
Political Contacts Gulin (now Kollam) at the southern end of the west
Political and diplomatic contacts between Indian coast of India also had close connections through
states and China were by and large maintained sea traffic with China.
through the sea route. For instance, according to In Yuan Dynasty, Wang Dayuan (14th century CE)
a section on “Foreign Countries” in Volume five went by ship twice to investigate the seas south
of the Song Shi (History of the Song Dynasty) and and west of China, first setting out in 1330 and
Volume 44 of Fo Zu Tong Ji, in 1015, the Chola returning four years later. The second time starting
ruler sent envoys to China, bringing Sanskrit in 1337 and returning two years later. He went to
sutras and a letter from King Rajaraja. The letter many places in India and after returning to China,
indicated that south Indians learned of the Song in 1349, he completed Dao Yi Zhi Lue; this book
Dynasty through merchants coming by sea. offers a detailed introduction to various Indian
Song Shi recorded that south Indian and north places and is of great help to understand maritime
Indian states sent envoys to China many times and cultural exchange between Yuan Dynasty and
they usually brought gifts, such as pearl, ivory, India. Wherever he went, he would pay attention
medicine, spice and so on. to the geography, soil, produce, trade, race and
Yuan Dynasty, though surviving for no more than customs. At that time, India was known for gems,
100 years, left several records concerning maritime pearls, cotton cloth, linen, medicine, spice and
contacts. During the reign of Kublai Khan (1271- the like while China was mainly known for silk,
1294), the Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty, coloured silk satin, cloves, cardamom, blue-and-
diplomatic contacts between India and China were white porcelain, white porcelain, etc.
most prolific. According to Yuan Shi (History of the Ma Huan’s Yingya Shenglan provided even more
Yuan Dynasty), from 1272 to 1294, Yuan Dynasty detailed information. For instance, about Cochin,

10
 Cultural Contacts

he recorded information about its people’s dress, Trade

houses, social structure and professions of five Overland trade between India and China continued
classes of the population, the king’s beliefs, from the earlier times into this period. There was
religion, climate, weights and measures, currency, the trans-Karakoram trade between Punjab, Ladakh
marriage and funeral ceremonies, farm and and Kashmir on one hand and the oasis towns
livestock produce, as well as on its trade with such as Kashgar and Yarkand in Xinjiang on the
China. He mentioned that Zheng He had erected a other. There was also the trade between Kashmir
monument in Calicut in 1407 and provided the text and other parts of northern and northeastern India
of the inscription. with Tibet. The overland trade was not large in
volume as it was carried out in physically very
Medicine difficult conditions. Traders loaded their cargo
Sea-borne traffic facilitated the bulk movement of on mules and ponies and crossed back and forth
medicines and related materials in this period. Yuan over the high mountain passes. The trade was also
Shi recorded details of medicine sent as tribute by vulnerable to changing political conditions in this
Indian states. Volume 326 of Ming Shi gave a list of region. Nevertheless, it persisted right until the
tribute items from Bengal including frankincense, middle of the 20th century CE.
pine resin, Wu Xiang, Ma Teng Xiang, Wu Die There was a revival of maritime trade between
Ni, Teng Jie and Cu Huang. Xing Cha Sheng Lan India and China based on the spectacular growth
and Xi Yang Fan Guo Zhi mentioned that Indians of the tea trade between China and Europe. Both
then were very fond of musk from China and that before and after the arrival of European traders in
Chinese traded musk with locals. the eastern waters from the 16th century CE, there
The Compendium of Materia Medica compiled was a flourishing intra-Asian maritime trade. The
by Li Shizhen (1518～1593) in the Ming Dynasty commercial connection between India and China
contains valuable information about medical was maintained through the larger intra-Asian
exchanges between India and China. The book trade. However, from the last quarter of the 18th
introduced and verified many medicines from century CE, there was a huge increase in the direct
India and by using many quotations from Buddhist trade between the emerging port of Bombay on the
texts, provided their Sanskrit names. Its citation west coast of India and Guangzhou (Canton) based
is so extensive that it cannot be compared to any on the export of raw cotton and later, opium from
similar book from the past. It also included some India to China. These exports were carried both
Indian prescriptions, explained the preparation of by the British East India Company as well as by
medicines and evaluated their efficacy, indicating private Indian and Western traders.
that these prescriptions then were in actual use. Yet another major export from India to China
Some prescriptions required Indian medicinal in this period, starting from the later 19th century
materials and this could be taken as evidence that a CE, was of manufactured cotton yarn. Indian
number of Indian recipes had been assimilated into cotton yarn displaced British yarn from the China
traditional Chinese medicine. market, and from about 1880 to 1905 almost
completely monopolised the market for imported
18th century CE to 1949: cotton yarn in China. The export of cotton yarn to
Forging New Connections in China played a major role in stabilising the growth
Modern Times of the emerging modern textile industry in India.
The modern phase of interactions between India However, during and after World War I, it was
and China is a complex and rich one. Old ties based the Chinese cotton yarn industry that developed
on trade continued although under new conditions, rapidly and by 1929, China was exporting yarn
while altogether new relations such as those to India.
based on nationalism and anti-imperialism also
developed simultaneously. Technological and other The Indian and Chinese diasporas
changes worked to bring India and China closer The development of the overland and maritime
in some respects, while political developments in trade led to the arrival of groups of Indians and
some cases led to new strains. Colonialism and Chinese who settled in the other country. Most
imperialist expansion in this part of the world traders from Punjab in Xinjiang stayed only for
impacted the age-old relationship between the the duration of the trading season and went
two countries and civilisations in many ways. At back and forth. However, a number of Kashmiris
the same time, this was also a period in which migrated to Xinjiang and settled down there,
intellectuals, political activists, writers and artists eventually losing their contacts with their native
in both India and China sought to rediscover each places and even language and becoming a part
other in modern conditions. of local society. A small number of financiers

11
 Cultural Contacts

and moneylenders from Shikarpur in Sindh (in but after the border war between India and China
present-day Pakistan) were also to be found in the of 1962 and the difficulties they faced in India
main towns of southern Xinjiang. because of that, large numbers emigrated abroad
The revival of the maritime trade with China and their numbers in India dwindled.
led to groups of merchants from India arriving on
the China coast. In the early stages, they came Export art from China to India
mainly from the Parsi community and also the A little appreciated by-product of the 19th
Baghdadi Jewish community based in Bombay century CE trade between India and China was
and some Muslim Bohra and Ismaili traders. With the transmission of some artistic and cultural
the opening of treaty ports after the First Opium influences, although compared to the pre-modern
War and the growth of Hong Kong as a port, period, this was on a small scale. Traders from
many of them took up more or less permanent Bombay imported from China silk cloth with the
residence in China. From the import-export trade, fine silk embroidery which was a specialty of the
their interests diversified to include other lines of Guangzhou region. This greatly influenced the style
business in eastern China’s port cities, including of particularly women’s and children’s clothing
banking, real estate, manufacturing and share among the Parsis. The characteristic gara sarees
brokerage. The 20th century CE saw increasing worn by Parsi women, with their distinctly Chinese
numbers of people from the Marwari and Sindhi style embroidery, were a product of this fusion of
communities arriving in Hong Kong and China’s Chinese and Indian styles. The tanchoi type of silk
port cities. brocade weaving in India was also learned and
Yet another group of Indians who arrived in China adapted from Chinese weavers. Chinese porcelain
and stayed on were policemen and watchmen, and furniture were also greatly appreciated and
especially from Punjab. The policemen were mainly adorned the homes of the elite particularly in
based in Hong Kong and in the foreign concessions Bombay. Portrait painting and the art of reverse
at Shanghai, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Hankou and so glass painting were also popularised in India by
on while the Indian watchmen were more widely Chinese masters and subsequently, the art was
dispersed among smaller towns as well. At one learned and imitated by Indian artists.
time, they accounted for approximately half of the
Indians in eastern China. This group, along with Hong Kong, Shanghai and Bombay
the merchants in western China and in the Chinese These three major port cities of Asia were to a large
ports, were mostly repatriated to India during the extent a product of the India-China connection in
1930s and 1940s. this era. Indian merchants played a significant role
The commercial connection between India and in the early growth of Hong Kong. Among the well
China also led to the arrival of Chinese in India. known individuals, families and firms from India
Chinese were to be found mainly in and around who can be considered among the builders of
Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai) but Hong Kong were the Sassoons, the Ruttonjees, the
it was only in Calcutta that their numbers grew Kadoories, Paul Chater, H. N. Mody, Abdoolally
large enough to form a Chinese settlement in Ebrahim & Co and so on. Many of them not only
India. The first Chinese known to have settled in became business tycoons, but also played a role in
India in this period was Yang Dazhao (Atchew) the development of the infrastructure, education
who received a grant of land from the British and in the governance of Hong Kong. The Sassoons,
authorities in Bengal to set up a sugar mill at the most well-known Bombay Jewish family in
the end of the 18th century CE. Thereafter, more China, were a prominent part of the Shanghai
Chinese continued to arrive in India throughout business community and owned several landmark
the 19th century CE. They settled mainly in the buildings on the Shanghai waterfront.
Bowbazar and Tangra areas of Calcutta. They Bombay’s growth as India’s leading commercial,
tended to specialise in carpentry and shipbuilding shipping, industrial and financial centre was
and later in the tannery business as well. Chinese greatly linked to the trade with China. Many of
were also brought to India’s northeastern province its most prominent citizens in the 19th century
of Assam to work on the tea plantations that the CE, including the well known merchant Jamsetjee
British established. Their skills in tea cultivation Jejeebhoy, were either directly connected with
and processing were used to develop an extensive the China trade, or else came from families that
tea industry in India. were involved in it. The accumulation of capital
From the early 20th century CE, the turbulent through the China trade played a significant role
conditions in China led to the arrival of larger in the early development of modern industry in
numbers of Chinese in India including women India and in the development of Bombay’s urban
and children. The community was well settled, infrastructure in the 19th century CE.

12
 Cultural Contacts

Early visitors and nationalist organisations. One of the most

The first official mission from China to India in prominent of these was the Hindustani Ghadar
modern times came about when China sent a six- Party whose activities in China spanned the years
person delegation to visit India from March to from World War I to the 1930s. In turn, the Ghadar
September 1879. A member of this delegation, Party actively did mobilisation work among Indian
Huang Maocai, wrote several works about his soldiers and policemen in the service of the British
experiences in India, including Yin Du Zha Ji, You in China, urging them not to turn their guns against
Li Zou Yan and Xi Jiao Shui Dao. In July 1881, the the Chinese. Their work had some impact among
Qing Dynasty sent Ma Jianzhong and Wu Guangpei Indian forces in China in the period from 1925 to
to India to negotiate with the British Indian 1927 when the Nationalist Revolution in China
Government about matters related to opium. Back was reaching a peak.
in China, Ma wrote an account of his visit, Nan The leader of China’s Republican Revolution
Xing Ji and Wu wrote his own account entitled Nan of 1911, Dr Sun Yat-sen had great concern for
Xing Ri Ji. Later, Chinese envoys Xue Fucheng and and interest in the cause of Indian freedom from
Huang Zunxian visited India enroute to Europe and colonial rule. He met many Indian students and
wrote about it. revolutionaries, both in China and Japan and
In 1893, Swami Vivekananda, one of the most tried to assist them. At the same time, he was an
prominent philosophers of modern India, came to inspiration for many Indian nationalists in India.
China, one of the earliest Indian public figures to From the late 1920s, the Indian National Congress
do so in this period. He wrote about China, and in and its leaders concerned themselves on a regular
his works he expressed sympathy and friendship basis with the situation in China. They sought
with Chinese and predicted a great future for the to build links with a broad spectrum of Chinese
Chinese people. nationalists and also publicly condemned the use
The influential Chinese scholar and leader of the of Indian troops against the Chinese. Jawaharlal
1898 reform movement, Kang Youwei, was forced Nehru, in particular, wrote repeatedly about China
to flee China and live in exile after the suppression and expressed much appreciation for its ancient
of the movement. In the course of his exile, he civilisation.
came to Darjeeling in northeastern India in 1901 Chinese people also began to learn about the
and stayed for one-and-a-half years, touring around progress of the national movement of the Indian
India. He wrote Travel Notes on India and Xu Mi Xue people. In the 1920s, Mahatma Gandhi was already
Ting Shi Ji, in which he analysed Indian conditions. a well-known name in China. From the 1920s to
the 1940s, China published 27 books about Gandhi
Nationalist and Anti-imperialist Links and his thoughts, including four editions of his
India and China were both victims of imperialist autobiography. Numerous articles were written
expansion although in different ways and to a on the Non-Cooperation Movement and other
different extent. This served as the basis for new developments in India. The Oriental Magazine alone
kinds of ties based on a shared anti-imperialism to had 60 to 70 such articles and for some time even
emerge in this period between the two countries. had a regular column on “Gandhi and New India”.
The earliest recorded instances of cooperation
between Indians and Chinese against foreign Asian Renaissance
imperialism involved soldiers from the British From the early years of the 20th century CE, a
Indian forces sent to help suppress the Taiping consciousness of the oneness of Asia and the virtues
Rebellion in the middle of the 19th century CE. of eastern civilisation developed, particularly
Several Indian soldiers are known to have crossed among intellectuals in India and China. This was
over to the side of the rebels and fought alongside part of the awakening of the peoples of this part
them. Similarly, a member of the Indian forces sent of the world who were languishing under colonial
to put down the Boxer Rebellion in north China or imperialist domination. On the Chinese side,
in 1900, Thakur Gadadhar Singh, later wrote a Sun Yat-sen, Zhang Taiyan, Liu Shipei, Liang
moving account entitled Thirteen Months in China, Qichao, Li Dazhao and other personalities sought
in which he gave voice to his anguish at the unjust to build this kind of consciousness of Asian unity
treatment meted out to the Chinese by the so-called in their speeches and writings. On the Indian side,
civilised foreign powers. Jawaharlal Nehru and exiled Indian nationalist
In the first half of the 20th century CE, the pace Raja Mahendra Pratap were among those who
of nationalist and anti-imperialist movements fervently espoused the cause of Asian solidarity.
in both India and China picked up. China and However, the most notable Indian personality
Chinese political leaders provided a haven in this in this respect was the great poet Rabindranath
period to several exiled Indian political activists Tagore. His visit to China in 1924 was part of

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his quest to revive the ancient links between the In 1942, the National School of Oriental
two great Asian civilisations India and China, as Languages was established in Yunnan offering for
was his decision to set up an institute for Chinese the first time a course in the Hindi language, besides
studies in the international university that he set courses on Indian history, religion and society.
up in India called Visva-Bharati. The discourse on In 1946, the Department of Oriental Languages
Asia and Asianism helped to stimulate interest and was established at Peking University which
awareness among Chinese and Indians about each taught Indian languages. In 1949, the National
other’s countries. School of Oriental Languages was incorporated
into Department of Oriental Languages at
Rabindranath Tagore Peking University.
In the modern era, the Indian who had perhaps After he returned from China, Tagore was very
the greatest impact on China was the poet and keen to set up a centre for the study of China and
philosopher Rabindranath Tagore. When he was Chinese civilisation in his Visva-Bharati University
awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, at Santiniketan in Bengal. He met a young Chinese
Chinese literary circles instantly developed a scholar Tan Yunshan while in Singapore in
fascination for Tagore. Numerous articles about 1927 and invited him to visit Visva-Bharati. Tan
him and translations of his work were published. Yunshan came and stayed on in Visva-Bharati to
In April 1924, in response to an invitation from his start teaching Chinese language, initially with just
admirers in China, Tagore embarked upon a 50-day five students. Tan Yunshan became Tagore’s main
visit to China. During this period, he went to Hong collaborator and assistant in setting up what became
Kong, Shanghai, Hangzhou, Nanjing, Jinan, Beijing, the first centre for Chinese studies in modern
Taiyuan and Haikou. While his visit was opposed India. He returned to China to raise financial and
by some youth and intellectuals in China who other support for the project of setting up such a
did not appreciate his philosophical standpoint, centre. Eventually, it was inaugurated on April 10,
he was also received with extraordinary warmth 1937. With the assistance given by the Nationalist
and adulation. He cultivated deep friendships with Government, the Sino-Indian Cultural Society and
celebrated Chinese thinkers, writers and artists. other supporters in China, the Cheena Bhavana as
With poet Xu Zhimo in particular, who acted as his it was called, was established with its own unique
translator, Tagore developed a lasting friendship. building and a library consisting of a large number
The relationships he formed with Chinese of Chinese works.
intellectuals, writers and artists had a deep impact In the 1930s, the International Academy of
on Tagore and on his sense of affinity with China. Indian Culture located in New Delhi was another
Tagore’s work also had a profound influence on institution that engaged in China studies. It
many Chinese writers including Guo Moruo, Xie was founded by Raghu Vira who began to study
Bingxin, Zheng Zhenduo, Wang Tongzhao and Xu Chinese culture and the history of the India-China
Zhimo. The interest in and appreciation of Tagore relationship and developed academic links with
and his poetry in China continues to this day. China. In 1938, he wrote his work, Ramayana in
China. In the late 1930s, Fergusson College in Pune
Indian studies in China and Chinese opened a centre for China studies. Scholars Bapat
studies in India and Gokro began to make a comparative study of
The systematic study of Indian civilisation in Sanskrit, Pali, Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist texts.
modern China began in the 20th century CE. In 1916, However, among Indian scholars of China studies
Xu Jishang started teaching Indian philosophy in this period, the most prominent was Prabodh
at Peking University. From 1917 to 1924, Liang Chandra Bagchi. After receiving a masters degree
Suming taught Indian philosophy there. In 1922, from Calcutta University, he went to France in
Tang Yongtong returned from abroad and began to 1923 to study Chinese under the guidance of the
teach the history of Chinese Buddhism and Indian French sinologist Sylvain Levy. From 1945 to
Buddhism among other courses. Chen Yinque was 1956, he taught and did research at Visva-Bharati
another scholar who returned to China to teach University. He produced many important works on
after mastering Sanskrit and Pali abroad. From various aspects of the cultural interaction between
1924, Chinese students including some monks, India and China through history. He also came to
went to study in India. Some of the Chinese China in 1947 and taught there briefly and visited
scholars who went to India in this period included again in 1952.
Xu Jishan (1919), Xu Dishan (1926,1934), Jin
Kemu (1941), Wu Xiaoling (1942), Xu Fancheng World War II
(1942), Chen Hansheng (1944), Chang Renxia The invasion of China by Japan in the 1930s was
(1945) and Chen Hongjin (1945). widely condemned by public opinion in India.

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 Cultural Contacts

Apart from writing and speaking against the During the War, the Indian national movement to
Japanese aggression, Indian leaders also organised put an end to British colonial rule was approaching
various actions to show their sympathy and support a climax. Top leaders of the Indian National
for China including the collection of funds and Congress including Nehru and Gandhi were
organising “China Days” to popularise the Chinese arrested and jailed by the British. Much against
resistance among the Indian public. Nehru also the wishes of the British Prime Minister Churchill,
visited China’s wartime capital Chongqing in 1939. Chiang Kai-shek and his wife paid a visit to India
However, the best known instance of cooperation in 1942 and met both Nehru and Gandhi. Chiang
between Indians and Chinese during the War Kai-shek tried to persuade the British government
was the despatch of the Indian Medical Mission to agree to the demands of the Indian nationalists
to China to assist the Chinese war effort. It was for political power. When he was leaving India, he
formed in August 1938, and included five doctors: broadcast his Message to the Indian People in which
M. M. Atal, M. R. Cholkar, D. S. Kotnis, B. K. Basu he expressed sympathy for their objectives.
and D. Mukherjee. Carrying much needed medical
equipment, they arrived at Yan’an in February Establishment of Diplomatic Relations
1939 and worked under very difficult conditions to During World War II, it was decided that
provide medical care to the resistance fighters and diplomatic envoys would be exchanged between
local people. Dr Basu and Dr Kotnis stayed on even the Government of India (then still under British
when the other members of the mission had to go control) and the Nationalist Government in China.
back. Dr Kotnis was appointed as the Director of the The first three envoys from the Indian side were
Dr Bethune International Peace Hospital. In China, Zafarullah Khan, K. P. S. Menon and K. M. Panikkar.
he met and married a Chinese woman Guo Qinglan. On the Chinese side, the envoys were Shen Shih-
Tragically, he fell ill and died on December 9, 1942 hua, T. K. Tseng and Lo Chia-lun. Initially, the
at the age of 32. More than 10,000 people attended Indian envoys were stationed in Chongqing but
his funeral and Mao Zedong paid a moving tribute with the end of the War, the Indian embassy
to Kotnis and his selfless devotion in service of shifted to Nanjing which once again became the
the Chinese people. Even today, Chinese people headquarters of the Chinese government. After
remember Kotnis and thousands come to visit the India became independent in August 1947, the
memorial built to the memory of Kotnis and the status of the envoys on both sides was raised to
Indian Medical Mission in China. In India, the that of Ambassador. This marked the establishment
saga of Dr Kotnis was immortalised in the popular of diplomatic relations between the modern states
film, Dr Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani (1946) which was of India and China for the first time.
directed by the noted filmmaker Shantaram and
for which the screenplay was written by Khwaja 1949 to the Present Day: Growing
Ahmad Abbas. Engagement in Diverse Spheres
During World War II, when Japan occupied After the establishment of the People’s Republic of
almost all of eastern China, India became of China (PRC) on October 1, 1949, India and PRC
great strategic importance to China as a supply established diplomatic relations on April 1, 1950.
and communication route for the Nationalist India became the first country outside the socialist
Government headed by Chiang Kai-shek which had group of countries to establish an embassy in the
to shift its headquarters from Nanjing to Chongqing PRC. When the Indian embassy held its first official
in western China. This was particularly so after the reception on the occasion of India’s Republic Day
Japanese invasion of Burma in mid-1942 cut off in Beijing, on January 26, 1951, Chairman Mao
the supply routes to southwestern China through Zedong personally attended the function and
that country. For the rest of the war, the Stilwell spoke warm words about India-China friendship.
Road from Ledo in Assam to Yunnan, the Calcutta- Since then, the relations between the Republic of
Kunming oil pipeline and the “Hump” air route India and PRC have had some ups and downs but
which saw hundreds of planes carrying goods and currently they are on a path of rapidly growing
passengers between airfields in eastern India and interaction in many spheres.
southwest China, played a very important role in India and China stepped up their bilateral
the so-called “China-Burma-India” (CBI) theatre diplomatic engagement in the mid-1950s. Premier
of war. The route from Kalimpong in north Bengal Zhou Enlai visited India from June 25-28, 1954
to Tibet and Yunnan was also used to transport while Prime Minister Nehru visited China from
civilian goods. During the War, thousands of October 19-30 the same year. Both visits were very
Chinese soldiers also received training to fight warmly received by the public in both countries.
Japanese forces in Burma in India at Ramgarh in Zhou Enlai visited India again in 1956 and 1960.
the present-day state of Jharkhand. While trade had begun to pick up again from 1951,

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 Cultural Contacts

on April 29, 1954, the two countries signed the exchange and cooperation. Thereafter, exchange
“Agreement (with exchange of notes) on trade and of visits by the top leaders of both countries
intercourse between the Tibet region of China and developed rapidly and has become the norm.
India”. The first-ever trade protocol was also signed Among the important such visits that have taken
by both sides. In this period the main exports from place in subsequent years are those of Premier Li
China to India were rice, sorghum, soybean, raw Peng (1991), President R. Venkataraman (1992),
silk, machinery, transformer, wool, caustic soda Prime Minister Narasimha Rao (1993), President
and paper, while India mainly exported to China Jiang Zemin (1996) President Narayanan (2000),
jute, rice, beans, tobacco leaf, chemicals, medicine, Premier Zhu Rongji (2002), Prime Minister
mica, electric fans, woollen fabrics and machinery. Vajpayee (2003), Premier Wen Jiabao (2005,
The preamble to the 1954 trade agreement 2010), President Hu Jintao (2006), Prime Minister
contained the formulation of the Five Principles Manmohan Singh (2008, 2013) and President
of Peaceful Coexistence also termed Panchsheel. Pratibha Patel (2010). A very large number of
These were intended to set a principled foundation agreements have been signed between the two
for the peaceful relationship between India and countries to enhance their levels of cooperation in
China. A modified version of the Panchsheel was diverse spheres and also towards the maintenance
adopted at the conference of Afro-Asian nations of peace on the borders.
held at Bandung, Indonesia, in April 1955. One of the most significant aspects of the
Through much of the 1950s, regular educational, relations between China and India in recent times
cultural and scientific-technical exchanges has been the spectacular increase in economic
between India and China which had been stepped and in particular commercial interaction. Direct
up from the 1940s, continued. Many delegations trade was resumed in 1977 and agreements were
were exchanged between the two countries. Noted signed to enhance trade and commerce between
Indian artists like B. R. Sinha and the scholar- the two countries, but the total trade volume
philosopher Rahul Sankrityayan visited China and remained under US$ 3 billion in 2000. However,
interacted with their counterparts there. Indian this figure soared astronomically to over US$
films particularly Awaara and other films starring 60 billion by 2010, making China India’s largest
Raj Kapoor became very familiar to Chinese people. trading partner and making India China’s seventh
The developments leading up to the 1962 border largest export destination. This marked a new
clash between the two countries and its aftermath phenomenon in the relations between India and
led to a disruption in the normal interaction China in modern times. The main exports from
between India and China for a number of years. India to China are iron ores, slag and ash, cotton,
A few attempts were made in the 1970s to revive yarn and fabrics, copper, gems, chemical products,
contacts, particularly through the agency of Dr etc. China has mainly exported nuclear reactors
Basu who had been part of the Indian Medical and boilers, electrical machinery, iron and steel,
Mission during World War II. Dr Basu visited organic chemicals and fertilisers and so on. The
China several times from the mid-1970s to the balance of trade is in favour of China at present.
mid-1980s and when he died, his ashes were Chinese investments in India amount to over US$
scattered both in India and China as per his wishes. 300 million, while Indian investments in China are
A few other goodwill and informal exchanges also over US$ 430 million. A large number of Indian
took place in this period, but contacts remained companies have set up their offices or branches in
limited although preparations were being made China including TCS, Wipro, Infosys, Dr Reddy’s,
for the revival of relations. In 1979, the Indian Reliance, NIIT, Binani Cement, Mahindra &
Foreign Minister A. B. Vajpayee became the first Mahindra and so on. At least 10 Indian banks have
high level Indian dignitary to visit China after established branches in China. Similarly, Chinese
many years. In early 1980s, Indian and Chinese companies like Huawei Technologies, ZTE, Haier,
leaders met each other on the sidelines of various Sinosteel, Sino Hydro Corporation, Baoshan Iron &
international summits. Steel Ltd. and so on, have set up base in India. The
The visit of the Indian Prime Minister Rajiv possibilities of setting up industrial parks by China
Gandhi to China from December 19-23, 1988, in India are also being explored.
marked the resumption of high level ties and a Along with the growth of economic ties between
significant step towards normalisation of relations the two countries, the number of Indians and
between India and China. Apart from meeting the Chinese visiting each other’s countries, and
Chinese Premier Li Peng, Gandhi also met Deng also living and working there has also grown
Xiaoping and other important Chinese leaders. considerably. Apart from Hong Kong, there are over
Agreements were signed on science and technology 20,000 Indians living in China currently and the
cooperation, civil air transport and cultural number continues to grow. They are predominantly

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 Cultural Contacts

students (over 8,000), traders and businessmen other cultural festivals as well as youth delegations
and professionals spread across many provinces and sports and media exchanges. Academic
of China. Tens of thousands of Chinese have also exchanges between scholars from India and China
visited India over the last decade. Many come to are also increasing steadily and cover diverse
visit the places of Buddhist pilgrimage in India. As branches of knowledge. Apart from officially
well, a growing number of Chinese are working sponsored forms of cultural exchange, there are
as software professionals, chartered accountants other trends as well. Indian Yoga, food, fashion
and entrepreneurs in India. The development and films are gaining popularity in China. The
of people-to-people contacts has reached levels popularity of Chinese language courses, Chinese
unprecedented in India-China relations although martial arts and certain forms of Chinese medicine
the number is still small given the size of China is also increasing in India.
and India and their populations. Finally, an important trend is the growing
The Rajiv Gandhi visit of 1988 gave a boost cooperation between India and China in regional
to cultural exchanges between India and China. and global forums. A milestone in this regard
Numerous cultural delegations have been was the joint statement issued on the occasion of
exchanged since then. Festivals of India and China Premier Wen Jiabao’s visit to India in April 2005
have been organised in each others’ countries. which established a Strategic and Cooperative
Notable instances of cultural cooperation included Partnership for Peace and Prosperity, indicating
the construction with Indian assistance of a that both sides would regard their relations not
Buddhist temple of Indian style in Luoyang and merely from a bilateral perspective, but from
the establishment of a Xuanzang Memorial Hall at a larger global strategic perspective. On issues
Nalanda, the site of the famous educational centre concerning international trade, regional security,
visited by Xuanzang in India in ancient times. The maritime security, environmental problems and so
Cultural Exchange Programme launched after the on, there is greater cooperation and coordination
visit of Premier Wen Jiabao in December 2010 between India and China. The growing economic
in particular has triggered activity in various strength of China and India has increased their
spheres including exchanges of visits of writers and sense of responsibility in international affairs.
performing artists, archaeologists, archivists, and It has also led to greater interest globally in the
others as well as the organising of film festivals and relationship between the two countries.

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Cultural Contacts
 Cultural Contacts

II
Commercial Interactions
between India & China

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Cultural Contacts

20
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Commercial Interactions between India & China

21
 Cultural Contacts

Commercial Interactions
between India & China
Overview

It is recorded in the Chinese work, Han Shu, in

the Record on Geography, that there had already
been sea trade between southern India and China
in the 2nd century BCE. The main goods from India
at that time included "bright pearls, jewels (glass),
rare stones and exotic things," and the goods from
China were mainly gold and "za zeng" (all kinds of
silk fabrics). Ancient coins of the Han Dynasty also
have been unearthed in southern India, which prove
the existence of trade at that time. In the section
Dunhuang mural paintings (picture of the travelling merchants), on the Biography of the Western Regions in the Han
preserved in cave number 296 in the Dunhuang Mogao caves in
Gansu Province, China
Shu are recorded the products and ancient coins in
some parts of India at that time, such as Kashmir.
The history of commercial exchanges between India It says, “The ground is flat, and the climate is mild,
and China is very long. More than 3,000 years ago, there is alfalfa, weeds and odd trees”. “They plant
a large number of seashells from the coast of the Bay grain and all kinds of fruit such as grapes.” Also,
of Bengal was unearthed in Sichuan and Yunnan. “the residents there are very skillful, they carve on
These seashells were ancient currencies, indicating various materials, build palaces, weave wool fabrics,
that there had been trade contacts between Sichuan, embroider cloth and prepare various dishes. There
Yunnan and countries such as India and Burma are gold, silver, copper and tin vessels. Bazaars
(Myanmar) at that time. India was the origin of are situated along the roads. The currencies are
Asiatic cotton, with a long history of producing cotton gold and silver, with an image of a horse in front
textiles. A piece of cotton cloth from more than 3,000 and a human face on the back. They have fengniu
years ago was unearthed in Fujian, China, which is (zebu), buffalo, elephants, dogs, macacas, kongjue
the earliest evidence of cotton cloth ever discovered (peafowl), pearl, coral, amber and gems.” Among
in here. Since there was no cotton in China at that these, many were already exported to China before
time, it is considered by many scholars that this piece the Common Era.
of cotton cloth probably came from India.
During 4th century BCE, there were records about
silk (kauseya) and Chinese silk in sheaves (cinapañña)
in the Arthashastra, the ancient Indian work written
by Kautilya. Silk was also mentioned in other ancient
works such as the two great Indian epics, the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata. This indicates that Chinese silk
had been introduced to India before the Common Era.
According to the great Chinese work of history,
the Shiji, in the Biography of Dayuan, cloth and
bamboo cane produced in Sichuan had been seen in
Bactria during Zhang Qian’s mission to the Western Tang dynasty women embroidering
Regions. This indicated that Sichuan products had
long been introduced into India via Yunnan and In short, during the 2nd and 1st century BCE,
then further transported to Bactria. People already many goods were introduced into China from
knew at that time that Sichuan merchants smuggled India, mainly directly as trade and also to a
goods from Yunnan to northeast India. lesser extent as “tribute”. In fact, the so-called

22
 Cultural Contacts

“tribute” was also a kind of trade practice which Yuezhi people had already established the Kushan
has been called “tribute trade”. Under this system, Empire, ruling the northwestern region of India.
merchants from countries surrounding China Due to Ban Chao’s efforts, the so-called Silk Road
presented themselves as envoys and gave gifts was kept open in this period, allowing Chinese
to the Chinese emperors, and in turn the Chinese silk to be successfully transported to the
emperors granted rewards to them. This satisfied northwestern region of India via the route through
the desire for prestige on the part of the emperors, the Western Regions.
while at the same time it allowed the merchants During the 4th and 5th century CE, there were both
to be received with great courtesy and to realise government envoys and merchants plying this route,
much profit. the Yunnan-Burma overland route and the South
China Sea route. Among the large number of Indian
monks in China, some came together with the trade
caravans via the Western Regions route, while others
came in merchant ships by sea. For example, Faxian,
who travelled by the overland Western Regions route
when he went to India, took the sea route on-board a
merchant ship when he came back.
In the Song Shu section on the Biography of the
Necklace of precious gems in the
Barbarians, it was recorded that in the 5th year of
Harappan culture the Liu Song Dynasty (428 CE), envoys from south
India came to China and submitted their credentials,
1st-6th century CE bearing “delicate treasures like diamond rings and
The Chinese work Hou Han Shu (History of Mollet gold rings, and one red cockatoo and one white
the Later Han Dynasty), in the Biography of the cockatoo.” This indicates that south Indians were
Western Regions, recorded the products of India, familiar with China and that the practice of “tribute
including elephants, rhinoceros, the hawksbill sea trade” continued. Information about China was
turtle, gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, etc. It transmitted back to India through these merchants.
also mentioned percale, woollens, spice, jaggery
(unrefined w), pepper, ginger, black salt, etc. This
indicates that all these Indian products had been
familiar to China during the 1st and 2nd century CE.
Because China at that time lacked the technology to
produce glass, Indian glass was even more famous
in China, and there are mysterious references to
“the treasury mirror of Shendu (ancient India)” in
Chinese historical records.
During this period, trade in silk between India
and China continued. During 80-89 CE, a Greek
who resided in Egypt had recorded that Chinese Trade and presentation of tribute to the emperor
silk and silk products were sold to the West via
Bactria after reaching there from India. This is The section on the Biography of the Western Regions
similar to the narrative about the Former Han in the Wei Shu mentions that India produced “mani
Dynasty when it was revealed that cloth from beads (cintamani) and coral”, and that some places
Shu (Sichuan) and Qiong bamboo cane were “produce gold, white sandalwood, jaggery and
transported to Bactria via India, via the Yunnan- grapes.” “Tribute” from Indian envoys included
Burma route. Although India in this case was just horses, black camels, gold, silver, etc., and silk
a point en route for trade with regions further fabrics were the main exports from China. The
west, silk and silk fabrics were also consumed in reference to envoys Dong Wan and Gao Ming going
India. In sections 11 and 168 of the Indian work to the Western Regions bearing silk in the Taiyan
Manu Smrti, it was said that whoever stole silk period (435-440 CE), in juan 102 of the Wei Shu,
would be punished with no food and only milk for indicated that silk was an important part of the gifts
three days. sent by Chinese emperors.
Meanwhile, according to the Hou Han Shu, in the In the section on “Tribes” in the Liang Shu, more
section on the Biography of Ban Chao, it is said that products from India were listed, such as mink, rose
in the 9th year of Jianchu (84 CE), Ban Chao (32-102 beads, gold thread fabrics, golden felt, superior
CE) dispatched envoys to “present many delicate fur clothing, curcuma aromatica, etc. It was also
silk fabrics to the king of Yuezhi.” At that time the recorded that “the rose bead is like mica in shape

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 Cultural Contacts

and violet gold in colour with a brilliant light; it is trade bureaus had been set up at large ports along the
as thin as a cicada’s wings, and like left over yarn coast in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty, which were
when stacked.” “The curcuma aromatica is peculiar in charge of the maritime trade. At that time, Indian
to Kawmira (Kashmir), with a splendid yellow merchant ships were coming to China with large
colour, just like the lotus.” The curcuma aromatica amounts of “treasure”. The Tōdaiwajō tōseiden by Yuan
here is the snow lotus (saussurea involucrata). At Kai recorded that in Guangzhou, “there were numerous
the beginning of the Tianjian period of the Liang ships on the river from Brahmana, Persia and Kunlun
Dynasty (502 or 503 CE), the Gupta king in India carrying mountains of spice and treasures.” Even after
dispatched envoys to China, bearing among other the mid-Tang period, the foreign trade bureaus at the
things, “glass, spittoons, spices, cotton, and so on.” ports along the coast continued to function and trade
to China from India also continued. According to
6th ~mid 10th century CE Chinese sources, products were exported to China
Although the Sui Dynasty of China (581~618) from India even in the late Tang period, and rhinoceros
did not last long, there are nevertheless records was one of them. Belts decorated with rhinoceros horn
of diplomatic and commercial exchanges during were particularly appreciated in China. Products
that period. “Every year in the first month of exported to India from China were mainly silk
the lunar calendar, envoys from many countries products. According to Juan 198 of the Jiu Tang Shu, in
would come to pay their respects”, and “many the 11th year of Zhenguan (637), when the ruler of
surrounding tribes would come and present their Kashmir presented a famous horse, “Emperor Taizong
local products”. According to the Sui Shu, in the praised its sincerity and rewarded it with coloured
Section on the Western Regions, Emperor Yang silk.” During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (713-
(reigning from 605-618) dispatched Wei Jie and 741), Indian envoys were “rewarded” with brocade or
Du Xingman to serve as envoys to the countries in rough silk, usually 500 bolts on each occasion.
the Western Regions. They went to Kawmira and
brought back cups made of agate, which was a rare
precious stone at that time.
In the Tang period, Indian states dispatched
envoys and presented local products on many
occasions. For example, in 619, the ruler of
Kashmir dispatched envoys who presented
many gifts including golden locks, crystal cups
and jujube-like glass. In June 637, they again
dispatched envoys bearing Buddhist relics (sarira)
and superior quality horses. In the 16th year of
Zhenguan, they recorded as having “presented a
special kind of mouse with a sharp mouth and red
tail, which could eat snakes. If someone was bitten
by a snake, the mouse would smell and urinate on Black Rhinoceros
the sore, and the sore would immediately heal.”
This was a reference to a mongoose, Nàkula in In the Tang period, monks also took silk with
Sanskrit, commonly known as Naula). In the same them during their journeys to the west, which is
year, Oddiyana (Swat Valley in Pakistan today) another way that Chinese silk was introduced into
dispatched envoys to present camphor. Around the India. For example, in the Biography of San Zang of
20th year of Zhenguan, Harsha Sīlāditya, king of Da Ci’en Temple, it is mentioned that Xuanzang used
Magadha, presented fire pearl, tulips and banyan to give brocade to the temples in India. The Da Tang
plants. Juan 100 in the Tang Huiyao recorded all Xi Yu Qiu Fa Gao Seng Zhuan (Biography of Eminent
kinds of plants introduced from places in India, Monks Who Sought Dharma in the West in the Great
such as banyan, tulip, heliotrope, sow thistle and Tang) also has references to Chinese monks taking
Hu celery. There were also records of gifts including silk to India.
all kinds of drugs, carrots and fine horses.
After middle of the 8th century CE, there were fewer Mid 10th ~mid 14th century CE
references in historical records about Indian envoys During this period, trade between the coastal regions
coming to China to pay “tribute”, but this does not of east and south China and the coastal regions
mean that Indian products did not reach China after of India expanded greatly with many merchant
that. In fact, sea trade in Tang Dynasty had already ships plying to and fro. Among the many foreign
advanced considerably, and the products imported merchants gathered at that time in the large Chinese
from India were much more than “tribute”. Foreign ports like Guangzhou and Quanzhou, there were

24
 Cultural Contacts

many Indian merchants. Many Chinese merchants wrote descriptions of agriculture, harvest, markets,
also sailed to India in this period, particularly to revenues and currencies of the places mentioned. In
South India, although it appears that they were his work, Daoyi zhilüe (A brief account of the island
mostly sojourners who moved back and forth from peoples), which was based on his travels, he listed
their bases in Southeast Asia rather than settlers. the products of Bengal. He wrote that it was rich
These features point to the convenience of sea in jute cloth, byssus cloth, tula-cotton, and peacock
transportation and to the advanced nature of trade feathers. He noted that among the items traded with
between India and China at this time. China were “south and north silk”, “five-coloured
raw silk”, cloves, amomum kravanh, bluish white
vases and white tassels. His work too would have
been an important source of trade information for
Chinese merchants and the government.
The Italian Marco Polo, who served as an official
under the Yuan Dynasty, noted the presence of
Indian merchants at the port of Fuzhou. He wrote
that “many merchant ships arrive at this port.
Indian merchants bring all kinds of pearls and
jewels here and sell them and make huge profits.
This river (Minjiang River) is not far from Zaytun
(Quanzhou), and the water flows into the sea. The
ships from India row up the river to Quanzhou
city.” His reference to the huge quantities of pepper,
A scene from street number 13 in Guangzhou during the Qing dynasty sandalwood and medicinal materials to be found in
Quanzhou was probably an indication of the extent
Chinese records such as the Song Shi (History of of trade with India, since India was very likely the
the Song dynasty) recorded the kinds of products source of much of these products. About the region
brought over from India. In the 8th year of Dazhong of Malabar, Marco Polo said it produced pepper,
Xiangfu, the Chola ruler “despatched special 52 ginger, cinnamon and cotton cloth, and that “ships
envoys to present local products, an item of pearl- from the southern provinces (of China) carry copper
embroidered clothing and a hat, 21,100 taels of for balance. They also carry gold brocade, silk,
pearls, 60 pieces of ivory and 60 jin of frankincense.” gauze, bullion and many medicinal materials that
Envoys Srisamanta and some others “also dedicated Malabar doesn’t have to exchange with the goods
6600 taels of pearl and 3300 taels of spice.” In in this place.”
the 10th year of Xijing (1077), the Cholas again Silk and silk fabrics formed the main exports
dispatched 27 envoys with gifts of pearls, glass from China. According to juan 489 in the Song Shu,
dishes, rhinoceros horn, frankincense, rose water, Chinese emperors would generously reward the
asafoetida, borax, clove, etc. envoys who came to pay tribute from all parts of
Works like the Zhufan zhi of Zhao Rushi, then India with silk. Indian monks who came bearing
a Superintendant of Maritime Customs at the Buddhist scriptures and Buddha statues, would be
Chinese port of Quanzhou, recorded in detail the rewarded with “purple cassocks and bunches of
products of India. Products from Numburi (on silks”. Of the Chinese silk that was transported to
the Malabar coast) included pearls, cloths in all India, only some part was bought locally, while
colours, cat’s eye, black indigo, Flame of the Forest the rest was transshipped to other countries. For
plants, coconut, sappan wood, etc. Products from example, in juan 2 of the Song period work Ling Wai
the Chola kingdom included pearls, ivory, coral, Dai Da (Lands beyond the passes) by Zhou Qufei,
glass, areca-nut, coloured silk cloth, silk cotton merchants from China, after arriving at Kollam
cloth, and so on. Other things mentioned are goats, (Quilon) on the Malabar coast, would then go on to
cattle, pheasants, parrots, coconut, jackfruit, white the Persian Gulf and Red Sea area in smaller boats.
jasmine, hibiscus, corn poppy, lotus and water There are many references to Chinese silk being
plantain. This information would have been useful shipped to India in Yuan dynasty records as well.
to Chinese merchants seeking to develop trade with Porcelain was another important commodity
these regions of India. in the foreign trade of China in this period.
Wang Dayuan was another person from the period Although historical sources do not record much
of the Yuan dynasty, which followed the Song about the export of Chinese porcelain to India
dynasty, who recorded the products to be found during and before the Tang Dynasty, nevertheless
in India. In addition to this, Wang Dayuan paid archaeological excavations have yielded some
much attention to the economy and trade, and he quantities of porcelain or porcelain chips of the

25
 Cultural Contacts

late Tang Dynasty (9th to early 10th century CE)

in India and Pakistan. Literary sources for this are
available from the Song period. Juan 489 of the
Song Shi mentions that in 1077, 27 Chola envoys
were rewarded with porcelain vessels among other
things. The Zhufan zhi also mentions Chinese traders
carrying porcelain with them to southern India. In
the record of goods traded between India and China
in Wang Dayuan’s Daoyi zhilüe, various kinds of
porcelain are mentioned, including “bluish white
porcelain”, “thick bowls” and “bluish white vases”.
In his description of Quanzhou port, Marco Polo
A shipwreck from the Song dynasty in China, preserved in the Quanzhou
mentions seeing a large amount of porcelain waiting Overseas Museum in China on the history of communications
to be transported overseas. He mentioned that “such
porcelain is sold to India and other places, even as well as dark brown glazed pottery relics from
Maghrib of my country. This is the best in all kinds South of China were unearthed in Chandravalli, a
of porcelain.” Neolithic site in what is now south central Karnataka.
Along with them, coins of the Northern Song in the
Shenzong Period (1068-1085) were unearthed as
well, which indicated that those porcelain arrived in
the period 1078-1085 or later. French excavations
at Arikamedu near Pondicherry on the southeast
coast of India and other excavations have also led
to the discovery of Chinese porcelain sherds. These
have been found together with coins of the Northern
Song period and copper coins of the Chola Dynasty
from the 11th to 12th century CE. All this shows that
Chinese porcelain was being shipped to different
parts of India continuously during several hundred
years from the 9th to 13th century CE.

Sugar and steel were also among the items exported

from China to India in this period. In modern Hindi,
Bengali and Nepali, white sugar is called cini, which
means “Chinese”. Wang Dayuan wrote in the Yuan
period that among the goods traded between Chinese
merchants and southern Indians were “white sugar”
and “sugar icing”. The word “cinaja” in Sanskrit,
Fragments of Celadon or Chinese porcelain discovered meaning “steel”, also carries the literal meaning of
from under the water in the South China Sea in China “made in China”. Although ancient India produced
and exported steel, in certain periods Chinese steel
Porcelain and porcelain sherds have been was also imported into India. Ibn Muhdhih, an Arab
discovered in South Asia. For example, a batch of geographer in the 9th-10th century CE, once saw an
Chinese pottery from the Song and Yuan periods observatory in Kashmir which had been made of
has been found by the Archaeological Authority Chinese steel. This indicates that Chinese steel was
of Pakistan since 1958 at Banbhore, 64 km south being imported into India even earlier. Wang Dayuan
of Karachi. Earlier excavations conducted in 1854 wrote that Chinese merchant ships in his time
at Brahminabad about 80 kmeters northeast of often carried “ironware”, “bar iron”, “steel cooking
Hyderabad in Sindh Province yielded a large amount vessels”, “needles”, etc., as trading goods.
of ceramic chips which are now housed in the British
Museum. These date from the end of the Tang Mid 14th-mid 17th century CE
Dynasty to the end of Song Dynasty. Investigations In the early Ming period, envoys came from
conducted by Aurel Stein in the Makran Area along different parts of India bearing gifts that indicate
the coast of Balochistan also yielded a bluish white the range of products that could have been traded as
porcelain from around the 10th century CE. Celadon commodities between India and China. These gifts
from the Longquan kilns of the Song Dynasty and included certain herbal remedies for detoxification,
ceramic white ware from Fujian and Guangdong giraffes, superior quality horses, gold, silver, glass

26
 Cultural Contacts

implements, rhinoceros horn, peacocks, parrots, Although a large amount of raw silk was transported
cambric, tula-cotton, icing sugar, frankincense, to India during this period, it was mainly for re-export
rosin, herbs, hemp vine, cutch, lac, vine rattan, to Europe, and local sales in India were quite limited.
ebony, sappan wood, pepper, the plant ardisia Moreover, according to records in the Ying Ya Sheng
maculosa Mez, byssus thread, pepper, gems, coral, Lan and other Ming era works, Indian countries were
gardenia, sandalwood, tin, etc. already able to manufacture silk, and it was no longer
rare for people there to use silk products.
The same was true for Chinese c. In the late Ming
period, the Dutch East India Company established
bases for trade with China in Southeast Asia and
Taiwan, and used to purchase large amount of
Chinese porcelain at very low prices which they
would transport to the southeast coast of India,
and then ship to Europe. Large amounts of Chinese
porcelain have been found in different places in
India, not just in the coastal regions but also in
the interior, like in Assam in Northeast India. It is
apparent that it had become a fashion among the
rulers, courtiers and high officials of various Indian
states to collect Chinese porcelain at that time.
The history of tea exports to India from China
is not very long, with the custom of tea drinking
in India only going back to the era of the Mongol
Chinaware/porcelain from Longquan in China, conquests in Asia. The Indian word for tea, “Chai”,
preserved in the Indian Museum
is very similar to that in Mongolian, Turki, Persian,
Portuguese, Greek and Russian. Early Ming records,
Apart from these references to the gifts borne by such as the works of Ma Huan, Fei Xin and Gong
envoys from India, Chinese works from this period, Zhen who had travelled to the west together with
including the Ying Ya Sheng Lan, Xing Cha Sheng Zheng He, do not contain any references to Indians
Lan and Records of Western Countries, give detailed drinking tea, while on the contrary, there were
descriptions of the products of India. records of other beverages consumed by Indians
During this period, the main products exported to such as cow milk, rose water, mulse and all kinds
India from China were silk fabrics, porcelain and tea. of wine. They observed the food habits of Indians
In the early Ming period, a part of the silk exported very carefully, and it is unlikely that they would
to Indian states from China formed part of “tribute not have noticed the custom of tea drinking among
trade”, that is to say, the gifts given by Chinese Indians if there was any. In fact, Ma Huan’s Ying Ya
emperors to the rulers of Indian countries. These Sheng Lan said categorically that “no tea was sold
usually included silk products, including luxurious on the market”, while the work Records of Western
silk fabrics, leno, woolen brocade, coloured silk and Countries also said that there was no tea drinking
clothes, veils and canopies made of silk. From the custom in India. It is likely that tea drinking was
middle of the 16th century CE, however, the Ming picked up in India only under the influence of
Dynasty implemented a ban on maritime trade the large amounts of tea shipped through India
or intercourse with foreign countries due to the to the West by the British and Dutch East India
invasion of Japanese pirates. Thereafter, the export Companies.
of Chinese silk to India was mainly in the form of Metal goods were also among the goods traded
private trade. between India and China in this period. According
The major trading companies of western powers to Wang Dayuan’s Daoyi zhilüe, in the 13th century
such as those of Portugal, Holland and Britain CE, goods carried by Chinese merchants to India
gradually penetrated the intra-Asian trade and also often included “ironware”, “bar iron”, “iron ding”
came to control the silk trade between India and and “needles”. In the early Ming period, besides
China. Western merchants regarded India as an iron and steel, other metals and metal ware were
intermediate station, through which they transported transported to India. Gold, alluvial gold, Yunnan
large amounts of raw silk from China to Europe for leaf gold, silver, pure silver, copper cash, copper
sale there. For example, the quantity of raw silk ding, copper wire, lead, tin and hydrargyrum were
transported by Portuguese colonists from Macao to all mentioned as exports to India in Ming era works
Goa was more than 3,000 piculs each year during like Xing Cha Sheng Lan, Ying Ya Sheng Lan and
1580 to 1590, and was up to 6000 piculs in 1636. Records of Western Countries. Due to the advances in

27
 Cultural Contacts

Chinese maritime commerce from the Song period,

Chinese copper cash had even become a form of
currency in some coastal regions of India.

Mid-17th century to 1949

With the end of the age of the great ocean-going
Chinese ships and Chinese merchants directly
carrying their goods to Indian ports, the trade
between India and China did not end but altered
its form and orientation. This was the period of a
flourishing junk trade between China and Southeast
Asia. Indian and Chinese goods were often exchanged
in Southeast Asian ports such as Malacca. However,
there is evidence of the resumption of direct trade
between Surat, the leading port at this time on the
west coast of India, and China from the last quarter
of the 17th century CE. Chinese porcelain, tea,
Chinese gold, lacquer work, copper and vermilion
were exported to India in return for silver, spices,
sandalwood and other items. However, some of
the merchandise imported by Surat merchants was
re-exported to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea area.
There is also some evidence that by the early 18th
century, this trade with China had entered a period Transaction in tea in the 18th century between Chinese merchants and
of stagnation. businessmen of the Dutch East India Company

China substantially. From the last quarter of the

18th century CE, raw cotton from western India and
opium from both Bengal and western India (Patna
and Malwa opium) began to be exported to China
in huge quantities to pay for the rapidly escalating
import of tea into Britain from China. Whereas in
1765, the quantity of opium imported into China
was less than 200 chests per year, and was mostly for
medicinal use, by the turn of the 19th century, this
figure had increased to 4,000 chests. In 1830-1834,
it increased to 17,000 chests, and by the time of the
outbreak of the First Opium War in 1839, it had
reached a stupendous 40,000 chests per year. After
The store house for tea at Guangzhou during the Qing times in China the Second Opium War broke out in 1858, China
was forced to sign a treaty with Britain legalising
The arrival of the European monopoly trading the import of opium. Opium imports from India
companies in the Asian waters was a new and continued to increase until 1884, when the quantity
significant feature of this period. Initially, these started to gradually decrease, because by this time
companies participated in the trade without altering China had also increased its cultivation of opium.
its structure significantly. However, Dutch Batavia On the eve of the First World War, the quantity of
soon became an intermediate station in the trade opium imported into China had decreased to below
between India and China. Western ships in the East 4,000 chests.
Indies loaded up with spices and other goods which Raw cotton remained one of the mainstays of
they carried to Guangzhou. From there, they carried Indian exports to China in the 19th century. The region
porcelain and silk to Surat to exchange for cotton, of Gujarat in western India produced a short staple
sugar, gum and textiles, returning to Guangzhou cotton that was suited to the handloom weaving
with the monsoon winds. However, the rapid growth industry of China at that time. British traders, as
of the tea trade between China and Europe, and the well as Indian traders like Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy,
establishment of the colonial power of the Western made considerable profits from the cotton trade,
countries in India and other Asian countries, which also gave a boost to the shipbuilding industry
changed the nature of the trade between India and in western India.

28
 Cultural Contacts

From1864 to 1891, the annual total volume

of direct trade between India and China was
27.77 million haikwan taels on an average. This
figure rose in the 20th century. In 1926, the total
volume of trade between the two countries reached
95,113,114 haikwan taels, of which the total value of
goods exported to China from India was 79,191,013
haikwan taels. During this period, products exported
to China from India were mainly cotton, rice and
cotton yarn. Besides these, China also used to import
from India flour, sugar, coal, kerosene, cement, tea,
jute and various kinds of cloth.
During this period, products exported to India
from China were mainly silk, tea and beans. Besides
these, other exports to India included eggs, peanuts,
cowhide, sesame, China wood oil, coal, cotton yarn,
pig iron, etc. It is worth noting that while cotton
Trading in porcelain at Jingdezhen during the Qing times
yarn had earlier been exported from India to China,
during this period China began to export cotton yarn
In the second half of the 19th century, manufactured to India. This was a reflection of the development of
cotton yarn, the product of India’s earliest modern cotton yarn manufacture in China, particularly from
industry, the textile industry, started to become the the time of the First World War.
main product exported to China by India. During
1872~1873, the total volume of export of Indian 1950~2000
cotton yarn was 1.8 million pounds, of which 1.2 Following the establishment of the People’s
million pounds were exported to China. After that, Republic of China, in 1954 the governments of
the volume of exports of Indian cotton yarn increased India and China signed the first trade agreement
year by year. While from 1874~1879, the average between the two countries. In this period, goods
annual exports were about 9 million pounds, by exported to India from China mainly included rice,
1894~1899, it was 180.9 million pounds. At first, broomcorn, beans, raw silk, machines, transformers,
Indian cotton yarn was mainly sold in Shantou and wool, caustic soda, paper, etc. Goods exported to
Guangzhou, and then it gradually extended to east China from India mainly included hemp articles,
China, central China, north China, northeast China rice, beans, tobacco, chemicals, drugs, mica, electric
and southwest China. It was not until 1914~1915 fans, woolens and machines.
that the volume of export of Indian cotton yarn to
China decreased to 134 million pounds due to its
displacement by Japanese cotton yarn.
In the trade between the two nations in the
middle of 19th century, the volume of goods
exported to India from China was much less than
that of goods exported to China from India. China
faced a huge trade deficit, which required silver to
pay for the balance. The main goods of India were
opium, cotton, wheat and jute, mainly exported to
China; while the main goods of China were raw
silk, porcelain, tea and medicinal materials, mainly
exported to Britain, USA, France, Netherland and
The export trade of tea leaf production and processing
Spain. According to statistics, during the period during the Qing times
1834~1845, the annual average value of the goods
imported from China by India was only 1/80th of After a disruption of the trade in the 1960s and
the value of the goods exported from India to China. early 1970s, trade between India and China began
So, the net value of silver transported to India from to revive in the 1980s. In 1977, direct trade was
China reached about 1.5~2.5 million pounds. The resumed; in 1984, the two countries signed an
goods exported to India by China in this period official trade agreement; in November 1985, the
included, besides raw silk, tea and porcelain, rock two countries signed a trade protocol; in 1988, there
candy, white sugar, alum, silk and satin, camphor, was established a minister-level economic, trade
paper, homespun, etc. and scientific and technological cooperation group.

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 Cultural Contacts

In the 1980s, goods exported to India from China 18 in Book One of Duan Chengshi’s Miscellaneous
mainly included raw silk, silk products, edible Morsels from Youyang cites relevant passages from
vegetable oil, coal, mercury, antimony, petroleum, Traveling Notes on the Western Regions in the Great
petrochemicals, drug, etc. At the same time the Tang Dynasty, as well as pointed out that there were
products exported to China from India included iron two Sanskrit names of the bodhi tree, in which ‘
ore, chrome ore, manganese ore, steel products, 阿湿曷咃娑力叉’ (A shi he ta suo li cha) was the
tobacco, leather, power generating equipment, etc. transliteration of Asvattha-vrksa in Sanskrit.
In 1982, the value of trade between India and China
stood at 145 million USD. From 1984 to 1990 it
grew year by year on the whole. The volume of
trade further increased in the 1990s. By the year
2000 it had reached a total of 2.91 billion USD.
Since then, trade between India and China has
grown at a phenomenal rate, and is the most dynamic
element in the relationship at the present time.
Currently, China is India’s largest trading partner.
However, there is a distinct imbalance in the trade,
with the balance of trade in China’s favour, and the
figure is only a small proportion in the total volume
of foreign trade of the two countries. Measures are
being taken to try and diversify and strengthen the
structure of the trading relationship between the
two countries.

Products
Bodhi Tree
The Bodhi Tree is a kind of arbor from the species ficus
microcarpa of the Moraceae family of plants, and its Book made out of Bodhi leaves in Ming China
scientific name is Ficus religiosa. The Sanskrit name
of the bodhi tree is pippala, which is transliterated Since the bodhi tree was connected with the
in Chinese as Biboluo (毕钵罗, 卑钵罗 and 庳钵罗). enlightenment of the Buddha, a part of this tree
It is said that the Sakyamuni was enlightened on the was transplanted in China. It is said that Tripitaka
Diamond Throne under a bodhi tree outside Gaya, Zhi Yao came from India by sea in the first year
Magadha (in present-day Bihar, India). The tree was of Tianjian of the Liang Dynasty, planted a bodhi
called bodhi, and its free translations were ‘the tree tree in front of the altar of Guangxiao Temple,
of the Way’, ‘enlightenment tree’, ‘bodhimandala Guangzhou and predicted that later generations
tree’, ‘thinking tree’, etc. ‘Juan’ 8 of the Chinese would have real Bodhisattvas (meaning Hui Neng,
work Traveling Notes on the Western Regions in the the sixth Patriarch of the Chan sect) to enlighten
Great Tang Dynasty recorded that the original bodhi the people there. Thereafter, bodhi trees were
tree had a yellowish white stem and green leaves, planted in places such as Guangdong and Yunnan
and that it did not wither away, but thrived both in China and elsewhere. Pi Rixiu, a poet in the Tang
in winter and summer. When the Buddha lived, the Dynasty wrote a Poem on Tiantai Guoqing Temple in
tree was supposed to have been one hundred chi* Qi and Liang Style. In it, he wrote, “I walked 10 li on
in height, and its height was four or five zhang even Guoqing Road of Songmen and fed monkeys on the
after having been cut several times. Kings in later platform beside the Bodhi tree. I wondered why it
generations conducted Buddhist ceremonies around rained on such a sunny day, it turned out that the
the Bodhi tree, and collected its leaves as auspicious sea wind brought the waterfall.”
relics, while many Chinese monks who visited India Bodhi trees and their leaves from India were often
to seek Dharma, including the famous Xuanzang, offered as tribute or presents. Juan 54 in the Book of
visited the holy relic of the tree. Envoys from China the Liang Dynasty recorded that the Panpan kingdom
in the reign of Zhenguan of the Tang Dynasty dispatched envoys to present true relics and painted
displayed sacrificial offerings and "kasayas" (robes pagodas of the Bodhi kingdom and offered bodhi
worn by monks) in the temple beside the tree. Tang leaves and the plant Lindera thunbergii Makino
envoys also erected a monument in the temple in in August of the sixth year of the middle Datong
the 5th Year of the Xian Qing reign (660 CE). Juan (534 CE). The Old Book of the Tang Dynasty juan 198

30
 Cultural Contacts

recorded that King Silajita of Magadha sent envoys present-day Gorakhpur. The work Travelling Notes
to offer fire balls, tulips and bodhi trees in the 15th on the Western Regions in the Great Tang Dynasty
year of Zhenguan. According to the General History of (juan 6) described the sala trees seen by Xuanzang
Chinese Buddhism, monks of Kaibao Temple returned there, “The trees were similar to the Quercus
from India and offered Sanskrit sutras, a pagoda dentata but their bark was bluish white, and leaves
of Buddha’s relics, bodhi leaves and peacock tail were bright and smooth. The four trees were very
brushes in March of the third year of Taipingxingguo high and the Buddha entered nirvana here.” ‘娑罗’
(978) of the Northern Song Dynasty. Similarly, the (Suoluo) was the transliteration of sala in Sanskrit.
sramana Guangyuan of Chengdu, on his return from Juan 1 of Shen Qing’s Record of North Mountain
the western paradise, went to the royal house of the in the Tang Dynasty explained that, “It is named
prince of western India named Motunangbiao to sala in Sanskrit and it is called jiangu here and it
offer as presents a seal of the Buddha’s head crown doesn’t wither away in winter.” The explanation
(skull bone relic), palm tree leaves and leaves of on "sala forest" in juan 23 of Hui Lin’s Sound and
the Bodhi tree in December of the seventh year of Meaning of All Sutras differed somewhat. “The sala
Taipingxingguo (982 CE). Indian monks, including tree is called gaoyuan here and it is higher than
Niweini, came to China and offered to the court other trees in a forest. It was translated as 'jiangu'
Buddha’s relics, Sanskrit sutras, bodhi leaves and wrongly in the past because sala was similar to
bodhi prayer beads in the first year of Xianping in the pronunciation of Para. If it is called 'jiangu',
the Northern Song Dynasty (998 CE). The monk the sound of the same has to made by turning the
Mulasiji from Kashmir is also recorded as having tongue. If it is called 'gaoyuan', it might be done by
offered Sanskrit sutras and bodhi leaves in March pronouncing it straight without any turning of the
of the second year of Jingde (1005); while five tongue.” 'Jiangu' corresponds to the Sanskrit 'sàra',
years later, the Indian monk Juejie came to China whose pronunciation is similar to Sala.
and brought relics, palm-leaf scriptures, a genuine
bodhimanda and bodhi leaves in the third year of
Dazhongxiang. Huaiwen who had gone to the West
three times, returned from the Indian kingdom
of Magadha bringing fragments of the Buddha’s
bone, pattra-leaf sutras, pattra, bodhi leaves, ashoka
leaves, bodhi prayer beads and 19 texts based on the
monument of the western paradise.
The bodhi tree had influence on ancient Chinese
literature. In the Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, Shen
Xiu wrote a gatha in which he said, “The body is
the wisdom tree. Your heart is a stand of a mirror Śāla grove after the rains
bright. Frequently wipe it. Don't let it be dusty.” In
turn, Hui Neng wrote the gatha saying, “There is no Juan 54, 'Record of Foreign Countries', in
wisdom tree nor a stand of a mirror bright. Since all the Book of the Liang Dynasty recorded that the
is void where can the dust alight?” They were the state of Funan sent envoys to offer auspicious
most famous gathas related to the Bodhi tree in the Indian sandalwood images, sala leaves, fire balls,
history of Chinese Buddhism. Thus, the Bodhi tree curcuma aromatica and storax in the 18th year of
is important in the transfer of plants between China the Tianjian period (519 CE). Duan Chengshi’s
and India as well as an important article in Chinese Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang recorded that
and Indian Buddhism and diplomatic intercourse. Anxi monks from the Western Regions went to
(Chen Ming) the court to offer sala leaves in the first year of
[1 chi is approximately equal to one foot in the Tianbao period in the Tang Dynasty. Zhang
length; 10 chi make up 1 zhang] Wei wrote, “Offering Sala Leaves” for the Anxi
provincial governor and praised the excellent
Sala Tree characteristics of the tree, saying that, “It doesn’t
The sala tree (commonly known as sal) is a perennial shield common grasses and harbour evil birds.”
evergreen arbor of the Dipterocarpaceae family. Its As a Buddhist holy tree, sala trees were planted in
scientific name is Shorea robusta. Its original home many Chinese temples. The entry on Sala in Volume
is in the Indian and Malayan rainforests and it is 961 of the Taiping Imperial Encyclopaedia quoted
one of the Buddhist holy trees. Sutras record that Sheng Hong’s Records of Jinzhou and recorded
the Buddha Sakyamuni entered nirvana between a miracle about how a sala tree was grown in a
the two sala trees beside the Ajitavatã River monk’s room of Xian’an Temple in Baling in the
outside the capital of Kuśinagara (35 km east of 1st Year of Yongkang of the Jin Dynasty and was

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 Cultural Contacts

recognised by foreign monks later. Li Yong, the

governor of Hai Zhou wrote the Sala Tree Tablet
in the 11th year of Kaiyuan of the Tang Dynasty
(723 CE) in Huaiyin County, Chuzhou. There is
also the Tablet of the Sala Tree Song in the ruins
of Xiangshan Temple in Beijing’s Xiangshan Park
which was made on imperial order in the 38th Year
of Qianlong in the Qing period (1773). The poem,
carved in four scripts - Manchu, Mongolian, Han
Chinese and Tibetan - praised the Sala tree which
had been planted there for 1,000 years. Ouyang
Yongshu wrote his Poem of the Sala Tree which
went as follows, “There are many rare trees in Yi
and Luo. Sala trees were once famous, they are
An Aśoka tree pruned into the shape of an umbrella
often seen in Buddhist temples and they grow best
under the moon.” Therefore, the sala tree is not
only an illustration of the transmission of plants “The Queen saw a huge tree named Asoka in
between China and India but also played a role in the garden, its flowers were fragrant and fresh
the spread of Buddhist culture. and its leaves were very luxuriant.” Juan 6 of
(Chen Ming) the Travelling Notes on the Western Regions in the
Great Tang Dynasty recorded that Xuanzang visited
asoka tree Lumbini and saw that the Asoka tree under which
Asoka is a kind of tree belonging to the the Buddha was born had withered away. Because
Caesalpiniaceae family. Its scientific name is Saraca the Asoka tree was related to the birth of the
Asoca, originally grown in India, Indo-China and Buddha, it became one of the Buddhist holy trees
the southwestern region of China. It is one of the and all ancient Indian stone sculptures or frescoes
Buddhist holy trees. ‘无忧’（wu you）is the name describing the birth of the Buddha painted the
of the Asoka in Chinese and its transliteration is image of the tree. The artistic way of depicting the
a shu jia written with different characters (‘阿输 Asoka tree was introduced to China from India. In
迦’, ‘阿输柯’, ‘阿叔迦’, ‘阿菽迦’, etc). Juan 09 of the frescoes at Qizil and Dunhuang which depict
Baochang’s work, the Sanskrit-Chinese Lexicon, the birth of the Buddha, the image of the tree
says that A shu jia shu 阿菽迦树 (Asoka tree) must appears in many places.
be pronounced as A shu jia 阿输迦, and must be Duan Chengshi’s Miscellaneous Morsels from
translated as wu you 无忧 (meaning, one without Youyang (juan 3) claimed that the “flowers of the
sorrow). Juan 10 of the same work has Asoka 阿输 Asoka bloom once women touch them.” Some
迦 referred to as wu you hua shu 无忧华树 (Asoka species of the Asoka were planted in South China.
flower tree). Juan 26 of Huilin’s Sound and Meaning Moving Indian Buddhist stories which feature the
of All Sutras refers to A shu jia shu 阿叔迦树 (Asoka Asoka tree are popular in China.
tree) as wu you shu无忧树. Juan 03 in Collection of (Chen Ming)
Terms in Translation has A shu jia阿输迦 pronounced
as ‘A shu ke’ 阿输柯 (Asoka). The Great Treatise on Clover
the Perfection of Wisdom also translates it as wu you In the family Leguminosae, muxu (clover) is a general
hua shu 无忧华树. term for wild flowering annual and perennial herbs
The Sutra on Cause and Effect wrote that Queen which belong to the genus, Medicago. Its Latin name
Maya went to Lumbini Garden on February 8, saw is Medicago sativa Linn. It is also called ‘Musu’ (here
an Asoka flower and raised her right hand to pick ‘su’ represents different characters in Chinese),
it but her baby (the prince Siddhartha, the future Guangfeng Grass, Huaifeng Grass and Lianzhi
Gautama Buddha) was born from her right flank. Grass. With its introduction from India and the
Many sutras recorded that Queen Maya, the mother Western Regions (present-day Xinjiang), clover was
of the Buddha Sakyamuni, who had returned to her gradually developed into a common native product
family to give birth according to the convention of in China from an exotic plant.
the time, passed Lumbini Garden and gave birth The word for clover (Muxu) in Chinese is actually
to Prince Siddhartha under the Asoka tree. Juan a transliteration of a foreign word. In Sino-Iranica,
1 of the Sutra on Causes and Effects of the Past B. Laufer adduced its origin as buksuk or buxsux
and Present, translated by the Indian Tripitaka in Persian, burchak in Turkic or buso in Jirachi (a
Gunabhadra in the Song Dynasty, described the Caspian dialect). However, it is not conclusive. In
tree specifically, Chinese versions of Buddhist scriptures, various

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transliterations of it were listed, such as, Muxuxiang brought back grape and clover seeds. The clover
(fragrance of clover), also known as Saibeilixiang seeds later spread as horse feed from the Northwest
(Murti Mandala and Incantation Sutra), Muxuxiang, to many other regions of China. In Tang poet Wang
i.e. Saibilijia (Volume 7, Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sutra Wei’s poem, entitled Seeing Lieutenant Liu Off to the
translated by Yijing), Sabilijia, also called Muxu Protectorate of the Pacified West, it is mentioned,
in Persian (Volume 5, Usnisa Vijaya Dharani “Clover together with steeds were introduced into
Sutra) and (Sa)bilijia, Muxuxiang (Most Secret, China; grapes were brought back by Han envoys.”
Well-Established Dhāraṇi of the Vast Gem-Encrusted Another Tang poet, Bao Fang, depicted the same
Tower translated by Bodhiruci). According to the scene in two lines in his Random Thoughts, “From
collation of the Chinese version with the original time to time, the heavenly horses feed on alfalfa, ‘Hu
Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sutra, Saibeilixiang, and Sabilijia ren’ (the non-Han people from the Western Regions)
were all transliterated from ‘Sprikka’. They were the for years have offered their best grape wines!”
same terms used in two sutras of the Tang Dynasty; Upon its introduction into central China, clover
according to Li Yan’s Miscellaneous Names in Sanskrit, not only served as horse feed but was also used as a
‘Muxu, is a transliteration of svista’ and the Chinese- herb and food. Its medical functions were seen in Tao
Sanskrit Buddhist Dictionary also followed the same Hongjing’s Alternative Records of Famous Physicians.
wording. In any case, muxu is no doubt a foreign In the Tang work Materia Medica for Dietotherapy,
word regardless of its various transliterations. it was written that clover can be mixed with sauce
or used for cooking porridge or congee. It can
“benefit the organs and help one keep fit. Also, it
can clear away harmful heat (‘qi’) and free the small
intestine to remove heat-toxin.” In Yuan Dynasty,
it was widely planted to feed the huge number of
horses needed by the regime’s military operations.
Besides, the prescription to make clothes fragrant
recorded in Sun Simiao’s work Valuable Prescriptions
for Emergency, also used clover fragrance.
(Chen Ming)

Cucumber
Trapusa is a species of cucurbitaceous plant, also
known as teasel gourd, cucumber or trichosanthes
cucumeroides. Its scientific name in Latin is Cucumis
sativus. Its country of origin is India. The history
of the cultivation of trapusa is very ancient, with
many varieties. It could be divided, in light of its
Clover ecological features into big trapusa, small trapusa,
fruit trapusa, quadri-leaf trapusa and hothouse
Clover has many varieties and the most famous trapusa. Since its introduction to different regions
one is Medicago sativa which was used to feed of China, it has become a common vegetable on the
livestock. The Chinese work Compendium of Materia household menu.
Medica, says, “The plant grows from its perennial It is said that Zhang Qian, who was sent by the
root and can feed cattle and horses.” Clover emperor of the Western Han Dynasty on a diplomatic
originated from Persia and was introduced to India mission to the Western Regions, brought back to central
and various countries in the Western Regions. China the seeds of this plant. Hence, it was called
Kophen produced clover along with sandalwood the gourd from Hu, referring to the non-Han people
trees, pagoda trees, Catalpa trees, bamboo and so inhabiting that region in ancient China. Later, it was
forth. In Dayuan (present-day Ferghana in Central renamed cucumber (huanggua). There are two versions
Asia), horses loved eating clover. It is said that the about its renaming. In the first version, the 拾遗本草
herb was introduced from the Western Regions (Shiyi bencao) compiled by Chen Cangqi pointed out,
after the famous envoy Zhang Qian went there “To avoid the taboo of Shi Le, the northerners changed
during the Wudi Emperor’s reign in Han Dynasty. its name to cucumber, and this name has persisted
After that, clover gardens appeared in the capital of to the present day.” Because Shi Le, king of the later
Chang’an. As recorded in Volume 1 of Record of the Zhao kingdom belonged to the Hu nationality, he did
Western Regions in the History of the Han Dynasty, not want to hear this reference to ‘Hu’ in connection
after Dayuan was conquered, the King of Dayuan with this plant. The second version is as follows. It
offered their horses as tribute and the Han envoys is recorded in the Gleaners’ Record, composed by

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 Cultural Contacts

Du Bao of the Tang dynasty, alternately titled the they are known as the “three pungent medicines”,
Gleaners Record during the reign period of Daye, that “three pungent spices”, “three hot drugs” or “three
emperor Yang of the Sui dynasty had named huchuang pungent drugs”. Pepper has traditionally been a
胡床 as jiaochuang 交床. The emperor also renamed major commodity in the overseas land and sea trade
of India and has also been commonly used in the
traditional Chinese medicine and food.
Pepper is one of the favourite condiments and
also one of the main spices carried in the maritime
trade between Asia and Europe. Pepper’s major
medicinal value, according to traditional Chinese
medicine, lies in its stimulation function, which
can reduce qi and remove cold and stimulate
secretion in the stomach to help digestion. Pepper
has played an important role in the history of
Indian drugs for several centuries. It has long been
considered and used as aromatic stimulant and
carminative to expel gas from the gastro-intestinal
tract. It works well in treating dyspepsia, flatulence
and hemorrhoids and sometimes, it can be used as
an anti-malarial drug. Pepper can be also used as
external medicine.
The History of the Later Han Dynasty (juan 78)
Cucumber first recorded that pepper originated in India. The
Record of the Western Regions of the Great Tang by the
hugua as the "white dew" cucumber (bailu huang gua), famous monk Xuanzang recorded that schinus molle
and eggplant as the purple gourd from the Kunlun originated in A Zha Li kingdom and that schinus molle
(mountains).” The written record titled Zhen guan looked very much like the pepper of Shu. The You
zheng yao, compiled by Wujing of the Tang dynasty Yang Essays by Duan Chengshi recorded that pepper
confirms that during the fourth year of the Daye reign originated in Magadha and was called marica. It
period of the Sui dynasty emperor Yang, this change said that it looked like the Han pepper and tasted
in name was brought into effect. pungent and was usually used as seasoning.
In the Sanskrit version of the Thousand Character In medieval Buddhist literature, marica is written
Classic compiled by Yijing of the Tang Dynasty, as Mo Li Zhe (摩梨遮), Mo Li Zhe (么哩者), Mo Li
cucumber was transliterated as duoluobusuo and its Zhe (末栗者), Mo Li Zhe (摩唎遮) and Mo Lian Zhe
Sanskrit equivalent is ‘trapusa’. In the Chinese version (摩练遮). There was a close relationship between
of the Buddhist Sutras, we find the same translation pepper and the Magadha kingdom. Pepper was an
of the name. In the work, Biography of Sakyamuni expensive imported commodity in the Tang period.
Buddha, a trader’s name was given as Dilifusuo with For instance, when the household of the wealthy
the added note, “Hu gourd as pronounced by people prime minister Yuan Zai under the Emperor Daizong
in the Sui Dynasty.” The monk Yijing translated it as of the Tang dynasty (762-779 CE) was raided after
cucumber in the fifth volume of the Buddhist classic, he relinquished office, countless precious objects
Legend of a Poor Monk. From the Sanskrit version of were found including 800 hu of pepper.
Legend of a Poor Monk, we know that the Sanskrit
equivalents of this term are trapusã or trapuùã
while Hu gourd and cucumber are just its colloquial
versions. Watermelon is called tarbuza by Indians
today which originated from the Persian language
and bears a clear resemblance to trapusa.
(Chen Ming)

PEPPER
Pepper is a kind of liana vine that originated in India.
The term generally refers to the dried or ripe fruit
piper nigrum. The Sanskrit term for pepper is marica
or maraca and it is known as black pepper in English.
Another Sanskrit term for pepper is ūṣaṇa meaning
hot. Together with long pepper and dried ginger, Pepper

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 Cultural Contacts

The nature and usage of pepper was recorded in many occasions. A Study of the Eastern and Western
the Materia Medica of the Tang Dynasty in Overseas Oceans by Zhang Xie of the Ming period that pepper
Medicinal Plants by Li Xun of the five dynasties, in Calicut was valued at 200 fen per 400 catty. The
the Ri Huazi Medicinal Plants, Augmented Materia Statutes of the Ming Dynasty in its special regulations
Medica and Classified Materia Medica of the Song on trade, mentioned pepper, pomade, herbs and
Dynasty, and in the Compendium of Materia Medica other objects. Pepper from South Asia and other
of the Ming Dynasty and other traditional Chinese places were purchased based on the price fixed
writing on herbs. The third volume of The Account by the imperial storehouse, namely, three strings
of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas by the Chinese per catty. Prices varied according to the different
monk Yi Jing also pointed out that ginger, pepper origins of the product. The Ming dynasty imported
and long pepper had the function of dispelling a great quantity of pepper. According to the record,
cold. In the Buddhist medical system, there are in March of the first year of the Zhengtong period
five medicines that can be taken freely for general (1436), the imperial court imported 300 kg of
well-being namely pepper, Haritaki, āmalaka, pepper which showed the large amount of pepper
Bingxile and long pepper. Among the esoteric imported from South Asia. Pepper was also closely
Buddhist documents translated in Chinese namely related with people’s daily life. In the 22nd year of
the Saptabuddha aṣṭabodhisattva mahādhāraṇī sūtra the Yongle period (1424), the government stipulated
(the mahādhāraṇi sūtra chanted by the seven that the salaries of civil and military officials in
Buddhas and the eight Bodhisattvas) and the Beijing would be converted into and paid in the
‘Bodhisattva Avalokiteṣvara Cintāmaṇi dhāraṇī sūtra’ form of pepper and hematoxylin, of which pepper
(the Cintāmaṇi dhāraṇī sūtra of the Boddhisattva was valued at 16 strings per catty.
Avalokiteṣvara), pepper is mentioned as serving as (Chen Ming)
an important ingredient for eye drops. In several
esoteric rituals, pepper was also seen as bringing Bhallataka
rain, the rule of joy and happiness, good luck and Bhallataka is a kind of anacardiaceae plant in India.
respect when used. In the medical manuscripts Its Latin scientific name is Semecarpus anacardium
unearthed in Dunhuang written by Chinese and L. and its fruit, stem and oil can all be used as
non-Chinese (Sanskrit, Uighur, Khotanese, etc.), medicine. Its translated English name is Marking-
prescriptions containing pepper were relatively Nut which means Semecarpus fructus. Bhallataka
common which reflected the specific impact of is one of the medicines introduced to China from
Indian pharmacology. In the Song Dynasty, the ancient India.
sixth chapter of Eyes of Humans and Gods by Huiyan
and Zhizhao, and the eighth chapter of the Jingde
Transmission of the Lamp recorded that “Persians eat
pepper” which indicated that in the Tang and Song
periods the image of Persians, Indians and people
of the southern seas in the eyes of the Chinese was
deeply influenced by social factors. It is also a simple
and clear manifestation of cultural exchange.
The pepper trade between ancient India and
China was mainly documented in Chinese literature,
especially in those works of literature about the
traffic between China and foreign countries as well
as literature about the southern regions. In the
Siming (now Ningbo) port of the Southern Song
Dynasty, the pepper imported from South Asia was
considered as one of the most valuable goods.
The Daoyi zhilue, written by Wang Dayuan of
the Yuan period, said that pepper, mostly stored in A brief guide to the processing of
Chinese medicine by Lei Gong, this book
warehouses, was produced in Calicut (Kerala), India is preserved in the library of the research
but the quality was worse than that in Shimosato institute of Chinese traditional medicine
(another place in Kerala). Two-tenths of the value
of the pepper trade went as tax. Shuyuzhouzilu, a In the translated Chinese version of Buddhist
record of the countries around China, written by scriptures, the transliterated names of Bhallataka
Yan Congjian of the Ming Dynasty, recorded that include “Boluodejia” (Volume II of the Scriptures
Bengal was the source of pepper. Bengal paid of Powerful Wushuse King Moming translated by
tribute including pepper to the Ming Dynasty on Ajitasena, Tripitaka of India, north to China in

35
 Cultural Contacts

Tang Dynasty), Baluodeji (Volume I of Suxi Jieluo prescriptions of bhallataka. This medicine was used
Scriptures translated by Shujiapoluo, Tripitaka of by doctors of the main stations of Silk Road including
India of Tang Dynasty), Baluodeji (Volume I of Suxi Tochara (present-day Sinkiang), Khotan (located
Jieluo Scriptures) and Poluodajia (Volume 17 of at the south edge of Tarim Basin), Tubo (present-
Fundamental Shrauta sutra of Generous Manjushri day Tibet) and Uygur (present-day Sinkiang) and
translated by Tianxizai of Northern Song Dynasty) transmitted to Dunhuang and central China. The
and the translated names are “Indian lacquer wood” use of it undoubtedly influenced traditional Chinese
and “dye wood”. doctors of Tang and Song Dynasties. They used
In literature on traditional Chinese medicine of bhallataka for hair blacking, which reflected the
the Tang and Song Dynasties, this medicine has two general mood of society of Tang and Song Dynasties
names, “Poluode” and “Poluole”. The etymology of namely pursuing longevity.
the latter one may be Tocharian language bhallàràk. Ancient bhallataka was also transmitted to
The properties of this medicine was firstly recorded Persia (present-day Iran), Arab, Greece and Rome.
in the Gleaning Chinese Materia Medica written by Doctors mainly use its juice or fruit as medicine
Chen Cangqi of Tang Dynasty: “Poluode, with acrid to treat the discomfort of central nervous system,
flavour, warm and non-toxic, is mainly for cool air epilepsy and improve memory. The herb works
mass, warming the middle, nourishing waist and and medical prescription collections such as Al-
kidney and breaking the hypochondroium abdominal Qanun fi al-Tibb by Ibn Sina, Al-Saydanah fi’l-tibb
mass. It can dye moustache and hair into black. Its by Al-Biruni, Al-Kulliyyat by Ibn Rushd (Averroes
tree is like willow and seed is like castor bean. It in Latin), Kitab al-jami‘fi-mufradat al-adwiya
grows in Western countries.” Bhallataka was listed wa al-aghdhiya by Ibn Al Baytar and The Small
as a newly added medicine in Precious Herbs of Dispensatory by Sabur Ibn Sahl all record the
early Song Dynasty. The “prescription of change properties and usage of bhallataka. Bhallataka
of white hair and moustache in Recent Effect” of was also called habb ai-fahm (nut of apprehension)
Medical Secrets of an Official (Volume 32) written and famous for its capability of enhancing and
by Wang Tao of Tang Dynasty, “prescription of improving memory. The use of bhallataka by Islam
lead comb for black moustache and hair” and medical science was transmitted to China again
“prescription of permanent maintenance of black- through Huihui Formularies of Yuan Dynasty. The
dyed moustache and hair” in Imperial Benefits of remaining volumes of Huihui Formularies have
Time of Peace and Prosperity (Volume 41) written reserved two groups of names of bhallataka namely
by Wang Huaiyin et al. of Song Dynasty and F043 the translations of Arabic baladhur and Persian
“prescription of change of hair” in Dunhuang baladur, “Baladu’er”, “Biladi’er”, “Biladu’er” and
mainly use this medicine to dye moustache and “Boladi’er” and translations of Arabic anaghardiya
hair. The records of this medicine in works of or anaqardiya (Greek anacardia), “Anha’erdiya” and
traditional Chinese medicines and herbs after “Anjia’erdiya”. The related medical prescriptions
Tang and Song Dynasties basically repeated that in Huihui Formularies such as “Dabiladi’ermazhun”,
in Gleaning Chinese Materia Medica and didn’t “Biladi’ermazhun”, “Xiaobiladi’ermazhun”,
add new knowledge. The pictures of bhallataka “Mazhunbiladi’er”, “Mazhunibaladu’er”,
described in Herb Essentials and Addendum of “Anha’erdiya” and “Dawawuxisana” can basically
Tripterygium Wilfordii Preparation Enchiridion of be deemed as the interpretations of bhallataka
Ming Dynasty are not the material description of prescriptions from Islam medical works in China.
this medicine but artistic imagination. Ancient The spread of bhallataka in our country has two
Japanese scholars’ knowledge of bhallataka mainly different historical periods and respectively came
derived from doctors of central China such as the from Indian medical science (including Buddhist
Records of Herb Colour leaves by Weizong Jujun and medical science) and Islam medical science but
Introduction of Herb Family by Songgang Xuanda. the source is actually Indian ayurveda. Although
In the medical books of ancient ayurveda system, bhallataka is not a very famous medicine, its use and
such as Caraka-samhita, Susruta-samhita and spread process are quite complex and from which
Astanga-hrdaya-samhita, bhallataka is one of the we can get a glimpse of the diversity of influences of
common medicines. The prescriptions prepared ancient Indian medical culture to medical sciences
with it, such as bhallataka crisp and bhallataka of many East and West areas.
oil, are mainly used for rasayana-tantra and hair (Chen Ming)
blacking. Bhallataka is also used in many sadhana
drubtabs of Esoteric Buddhism. It can be found cotton
from the unearthed documents that The Bower Cotton is a fibre plant which belongs to the genus
Manuscript excavated in Kuqa and Jivaka-pustaka gossypium in the mallow family Malvaceae, originally
and Siddhasara excavated in Dunhuang all include produced in the subtropical zone. There are different

36
 Cultural Contacts

categories including African cotton, Asian cotton, Foreign Countries in the Song period several centuries
upland cotton, island cotton, etc. Asian cotton later recorded that products of Namburi (Ma’bar
originated from India. Its Sanskrit name was Karpāsa in South India) included foreign cloth in different
and it was translated as “吉贝” (jibei) and “劫贝” colours and douluo cotton. Products of the Chola
(jiebei) in Chinese. Fa Yun pointed out in juan 7 of kingdom were said to include coloured silk cloth
A Collection of Terms in Translation that “劫波育” and Ceiba cloth. The Record of Eminent Monks in the
(jieboyu) or “劫贝” (jiebei) is silk cotton. It is “迦波 Southern Seas compiled by Chen Dazhen et al., in the
罗” officially. The tree is named after its flower and Yuan period noted that varieties of cloth made in
can be woven into cloth. It is named “氎” (die) in present-day South Asia included white foreign cloth,
Gaochang. It is as big as a tree south of Kophen while flower foreign cloth, bi cloth, sheared flannelette
its size is small in the north and its shape is like the and sheared coarse cloth etc. Tribute offered by
local mallow. It has a shell which can be cut for a different Indian states to the Chinese emperor in the
catkin-like flower. It can be woven into cloth.” White Yuan Dynasty included such cloth. Wang Dayuan’s A
cotton meant cotton cloth woven with wild African Brief History of Island Countries from the Yuan period
cotton carried along the Silk Road in Central Asia, recorded that Banavasi in India (southeast of Karwar,
and sometimes it also was called Pahat in ancient in Karnataka) made fine cotton cloth. Textiles made
Turkish. In India, cotton used for cloth was called in Bengal included bi cloth, gaoni cloth, douluo
Tūla, which was translated as 'douluo’ in Chinese. cotton etc. Other areas including Bhandari are
Hui Lin described “douluo’ cotton in juan 11 of Sound recorded as making textiles such as "douluo" cotton,
and Meaning of All Sutras saying that “douluo cotton "badan" cloth, big hand towels, cotton cloth, big
was very soft, just like willow catkin or grass catkin”. flower towels, silk cloth, "pisang" cloth, fine cloth,
In juan 7 of A Collection of Terms in Translation, it was cotton piece goods etc. The Travels of Marco Polo
explained: “Douluo cotton can also be called duluo recorded that Indian Malabar (the south-western
which is the name of a tree. The cotton is from the coast of India) made black pepper, ginger, cinnamon
tree, and it is named so. It is like willow catkin, or bark and cotton cloth, and Chinese merchants went
translated as willow flower. It is called douluo flower to India by ship and brought fabrics, precious metals
and also known by the name maomao.” and traditional medical materials with them, taking
back local specialties. Juan 5 in Mao Ruizheng’s
Record of the Interpreters of the August Ming wrote
that tribute offered by Kulam (Kollam in present-day
Kerala) in the fifth year of Yongle (1407) included a
pearl umbrella, white cotton cloth and black pepper.
Again, it was mentioned that tribute offered by
western countries included a black and yellow tiger
and a douluo cotton quilt in the 21st year of Yongle
(1423). Ma Huan’s Overall Survey of the Oceans Shores’
in the Ming Dynasty recorded that Bengal produced
five or six types of fine cloth, including bi cloth
and turmeric cloth. During the reign of Zhengtong
of the Ming Dynasty, Bengal offered white bi cloth
Asian cotton and douluo cotton as tribute. Juan 326 of the History
of the Ming Dynasty mentions that tribute from
A piece of plain-woven cloth unearthed in a boat- Kulam included white cotton cloth, while tribute
like coffin in Wuyi Mountain, Chong’an, Fujian, in from Calicut included danbolan cloth and bi cloth.
the early 1980s dates back about 3,000 years. It is After the late Ming and the early Qing periods, the
the earliest cotton cloth in China which shows that trade between India and China was increasingly
the history of India-China trade in cotton cloth is controlled by the West, as India came under British
very long. African cotton (levant cotton) with short colonial domination. From the 1780s, raw cotton
and thick fibre was introduced into western China from western India was increasingly exported to
from Africa in the Eastern Han Dynasty (1st to 3rd China, to pay for the rapidly escalating imports of
century CE). Cotton cloth and cotton clothes have Chinese tea by the British. The export of raw cotton
been unearthed in places such as the southern part played an important role in the growth and early
of the Tarim basin, Hetian and Lop Nor in Xinjiang development of the port of Bombay (now Mumbai),
several times. Cotton textiles unearthed in the ruins and in the development of the shipbuilding industry
of Niya in 1959 showed that cotton cloth had been in this region. Later in the 19th century CE, with
very common in that area in the later part of the the growth of the modern Indian textile industry,
Eastern Han Dynasty. Juan I of Zhao Rushi’s Record of cotton yarn began to be exported from India to

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 Cultural Contacts

China. At the end of the 19th century CE, Indian was used as medicine occasionally, it was mainly
yarn dominated the import market for cotton yarn used for flavouring and colouring materials in
in China. By the second decade of the 20th century religious ceremonies. Volume 6 of the Sarvāsti-vāda
CE, the Chinese manufactured cotton yarn industry translated by Yi Jing recorded eight main Indian
developed and the import of cotton yarn from India pigments and colours: red purple dye, red violet dye,
was greatly reduced. However, in this period, trade saffron, cinnabar/vermilion, deep greenish black or
in raw cotton and cotton yarn, as well as in varieties deep green or deep blue, alizarin red, yellow lead
of piece goods including unbleached cloth, coarse and sappan lignum. Monks were not allowed to use
cloth, fine cloth, foreign standard cloth and twill them to dye clothes.
cloth, etc. continued. It can be said that cotton and
cotton cloth were historically India’s main exports to
China and made an important contribution to India-
China economic exchange.
(Chen Ming)

saffron
Saffron is a kind of perennial flower of crocus of
the freesia genus as well as a common flavouring.
It originated in South Asia and is known as kuïkuma
in Sanskrit, jáphrán in Bengali, zafran or kesar in
Hindi, safran in Marathi and saffron in English,
and its scientific name is Crocus sativus. Saffron’s
Sanskrit name has several transliteration forms
in China, such as Guanjiumo (官久摩), Tujumo (
荼矩磨), Tujumo (荼矩么) etc. Its transliteration
in Volume 7 of the Asokavadana translated by Red tulip in meticulous intricate
Indian embroidery
Tripitaka Samghavarman was 官久摩 but in the
annotated translation of the text it was written as 翻
郁金香 (fanyu jin xiang). The flavour was introduced Many places in India abound with saffron. The
from the central part of India to Kashmir (Jibin). Book of the Liang Dynasty (juan 54) recorded that
Yujinxiang (saffron), is not what is often seen “saffron originated from Kophes, the colour of the
today as the herbaceous tulip plant under the lily flower was yellow and fine and it was similar to the
family, but it refers to saffron (Crocus Sativus). The hibiscus flower and was wrapped in many layers as
Siddhasara-Nighantu pointed out that “asra is also in the case of a lotus flower. People of that country
called kuïkuma”. Xuan Ying’s Sound and Meaning of plucked the flowers and offered them to Buddhist
temples. They would accumulate the fragrant dead
wood from the plant every day so that they could
be used as manure. Businessmen bought them from
the temples and sold them to other countries.” Yi
Jing’s An Account of Buddhism Sent from the South
Seas described the origins and circulation of Indian
medicines and wrote that “haritaki grew mostly in
the west, saffron grew in the north and the west
abounded with asafoetida; borneol was rarely found
in the South Seas. Three types of cardamom grew
in Douruo. Two-coloured lilacs grew in the Kulun
Kingdom.” Travelling Notes on the Western Regions in
the Great Tang Dynasty also recorded the origins of
Saffron various fragrant medicines. In Juan 1, we find the
reference that Kapisa “was famous for horses and
All Sutras pointed out that “kuïkuma is the name saffron. The kingdom had many rare goods.” Juan
of a tree and comes from Kophen and its flowers 3 mentions that Uddiyana “abounded with grapes,
are yellow. After picking them, they are then left while sugar cane was rare. It produced gold and iron,
in a place to rot and become soft and mushy. The and it is suitable for saffron.” Darel of Uddiyana
juice is pressed and mixed with other materials to “abounded with gold and saffron.” Kashmir “was
yield a flavour and the flower dregs are fragrant and famous for dragon studhorses, saffron, fire balls and
can be also made into a flavouring.” While saffron herbs.” Juan 12 similarly contains a reference to

38
 Cultural Contacts

Jabula, saying that it “abounded with flowers and which could produce an immediate effect. This was
fruits, and is suitable for saffron.” The Dunhuang an Indian prescription and its main functions were
text of Hui Chao’s Memoir of a Pilgrimage to the to cure diseases including deafness and blindness
Five Regions of India recorded that Kophen (Kamãr) as well as prematurely greying hair and to protect
“was famous for syzygium jambos (rose apple), teeth and prolong life. The prescription used four
barley, wheat and saffron, etc.” The Brief Account herbs including altemanthera juice, raw fructus oil,
of the Wei Dynasty and Chen Zangqi’s Supplement lactogenesis and liquorice, with saffron and was
to Materia Medica recorded the place of origin and very effective. Juan 2 of the work Flavor Vehicles by
properties of saffron. It grew in Da Qin (the Chinese Zhou Jiazhou (1582-1658) quoted from the Overall
name for the eastern part of the Roman empire) Survey of Land, the observation that Samarkand in
and it produced flowers in February and March Central Asia was a great country in the Western
with colours like red and blue. Its flowers could be Regions, which abounded in yellow saffron looking
picked in April and May. Its taste was bitter, flat like cotton rose hibiscus.
and atoxic; it could expel all foul odours and get Thus, we can see that saffron was used as an
rid of evil air and diseases in bodies. Owing to its item in diplomatic exchanges as well as a flavouring
fragrance, it would be used in aromatic drugs. in religious ceremonies and in daily life. It was a
The section on Records of Foreign Countries in popular commodity in both India and China and it
Juan 54 of the Book of the Liang Dynasty recorded was introduced into China from different countries
that Funan sent envoys who offered auspicious including India.
Indian sandalwood images, sala leaves, fire balls, (Chen Ming)
saffron and storax in the 18th year of Tianjian
(519 CE). Several places offered saffron as tribute ZEBU
to the Tang Dynasty as well. In Juan 198 of the Fengniu is a kind of mammalian bovid with sarcoma
Book of the Old Tang Dynasty, it is recorded that on its shoulders and back which is native to India. Its
King Siladitya sent envoys to Chang’an in the 15th alternate names include Fengniu (here, Feng refers
year of the Zhen Guang reign (641 CE), and sent to different characters in Chinese) and Zebu and
envoys several times with offerings of saffron and it was famous for the physical characteristic that
bodhi trees. Essentials of the Tang Dynasty (Juan “there is eminentia (protuberance) of flesh in their
100) recorded that Kapi offered saffron in the neck.” According to the archaeological evidence,
21st Year of Zhen Guang (647). It noted that “its the domestication of Zebu began in the region of
leaves looked like those of the ophiopogon root, southern Asia 8,500 years ago. In the unearthed
its flowers bloomed in September and looked like cultural relics from the Indus Valley Civilisation
cotton rose hibiscus in purple and green and its period, there are to be found seals depicting the
fragrance can be smelt from over 10 steps away. It Zebu. In ancient Indian myths, the most famous
doesn’t have seeds, so it must be planted from the bull of this kind is Nandi, the mount of Siva. Owing
root.” Juan 221 of the New Book of the Tang Dynasty to this, this kind of bull has been worshipped by
recorded that the king of the Dong’an Kingdom in Hindus in India.
the Western Regions sent envoys to offer Persian
mules, bigleaf hydrangea, saffron and refined
sugar in the 22nd year of Kaiyuan (734 CE). The
scholar Edward Hetzel Schafer pointed out that
this kind of plant was introduced into China in the
Middle Ages and that saffron powder sold well in
the Tang Dynasty. At that time, it was used as an
aromatic drug/medicine made out of the fragrance
of the plant to treat toxins in the body. The Tang
and Song Materia Medica and the Compendium of
Materia Medica of the Ming Dynasty recorded the
properties of saffron.
Juan 17 of Sun Simiao’s Valuable Prescriptions for
Emergency noted that the prescription for lavender
incense used aromatic drugs such as holy basil, Detail from an Indian painting of an ox
lilac, green cinnamon, green ‘mu xiang’ (radix
saussureae), thick leaf croton (croton crassifolius), There are many records in documents of the
saffron, sweetgum, mastic etc. Juan 31 of Wang Han and Tang dynasties of Fengniu in India and
Tao’s Medical Secrets from the Royal Library referred the Western Regions of present-day China. Han
to a lotus herbal ointment made out of lotus seeds Shu - Biography of the Western Regions recorded

39
 Cultural Contacts

that there were animals such as Fengniu, buffalo, Star Raft recorded in detail the trade in porcelain
elephants, big dogs, macaca and peacocks in between Zheng He’s fleet and the countries it
Kawmira (present-day Kashmir). The History of the visited. Apart from gold, silver, satin, dyed silk, etc.
Later Han Dynasty (Juan 180) recorded that there Bengal was supposed to have the greenish white
were rare and valuable animals, such as lions, flower porcelain also. This means that in this period
rhinoceros, Fengniu, peacocks and sparrows in Chinese porcelain was popular in India and ordinary
Antiochia where the land was hot and wet. In the merchants were engaged in buying and selling it.
Wei and Jin dynasties, as well as the Sui and Tang
dynasties, both Qiuci (present-day Kuqa, Xinjiang)
and Samarkand (the region between the Syr Darya
and Amu Darya) had Fengniu.
There was no Fengniu in Central China previously
and they were introduced from India and the
Western Regions. In June of the second year of
Yangjia in the Eastern Han period (133 CE), Shule
(present day Kashgar, Xinjiang) presented the court
with lions and Fengniu. In the Western Jin Dynasty,
countries in the Western Regions offered more
than 200 species of rare animals such as Ferghana
horse, asbestos linen, Fengniu, peacocks and huge
elephants as tribute. Fengniu had been introduced
in the south of China even earlier. In the Classic
Book of Mountains and Rivers, Fengniu was known
as the “wild ox of the South.”
(Chen Ming)

Porcelain Chinese porcelain

Porcelain was one of the main articles traded
between ancient India and China. Since the Tang Juan 326 of the History of the Ming Dynasty recorded
and Song dynasties, porcelain has been one of that tribute offered by Bengal included the greenish
China’s major exports. Porcelain exported from white flower porcelain. The Mongolian court too
China in the late Tang and Five dynasties period was used to use wonderful Chinese porcelain in the
unearthed in the ruins at Arikamedu and Korimedu 17th century CE. With the coming of the Age of the
in Puducherry in southern India. Chinese porcelain Great Voyages in the 16th and 17th centuries CE,
has also been excavated from Banbhore near Karachi the Dutch East India Company and the British East
and Brahminabad in Sindh, Pakistan and from other India Company began to play the main role in the
parts of South Asia including Sri Lanka. Porcelain circulation of Chinese porcelain. Large quantities of
exported to India reached port cities of the Indian porcelain were transported to the southeast coastal
subcontinent by sea via the Malay Peninsula from areas of India, and then trans-shipped to Europe.
Chinese ports such as Guangzhou and Quanzhou. More than 10,000 pieces of porcelain could be
Juan 1 in Zhao Rushi’s Record of Foreign Countries loaded onto a ship.
from the Song period recorded that merchants As a byproduct of the trade between the Chinese
of Namburi traded in porcelain. Wang Dayuan’s coast and Bombay (Mumbai) starting from the later
A Brief History of Island Countries from the Yuan 18th century CE, a significant quantity of Chinese
period recorded that there were many varieties porcelain was imported by Bombay traders. As a
of porcelain including greenish white porcelain, result, several museums in India as well as a number
green porcelain, coarse bowl and greenish white of Parsi families who were connected with the
flower porcelain among goods being traded in the China trade, have significant collections of Chinese
Indian subcontinent. Volume 2 of the Travels of porcelain today.
Ibn Battuta mentioned that the best porcelain was (Chen Ming)
made in Guangzhou and Quanzhou and that it was
exported to many places including India and even silk
reached as far as Maghreb, Africa. Jingdezhen in The production of silk has always been identified
the Ming period was the main source of porcelain with the Chinese civilisation and it is widely accepted
exported from China. During Zheng He’s maritime that the Chinese people have developed the art and
expeditions, the main commodity carried by his technique of silk-making for a longer time and to a
fleet was porcelain. Fei Xin’s Overall Survey of the higher level of sophistication than any other people.

40
 Cultural Contacts

Silk is produced by unravelling the filament of the and Rome as testified to in the Greek work The
cocoon spun by certain species of moth which is Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Chinese silk came to
then woven to produce silk cloth. Although Chinese India both via the Central Asian route and also very
silk has, from antiquity, been the home of the finest likely from southwest China via Assam.
domesticated and processed silk, the technique of Given the importance of silk to the Chinese
producing raw silk from a number of wild species economy, there were strict prohibitions against the
of moth has been known to many other societies technique of silk production being made known to
including India. For instance, recent studies have the outside world. Nevertheless, Chinese sericulture
revealed the presence of silk in sites of the Indus and silk-making techniques did find their way out
Valley Civilisation in present-day Pakistan. Dating of China and into other societies. It is believed that
back to the 3rd millennium BCE, this is the earliest Chinese sericulture reached north India in the 3rd
evidence of silk outside China. century CE. It was probably carried by travelling
Buddhist monks and built upon already existing
methods of silk production in India. It is also possible
that the technique of producing the characteristic
muga silk of Assam, which involves drawing the silk
thread after the moth has come out of the cocoon,
was brought to the region through the migration of
Tibeto-Burman peoples.
Even though India produced its own silk during
the Gupta period (4th-6th centuries CE), there was
continued demand for Chinese silk which was of a
Stone image of Han dynasty weaving in China different quality. There are a number of references
to the import of Chinese silk into India particularly
The earliest archaeological evidence for silk from the 7th and 8th centuries CE. The 8th century
in China dates back to about 2570 BCE from the CE text Kuvalayamala records that Indian merchants
Huzhou Neolithic site of Qianshanyang. Chinese silk were engaged in silk trade with Southeast Asia and
is identified with the domesticated species of moth, China. The demand for painted silk fabric from
Bombyx mori. The silkworms are reared primarily China is described in Malatimadhavam and the Jaina
on a diet of white mulberry leaves. The silkworm Mahakayas and is also mentioned by 8th century
cocoons are boiled in a slightly alkaline solution in CE Indian writers such as Dandin, Rajasekhara,
order to remove a gum called sericin. By boiling the Damodara Gupta and Dhanapala. Chinese sources
cocoons before the moths come out, it is possible to record that Tang embassies as well as Chinese
draw out an unbroken filament which results in a pilgrims to India carried with them large quantities
very fine quality of the silk. of Chinese silk, both to defray their expenses and to
make religious donations and purchase commodities
related to Buddhist practices. The demand for
Chinese silk began to decline only after the 11th
century CE, with north India becoming a major
production centre for silk. Nevertheless, even as late
as the 13th and 14th centuries CE, there is evidence
Princess in natural silk of a large amount of Chinese silk coming into India
through ports on the Malabar and Coromandel
Chinese silk was known and prized in India coasts and through Bengal.
since early times, quite possibly as early as the (Madhavi Thampi)
5th century BCE. The term cinamsuka, referring
to silk cloth from China, was mentioned in the embroidery
Brhadkalpabhasya and in the famous Indian epic Embroidery in China is a form of textile art going
Mahabharata. Another version, probably with a back to ancient times. Embroidered Chinese textiles,
design, was known as uchitra cinamsuka. The term especially silk, always constituted a valued item of
cinampatta was also known in this period. Chinese export to other countries. However, it is only in
silk flags (cinamsukamketo) are also mentioned in the 19th century CE that Chinese embroidery found
the Sanskrit play Sakuntala by Kalidasa. A Chinese a ready market in India and came to influence
type upper garment used by Indian royalty in the Indian textile traditions. This was a result of the
early years of this era was known as cinamcolaka. maritime trade between China and western India
Chinese silk was not only in demand within India and especially Bombay (Mumbai) in that period.
but from India it was shipped further west to Arabia Indian merchants of the Parsi community were

41
 Cultural Contacts

very active in this trade and travelled regularly borders were embroidered. Gara saris that depicted
to Canton, Macau and Hong Kong. In this period, typical scenes from Chinese life were called by the
a flourishing export art industry, including Parsis as "cheena cheeni no garo".
embroidery, had developed around Canton that The popularity of Chinese embroidery was such
catered to the tastes of European and other foreign that Chinese peddlers used to regularly visit homes
merchants. Parsi merchants visiting Canton were in the towns of western India, such as Bombay,
struck by the beauty and fine workmanship of the Surat and Bharuch, bringing embroidered wares
Chinese embroiderers and they started to purchase from China for sale. They could be seen in the
embroidered silk pieces to take back home. As streets of these towns as late as the 1960s. Chinese
the demand for Chinese embroidered goods embroiderers themselves also sometimes came
began to grow in India, visiting Parsi merchants to India. Over the course of time, embroidery
began to commission Chinese embroiderers to workshops were set up in some of these places in
produce goods according to the needs and tastes of which Indian craftsmen were trained in Chinese
their community. style embroidery. Lately, there has been a revival
of interest in this tradition, particularly among the
Parsi community and efforts are being made to
keep it alive.
(Madhavi Thampi)

cat’s eye
Cat’s Eye is a kind of chrysoberyl (which is also
known as chrysoberyl jade). Zhao Rushi’s Records
of Foreign Countries (Juan 2), written in the Song
period, had this description of it: “Cat’s Eye was
thumb-sized ie it was a small stone and was as clear
as a Cat’s Eye, and so it got its name.” Juan 2 of
Zhou Qufei’s Lingwai daida (Notes from the land
beyond the passes) in the Southern Song Dynasty
Chinese embroidery on a Parsi saree pointed out that in the Chola kingdom in South
India, “to make ring agate, they always use things
The embroidery of the Guangdong region was like Cat’s Eye.”
considered one of the four great styles of embroidery
in China even though it is believed to have started
fairly late, towards the end of the Ming Dynasty
(late 16th and early 17th centuries CE). To suit the
tastes of the Parsi women, who were their principal
customers in India, the Chinese embroiderers
adapted their craft. Their embroidery, in white or
light coloured threads, was usually done on a dark
background of red, purple or black silk, using a very
fine satin stitch, or the tiny kha-kha stitch which
gave the impression of the cloth being covered with
seed pearls. The typical Chinese motifs that were
used included flowers according to the seasons
such as peonies, plum blossoms, chrysanthemums
and lotuses. Bamboo, pomegranates, peaches
and animals and birds of all descriptions, such as Cat’s eye
the pheasant, peacock wild geese and the crane
which were also very common. One of the most The Yuan period work by Wang Dayuan, Daoyi zhilue
vivid examples of the interpenetration of Chinese (A Brief History of the Island Countries) claimed that
and Indian textile traditions was the heavily Udaipur in present-day Odisha in India produced
embroidered saris worn by Parsi women called the cloth, "Cat’s Eye", sapphire and kingfisher feathers.
gara. The embroidery on these gara saris was either Both "Cat’s Eye" and "Cat’s Eye stone" in Ma Huan’s
done by Chinese embroiderers or else was done in Ming period work, Yingyai shenglan (the Overall
imitation of the work of Chinese embroiderers. The Survey of the Ocean’s Shores) were considered
embroidery sometimes covered the whole sari while precious gems. Zhang Hongzhao pointed out in
often the body of the sari was left plain and only the Stone Elegance that "Cat’s Eye" could be divided

42
 Cultural Contacts

into three types ie crystal, crocidolite (Tiger’s Eye rituals. In Fa Yun’s Collection of Terms in Translation
and Eagle’s Eye) and chrysoberyl (which was also (Juan 7) it is written that “dukūla is fine cloth.”
called chrysoberyl Cat’s Eye and oriental Cat’s Eye). In the same Juan, it is further mentioned that “屈
Ancient West Asia, India and China often traded 眴 'quxuan/qushun' (Kārpāsa) can be referred to as
gems and Cat’s Eye was one of them. Persian and the larger woven variety of fine cloth. It is woven
Arabian merchants were good at identifying gems, with cotton flowers in a blue black colour. It is also
and many of them came to China to engage in trade. that variety of fine cloth which is used to kāsāya
Juan 186 of the History of the Song Dynasty recorded (weave), one that has been handed down by the
that an imperial decree was issued in the first year Dharma (Buddhism).”
of Jianyan (1127) declaring that foreign merchants In Translated Bengali Terms recorded in Shen
were forbidden to import precious and impractical Maoshang’s Extensive Records of Four Foreign Lands
things such as terebinth, ring agate and Cat’s Eye. from the Ming period, there is an entry on “fine
Linschoten’s Voyage to the East Indies recorded that cloth: dukūla”. Wang Dayuan’s A Brief History of
the best cat’s eye was from areas such as Ceylon (Sri Island Countries written in the Yuan period recorded
Lanka) and Pegu. Ceylon Cat’s Eye was also called that Banavasi (southeast of Karwar in present-day
cymophane, which was light green with a hard state of Karnataka in India) “made fine cotton cloth,
texture, beautiful colour and highly valued. Indians and people on ships exchanged it for tin”. Men and
attached much importance to the properties of this women in Bengal “wrapped their heads with fine
gem and often brought it to China to sell at a high cloth and wore long gowns.” Textiles made in Bengal
price because they knew it was much appreciated included “‘bi’ cloth, ‘gaoni’ cloth, ‘douluo’ cotton,
by the Chinese. etc.” Many men and women in Sindh (in present-day
(Chen Ming) Pakistan) also wore “long gowns made of fine cloth”.
Records of Eminent Monks in the South Seas compiled
fine cloth by Chen Dazhen et al, in the Yuan period recorded
Xibu is the Chinese term for a particularly fine cloth that varieties of cloth made in South Asia included
produced in India in ancient times. The characters for white foreign cloth, fancy patterned cloth of foreign
this in ancient China included sui (繐) and zhu (纻) origin, ‘bi’ cloth, sheared flannelette, sheared coarse
etc. The Analytical Dictionary of Characters writes that cloth etc. It is recorded that tribute offered by Indian
sui (繐) refers to fine white kapok cloth from Sichuan. states in the Yuan period included foreign cloth. Ma
If the cloth is fine and thin, it is called "xibu". Also, Huan’s Overall Survey of the Oceans Shores in the
hu (纻) is fine cloth.” Sichuan cloth was transported Ming period mentions that Bengal produced five or
to eastern India via Yunnan and Myanmar and then six types of fine cloth. One of them was named ‘bi’
re-transported to other areas in India and to Daxia cloth and its local name was ‘byramput’. It was over
(Bactria) in the early Western Han period. When three "chi" in width and five "zhang" and six or seven
Zhang Qian visited the Western Regions, he saw "chi" in length and it was as fine as pink letter paper.
articles such as Sichuan cloth and Qiong bamboo Other species included turmeric cloth, ‘sanah-baf’
transported from north India in Daxia. in Farsi, cāwtar (沙榻儿, sha ta er in Chinese) and
malmal etc. During the reign of Zhengtong of the
Ming Dynasty, Bengal offered white "bi" cloth and
"douluo" cotton as tribute. In Juan 326 of the History
of the Ming Dynasty, the gifts sent by Kulam included
white cotton cloth while those sent by Calicut
included "danbolan" cloth and "bi" cloth.
(Chen Ming)

Early Modern Era

Cotton cloth Opium Trade
The trade in opium was one of the main forms of
Since India was the land of origin of Asian cotton, commercial interaction between India and China in
it is natural that it has been the original producer the 19th century CE. Conducted under conditions of
of cotton cloth. Buddhist Sutras contain quite a few British colonial domination of India, it had a major
descriptions about Indian cloth. The fine cloth of impact on the relations between China and Britain
ancient India was actually quite a rare commodity. and between China and the West as a whole. It
Tantric believers often used white cloth or fine was the immediate cause of the two Opium Wars
cloth to paint images of Avalokitesvara for Tantric (1839-42 and 1858-60). It significantly affected the

43
 Cultural Contacts

particularly acute for Britain after the passing of the

Commutation Act in 1784 by the British Parliament,
which, by drastically lowering the duty on tea, led
to an exponential increase in tea imports. Initially,
the British sought to make up for the trade deficit
by exporting raw cotton from western India for
which there was a market in China. This was the
beginning of the so-called triangular trade between
China, Britain and India. However, from the early
decades of the 19th century CE and particularly
after 1820, opium became the chief export to China
from India.
Initially, virtually all the opium sold in China
The opium warehouse of the British East India Company in India from India was grown in Bengal and Bihar and was
known as Bengal or Patna opium. However, from
economic and social conditions in China, through early 19th century CE, opium from the western part
its effects on trade flows and fiscal stability, and of India, known as Malwa opium, also began to find
through the devastating effects of addiction to the a market in China and eventually overtook Patna
drug among different strata of Chinese society. opium in sales. Unlike Patna opium, Malwa opium
It also contributed to the breakdown of existing was not grown under the East India Company’s
structures of trade and authority in China. At the supervision but by a large number of private
same time, the opium trade also had a significant cultivators. Malwa, being cheaper than Patna
impact on the revenues of the British administration opium, had bigger sales and greatly expanded the
in India and on the economies of those Indian market for the drug in China.
regions that were connected with the production of An elaborate network of cultivators, brokers,
and trade in opium. shippers, agency houses and agents, closely linked
Opium had been imported to China primarily with the East India Company and its officials, was
by Arab and Turkish traders since the 7th and involved in the shipping of opium from India to
8th centuries and was used mainly for medicinal China. It has been estimated that opium revenues
purposes. The consumption of opium in China as a comprised about 17-20 per cent of the government
narcotic dates from early 18th century CE. In 1729, revenues in India in the heyday of the trade. On the
the Yongzheng emperor issued an imperial edict China coast, British, Indian, American and other
prohibiting the domestic sale and consumption traders colluded with local smugglers, officials
of opium and later the import of opium was also and merchants to bypass the strict prohibitions on
specifically prohibited. Nevertheless, opium opium. British and other opium smugglers brought
continued to be smuggled into China. the opium to various secret locations up and down
The growth of the opium trade in the 18th century the China coast in order to expand their sales as
CE was directly linked with the interests of the much as possible. The highly addictive nature of the
British East India Company. After the battles of drug made it ever harder for the Chinese authorities
Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), the British East to contain the trade.
India Company gained control over large parts of The adverse consequences of the opium trade
eastern India. As part of its efforts to raise revenues, for China were many. China’s once favourable
the Company organised the large-scale cultivation balance of trade began to reverse itself and silver
of opium in areas under its control. The Company
was reluctant to carry contraband opium in its
own ships to China, in order not to jeopardise its
highly profitable trade with China. So, it auctioned
the opium to private traders who smuggled it into
China. The Company derived huge profits from the
sale of opium in this manner. The sale of opium to
China also served another purpose. In the course of
the 18th century CE, the export of tea from China
to Britain increased rapidly. The balance of trade
became increasingly unfavourable to Britain as the
market for British products in China did not expand
much and consequently Chinese tea had to be paid
for mainly with silver bullion. The problem became Chinese people smoking opium

44
 Cultural Contacts

began to flow out of the country in increasing point, there developed a preference for the coarse
quantities. This had a destabilising effect on the type of yarn produced by the Indian mills in the
currency, causing particular hardship to cultivators Chinese handloom industry.
whose tax payments had to be made in silver. The
smuggling of opium on a large scale contributed
to corruption and administrative breakdown in
affected sectors. The effect of opium addiction on
human productivity and on social life cannot be
measured. The impact on the Chinese military forces
amongst whom opium addiction spread rapidly was
particularly alarming from the point of view of the
imperial government. All this prompted the Jiaqing
emperor and his high officials taking a firm decision
to enforce the existing regulations and clamp down
on the opium trade. To put this policy into effect, Cotton weaving factory of Yihe opened up in Shanghai in 1895
the emperor despatched the Imperial Commissioner
Lin Zexu to Canton in 1839. As is well-known, Lin From an average of just 2,000 bales of cotton yarn
Zexu’s efforts to put an end to the opium trade were per year in the period 1875-79, by 1895-99 the
met with Britain’s decision to launch the naval Chinese market imported an average of 452,000
attack on China, known as the First Opium War bales of yarn from India per year. The market share
which resulted in China’s defeat. After the Second of Indian mills rose to 96 per cent, compared to
Opium War, the Qing government was compelled to that of Britain which dropped to four per cent. Of
legalise the opium trade in 1860. the total exports of cotton yarn from the mills of
In spite of the legalisation of the opium trade, Bombay, the exports to China exceeded 92 per cent
the Chinese government continued to try and place for the entire period from the 1870s to the first
restrictions on the trade throughout the 19th century decade of the 20th century CE. This shows that the
CE. Opium production within China itself also trade with China played a very important role in
began to give competition to opium imports from stabilising the Indian textile industry in its early
the last decades of the 19th century CE. Eventually, decades of growth. Among the well-known mills of
an agreement was signed by the British envoy in Bombay that supplied the China market were the
China and the representative of the Chinese foreign China Mills, Moon Mills Jacob Sassoon Mills, and
ministry, the waiwubu on May 8, 1911, to end the Tata’s Swadeshi Mills.
export of opium to China by 1917. However, the
uncertain political situation in China resulting from
the "Revolution of 1911" affected sales of imported
opium and brought a premature end to the opium
trade. The trade came to an end finally with the
cessation of all transactions at the Bombay Opium
Warehouse at the close of 1913.
(Madhavi Thampi)

india-china
Cotton yarn trade
Manufactured cotton yarn was one of the main
exports from India to China in the last quarter of Cotton yarn spindle
the 19th century CE and the early years of the 20th
century CE. The earliest Indian textile mills which From the turn of the 20th century CE, however,
were established in the 1850s initially produced Indian cotton yarn exports to China began to decline
cloth for the domestic market but they soon mainly on account of competition from Japanese
found that they could not compete with imported yarn which was cheaper. In 1906, India still supplied
British cloth. Therefore, from the 1870s, Indian 77 per cent of Chinese yarn imports but a decade
textile entrepreneurs, many of whom already had later, Japanese yarn exports had overtaken India’s
experience of trading with China in commodities exports. By 1924, the Indian share of the Chinese
like raw cotton and opium, turned to the China cotton yarn market had fallen to 24 per cent. By
market where there was a demand for cotton yarn. this time, Chinese production of manufactured
Although China had been importing manufactured cotton yarn had also begun to displace both Indian
cotton yarn almost entirely from Britain until that and Japanese imports. The decline in yarn exports

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 Cultural Contacts

to China almost immediately affected the textile 1940, it became a founding member of the Hong
industry in India with several mills in Bombay Kong General Chamber of Commerce, and in 1952,
having to close down fully or partially. However, it joined the Indian Chamber of Commerce Hong
in the long term, it was one of the factors that led Kong. Some of the major sectors in which it has been
to the industry in India reorienting itself to produce involved are agri business, metals and minerals and
cloth for the domestic market again, instead of ship-chartering. Textiles and housewares are other
focussing on producing yarn for export. major areas in which the group is involved.
(Madhavi Thampi) (Madhavi Thampi)

Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co E D Sassoon & Co

Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co, (today known as the E D Sassoon was the second of eight sons of David
Abdoolally Ebrahim Group, AEG) was one of the Sassoon, founder of the wealthy and powerful Sassoon
earliest Indian companies to set up in Hong Kong, group of companies that had major commercial,
just after its establishment as a British colony. It is the industrial and financial interests in China from
oldest firm in Hong Kong surviving under its original the mid-19th to mid 20th century CE. Belonging to
name and is the oldest surviving client of the Hong the Baghdadi Jewish community, David Sassoon
Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC). arrived in Bombay as a refugee in 1832 and very
quickly moved into the China trade. Bombay was
the headquarters of their business empire for about
one century although various members of the family
eventually relocated to England in later decades.
The Sassoons initially derived most of their
profits from the opium trade in which they had a
commanding presence. Later, they diversified into
many different lines of business, becoming one of
the most prominent business families of Hong Kong
and Shanghai. E D Sassoon, who was first sent to
China by his father in 1844, eventually separated
from the parent Sassoon Company. In 1872, he set
up his own company known as the E. D. Sassoon
Company with its headquarters at 5 Renji Road in
Shanghai. In Chinese, it was known as the (New
Sassoon) company, to distinguish it from the
Shaikh Jaffer E Ebrahim original Sassoon Company. Eventually, under
the two subsequent heads of the company, Jacob
The company was founded in 1842 by Seth Sassoon and Victor Sassoon, it went on to become
Ebrahim Noordin, a member of the Dawoodi Bohra the dominant Sassoon company in China.
Muslim community from Bombay. Dawoodi Bohras
from Gujarat have played a significant role in the
overseas trade from western India to the Persian
Gulf and East Africa as well as to various ports in
East and Southeast Asia. Initially trading in cotton,
silk, opium and tea, the company has over the
decades expanded and diversified into many other
areas. It was one of the companies whose opium
stocks were confiscated just prior to the Opium
War, which received compensation for it in 1864.
The AEG began the first cross-harbour ferry service
between Tsim Sha Tsui and Central in Hong Kong in
1842. In the same year, it opened offices in Canton
and Shanghai. In Shanghai, its office was located
on the Shanghai Bund. Although they vacated that
office following the revolution, they reopened it in Shaxun mansion in Shanghai
2004. Since then, they have opened branch offices
in Shenzhen and Dalian as well. Apart from their interests in the opium trade,
In Hong Kong, the AEG’s headquarters since E D Sassoon Company had a thriving cloth business,
1920 has been located at 20 Stanley Street. In importing cloth from Britain and supplying it to the

46
 Cultural Contacts

most prominent stores on Shanghai’s Nanjing and

Tianjin Roads. They also had a profitable insurance
business. From the end of the 19th century CE, they
ventured into manufacturing, setting up spinning
and weaving factories, and rice, paper and flour
mills as well as breweries. Among their most
successful ventures was their involvement in real
estate. They controlled the Hua Mao Real Estate
Company, Shanghai Real Estate Company and Far
East Real Estate Company. Some of the most iconic
buildings on the Shanghai Bund were owned by
them. They owned among others the Huamao Hotel,
Cathay Hotel, Guo Tai Grand Theatre and the grand
building they constructed in 1928 known as Sassoon Ludunzhi hospital in Hong Kong, China, founded in the middle of the
House. In the insecure conditions of China in the 19th century by the family of Ludunzhi
1920s and 1930s, they made huge profits through
the issue of shares and bonds. The E D Sassoon 1756. In this period, as a by-product of the tea trade
Company was also prominent in the business life between China and Britain, raw cotton from western
of Hong Kong although their interests reduced after India began to be shipped to Canton (Guangzhou)
the beginning of the 20th century CE. to pay for the rapidly growing export of tea from
The main business interests of the E D Sassoon China. Enterprising Parsi merchants were among
Company in Shanghai were wound up by Victor the earliest to profit from the spurt in trade between
Sassoon in 1948 but they continued to receive rent Bombay and China from the last quarter of the
from their many properties there for some years 18th century CE. One of the earliest Parsi firms
until these were finally taken over by the Chinese to be established at Canton was that of Cowasjee
Government in 1958. Pallanjee & Co (1794). The great Parsi merchant
(Madhavi Thampi) and benefactor Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, who played
a major role in the growth of Bombay in the first
Parsis half of the 19th century CE, made his fortune in the
The Parsis are an Indian community of ethnic trade with China. The raw cotton and opium trade
Persian origin who are followers of Zoroastrianism. and the shipping business with China contributed
The original Parsis migrated to the west coast of to the rise of many other prominent Parsi families
India in the 8th or 10th centuries CE to avoid religious as well, including the Banajis, Wadias, Petits, Tatas,
persecution in their original homeland of Persia. Dadiseths, Camas and others. Later, when several
Originally a largely agricultural community, they leading Parsi businessmen ventured into the newly
later ventured into and made their mark in trade emerging cotton textile industry in India in the
and modern industry. From the later 18th century CE second half of the 19th century CE, they exported a
until the early 20th century CE, they played a major significant portion of the cotton yarn produced in
role in the overseas trade from the port of Bombay their factories to China.
(Mumbai), particularly in the trade between Bombay The Parsi merchants showed a greater willingness
and the China coast. to travel and reside in China than any other Indian
merchants involved in the China trade. Jamsetjee
Jejeebhoy himself travelled several times to China as a
young man. As a result, hundreds of Parsi men in the
19th century CE were to be found in Canton, Macau
and later Hong Kong, Shanghai and other Chinese
ports. In the early years of the 19th century CE, at times
there were more Parsis in Canton than there were
British. They were often referred to by the Chinese as
baitouren (whiteheads) on account of their distinctive
white caps. Before the Opium War, Parsis lived in
Macau and in the foreign factories on the Canton
waterfront. One of these even came to be known as the
A Parsi family in India ‘Parsi factory’. Parsi cemeteries in Canton and Macau
have tombstones dating back to 1829.
The earliest Parsi merchant known to have sailed Parsis played a pioneering role in the early
to China was Heerjee Jeevanjee Readymoney in settlement and development of Hong Kong after

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 Cultural Contacts

1842. Among those who purchased land on the location on the trading routes between Central Asia
Hong Kong waterfront in the first land auction and India gave it an advantage in trade. Shikarpuri
conducted by the British authorities on the island in traders were mainly Hindus who for several
June 1841, were Dadabhoy Rustomjee, Heerjebhoy decades functioned under the patronage of the
Rustomjee, Framjee Jamsetjee and Pestonjee Durrani rulers of Afghanistan. They were known
Cowasjee. Starting out initially in the import-export for their sophisticated banking systems, which
trade from Hong Kong, the Parsis soon ventured included the issuing of bills of exchange (hundis)
into diverse business activities, including real which lent a degree of security and stability to the
estate, share brokerage, the hospitality industry, trading activities across a wide arc of Central Asia.
banking and so on. One of them, Dorabji Naorojee, Although never large in number, Shikarpuri
founded the cross-harbour transport service that traders could be found in many of the major oasis
evolved into Hong Kong’s famous "Star Ferry" towns of Xinjiang. In towns like Yarkand, their
service. The Parsis were also known for their number was large enough for them to be able to
involvement in charitable activities in Hong Kong. maintain their own resthouses which were known
The individual, who played the pioneering role in as "Hindi serais". Shikarpuri traders rarely settled
the establishment of the University of Hong Kong, down in Xinjiang, but would come for short trips
was a Parsi businessman known as H N Mody. The without their families. They were known as very
Ruttonjee family established one of the earliest anti- shrewd moneylenders who would lend small sums
tuberculosis sanatoriums on the island. of money to a large number of people at high rates
This community played an interesting role in the of interest. Their moneylending activities frequently
transmission of cultural influences from China to brought them into conflict with the local people.
India in the 19th century CE. Deeply impressed by the Moneylending was also, strictly speaking, illegal
skill of Chinese silk embroiderers at Canton, Parsi according to local laws. However, the role the
merchants commissioned Chinese embroiderers to Shikarpuri merchants played in providing quick and
produce beautifully embroidered silk for the sarees easy credit was important to the bazaar economy
worn by the women of their families back home. and accounts for the fact that they were tolerated by
This was the origin of the famous Parsi gara saris, both the authorities and the local populace. In the
which have become an intrinsic part of Parsi textile early decades of the 20th century CE, their number
culture. Parsi merchants imported large quantities in Xinjiang dwindled to almost nothing.
of Chinese porcelain, furniture and other artefacts (Madhavi Thampi)
which had a significant impact on the lifestyle of the
elite in Bombay at that time. They also commissioned Ismaili traders
Chinese painters like Lamqua and others to paint oil Traders from the Ismaili Muslim community from
portraits of themselves and their families. western India formed an important segment of the
With the changing occupational structure of the Indian mercantile community on the China coast in
Parsi community back in India, the number of the 19th century CE. The Ismailis were a traditional
Parsi traders and businessmen in China began to trading community who took advantage of the new
dwindle in the early 20th century CE. Nevertheless, opportunities held out by the European penetration
there continues to exist a small but flourishing Parsi of Africa and Asia. Although better known for their
community in Hong Kong today whose links with commercial role in East Africa, they also had their
China go back many generations. presence in eastern Asia. In the early 19th century
(Madhavi Thampi) CE, like the Parsi and Jewish traders from India,
they engaged in trade in raw cotton, opium and
Shikarpuri financiers other products of western India. Among them was
During the 18th and 19th centuries CE, merchants the firm of Cassumbhoy Nathabhoy which was
from the town of Shikarpur in Sindh (present-day operating in Canton (Guangzhou) in the 1830s. After
Pakistan) played a very important role in the caravan the establishment of the British colony in Hong Kong
trade between India and Central Asia. They were in 1842, some of the Ismaili merchants shifted base
particularly important as financiers for this trade from Canton to Hong Kong. An 1864 list of 28 Indian
which played a significant role in binding together traders compiled by the Hong Kong government
the economies of northwestern India, Afghanistan, contains the names of 15 Ismaili traders and firms.
southeastern Iran and several khanates of Central Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co, which was founded in
Asia. In this context, Shikarpuri traders were to be 1841, remains today the oldest firm operating in
found in the bazaars and towns of Xinjiang as well. Hong Kong under its original name. Established by
Shikarpur in Sindh was not a place which Ebrahim Noordin, it traded in beans, spices, raw silk,
could boast of its own agricultural products sugar and cotton yarn among other things. By and
or manufactured goods. However, its strategic large, the Ismaili enterprises were family firms. Some

48
 Cultural Contacts

to Hong Kong to assist in the business. Jamsetji

Nusserwanji, the real founder of the family’s
fortunes, spent four years in China from 1859 to
1863 during which he opened a branch of the firm
in Shanghai as well. In the great Bombay stock
market crash of 1864, the Tatas was among the
many business firms of Bombay that was badly
jolted and they temporarily retrenched their China
business interests. A few years later, however,
Nusserwanji visited China and Japan and tried
Lao Huo Hua “Zhuangyuan Jidi”, published as a
to revive the firm’s branch in Hong Kong. He
overseas version in Hong Kong collected porcelain and other items of art during
this trip, marking the start of the Tata collection
of the Ismailis acted as brokers for Parsi firms of oriental art which is now housed at Chhatrapati
while others were independent merchants. Records Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (formerly the
show that in 1920, there were 240 Ismailis in Prince of Wales Museum) in Bombay. Nusserwanji
Hong Kong but their number was only 60 by 1938. invested funds in a firm run by two of his
Some Ismaili merchants also established their brothers-in-law, Dadabhai and Sorabji, which had
base in Shanghai and took advantage of growing been trading for some time in East Asia under the
opportunities there. Families such as the Tyabjis, name D C Tata, and the firm was renamed Tata &
Roghays, Ghattys and Kurs made considerable Co Nusserwanji and his son J N Tata occasionally
fortunes from trade with China. retained some interests in this firm which was
(Madhavi Thampi) managed by Dadabhai and then his son.
When the Tatas entered the textile manufacturing
The Tatas business in India just like some other Indian
The Tatas are one of the most prominent business businessmen they began to export the chief product
families of India with extensive business interests of their mills, cotton yarn, to China. By the end of
both in India and abroad in diverse sectors such the 19th century CE, the Indian share of the market
as iron and steel, textiles, power, automobiles, for imported cotton yarn in China had risen to 96
information technology and so on. Primarily known per cent. Before the Tatas, it was believed that only
as pioneers of Indian industry, they began their lower quality cotton yarn produced in India would
operations as a trading firm in the middle of the 19th sell in the Chinese market. However, in the Tatas’
century CE. Their trading links with China date back Swadeshi Mills in Bombay, a fine quality cotton
to this period. yarn was produced that also sold very well in China.
In the early part of the 20th century CE, however,
Indian cotton yarn was displaced in the China
market first by Japanese manufactured yarn, and
then by yarn produced in Chinese factories.
For a few years in the later 19th century CE, the
Tatas had also sought to challenge the monopoly of
the big European shipping companies in the routes
to the East. They set up their own Tata Line in
collaboration with the Japanese shipping company,
Nippon Yusen Kaisha. However, in the fierce "freight
war" that was waged by the European shipping
companies against this new entrant to the field, the
Tatas suffered losses and had to withdraw from the
Members of the Tata family steam navigation business.
Although trade with China was never the main
The founder of the business, Nusserwanji Tata, focus of the Tatas’ enterprise, it nevertheless played
in December 1859 established a firm called some role, especially in the early phase of their
Jamsetji & Ardeshir in Hong Kong’s Hollywood growth. In the last few years, the Tata Group once
Road, with two partners, Premchand Roychand again established its presence in China in various
and Kaliandas. This firm imported opium and sectors. These include information technology, steel,
cotton from India, and exported tea, silk, camphor, engineering and consumer products. At present, the
cinnamon, copper, brass and Chinese gold. Tata Group has over 3,000 employees in China.
Nusserwanji sent his son, Jamsetji Nusserwanji, (Madhavi Thampi)

49
 Cultural Contacts

The Harilelas Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy

The Harilelas are currently the most prominent Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy (1783-1859) dominated
business family of Indian origin in Hong Kong. They Bombay’s trade with China in the first half of the
wholly-own the multi-million dollar Harilela Group 19th century CE. An orphan from the small town of
of Companies which has a very strong presence Navsari in Gujarat, he came to Bombay (Mumbai)
in the hospitality industry in Hong Kong besides as a youth to assist in his uncle’s bottle-selling
having substantial real estate and other business business. Sensing the boom in the export trade in
interests in Hong Kong and outside. Their presence raw cotton to China, Jamsetjee was quick to seize
on the China coast dates nearly one century back the opportunity. He made several trips to China
when Naroomal Lilaram Mirchandani arrived in in quick succession in the first decade of the 19th
Guangzhou (Canton) from his home province of century CE and thereby established the foundations
Sindh (then a part of India and today in Pakistan). of a flourishing business. It was in the course of
He set up a shop to export antiques primarily to one of his voyages that he became acquainted with
Europe from China. After several years, in 1930, he William Jardine who later co-founded the well-
brought his wife and sons over to join him in China. known China coast firm Jardine Matheson & Co.
After 1807, Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy directed his vast
and expanding commercial empire from Bombay.
He dealt mainly in raw cotton and opium trade
with China. He was the principal shipper of opium
to Jardine Matheson & Co, in China and was an
immensely powerful figure in the trade from Bombay.
His ships, such as Good Success, Bombay Castle, Fort
William, Charlotte and so on, were familiar sights in
the Canton-Macau region. A large number of smaller
merchants who engaged in trading with China from
Bombay consigned their goods to his shipping
H N Harilela
business. Apart from his close relations with other
Indian merchants and with British merchants in
Since the antiques business was hit hard by the Great Bombay and the China coast Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy
Depression of the 1930s, the Harilelas reoriented also had good relations with Chinese merchants at
their business. They set up a mail order custom Canton (Guangzhou), especially the wealthy Hong
tailoring business that became very successful. They merchant, Howqua (Wu Bingjian).
managed to survive through the difficulties caused by
the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong during World
War II. After the War, they were commissioned to
produce uniforms for the British army which helped
them to prosper further. However, in 1960, under
the aegis of the newly-formed Harilela Group, the
family once again reoriented their business interests,
moving into the real estate business and hospitality
industry. They acquired substantial property in Hong
Kong’s most prestigious locations. Among the many
hotels that they own and operate are the Holiday Inn
Golden Mile in Hong Kong and the Westin Resort
in Macau. Four generations and about a hundred
members of the Harilela family reside together in a Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy Tata and his
huge mansion in Kowloon Tong. Chinese scribe
The current chairman of the group, Hari Harilela,
has served as Hong Kong Affairs Advisor to the From the 1840s, changes in the maritime trade
Chinese Government and in 2000, a was awarded between India and China including the influx of private
the Gold Bauhinia Star by the Hong Kong Special British traders and the appearance of steamships
Administrative Region government. The Harilelas worked to the disadvantage of Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy
are a good example of versatility and business and his commercial empire. His firm no longer
acumen displayed by Indian entrepreneurs who dominated this trade, particularly after his death in
have managed to overcome challenges and thrive 1859. Nevertheless, Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy remains
in the turbulent conditions of 20th century CE China. an iconic figure in the history of Mumbai, especially
(Madhavi Thampi) because of his numerous charitable activities which

50
 Cultural Contacts

included his role in setting up some of Mumbai’s established the firm of Hormasji Mancherji Cama’s
best-known hospitals and educational institutions. An Sons in China in 1842. Hormasji’s grandson was K R
interesting legacy of Jamsetjee is the voluminous Cama. He was sent to China from Calcutta in 1850
letters he left behind which are preserved even till to join his uncle’s firm, Messrs Ruttonji Hormasji
today in the library of the University of Mumbai and Cama & Co of Canton. He became a partner of this
which are among the main sources we have for the firm in 1852 and spent a total of four years in China
early growth of trade between Mumbai and China. until 1854, after which he returned to India.
(Madhavi Thampi) The life and career of K R Cama is illustrative
of the connection of Bombay traders, particularly
K R Cama of the Parsi community, with China in the 19th
Kharsedji Rustomji Cama (1831-1909) was an and early 20th centuries CE. The wealth that some
eminent Parsi social and religious reformer and of these merchants acquired through China trade
educationist. He was a multifaceted personality enabled them on the one hand to move into other
and scholar whose name was associated with many business ventures in industry and finance and on
educational institutions in his native city of Bombay the other hand to engage in philanthropic activities
including the University of Bombay. back at home. Even while he was in China, K R
Cama made numerous endowments for educational
purposes back in India. After his initial forays into
business, K R Cama devoted himself to his reformist
activities and educational reform. He played an
active role in the Asiatic Society of Bombay as well.
(Madhavi Thampi)

H N Mody
Hormusjee Naorojee Mody (1838-1911), a Parsi
merchant from Bombay (now Mumbai), was a
K R Cama leading entrepreneur and philanthropist of Hong
Kong. He accumulated considerable wealth from
He took particular interest in female education. He his diverse business enterprises but is remembered
also actively campaigned to reform the practice of today mainly for the pioneering role he played in
Zoroastrianism in India, aiming to purge it of what the establishment of the University of Hong Kong.
he believed were unnecessary rituals. He came from
a long line of China traders and himself had spent
some years doing business in China as a young man.
The first members of the Cama family to establish
trading links with China were the brothers,
Mancherji and Edalji Cama. Of Mancherji’s three
sons, all of whom traded with China, one of them

H N Mody

H N Mody arrived in Hong Kong in 1860 (some

sources say in 1858) from Bombay on the suggestion
of his uncle, Jehangirjee Buxey, to help him with
his auction business. In the 1860s, he appears to
have worked in the opium trading firm of S A Seth
and also the Bank of Hindustan, China and Japan
before taking over the auction house of his uncle
after the latter’s death. While working in the bank,
Mody got acquainted with the Calcutta Armenian
Bell Tower of Bombay University Catchik Paul Chater with whom he formed a highly

51
 Cultural Contacts

successful business partnership later under the Chater came to Hong Kong in 1864 as a clerk in
name of Chater & Mody in 1868. It ventured into the Bank of Hindustan, China and Japan. With the
share brokerage and also into real estate. Early help of the Sassoon business group, he ventured
on, they realised the potential of Kowloon on the into share brokerage and had great success. In
mainland opposite Hong Kong island and heavily 1868, he established a flourishing partnership with
invested in property and development in Kowloon. the Parsi businessman Hormusji N Mody under the
Today, there exist a Mody Road and Mody Square name Chater & Mody. But his major achievement
in Kowloon’s Tsim Sha Tsui area, named after H N was in the sphere of real estate development,
Mody. Chater & Mody was famed for its harbour helping to develop a significant portion of the
development and land reclamation schemes in island’s Central district. In 1886, he set up the
Kowloon and Hong Kong including the Praya Hong Kong and Kowloon Wharf and Godown
Reclamation scheme along the northern waterfront Company to develop Kowloon Harbour on the
of Hong Kong island. mainland and Kennedy Town in the northwestern
H N Mody was known for his many charitable part of the island. His grandest project, however,
endowments in Hong Kong, including towards the was the Praya Reclamation scheme to develop
building of a Seaman’s Institute and a Soldiers’ the central waterfront area on the northern shore
and Sailors’ Home. However, his outstanding of Hong Kong island. This was done through the
contribution to the growth of Hong Kong was his company which he formed in1889, Hong Kong
work to establish the University of Hong Kong at Land. He was a visionary who pushed to bring
a time when few considered it important that this electricity at an early stage to Hong Kong through
largely commercial colony have its own institution his Hong Kong Electric Company which he formed
of higher education. Mody pledged then a huge in 1889. In recognition of the role he played in
sum of $1,50,000 provided that the sum could be Hong Kong’s development, he was appointed to
matched from other sources. He persisted with the Executive Council of Hong Kong in 1896 and
the project in the face of initial indifference until knighted by the British government in 1902. He,
finally, the foundation stone of the main building however, continued to support institutions back
of the university was laid in March 1910, a year in India like his alma mater, the well-known La
before he died. On the 90th anniversary of the Martiniere College in Calcutta.
inauguration of the University of Hong Kong on Chater bequeathed most of his estate, valued
June 17, 2002, a bronze bust of Mody was installed at nearly $5 million, to Hong Kong on his death
in the Main Building in recognition of his role in the including the fabulous mansion ‘Marble House’ on
establishment of the University. Conduit Road. After the death of his wife in 1935,
(Madhavi Thampi) this became the residence of the Commander-in-
Chief of the Navy. He also built up a very valuable
Paul Chater art collection which includes some of the best
Catchik Paul Chater (September 8, 1846 – May 27, visual representations of life in the ports of the
1926) was an Armenian businessman from Calcutta China coast in the 19th century. Although most of
who played a major role in the early development the collection was destroyed during the Japanese
of Hong Kong. His Chinese name was Zhe Da 遮打. occupation what remains is housed in the Hong
There are many monuments to Chater in Hong Kong Kong Museum of Art today.
and the centrally located Chater Garden on Hong (Madhavi Thampi)
Kong Island is named after him.
Ellis and Elly Kadoorie
Ellis Kadoorie (1865-1922) and Elly (Eleazer
Silas) Kadoorie (1867-1944) were two brothers
from the Baghdadi Jewish community of Bombay
who established the foundations of a big business
empire in Hong Kong during the late 19th century.
Today, CLP Holdings, the main company of the
Kadoorie Group, which was founded in 1890,
supplies power to a major portion of Hong Kong.
The total wealth of the family is estimated to be
nearly US$10 billion.
Elly Kadoorie came out to Hong Kong at the
age of 15. He initially worked for the immensely
successful fellow Jewish business family, the
Catchik Paul Chater Sassoons, and served in Shanghai, Tianjin, Ningbo

52
 Cultural Contacts

of education. Among other things, Ellis Kadoorie

established a school for Chinese boys in Hong Kong
which was acknowledged by the British authorities
there to be "one of the finest school buildings in
the Colony". He built five other schools as well for
Chinese students including in Guangzhou (Canton)
and Shanghai. He also set up a school for Indian boys
in Hong Kong as he believed that their requirements
were different from those of Chinese students.

Kadoorie Family

and other treaty ports. Although he prospered in

the service of the Sassoons, he decided to set up on
his own, borrowing some money from his brother
Ellis who joined him in Hong Kong in 1883. He set
up the brokerage firm of Benjamin, Kelly and Potts
in Hong Kong. The brothers also developed their
business interests in Shanghai. During the period
of World War I, they acquired stakes in the China
Light Company in Hong Kong and in Hong Kong
and Shanghai Hotels. In Shanghai, Elly Kadoorie’s
residence was the fabulous Marble Hall which he
built on what is today’s Yan’an Xi Lu. During the
Japanese occupation of Hong Kong and China, Elly The Marble Hall, residence of Ellis and Elly Kadoorie in Shanghai, now
Kadoorie was interned first in Hong Kong and then known as the Children's Palace of the Chinese Welfare Association.
in Shanghai. He died in Shanghai in 1944 just after
being released from the Zhabei internment camp on After the death of Ellis and Elly Kadoorie, their
medical grounds. business empire was managed by Elly’s sons,
The Kadoories were well-known for their Lawrence and Horace.
charitable endowments, particularly in the sphere (Madhavi Thampi)

53
Cultural Contacts
 Cultural Contacts

III
Science & Technology

55
Cultural Contacts

56
Cultural Contacts

Science & Technology

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 Cultural Contacts

Science & Technology

Overview

Exchanges in science, technology and medicine are 400 CE. Having the longest history of over 1,500
one of the important components of the history of years, its impact on Indian astronomy was the most
India-China cultural interactions. Beginning with profound. The others included āryapaksa founded
the period of the Qin and Han Dynasties (c. 3rd in 500 CE, the ārdharātikapaksa established also
century BCE) to the end of the Qing Dynasty (1911), in 500 CE, the Saurapaksa created in 800 CE and
both countries had uninterrupted exchanges in the the Ganeśapaksa launched in 1500 CE. With the
area of science and technology though its intensity spread of Islam into India, an Islamic astronomical
varied between frequent and occasional over the period existed between 1600 CE to 1800 CE. This
long course of time. The major areas and nature of was followed by the British colonial rule which
these exchanges were as follows: witnessed a period of direct contact with modern
and contemporary Western astronomy.
Exchanges in the Field of Astronomy Foreign astronomy made frequent inroads
Astronomy was a well-developed knowledge during the long history of India. Yet in spite of
system in ancient India. Indians observed and absorbing several foreign elements, the indigenous
described various astronomical phenomena using Vedic astronomy preserved itself and continued
advanced mathematical calculation and formulae. to flourish. With the spread of Buddhism in the
According to Professor David E. Pingree, ancient east, this Vedic astronomy was also introduced
Indian astronomy can be divided into five periods, into China. Transmission of Vedic astronomical
namely, the Vedic Period (from 1000 BCE to about knowledge can be found scattered in translated
400 BCE), Babylonian Period (from 400 BCE to 200 Buddhist classics and in various other kinds of
CE), Hellenistic Babylonian Period (from 200 CE to historical texts of China. It covered the following
about 400 CE), the Greek Period (from 400 CE to areas: i) cosmology ii) constellation system iii)
1600 CE) and the Islamic Period (from 1600 CE to movements of the sun, moon, solar and lunar
about 1800 CE). eclipses iv) seasons and calendars and v) planetary
Astronomical Science in the Vedic Period, as motion and ephemeris.
found preserved in the Four Vedas including the It was early Indian or Vedic knowledge of
Rigveda, is characterised by its mostly localised cosmology that was transmitted to China along
Indian content. In the Babylonian Period, many with Buddhism. This contained the concept of kalpa
Mesopotamian astronomical elements were (aeon), cyclical model of destruction and creation,
integrated into Indian astronomy. This included cosmic structure and dimension etc. According to
methods of measuring length and change of the Buddhist world view, a kalpa (eg. vivartakalpa)
time as well as mathematical models, time units begins with the arising of primordial wind leading
and instruments originated from Babylon. In to the creation of a structure of universe or cosmos
the Hellenistic Babylonian Period, inputs from after the destruction of everything by fire at the
the Greeks modified and expanded Babylonian end of a kalpa. The world thus completes a turn
astronomy. Its contents included descriptions of of the wheel of life and it will then be recreated.
planetary configuration as well as issues such as Buddhist classics describe ancient Indian cosmic
solar and lunar eclipses, length of shadow and structure in terms of the unity of theory of
so on. Some of its contents were preserved in relativity and quantum theory – in the cosmos/
Pañcasiddhāntikā which was written sometime in universe everything exists on an enormous wind
575 CE. The Greek Period of Indian astronomy, wheel whose thickness is about 1,600,000 yojanas
lasting over 1,000 years produced many outstanding (Vedic measure of distance, which according to
Indian astronomers and classics contributing to some estimates approximated one yojana to 8 miles
the successive formation of five astronomical in modern measurement). There is a water wheel
schools (paksas). Among them, the earliest was on the wind wheel, which is 1,200,000 yojanas
the Brāhmapaksa which was established in circa thick, of which 320,000 yojanas from the surface

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 Cultural Contacts

are compressed into a gold wheel. The combined Buddhist classics. The system of 28 constellations
diameter of the water and gold wheel is 1,203,450 is consistent with those of ancient China while the
yojanas and its circumference is triple the diameter. system of 27 constellations excluding Abhijit (niu
The gold wheel is placed in the centre of Sumeru xiu) is the result of adjustment to match the Indian
Mountain [which according to various legends is local constellation system with that of foreign
a mandala (circular figure symbolising universe) zodiacal signs. The most complete description
like complex surrounded by mountains and seas of 27 constellations is seen in Xiuyaojing (Book
with planets circumambulating it]. Both its height on the Nakshtras and the Luminaries) written and
over the surface and depth below surface are each translated in Chinese by Monk Amoghvajra (Bu
said to be of 84,000 yojanas. It is surrounded by Kong) during the Tang dynasty. In the translated
seven Gold Mountains in turn. There are four sutras, the size of the constellations have a kind
continents outside the seven Gold Mountains. of uneven division but its random nature is
These are Wheel Ring Mountains outside the four not similar to the 28 constellations of ancient
continents. The depth of seven Gold Mountains China where the size of each is irregular and all
and the Wheel Ring Mountains under the surface of which could be divided into three types – ie
are equivalent to that of Mt Sumeru but height wide, narrower and the narrowest. In the Buddhist
and width of each diminishes according to their classics such as Xiuyaojing (Book on the Nakshtras
distance from Sumeru. There are eight seas among and the Luminaries), there is also a tendency to
nine mountains, in turn, the earlier seven seas are make uniform the size of each constellation which
“inner seas”, the innermost sea is 80,000 yojanas is the result of the influence of the entry and
in width, and the periphery is 240,000 yojanas in spread of the western astronomical system based
circumference. The width of each of the next six on 12 equatorial constellations or signs of the
seas are reduced by half in turn. The eighth sea zodiac in India. Further, the number of stars in the
is the “outer sea” and was 321,000 yojanas in constellation systems in sutras greatly differs from
width. This ancient Indian cosmic model is similar that of ancient China, with only five constellations
to the ancient Chinese canopy cosmic model but having completely the same number of stars.
presently there is no certain evidence about the Astronomical instruments to gaze at constellation
close connections between the two. configurations and its product names also have
In Chinese translation of Buddhist classics, it special Indian characteristics.
is worth paying attention to the rendering of the As for movements of the sun and moon, many
Indian constellation system, the problem of the translated sutras mention that they moved around
beginning constellation/nakshatra, its total sum of Mt Sumeru propelled by the wind wheel. The height
as well as the size, the number of stars and the of the solar and lunar orbital motions is half of Mt
shape of each of the constellations. Before the Sumeru, ie 42,000 yojanas. The diameter of sun was
spread of the Indian constellation system, China 51 yojanas, and of the moon 50 yojanas. The sun
had a set of its own indigenously developed similar moved around Mt Sumeru Mountain, day and night
system. Chinese translation of names of the Indian causing alterations and seasonal changes in the four
constellation evinces three characteristics: i) A large continents. In Li shi a pi tan lun (Treatise on Creating
part has been translated into known constellation the World of Abhidharma), the Chapter 19 of Volume
names in Chinese ii) another large part is the 5 entitled ‘Motion of the Sun and the Moon’ mentions
transliteration of Sanskrit pronunciation of names that there are 180 paths for the solar movement
into Chinese iii) translation of literal meaning of and 15 paths for the lunar movement. In half-a-
names in Sanskrit into Chinese. However, only one year, the sun transits from one solar path to the
such case is found in sutras translated into Chinese next consecutively each day and after reaching the
(henceforth, referred to as translated sutras). The outermost it returns to the innermost solar path. This
Citra in Indian constellation system is different from model helps better explain the changes in the time of
that of ancient China. In the Chinese translation sunrise azimuth and the length of day. As far as the
of Buddhist classics, Jiao xiu (Spica) is considered lunar path is concerned, each lunar path is equal to
as Citra, but there are also cases of conflating 12 solar paths. The distance between the outermost
Krttika and Aśini with it. Obviously, using Spica as (southernmost) and innermost (northernmost) path
Citrā is to keep consistency with ancient Chinese of the 180 solar paths is 290 yojanas. The sun and
constellation system. Recognition of Krttikā as the moon travel their next successive path on each day.
Citra was the characteristic of the ancient Indian The centre of illumination of sunlight is a ball with
system which reflected astronomical adjustment the diameter of 721,200 yojanas.
for precession of equinoxes and is a later addition As for solar and lunar eclipses, translated sutras
to the translated sutra. Two constellation numbers, explain that the eclipse cycle takes place every six
ie 27 and 28 appear in the Chinese translation of months and are caused by Asurindaka Rahu who

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 Cultural Contacts

books similar to ancient Indian calendars, besides

the Jiuzhi Calendar, the Futian Calendar can be
considered as representative. It originated from
Indian astronomy and was popular among the
Chinese during the late Tang Dynasty. Its main
contents are however now untraceable. According
to the inference of Sou Neiqing, the Guangzhai
Calendar compiled by Gautama Luo might be “a kind
of astronomical almanac calculating astronomical
phenomena based on Indian astronomy.”
As far as the knowledge of planets is concerned,
translated sutras primarily relate to planet names and
orders, its dimensions and sizes and its movements
and calendars, especially, the two lunar nodes,
ie Rahu and Ketu are also regarded as planets. In
Cover of the Jiuzhi Calendar translations, planets are named either according to
ancient Chinese names or provided transliterated
hides the sun and the moon with his hands. Textual names. Their orders sometimes are sequenced
sources, outside the translated sutras, inform us according to an ancient Chinese order of five
that Indian astronomy transmitted to China was elements and sometimes are based according to the
good in the skill of calculating the eclipse. These intensity of luminance of each plane. The Xiuyaojing
note the calculation method of the Indian monk, (Book on the Naksatras and the Luminaries) describes
Kasyapa Xiaowei. This is found in Volume 33 of it according to their speed “from fast to slow.” Planet
Jiu Tangshu (Book of the Later Tang) attached to the movements and calendars are prominently shown in
Eclipse Calculation Skill of Lin Deli (Linde Calendar) Qi yao rang zai jue (Expelling Fated Calamities under
as an annexure entitled `Indian Method of Kashyap the Seven Lumnaries) (see the entry on Qi yao rang zai
Xiaowei and Others’ (see the entry of ‘Kasyapa jue for details).
Xiaowei’ for details). In Volume 34 of the same Generally speaking, Indian astronomy spread
book, there is another entry attached to the chapter over China early during a large span of time
on ‘Eclipse Calculation Skill of Dayan Li (Dayan from the 3rd century to the 10th century. Relevant
Calendar)’ which describes the Indian ‘method to materials have, therefore, been preserved sparsely
judge eclipse’ descended from the Indian monk, and it is hard to connect its contents with certain
Kumara (see the entry on ‘Kumara’ for details). classics of astronomical schools in different periods.
Furthermore, the Jiuzhili (Jiuzhi Calendar), edited However, the influence of Indian astronomy on
and translated by Gautama Siddha introduces China which reached a climax, especially during the
Indian eclipse calculation method in detail (see the Tang Dynasty can still be traceable. In his preface
entry on 'Jiuzhi Calendar' for details). to Shen long licun (Celestial Dragon Calendar), Li
Contents related to “lunar month” of ancient Jiao writes that Chinese and Indian astronomers
Indian seasons and calendars are also recorded in “worked together even though they had different
translated sutras which are rich in detail and include
division of season, month names, concepts of white
month and black month, arrangements of large
month and small month, placement of leap month,
changes in day and night time-length, division and
name of day and night time etc. The Volume 48
of Da zhi du lun (Great Treatise on the Perfection of
Wisdom) defines four kinds of months, which are
so-called “solar month”, “karma month”, “lunar
month” and “nakshatra month”. Here, the “solar
month” is one-twelfth of the length of a tropical
year, “karma month” is one-twelfth of an ideal
year (which consists of 360 days), “lunar month”
connotes synodic month and “nakshatra month”
refers to sidereal month. Several forms of seasonal
changes in the length of shadow at noon are given
in sutras. Datasheets in Shi fei shi jing (Sutra on Time
and Non-Time) are most detailed. As for complete Rubbings of Essays of Gautama Siddhartha

60
 Cultural Contacts

styles and skills” and made common efforts to

compile calendars. The most common evidence is
that of the Dayanli (Dayan Calendar) compiled by
the Chinese monk, Yi Xing and the Japanese monk,
Saicho, who came to China in the Tang Dynasty
to seek Buddhist learning. Their work Neizheng
Fofa xiangcheng xie mai pu (Blood Spectrum of Inner
Realization of Dharma) describes that “monks of
both Tang Chinese and Indian Sanskrit tradition
participated in a joint discussion meeting and
together committed themselves” to finally complete
“a fixed and authoritative classic” which as part of
the Chinese calendar history became a model for
calendars for later generations.

Exchanges in the field of

Medical Sciences Fragments of Dunhuang Dharani Sutra, now in the
In ancient Eastern medical systems, China’s possession of British Library, London
traditional medicine and India’s Ayurveda, Siddha,
Unani and Islamic medicines had a long and rich Jin dynasty and records the pathogenesis theory of
history of progress and enormous contributions Buddhist medicine. With translated classic/sutras as
to protect and preserve human health. These a medium of introduction, Buddhist medical theories
classical medical systems mutually transmitted appeared in traditional Chinese medicinal works.
and shared knowledge. This was most apparent in Tao Hongjing collected Ge Hong’s Zhou hou jiu zu
the extensive penetration and diffusion of medical fang (Handbook of Prescription for Emergency) and
knowledge and skills between China and India, changed its name to Hua Yang yin ju bu que zhou hou
primarily through Buddhism in the medieval bai yi fang (Complements of Prescription for Emergency
period. Indian Āyurveda had three representative Written by the Hermit of Huayang). The modification
books (Mahā-triya) ie Caraka-samhitā of Caraka, in the book’s name came from the theory of “four
which mainly discussed internal medicine; Śuśruta- elements for human health and abnormality of
samhitā of Śuśruta, which was related to surgery; one element for one hundred and one diseases.”
Aśtāngahrdayasamhitā of Vāgbhatta which paid Volume II of Aversion to Wind in Zhu bing yuan hou
attention to both internal medicine and surgery. lun (Treatise on the Pathogenesis and Manifestations
The pathogenesis in Āyurveda is directly based of All Diseases) written by Chao Yuanfang in the Sui
on the “theory of harmony and balance of three Dynasty, places all the 404 kinds of diseases in sutras
humours/ essences.” The human body is made up of under the category of wind disease. Thus, there
three essences, ie vāta’/‘vāyu (wind), pitta (bile) and were 404 kinds of wind diseases. Chao Yuanfang
kapha (phlegm) and any imbalance among the three then used the concept of five colours based on the
leads to tridośa, “three causes” or “three disease theory of five elements to make it compatible with
elements”. A disease caused by the disturbance in the theory of five winds. In his Zhu bing yuan hou
three humors is referred to as “three-in-one disease” lun (Treatise on the Pathogenesis and Manifestations
or “three-for-one disease” etc. If the three humors of All Diseases), chapter X of volume XXVI entitled
are balanced, the human body will be healthy; if the `The Parasitic Poison Diseases’ is devoted to
three humours are imbalanced, a human being will “detoxification” and describes theories of “four
suffer from illness. Besides having the Āyurvedic elements for health” and “four abnormalities”. Sun
theory of three humours/essences for pathogenesis, Simiao of Tang Dynasty in the Preface of Volume I
the Buddhist medical system primarily applies of his Bei ji qian jin yao fang (Valuable Prescriptions
the concept of four elements forming the body. for Emergency), discusses Fourth Diagnosis adopting
The abnormality of one leads to 101 diseases and the theory of the sutra that “earth, water, fire and
of more than one similarly to 404 diseases and wind as well as harmony preserves humans.” He
so on. The earliest scripture Ren shen si bai si bing thus professed that, “Abnormality of one element
jing (Classic on Four Hundred and Four Diseases of will lead to 101 diseases” to “abnormality of one
Human Body) and the Ren bing yi bu neng zhijing Qi will lead to 101 diseases.” Volume XXVII of
(Classic on Incurable Human Diseases) are taken from Bei ji qian jin yao fang (Valuable Prescriptions for
Volume I in Xiu xing di dao jing (Classic on Path to Emergency) mechanically applies the concept of 404
Cultivation) which was edited and translated by the diseases to the theory of five viscera and changes
Indian monk, Dharmaraksa, during the Western “earth, fire, water and wind” into “cold, hot, wind

61
 Cultural Contacts

in seven days” and “doctor king” coming from

India’s taixiang (fetal phases) theory, considerably
influenced traditional Chinese medicine and Tibetan
medical literature.
Although there are no Chinese versions of the three
major medical dictionaries of the Indian Āyurveda,
many texts of the Indian medical literature have
been translated into Chinese. In the period of the
Northern Dynasty, the Chinese Dharma branch
Diagrams on Daoist exercises (involving breathing, stretching, and self
translated 20 volumes of Bo luo tian men (Brahman
massage), and healing exercises dating from the western Han dynasty Astronomy) and Wu ming lun (Treatise on Five Fields
excavated at Mawangdui in Changsha, Hunan
of Knowledge); (this includes “firstly, Treatise on
Sound; secondly, Treatise on Prescription; thirdly,
and air.” Volume XXI of Wang Tao’s Wai tai mi yao Treatise on Technique; fourthly, Treatise on Curse;
fang (Medical Secrets from the Royal Library) which fifthly, Treatise on Seal”), for Yuwen Hu. During
was written during the Tang Dynasty, copies the the Southern Liang Dynasty, Ruan Xiaoxu’s Qi lu
contents of Tianzhu jing lun yan (Indian Sutras and (Seven Collections) records 10 volumes of Mo he
Shastras on Ophthalmology). This was interpreted qu hu guo fang (Journey of Mo hu to Hu Countries).
by Hu monks in the Western Regions to the Daoist Compiled by Maha Hu monk, this appears to be a
priest Xie. Many theoretical sections of Indian foreign medical book from the name of the compiler
Buddhist medicine could be witnessed in traditional and the book. One volume of Za Rong Di fang
Chinese literature unearthed from Dunhuang. (Miscellaneous Notes on the Rong and Di (tribes)) was
P2115V of Dunhuang ms., Zhang Zhongjing wu zang compiled by Emperor Wu of the Song Dynasty, and
lun (Treatise on the Five Viscera of Zhang Zhongjing) contained medicinal prescriptions from nations in
(Book A) quoted the exposition of sutras that the Western Regions or surrounding areas of the
“health is based on four elements and five skandhas, Northwest. Volume XXXIV entitled Jing ji zhi san
and abnormality of one element will lead to 100 (Third Record to Religious Texts) of Sui shu (Book
diseases.” P3655, Ming dang wu zang lun (Treatise on of the Sui Dynasty), describes over 10 medical
the Five Viscera of Mingtang) had the sentence that books of India and the Western Regions, including
“the human body is composed of four elements and four volumes of Longshu Pusa yao fang (Nagarjuna
lives on five cereals.” P2675, Xin ji bei ji jiu jing (New Medicinal Prescriptions), 23 volumes of Xiyu zhu xian
Collective Moxibustion Techniques for Emergency) suo shuo yao fang (Medicinal Prescriptions of Fairies
adopted the theory that “health is based on four in the Western Regions), (one volume of catalogue
elements, and abnormality of one vein will lead to and 25 volumes of texts), 10 volumes of Xiang shan
100 diseases.” The common phrase “abnormality xian ren yao fang (Medicinal Prescriptions of Nine
of one element” in Indian Buddhist medical theory Fairies of Fragrant Mountain), three volumes of Xi
was changed into the typical traditional Chinese yu bo luo xian ren fang (Medicinal Prescriptions of the
phrase “abnormality of one vein.” Moreover, Daoist Bodhisattva Nagarjuna), four volumes of Xiyu mingyi
classics and divination literature also adopted the suo ji yao fang (Invaluable Prescriptions Collected by
concept of “abnormalities of four elements” and Famous Doctors in the Western Regions) (12 volumes
“404 diseases” of the Indian sutras. The transition of texts), 20 volumes of Bo luo men zhu xian yao
from “abnormality of one element” to “abnormality fang (Medicinal Prescriptions of Brahman Fairies),
of one vein”, or “abnormality of one qi (air)” in five volumes of Bo luo men yao fang (Medicinal
traditional Chinese classics and Dunhuang literature Prescriptions of Brahman), two volumes of Qipo suo
reflects that some traditional Chinese physicians shu xian ren ming lun fang (Prescriptions for Immortals
(cum Buddhists) recognised and accepted certain Described by Jīvaka) (one volume of catalogue and
practices of the Indian Buddhist medical theories. three volumes of texts), 10 volumes of Gan da
Their acceptance was, however, not based on li zhi gui fang (Gāndhāri Recipes to Treat Demons),
total imitation; rather they applied it as a model four volumes of Xin lu gan da li zhi gui fang (the
for transforming and improving its application by Newly Recorded Gāndhāri Recipes to Treat Demons)
adding core elements of local culture consciously (five volumes of texts and errors), two volumes of
within the outer shell of imported foreign culture. Longshu pusa he xiang fa (Methods of the Bodhisattva
Through the transition from “one element” to “one Nāgārjuna for Compounding Perfumes) and one
vein” or “one qi”, traditional Chinese physicians volume of Longshu pusa yang xing fang (Bodhisattva
linked the traditional pathogenesis theory with Nāgārjuna’s Prescription for Spiritual Cultivation).
the Buddhist pathogenesis theory. Furthermore, it Like Mo he qu hu guo fang (Journey of Mohe to Hu
must be noted that the terms such as “one change Countries), this batch of medical books must be

62
 Cultural Contacts

translated Chinese versions and their translation, sa zhi bing he yao jing (Sutra on the Use of Medicinal
introduction and communication are consistent with Herbs for Healing by the Thousand-eyed and Thousand-
the eastern spread of Indian religion. The famous handed Avalokiteśvara), Fo shuo wen shi xi yu zhong
catalogue of Chinese medical books entitled Riben seng jing (Sūtra on Jīva’s Inviting Many Priests to
guo jian zai shu mu lu (Catalogue of Books Extant in Wash Themselves in a Bath-House), Yan shou ming
Japan), compiled by Fujiwara no Sukeyo (828-898) jing (Sūtra on Life Extension), Yan Jiu ji jing (Sūtra
lists several kinds of medical books with names of on Curing Diseases), Shen mi yao fa jing (Sūtra on the
Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna and Jīvaka, thus indicating Hidden and Important Law of Meditation), Fo shuo tai
influence of some elements of Indian medicine. bao jing (Garbha Sūtra), Chu yi qie ji bing da luo ni
For example, there is one volume with the title jing (Sarvarogapraśamani Dhāranī Sūtra), Fo shuo chu
Longshu pusa he xiang fa (Methods of the Bodhisattva kong zai huan jing (Sūtra on Eliminating Disasters and
Nāgārjuna for Compounding Perfumes), one volume Diseases Preached by Buddha), Jia ye xian ren shuo
of Jīvaka on Qipo fu lingsan fang (Decomposed Recipes yi ji nu ren jing (Sūtra on Obstetrics Spoken by the
of Poria), 12 volumes of Jīvaka entitled Qipo mai Sage Kāśyapa), Wu fen lu: yao fa (Vinaya of the Five
jue (Qipo on Impulse) (annotated by Shi Luoshi) and Categories: Medical Methods), Mo he send zhi lu: Ming
one volume of Longshu pusa yan jing (Bodhisattva za tong ba qu fa (Mahasangha-vinaya: Vagga Methods),
Nāgārjuna’s Classic on Eyes), one volume of Longshu Si fen lu: yao jian du (‘Vinaya of the Four Categories:
pusa yinfa (Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna’s Indian Method) Medical Khandha), Shi tong lu: ji yao fa (Ten Vinaya
and one volume of Longshu pusa ma ming pusa mi Recitations: Medical Methods), Jin guang ming jing:
fa (Secret Methods of Bodhisattva Aśvaghoṣa and Chu bing pin (‘Sūtra of Golden Light: On Eliminating
Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna). Besides these books which Diseases), Jin guang ming zui sheng wang jing: chu
were translated directly into Chinese, some Indian bing pin (Suvarnaprabha-sottamaraja: On Eliminating
medical books were translated into medical texts in Diseases) and so on. In the process of seeking
dialects of Xinjiang areas. Bao wei er xie ben (Bower Buddhist learning from India or in participating in
Manuscript), Yi li qing hua (Siddhasra) and Qipo sutra translation, Chinese Buddhist monks recorded
shu (Jīvaka-pustaka) are characteristic examples some Indian medical contents in their works.
of such translation. Moreover, all Tibetan medical The eminent monk Yi Jing seeking Dharma in the
books containing some “medical knowledge and Tang Dynasty discussed medical contents in three
application” from the Great Sutra are translated chapters of volume III in Nan hai ji hui nei fa zhuan
from Indian texts, while Tibetan medical classics (An Account of the Inner Law Sent Home from the
and literature including Si bu yi dian (Standard South Sea) ie “Disease Sources”, “Methods to Take
Medical Texts in Four Parts) and Yue wang yao zhen Medicines” and “Medicines Eliminating Diseases”.
(Medicine Treasures of Moon King) also contain rich Yi Jing acquired the knowledge of medicine in
Indian medical knowledge. Translated classics/ India’s Nalanda Monastery and the contents such as
sutras too are comprehensive in content and “Sutra on Medicine preached by Bhagavant” were
provide extensive medical knowledge. In Buddhist authentic Indian medical knowledge which provided
Tripitakas, there are sutras expounding medicines accurate and new information to Chinese scholars.
or subjects related to it. These primarily include Traditional Chinese “herbalism” witnessed
Fo shuo Fo yi jing (Buddhavidya Sūtra), Fo shuo extensive development in the Tang Dynasty. Sun
yi yu jing (Bhaiśjya Upamāna Sūtra), Fo shuo liao Simiao quoted the theory of the great Indian doctor
zhi jing (Buddhist Sūtra Explaining the Treatment of ‘Jīvaka’ in Volume I in Qian jin yi fang (Supplement to
Haemorrhoids), Qian shou qian yan guan shi yin pu Invaluable Prescriptions for Ready Reference) that “all
things under heaven are medicines.” Undoubtedly,
the thought that all things were medicines largely
broadened the vision of doctors. Many Indian
medicines entered China, and Indian studies on
herbs were translated into Chinese. During the Tang
period, Indian Master Dharmacandra (called Fa Yue
in Chinese) “was proficient in Tripitaka and had
good knowledge of medicine.” Volume XIV of Yuan
Zhao’s Zhenyan xin ding shi jiao mu lu (Catalogue
of Buddhist Teachings Newly Established in the
Zhenyuan Era) records that Dharmacandra arrived
in Chang’an in the 20th year of Kaiyuan Reign
(732 CE), “offered astrology, medical prescriptions,
Medicine of the ethnic Tibetans from China,
Materia Medica in four parts, preserved in the
palm-leaf scriptures, herbals and sutras as tributes.
museum at Lhasa in Tibet His disciple, Monk Li Yan translated Fang yao

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(Japan) Ji xin fang (Essence of Medical Prescriptions)

and in several other works written by Chinese
physicians of later generations. They have preserved
innumerable Indian medical prescriptions and
methods of treatment (for example, India’s method
for anesthesia and golden needle for ophthalmology).
These provide an important testimony to exchanges
in the medical field between India and China.
Knowledge of Indian medicines also spread to China
through Persia and Arabia. For example, in the
Tang Dynasty, Sanlejiang (three forces liquid) syrup
“via Persia” originated from three fruit medicines
(‘harītakī’, ‘terminalia billerica’ and ‘amlaphala’) in
India. There were multiple Indian medicines and
prescriptions in the Islamic medicine book named
(Rediscovery of the lost) Compendium of Medical Herbs Hui hui yao fang (Prescriptions of Hui) which was
translated in the late Yuan Dynasty and the early
(Prescriptions) and Ben cao (Herbals) sutras with Ming Dynasty. Particular attention must also be
his master, for the emperor.” This was because paid to the exchanges in medical sciences through a
properties of Hu medicines were little known in third country providing the bridge.
China, and the medical circles especially needed Handed down from generation to generation,
to know the characters of these foreign medicines, many anecdotes and stories of ancient Indian medical
judge their authenticity, compare them with local experts, especially Jīvaka and Nagarjuna exist in
medicines, and add them to the daily used medical China. Evidence of many eminent foreign monks
books. A large quantity of medicines were recorded who were proficient in medicine are also available.
and applied in Chinese medicine from Su Jing’s Xin They include An Shigao, Dharmakāla, Kumārajīva,
xiu ben cao (Newly Revised Materia Medica), Chen Buddhayaśas, Dharmaksema, Gunabhadra,
Cangqi’s Ben cao shi yi (Compendium of Materia Ratnamati, Jnānagupta, Prajnā, Bodhiruci, Atikuta,
Medica), Zheng Qian’s Hu ben cao (Hu Materia Divākara, Devaprajnā, Amogha and Vajrabodhi.
Medica) in the Tang Dynasty, Li Xun’s Hai yao ben Some of them came from India, taught medicine and
cao (Overseas Materia Medica) in the Five Dynasties, made valuable contributions to the spread of the
Su Song’s Ben cao tu jing (Illustrated Classics of science of healing in China through the translation
Materia Medica) and Tang Shenwei’s Zheng lei ben and communication of Indian medical texts.
cao (Classified Materia Medica) in the Song Dynasty During the Sui and Tang period, there was
to Li Shizhen’s Ben cao gang mu (Compendium of also much development in alchemy and multiple
Materia Medica in the Ming Dynasty. India’s ‘piperis methods of making a variety of chemical compounds
longi’, ‘harītakī’, ‘terminalia billerica’, asafoetida, for medicine. The Daoist alchemy not only used
amlaphala, borneol oil, litharge, refined sugar, many medicines from India but also attracted many
rhinoceros horn, radix curcumae, sal ammoniac, rasāyana masters and alchemists from foreign
logwood, birthwort root, dipterocarpaceae, mastic, countries. Elderly Indian Brahmin rasāyana masters
spica nardi and various kinds of aromatic drugs, Nārāyanasvāmin and Lokāditya came to China in
were widely used in traditional Chinese herbal the era of Emperor Taizong and Emperor Gaozong in
and prescription classics and some of them became the Tang Dynasty. Alchemist Nārāyanasvāmin made
common traditional Chinese medicines without macrobiosis/longevity medicines in Jinbiaomen.
foreign colourings. From the Han dynasty, the The chief of the Chinese military, Cui Dunli
trade in medicine between India and China had supervised him and ordered people in the country
continued without any interruption. This provided to collect rare medicines and innumerable precious
necessary material foundations for the development stones to help him make the drugs. The Medicines
of India-China exchanges in medical sciences. A were made eventually, but they were found to be
large quantity of Indian medical prescriptions ineffective, so he was repatriated. According to
and skills (such as Indian massage methods and Italian scholar Antonino Forte’s study, the elderly
ophthalmological gold needle techniques etc) were Brāhmana rasāyana master who held the ordination
preserved in Sun Simiao’s Bei ji qian jin yao fang ceremony for Kang Fazang was Śākyamitra from Sri
(Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency) and Qianjin yi Lanka. Śākyamitra lived with Lu jia a yi duo (Ajita)
fang (Supplement to Invaluable Prescriptions for Ready in Penglai Palace and Kang Fazang was one of the
Reference), Wang Tao’s Wai tai mi yao fang (Medical participants in the medicine-making activities in the
Secrets from the Royal Library), Tanba Yasuyori’s palace. Śakyamitra who visited Wutai Mountain and

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 Cultural Contacts

Zhi Falin who came from Lingshi County, Fenzhou can be regarded as the first work related to the study
to collect saltpeter were the same person. According on comparison of India-China algorithm. The Indian
to the investigation of He Bingyu, Du Gutao who calendar calculation works, which were introduced
was the author of Dan fang jian yuan (Alchemical in China before the Tang Dynasty, included three
Sources) was a foreign pharmaceutical dealer in the volumes of Po luo men sun fa (Brahman Algorithm),
late Tang Dynasty (or the Southern Tang Dynasty), one volume of Po luo men yin yang suan li (Brahman
and had excellent proficiency in alchemy. These Yin-yang Calculation Calendar) and three volumes
alchemists living in China came from India, Sri of Po luo men suan jing (Brahman Calculation Sutra),
Lanka and Central Asia (for example, Kang Fazang) which were recorded in Sui Shu: Jing ji zhi (Book
and each of them undoubtedly introduced some of the Sui Dynasty: Records on Sutras). During the
Indian alchemical methods to China. On the one Tang Dynasty, an Indian astronomer based in China,
hand, Chinese Daoists absorbed and transformed Gautama Siddhartha, compiled 120 volumes of Kai
contents of foreign medicines and on the other, yuan zhan jing (Classic of Astrology in the Kaiyuan
they also propagated Daoist medical knowledge Period) and part of Jiu zhi li (Jiuzhi Calendar) (ie
(especially alchemy) outside China. The gold Volume 104 Algorithm) recorded nine numerical
medicines refined by the Daoists were frequently codes in Indian algorithm and decimal null/
sought by the Hun people (Hun merchants), who invalid point symbols. Gautama Siddhartha also
purchased and sold it among Hun countries in the introduced the Indian mathematical knowledge of
Western Regions, thus spreading some alchemical taking measurements with an arc and sine function
technologies to India, Persia and the Arab world and table at the interval of 3°45′. This was a significant
influencing foreign medicines. The medical text of contribution in the history of exchanges between
Siddha in South India in particular records that there India and China in mathematics. Commenting on
were two Chinese Daoists (Bogar and Puëipari/ Indian astronomical algorithms, the Xin tang shu
Pulipanni) among 18 Siddhars (saints). Relations (New Book of the Tang Dynasty) in its Volume
between Tamil alchemy and Daoism reflect mutual XXVIII, writes that “calculation was written in
communication of ancient India-China alchemy and characters (written calculation) rather than in a
deserves much further research. planned manner. Algorithm was so complicated,
the accurate number may be obtained through
Exchanges in the field of luck, but it cannot be regarded as proper
Mathematics and Metrology standard method. Astronomical algorithms were
Both Ancient India and China possessed excellent so confused that they could not be explained on
advanced knowledge of mathematics. The Vedas first sight.” These derogatory words showed that
are a repository of the most ancient Indian ancient Chinese scholars could not understand the
mathematics. Sheng fa jing (Sulba Sutra or Śulbasūtra) Indian astronomical algorithms profoundly.
is the most important classic on mathematics in Ancient Indian knowledge in metrology spread
India. This includes geometric contents, questions through the translated sutras. In the Wu state during
in algebraic calculus in architecture as well as the Three Kingdoms Period, in the translation of the
approximation of circumference ratio. There is Indian Tripitaka’s Mo deng jia jing (Matangi Sutra),
a symbol representing the number zero on a 9th Zhu Luyan and Zhi Qian in their chapter VI entitled
century stone tablet in Gwalior, India. The external ‘Observing Disaster and Auspiciousness’ records
spread of Indian numerical codes via Arabia is Indian jin and liang algorithms. This includes the
also one of the important contributions in the conversion relations among weight units such as
history of mathematics in the world. Liu Ping, wheat, soybean, Suvarna, ‘zhu’, ‘liang’, ‘jin’, ‘Para’,
the scholar who participated in the translations ‘cuo’, ‘ju’, ‘bo xi ta’, Magadha ‘Bo xi ta a’ and so
of sutras in Dharmagupta’s translation institute in on. The Matangi Sutra also provided information
the Sui Dynasty was proficient in mathematics and regarding methods of division and calculation of
compiled one volume on Nei wai bang tong bi jiao distance – li and you xun (yojana) as well as of using
shu fa [Internal-external Mastery and Comparison a water clock for measuring time, length of day and
with Mathematics (or External-internal Mastery night and seasons. The other translated version of Mo
and Comparison with Mathematics)]. This sums up deng jia jing (Matangi Sutra) entitled She tou jian tai ze
mathematical names and calculation methods in er shi ba su jing (Sutra on Twenty Eight Constellations
sutras translated into Chinese and compares them Remonstrated with the Prince), (translated by Indian
with the corresponding Chinese units and numbers Dharmaraksa in the Western Jin Dynasty) narrates
ie “adopted mathematical methods in sutras to in a much more detailed manner, the distance
compare with the Eastern Xia” so that Indian measurement in yojana and li, and the knowledge
mathematical terms and numbers in the process of of distinguishing tastes and cereals. Methods of
sutra translation could be standardised. This book writing and remembering large and small numbers

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 Cultural Contacts

in sutras also had some influence on China. The and influence between ancient Chinese and Indian
Suan xue qi meng (Enlightenment of Mathematics) by mathematics needs further extensive probing.
Zhu Shijie, a mathematician of the Yuan Dynasty,
recorded the Indian maximal numbers such as “sands Exchanges in the Field of Technology
of the Ganges”, asamkhya, na yu ta, “incredible” i) Fagoted Iron Forging: As a kind of high-quality
and “numerous”, and the minimal numbers such as steel product, fagoted iron was a significant item in
“sand”, “dust”, “dirt”, “tiny”, “insignificant”, “vague”, the history of India-China exchanges in technology.
“prowl”, “instant”, “moment”, “fillip”, “ksana”, Metallurgical techniques in ancient India were
“six virtues”, “voidness”, “emptiness”, “clearness”, rather developed. The “Delhi Iron Pillar” forged
“purity” and so on. in about the 4th century is a typical representative
British scholar Joseph Needham and Chinese example of this technology. As far as steel-making
scholar Qian Baocong thought that ancient Indian technologies are concerned, India developed a
mathematics was also influenced by China. In Zhong kind of ultra-high carbon steel, namely the Wootz
guo shu xue shi (A History of Chinese Mathematics), steel, which was produced after refinement in
Qian Baocong listed 14 kinds of evidence including a cauldron. Later introduced in areas of ancient
place value digitals, four arithmetic operations, Persia, Damascus (Syria) and Europe, this was
fraction, three columns, arch area and ball volume, widely known as “Indian iron”. The Sanskrit name
simultaneous linear equations, negative number, of fagoted iron was “pina” as mentioned in Li yan’s
Pythagorean proposition, circumference ratio, Fan yu za ming (Miscellaneous Names in Sanskrit)
method of double differences, linear congruence, compiled in the Tang Dynasty. Hui Lin points out in
indefinite equation, extraction of root and the volume XXXV of the book, Yi qie jing yin yi (Sounds
method of making the sine table to prove that and Meanings of All the Sutras), that the “fagoted iron
Indian mathematics was influenced by Chinese came from Kophen (present Kashmir) and foreign
mathematics. Indian scholar B S Yadav thought countries mixed it with other iron. This was refined
that historically both India and China had and superior to other iron.” The Wei shu: Xi yu zhuan
substantial exchanges in mathematics but similar (Book of the Wei Dynasty: Legend of the Western
computational problems such as folding bamboo Regions) notes in general that Persian products
and ball volume equation in Chinese and Indian included fagoted iron and the earliest record
mathematical works do not fully explain the nature appeared in the literature on the history of the Han
of mutual exchange. The issue of mutual exchange Dynasty. Records related to fagoted iron in Zhou shu
(Book of the Zhou Dynasty) and the Sui shu (Book
of the Sui Dynasty) are, however, earlier than that
of Wei shu (Book of the Wei Dynasty). Following the
records in early Chinese literature, it can be said that
the central plains of China began to learn about the
foreign fagoted iron sourced from Persia and Caoguo
(same as Jibin/ Kapisha/ Kashmir) in the Northern
and Southern Dynasties. Among the translated sutras,
the earliest reference to fagoted iron is found in Bu
kong juan suo zhou jing (Amoghapasha Hridaya Sutra)
translated by Indian Tripitakacharya Jñanagupta in
the Sui Dynasty. It says that. “If one’s curses need to
be broken, his or her image shall be made with flour,
mud or max, and then fagoted iron shall be used
as a knife to cut it.” The word “fagoted” had two
meanings – firstly, it was the transliteration of a loan
word; secondly, it was iron from Jibin (Kashmir).
According to Indian Tantric literature such as Ta
luo ni ji jing (Dharani-samuccaya Sutra) translated by
Indian Tripitakacharya Atigupta, fagoted iron was
used to make Buddhist instruments including vajra
pestle with metals such as gold, silver, red copper
and tin etc. Yuan Zhen, a poet in the Tang Dynasty,
wrote in his poem Feng he che xi da fu Li Deyu shu
meng si shi yun (Forty Verses Describing Dreams to
Respond to the Scholar-official of West Zhejiang Li
Iron Pillar in New Delhi Deyu) that “diamond drill cuts jade and fagoted iron

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 Cultural Contacts

sword peels feathers” which meant that knives and

swords made from fagoted iron were very sharp.
According to the studies of Qian Wei, a scholar of
history of metallurgy, the Jin tai zu shi lu (Authentic
Records of Emperor Taizu of Jin) mentions that “Liao
used fagoted iron as its state title although it was
hard, it would finally be destroyed.” This however,
cannot be regarded as the definitive evidence of
Khitan people having grasped the forging technology
for preparation of this kind of special steel. This
may have been fabricated by the Jin people. The
establishment of a “Fagoted Iron Bureau” in the
Yuan Dynasty is recorded in the Yuan shi: xuan
ju zhi san (History of the Yuan Dynasty: Record of
Election III). The use of the name “fagoted iron”,
however, cannot be truly regarded as evidence of
the introduction of this metallurgical technology
in China. It may have been used to manage Semu
ironsmiths from Central and West Asia. In view A snuff bottle of Qing Period with flowers interlocked with scroll design
of the lack of reliable evidence of fagoted iron
production in the Central Plains of China, new Regions. The Wu du fu (Wu Capital Rhapsody)
knowledge on the development of metallurgy which was written by Zuo Si (whose style name
arising out of archaeological excavations in Xinjiang was Taichong) in the Western Jin dynasty mentions
provide more valuable evidence on sources and that “glaze and jade are precious”. Volume XI of Yi
expansion of fagoted iron technology. According to qie jing yin yi (Sounds and Meanings of All Sutras)
Shen Maoshang’s Si yi kuang ji (Extensive Records of written by Hui Lin in the Tang Dynasty refers to it
Four Borders), fagoted iron was made in Huozhou, as “natural treasure in dark green, clear and bright,
Xinjiang (present-day Hala), about 70 li to the which cannot be refined by the common stones and
west of Liucheng and 30 li to the east of Turfan. fires in the world.” The technology for firing glaze
Huozhou offered fagoted iron knives and files, as was introduced in China from the Western Regions in
well as various kinds of clasp knives and diamond the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties.
drill as tribute. Fagoted iron was also made in Volume CII entitled Legend of the Western Regions of
Hami Region, Xinjiang during the Ming period, and the Wei shu (Book of the Wei Dynasty) records the
there were iron ores which could be used to refine following in the time of Northern Wei’s Emperor
it. The “fagoted iron was made from whetstone, Tuoba Tao. "(Emperor Shizu) was on the throne,
also known as “iron stone” and it was obtained by one man from the Kushana country (Great Yueshi
cutting the stone,” (also referred to Official Records Country) did business in the capital. He could cast
of Hami). The Si yi kuang ji (Extensive Records of Four stone into a five-coloured glaze. He demonstrated it
Borders) mentions that Bengal (ie undivided Bengal in the capital by collecting ores from the mountains
region) also made fagoted iron knives. Fagoted and casting it on the stone. The casting was
iron products are recorded more extensively in the successful and the end product was brighter and
Ming Dynasty. Cao Zhao’s Ge gu yao lun (Important more beautiful than the western glaze. He was then
Theory of Assessing Antiques) notes that it came from summoned to the imperial palace which could hold
the Western Regions and its surface had spiral and over 100 people and all were surprised to see its
sesame snowflake-like patterns. Polished fagoted bright colours and thought that it was made by god.
iron knives and swords can be verified by their From then on, the Chinese glaze was considered
spun golden alum pattern, while the fake ones are inferior and people didn’t value it.” The technology
distinguishable by their black colour. Fang Yizhi in for firing glaze was introduced into Luoyang from
Volume VII of his Wuli xiao zhi (Physics Knowledge) the Great Kushana Empire in the northwest of India
also refers to the same method for verification. and Central Asia, during the Northern Wei Dynasty.
ii) Glaze Firing Chinese characters meaning It thus appears to have certainly originated in India.
“Glaze” can be written in many ways like吠琉璃, 鞞 Five-coloured glazes fired with this technology can
瑠璃, 毘瑠璃, 流离 and吠努璃野 is the transliteration be favourably compared with the ones imported
of Sanskrit word vaidurya. In sutras, it is generally from the western regions. From the Northern Wei
regarded as one of seven treasures (that consisted Dynasty to the prosperous Tang Dynasty, Chinese
of gold, silver, glaze, glass, tridacna, red pearl craftsmen gradually mastered the art of making
and agate), most of which came from the Western fake and imitation glazes. Volume XVIII of Yi qie

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 Cultural Contacts

jing yin yi (Sounds and Meanings of All Sutras) points

out that “glazes are blue/ green treasures, and
there are authentic and fake ones. It is difficult to
obtain authentic glazes which are made by foreign
countries. Fake glazes are refined from stone in the
country and dyed into five colours.” From then on,
glazes became an essential component of decoration
and have been found fused in the construction of
palaces, temples, mausoleums and other such The data chart of the world's oldest sugar mill outlined
representative architecture of ancient and modern in an Indian Jain classic
China. The technology for firing glaze developed
then has more or less remained the same till the were assigned to Eastern Xia. Under an imperial
present time. order, they went to Yuezhou, and successfully made
iii) Sugar-making Technology: The origin and sugar with cane.” The Xin tang shu: xi yu lie zhuan
development of technology for manufacturing sugar (New Book of the Tang Dynasty: Miscellaneous Records
is one of the most representative successful examples of the Western Regions) mentions that Emperor
of mutual exchanges and interaction between India Taizong sent envoys to visit India’s Magadha region
and China. Professor Ji Xianlin’s History of Sugar and learn the method for making sugar. Further,
Cane is a wonderful work describing significance Yangzhou’s cane was used to make Chinese sugar,
of the technology of cane sugar making in China’s “whose colour and taste were better than that of
exchanges with the outside world. India was one of the Western Regions”. Its quality exceeded that of
the original producers of cane sugar and had a highly Indian sugar. Descriptions about the Indian method
for making sugar at the back of Dunhuang Fragments
P.3303 mentions that five Indian regions in the west
make three kinds of cane sugars, and two of them
can be used to make the best granulated sugar and
‘śakkara’. Leaves of sugar canes are cut off, each
section is then cut into five inches in length, and then
all are put into a large wooden mortar pulled by a
bull. The method for juicing canes was same as that of
extraction using the Kolhu (ox-driven pestle) device
recorded in traditional Indian literature. The so-
called “sha ge leng” (‘śakkara’) was the same as ‘she…
Recreating the Tang scenery (recorded in jia luo (śarkarā’)’ mentioned in the Tang Buddhist
Ming Dynasty’s Song Yingxing)
character book entitled Tang-Fan liang yu shuang dui
developed technology for making sugar. India’s ji (Collections interfacing in two languages – Tang and
famous medical classic, Śuśruta-samhita (Sha wen ben Sanskrit). This meant ‘shi mi’ (refined sugar) was the
ji) and the definitive treatise on government, Artha- transliteration of ‘śarkarā’ in Sanskrit. Refined sugar
sastra (Li lun) refer to the existence of five types (white sugar) was used in medical prescriptions or
of sugar named according to different colours and dietetic therapies in the Tang Dynasty. The Shi liao
purities. In Buddhist Vinaya literature translated into ben cao (Dietetic Materia Medica) of the Tang Dynasty
Chinese, various varieties of ancient Indian sugar and states that the refined sugars (white sugars) “from
its application in daily life are recorded. The term Middle Sichuan and Persia were superior. Eastern
cane sugar (‘gan su’ 甘蔗) is written in several ways Wu also had sugar, which was inferior to those in the
in Chinese literature, eg 'gan zhe竿蔗', 'shu zhe 薯 two places.” The refined sugar had the function of
蔗', 'zhu zhe诸蔗', 'zhu zhe诸柘', 'zhu zhe竹蔗', 'du “eliminating hot membrane and brightening eyes”.
zhe杜蔗' and 'du zhe 都蔗'etc. These transliterated Indian medical books and their translated versions
words explain its origin in foreign countries. Chinese propagated in the Western Regions in the Tang and
sugar probably appeared in an era between the Three Sui Dynasties, such as the Bao wei er xie ben (the
Kingdoms and the Tang Dynasty or the Southern and Bower Manuscript), Yi li jing hua (Siddhasra) and Qipo
Northern Dynasties. Volume IV entitled ‘Legend of shu (Jīvaka-pustaka) refer to medical prescriptions
Xuanzang’ in Dao Xuan’s book, Xu gao ceng zhuan with granulated sugar and refined sugar which
(Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks) written undoubtedly promoted the propagation of the
in the early Tang Dynasty, refers to Tang Emperor method for making sugar in China. However, the
Taizong’s dispatch of Wang Xuance to India as an pharmaceutical scope of granulated sugar became
envoy who “recruited monks of Bodhi Temple as narrower and narrower from the Tang Dynasty to
sugar craftsmen. Two craftsmen and eight monks the Ming and Qing Dynasties and it basically turned

68
 Cultural Contacts

into pure edible food. After the Indian method for puspa-sita as the most superior sugar in ancient India
making sugar was introduced in China, Chinese which was also known aspadma-cini (lotus sugar),
craftsmen over a long time continuously improved phul-cini (flower sugar) and bhura (powder sugar)
and perfected it. He Qiaoyuan of Ming Dynasty’s in Bengal region. The latter names of the superior
Min shun an chan zhi (Records of Southern Products white sugar in Bengal obviously indicate Chinese
in Fujian) describes the decolourising method in the connections which can be found from the two words,
Yuan Dynasty, which improved sugar quality greatly. ie padma-cini and phul-cini. Therefore, China learned
Similar technology for making sugar was seen in the technology for making sugar from India early,
various kinds of references such as in Fang Yizhi’s Wu then improved it and developed the white sugar
li xiao zhi (Physics Knowledge). Song Yingxing’s Tian technology after great efforts and finally exported
it to the region of Bengal and India. This evinces
long and deep mutual cultural exchanges between
ancient China and India.
iv) Paper-Making Technology: Before the
discovery of paper, people in ancient India used broad
leaves of palm plants, birch barks, leather, wood
chips, iron and copper plates to write chronicles. In
China, during the middle of the Eastern Han Dynasty,
Cai Lun improved paper-making technique, and the
use of paper gradually became popular. Direct trade
contacts between India and China were established
from the early Western Han Dynasty. During the
late Eastern Han Dynasty, visiting Indian monks and
merchants became familiar with the paper. Soon,
paper along with silk became important items for
import to India. The paper-making technique might
have been introduced into India between the Jin
Dynasty (265-420 CE) and the Tang Dynasty (618-907
A surviving section from the Dunhuang CE). There is, however, still no accurate and direct
Collection written in Chinese on the historical evidence for its movement to India. After
sugar manufacturing method of India
the Tang Dynasty, India-China traffic and cultural
gong kai wu (Creations of Heaven and Human Labor) exchanges became deeper and more frequent. The
defines this kind of bleaching technology during Sanskrit name of “paper” was Jia jia li (kākari) in Yi
the process of refining white sugar as the method Jing’s Fan yu qian zi wen (Thousand Sanskrit Words).
of “showering yellow mud”. It can be said that the The Sanskrit name of kākari or kākali for “paper”
method of showering and bleaching yellow mud was was also included in another Sanskrit-Chinese book
the great invention in the history of sugar-making in the Tang Dynasty, ie Li Yan’s Fan wen za ming
technology in China. After the Chinese technology (Miscellaneous names in Sanskrit). This indicates that
for making sugar was improved, China obviously India had the word for “paper” by the Tang Dynasty.
again began to export white sugar of higher quality Extrapolating from this, it may be argued that the
to India. Ma Huan’s Ying-yai sheng-lan (Overall Survey “kākari” in Sanskrit (“kāgad” in Hindi and “kāgaz”
of the Ocean’s Shores) records that the Bengal region
(present-day Bangladesh) had sweet food items such
as cane, white sugar, granulated sugar, icing sugar,
candy and so on. Gong Zhen’s Xi yang fan guo zhi
(Annals of the Foreign Counties in the Western Ocean)
records that Bengal made products such as granulated
sugar, white sugar and icing sugar. Volume CCCXXVI
of Ming shi (History of the Ming Dynasty) and Volume
CXVIII of Ming hui dian (Collected Ming Statutes),
constituting the Library of Four Treasures record
that tributes offered by Bengal included icing sugar.
Professor Ji Xianlin believes that Chinese technology
for making white sugar was introduced in India in
the second half of the 13th century and it reached
Bengal via the overseas/maritime Silk Road. The
Indian 16th century classic Bhavaprakasa refers to Golden official paper, western Han

69
 Cultural Contacts

in Urdu in later generations), “kāgaz” in Farsi and is found in Liang shu xi bei zhu rong zhuan (Book of the
“kāgad” in Arabic may have originated from “kagas” Liang Dynasty: Records of Northwestern Barbarians)
in Old Uighur. This may illustrate that Xinjiang’s that states, “There were many grass and trees, fruits
Turks introduced the paper-making technique into looked like silkworms and contained fine threads.
India during the early 8th century. Volume IV of Yi It was called ‘white stack’, and the people used it
Jing’s Nan hai ji hui nei fa zhuan (An Account of the to weave cloth, which was soft and white, and was
Inner Law Sent Home from the South Sea) describes traded in the market.” Dunhuang documents refer to
a large number of “cotton” items, that included both
cotton flower and cloth, official cloth which was
turned over to governmental authorities and clothes
used by temples and common people that were
made of one of the species of cotton cloth. Dunhuang
transported a lot of cotton cloth from Xinjiang’s
Tulufan (Turfan) area which was called Anxi cotton
and Xizhou cloth. The cotton planting technique
was propagated from Gansu Corridor into places
like Dunhuang. During the Song Dynasty there was
Paper manufacturing (preserved in Ming China’s further massive increase in cotton cultivation with
‘Nong zheng quan shu’ by Xu Guangqi) its entry into China through the maritime route. It
extended to places like Yangtze River Valley and
that India “made earthenware bottom and developed West Shaanxi in the Central Plains. Several Chinese
terracotta images, or printed silk and paper and books discuss the importance and significance of
paid tribute everywhere… Western Buddhists and cotton. Shi Zhao’s Tong jian shi wen (Explanation
laymen lived on it.” Terracotta images of Buddha on of Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government)
paper confirm that Indians had paper for daily use describes methods for planting and weaving cotton.
at that time. In terms of scale and quality of paper- Volume II of the official book Yi sang ji yao (Brief
making technique, the Chinese technique imported Points of Agriculture and Silkworm) of the Yuan
to the Arab Region after 751 AD was better than Dynasty emphasises advantages of cotton planting.
that of India. There appeared to be two routes for The Yuan Government established a Silk Cotton
the transmission of paper-making technique into Promotion Office to manage cotton planting. During
India. The first was from Xinjiang via Kashmir and the Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi’s Yi zheng chuan
the second was from Tibet via Nepal. The number of shu (Complete Work of Agricultural Administration)
available Indian texts or manuscripts indicates that quotes Wang Zhen’s Yi sang tong shi (Comprehensive
the use of paper in India increased gradually between Exposition of Agriculture and Silkworm), to describe
11th-12th century. The Indian paper-making technique specific methods for planting cotton. After the
also over time extended from Kashmir and Punjab to
South India and its scale of production accordingly
enlarged. The level of paper-making technique in
some areas of India had become very high by the
Ming period with success in manufacturing multiple
grade papers such as Grade I white paper etc Ma
Huan’s Yingya shenglan (Overall Survey of the Ocean’s
Shores and Gong Zhen’s Annals of the Foreign Countries
in the Western Ocean) record that the Grade I white
paper made from bark in Bengal was as smooth and
fine as chamois leather.
v) Cotton Production and Textile Technology:
India was both the place of origin as well as the
earliest place in the world for the cultivation and Preserved in Ming China’s ‘Nong zheng quan shu’ by Xu Guangqi
production of Asian cotton. The earliest cotton and
cotton cloth were introduced from India into China. late Ming Dynasty, cotton cultivation became very
Archaeological excavations in China indicate that popular in China.
cotton cultivation began in areas such as Minfeng
(Niya), Hetian (Khotan) and Tulufan (Turfan) in Exchanges in the Field of Architecture
Xinjiang from the Han Dynasty onwards. The earliest Both in ancient India and China, knowledge and
record of cotton (African cotton) cultivation in skills in architecture were well-developed. The
Gaochang (present day Tulufan/ Turfan), Xinjiang, knowledge of Buddhist art and architecture was

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 Cultural Contacts

introduced in China by Indians monks who came to “all of its style was based on the Western Region.”
China to propagate Buddhism and Chinese monks This indicates that it was built completely according
who visited India to seek Dharma. Xuanzang’s to the layout pattern of Indian temples. With the
Da tang xi yu ji (Travelling Notes of the Western development of close contact through the maritime
Regions in the Great Tang Dynasty) notes in detail Silk Road, Indians came to China for a living. Hindu
the architecture of a Buddhist temple in the famous Brahmanical temples were built in Guangzhou in
Nalanda Monastery. Volume I of Yi Jing’s Da tang xi the Tang Dynasty and a ‘Śiva’ temple was raised in
yu qiu fa gao seng zhuan (Biographies of the Venerable the famous ancient trading port in Quanzhou during
the Song and Yuan Dynasties. Its stone engravings
depict themes from relevant Hindu religious
scriptures and are still visible. During more modern
times, Chinese-styled temples as well as wooden and
stone pagodas (eg temples in China Town and in
Indian Buddhist centres for pilgrimage) have been
built by Chinese in India. These could be considered
as representative examples of Chinese architecture
in India.
At the beginning of the introduction of Indian
Buddhism, Chinese temple architecture followed the
Indian Buddhist grove-styled temple layout with a
pagoda at the centre and temple halls built around
it. By the time of Jin and Tang Dynasties, temple
halls gradually became the central part of the main
building and the pagoda was either placed at a non-
central position or moved out of the temple. Chinese
Zhao xian Buddhist stone pillar of dharani
Buddhist temple layout gradually further integrated
(religious chants), located in the city of Zhao with traditional Chinese palace architecture and the
xian in China’s Hebei province. It happens to
be the tallest existing Buddhist stone pillar in
main halls began to be standardised, with Mountain
China, rising up to almost 16 m. Gate, Heavenly King Hall, Mahavira Hall, Dharma Hall
and Tripitaka Pavilion becoming the essential body of
Monks of the Great Tang Dynasty Who Studied Buddhist the temple. Its style over the time became more and
Classics in the Western Regions) too illustrates in more localised, and adopted Chinese architectural
detail architectural scale, layout, materials and colorings for the Buddhist temples. Yet the close
technologies of the Nalanda Monastery. This, in fact, linkages of Chinese Buddhist architecture with those
gives us a valuable first-hand record of the ancient of Indians especially in grottoes, pagodas, Dharani
Indian Buddhist temple architecture. Two volumes sutra pillars and engravings, cannot be denied.
of Dao Xuan’s Zhong tian zhu she wei guo qi huan shit u (Niu Weixing & Chen Ming)
jing (Illustrated Scripture of Jetavana Vihara of Śrāvastī
in Central India) claims it to be “written by Monk
Shi in South Mountain in a ‘state of enlightenment’.”
Mathematics and
Astronomy
Some of its description of architectural layout
of Jetavana Vihara of Sravasti in Central India,
however, came from records of the Indian monks.
Certain stylistic architectural designs of the Indian Ancient Indian
Buddhist temple architecture more or less influenced Mathematics and
the construction of Chinese Buddhist temples. Some Astronomy
Indian monks who visited China during the Sui and A kind of knowledge hierarchy which was applied to
Tang Dynasties were proficient in architecture and observing and describing astronomical phenomena,
participated in designing or construction of Chinese as well as to giving explanations and predictions via
Buddhist temples. The Longmen Indian Temple mathematical methods was developed in ancient
in Luoyang, Henan was built by Tripitakacharya India. According to the opinions of D. Pingree,
(dharma master) Bao Siwei depicting abdication of Indian ancient astronomy can be divided into five
throne and adoption of monastic life by the Indian periods orderly as Vedic Period (about 1000-400
prince, Siddharth Gautam. According to records in BCE), Babylonian Period (about 400-200 BCE),
Volume III of Song gaoseng zhuan (Biographies of Hellenistic Babylonian Period (about 200-400 CE),
Eminent Monks Compiled in the Song Dynasty), Bao Greek Period (from 400-1600 CE) and Islamic
Siwei built his temple on Longmen Mountain and Period (from 1600-1800 CE).

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The astronomical data of the Vedic Period is According to history, though foreign astronomy
mainly preserved in Vedas such as Rig-Veda, made inroads in India several times, Vedic
thus constituting the most indigenous astronomy astronomy as the indigeneous Indian astronomy
in India. During the Babylonian Period, a large was still preserved though various methods while
blending with other external astronomy. Meanwhile,
such Indian ancient astronomy blended with other
external astronomy spread to China along with
the eastern spread of Buddhism. Moreover, the
detailed description of the spread of Indian ancient
astronomy knowledge to China can be found in
Chinese Buddhist Scriptures and various other
historical records, and the contents thereof can be
divided as follows: 1. Cosmology 2. Constellation
Stone inscription in Gwalior, India from 9th century CE system 3. Running of the sun and the moon, eclipses
4. Season and calendar 5. Running of planets and
number of Mesopotamian astronomical contents calendar thereof.
were blended in Indian astronomy, including the The cosmology knowledge introduced along
method of describing day length changes, other with Buddhism shall belong to early India mainly
parameters, mathematical models, time units, including the concept of Kalpa, cyclic destruction
instruments etc derived from Babylon. Then, the and creation of cosmos, size and measurement of
astronomy of Babylonian Seleucid Period which cosmos etc. Buddhism world view believes that at
was adapted by Greeks, was introduced into the beginning of Kalpa, the cosmos with certain
the Hellenistic Babylonian Period including the structure is constructed via wind while the whole
description of the planetary configuration, the world is destroyed completely at the end of Kalpa
geometric calculations etc concerned to eclipses, thus forming one cycle and then recreating the
shadow length etc and meanwhile some contents world. The Indian ancient cosmic structure is
were preserved in Pañcasiddhāntikā completed quantitatively described in Buddhist scriptures as
around 575 CE. Successively, a lot of astronomical follows: All things in the cosmos are located on a
talents came out in the Greek Period that the Indian large wind wheel without edge, with the thickness
astronomy lasted for more than one thousand years,
many classic works were created and Pakṣa was also
formed. Therein, Brāhmapakṣa was first established
(400 CE) and lasted for the longest time (more than

Ancient text books on Mathematics

1,500 years) thus having a far-reaching influence

and the rest are as follows: āryapakṣa established
in 500 CE, ārdharātikapakṣa established in 500 CE,
Saurapakṣa established in 800 CE and Gaṇeṣapakṣa
established in 1500 CE. Along with the introduction
of Islam into India, India experienced an Islamic
Period between 1600 CE and 1800 CE, and after
that the country came in direct contact with western New Delhi’s Jantar Mantar observatory is located at Sansad Marg,
modern astronomy. New Delhi in India. It was built in 1724.

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 Cultural Contacts

thereof as 1,600,000 yojanas. A water wheel is set which is translated into Chinese according to the
on the wind wheel, with the thickness as 1,120,000 literal meaning of the Sanskrit constellation name can
yojanas and the surface of 320,000 yojanas is be found in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures. The Citrā of
coagulated to form gold and land wheel. The Indian constellation system is different from that in
ancient China and besides Spica, Kṛttikā and Asvini
are also taken as Citrāin Chinese Buddhist scriptures.
Obviously, Spica is taken as Citrā in order to remain
the same with Chinese ancient constellation system.
Moreover, Kṛttikā is taken as Citrā diagnostically in
ancient India meaning the constellation where the
spring equinox is located but taking Asvini as Citrā
successively in Chinese Buddhist scriptures aims at
reflecting the adjustment due to precession. There are
two kinds of constellation amount, namely 28 and 27,
in Chinese Buddhist scriptures. The 28 constellation
system is consistent with ancient China on amount,
however, the 27 constellation system excluding
Abhijil is the Indian local constellation system
Diagram of the four divisions of the twenty eight
which is the adjusted product aiming at matching
constellations, namely, Azure Dragon, White Tiger, with the signs of the zodiac. The most complete
Vermilion Bird, and Black Tortoise.
and clearest descriptions for the 27 constellation
system in Chinese Buddhist scriptures first appeared
diameter of the water wheel and the gold wheel are in Sutra on Taking Auspices by Celestial Constallations
both 1,203,450 yojanas and the perimeters thereof and Bodies translated by Tang Bukong. However,
are three times the diameters. Sumeru is located the width of the constellations in Chinese Buddhist
centrally on the gold wheel with the outflow height Scriptures division is mainly an uneven division and
and the underwater penetration both as 84,000 the unevenness is not ruleless as that in ancient China
yojanas and with seven gold hills orderly embracing and can be roughly divided into wide, secondary
externally; four great regions are located outside the wide and narrow. From Sutra on Taking Auspices by
seven gold hills while Cakkava is located outside the Celestial Constellations and Bodies and other Buddhist
four great regions. The underwater penetration of scriptures, we also can find a trend of unifying the
the seven hills and Cakkava is the same with that of widths of the constellations which shall be influenced
the Sumeru but the outflow height is orderly halved, by the introduction of signs of the zodiac into India.
and the widths of the hills are equal to the outflow Additionally, in Buddhist Scriptures, the star numbers
height. Among the above nine hills, there are eight
seas with the first seven seas as the inland seas, the
width of the innermost sea is 80,000 yojanas and the
perimeter thereof is 240,000 yojanas. The widths of
the rest of the six seas are orderly halved and the
eighth sea is open sea with the width as 321,000
yojanas. This Indian ancient cosmos model is similar
with the Chinese ancient canopy heavens cosmos
model but there is still no definite evidence to prove
the correlation.
We need to pay attention to the name translations,
the Citrā issue, the constellation amount, the
constellation width, the configuration etc of the Indian
constellation system in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures.
Before the Indian constellation system was introduced
to China, a set of similar constellation system had
already formed in China. The name translations of the
Indian constellation in Chinese translation process
have the following three conditions: 1. Most of the
constellations are translated into Chinese existing
constellations 2. Some of the constellations are
translated into Chinese via transliteration according
to Sanskrit pronunciations 3. Only one example Diagram on astronomy, Qing Xiao Yun Cong

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 Cultural Contacts

by Indian Buddhist Kumāra is also attached to the

article of Eclipse Theory in Taien Calendar of Volume
34 of Old Book of Tang (refer to article “Kumāra”
for details). In addition, the Indian eclipse method
translated by Gautama Siddha clearly introduces the
Indian eclipse calculation method (refer to article
‘Jiuzhi Calendar’ for details).
The contents related to the season and the calendar
of ancient India are abundantly recorded in Chinese
Buddhist scriptures mainly including season division,
month name, concept of the white moon and black
Indian Observatory at Jaipur, located in Rajasthan, India moon, arrangement of a solar month of 31 days and a
solar month of 30 days, inserting of leap month, day
of the constellation systems are greatly different from and night length change, division and denomination
that in ancient China and the star numbers of only of day and night etc. Four kinds of different definitions
five constellations are totally the same. Meanwhile, for the month are given in Volume 48 of Great Treatise
the names of the implements or the products used for on the Perfection of Wisdom namely “Solar Month”,
describing the constellation configuration also have “Karma Month”, “Lunation Month”, “Nakshatra
an Indian characteristic. Month”. Therein, “Solar Month” is one-twelfth the
In regard to the running of the sun and the moon, length of the tropical year, “Karma Month” is an ideal
several Chinese Buddhist Scriptures mention that year (360 days as an ideal year), “Lunation Month”
the sun and the moon run around Sumeru while is namely the synodic month and “Nakshatra Month”
being supported and blown by the wind wheel is namely the sidereal month. And several sheets of
and the running height is half height of Sumeru, the shadow length change during seasonal variation
namely 42,000 yojanas. The diameter of the sun is are also given in Buddhist Scriptures and Time and
51 yojanas while that of the moon is 50 yojanas. The Non-Time has the most detailed data. Except Jiuzhi
four continents experience day and night alternative Calendar, Futian Calendar which originated from
as well as seasonal variation along with the running Indian astronomy and was popular among Chinese
of the sun around Sumeru. Volume V “Orbits of folks during the late Tang dynasty is a representative
The Sun And The Moon 19th” in Abhidharma Theory of the complete writings similar with Indian ancient
mentions: the sun has 180 orbits while the moon has siddhanta, but the main contents have been lost. In
15 orbits. The sun continuously transits from one sun addition, Guangzhai Calendar written by Gautama
orbit to another sun orbit every day in half-a-year Ambrosius is presumed to be a kind of astronomical
and then returns to the innermost sun orbit from the table for calculating astronomical phenomena
outermost sun orbit orderly which can reasonably according to Indian astronomy.
explain annual variation, such as Sunrise azimuth
change, day and night length change etc. As for the
orbits of the moon, one moon orbit is equivalent to
12 sun orbits, the sun and the moon repeatedly run
between the most southern sun orbit and the most
northern sun orbit between which the distance is
290 yojanas. Meanwhile, it also mentions that solar
radiation shapes in a sphere with the diameter as
721,200 yojanas.
According to Chinese Buddhist scriptures, eclipses
were caused by Asurindaka Rahu with his hands
covering the sun and meanwhile six eclipse periods
were mentioned. From other document literatures
except Chinese Buddhist scriptures, we can know
that the Indian astronomy introduced in China
featured the eclipse theory. Moreover, “Kasyapa
Harvey Indian Method” which is an Indian method
for calculating eclipses is attached to the article of
Eclipse Theory in Linde Calendar of Volume 33 of
Old Book of Tang (refer to article “Kasyapa Harvey”
for details) and one paragraph of Indian eclipse
method which is “Eclipse Cutting Method” spread A page in the Ancient Calendar in the Dai language

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 Cultural Contacts

The following planet knowledge is mainly to the opinion of Joseph Needham, the earliest
involved in Chinese Buddhist scriptures: planet dot or zero symbols, appeared in two inscriptions
name and order, planetary scale, travelling range, in Cambodia and Sumatra. This year was taken
planetary calendar etc. Especially, Rahu and Ketu to be the starting point of Sakha calendar and the
are also taken as planets. Sometimes Chinese inscription belonged to Sakha 605th year. Therefore,
ancient names are adopted as the names of the if the Sakha Calendar started from 78 CE then the
planets but sometimes the transliteration names inscription belonged to 683 CE. According to another
are adopted. And the orders of the planets are view, if the Sakha Calendar started from 128 CE then
sometimes determined by the order of Chinese the inscription belonged to 733 CE, which is a little
ancient generation among five elements and later than the compilation time of Jiuzhi Calendar.
sometimes determined by the brightness thereof, In nine chapters of Mathematical Book written by
and meanwhile the orders “From Fast to Slow” are Qin Jiushao of Song Dynasty (1247 CE), zero was
also given in Sutra on Taking Auspices by Celestial changed into a hollow circle which is the same as
Constellations and Bodies. In addition, the travelling its modern form. At present, there is still no clear
range of the planets and the calendar thereof are evidence to indicate that using the hollow circle as
intensively described in Expelling the Seven Planets’ the zero symbol in the ancient Chinese mathematics
Fated Calamities (refer to Expelling the Seven Planets’ books originated from India.
Fated Calamities for details). (Niu Wexing)
Since Indian astronomy was introduced in
China in the early times and had a large time span Portraits of
(from 3rd to 10th centuries CE), thus the related Constellation Gods
materials are piecemeal preserved till now and it Painting of constellations was a kind of subject for
is also difficult to establish the correlation between painting that started in India and also an implement
the astronomical contents thereof and certain used for sacrifice via the introduction of Esoterism.
astronomical classics of Pakṣa in different Indian As communications between India and China
periods. However, we are still able to trace the flourished since the Tang Dynasty, the paintings of
impact of Indian astronomy on Chinese astronomy constellations prevalent in India gradually spread to
and such impact most seriously influenced Chinese China. Zhang Sengyao was a painter in Liang dynasty
astronomy in Tang dynasty. Li Qiao mentioned whose three pieces of paintings were said to be the
in Shenlong Calendar Serial that the Indian and earliest record of constellation paintings ie Painting of
Chinese astronomers were different from each Nine Constellations, Painting of Saturn, Paintings of Five
other but they had the interlinked astronomy Planes and Twenty-eight Constellations. If these records
thoughts and fought for modifying the calendar are true, they show that as early as the Liang Dynasty,
together. The most classic works shall be Taien China began to take in Indian star-god pictures.
calendar as Japanese Buddhist Saicho who came However, scholars mostly deem that there was some
to Tang for Buddha dharma described in Dharma doubt that the star-god paintings emerged in Liang
Blood Spectrum that “Tang and Brahman Buddhists Dynasty and the real author of those paintings should
communicate and reach an agreement” thus be someone in the Tang Dynasty instead.
completing the classic works in Chinese calendar The paintings of celestial gods were divided into
history and becoming the model of later calendars. two categories, one of which was regarded as such
(Chen Ming & Niu Weixing) artistic works as Paintings of Five Planes and Twenty-
eight Constellations. The other of which was used in
Terms, Items sacrifice like the paintings of various star-gods and
Buddha in Buddhist texts.
ZERO
Zero is a numerical code denoting “nil”. Although the
decimal system was adopted in ancient China quite
early, there was still no special symbol to denote zero
and in case of zero in number writing, the position
of zero was replaced with a blank. When translating
Jiuzhi Calendar in the sixth year of Emperor Kaiyuan
(718 CE), Gautama Siddhartha introduced the Indian
numerical symbol of zero to China at the beginning of
the Jiuzhi Calendar in “Number Accounting Method”.
He said that when counting up to 10 place one dot
Tang dynasty Liang Lin Zan’s ‘Diagram of the five stars and twenty
in the blank as a mark in order to make the blanks Tibetan deities’. This picture is preserved at the art gallery in the city of
have marks and thus prevent mistakes. According Osaka, Japan.

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 Cultural Contacts

Painting of Five Planes and Twenty-eight Constellations, paintings, after being introduced into China, could
in Chinese art history, was passed as an exclusive be only regarded as the paintings of that certain
painting subject, the content of which included stage, while those paintings in India had evolved
pictures of five planes and those of 28 constellations. into other forms. The second reason was that, after
There were five types available in the world which the introduction into China, they were transmitted
were listed in order of authors’ times respectively – secretly so not much was exposed to the world
Tang, Song, Yuan and Ming, Paintings of Five Planes besides the limited number of paintings were
and Twenty-eight Constellations collected in Osaka incapable of representing the whole characteristics
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Painting Rolls by Song of India-originating paintings. The third reason
People collected in the Palace Museum, Constellation was that the Buddhist texts and art works probably
Paintings by Yuanzixia and Constellation paintings were endowed with some elements of Central Asia.
by Qiuying collected in America Metropolitan (Li Hui)
Museum of Art. The picture of Mars in Painting of Five
Planes and Twenty-Eight Constellations was collected Personalities
in Osaka Metropolitan Museum of Art.
There was a large number of Buddhist texts Zhen luan
which illustrated the paintings of star-gods. Brahma Zhen Luan was a Chinese mathematician from
Navagraha Fire, Seven Constellations Resisting Wuji, a county in present day Hebei Province in
Calamities, Picture of Fire were all collected in the Northern Zhou of the Southern and Northern
Tripitake and they illustrate the paintings of Dynasties. His dates of birth and death are
nine constellation gods. However, Buddhist texts unknown. Zhen Luan was a military officer and
collecting paintings of 28 constellations and zodiacs a governor in Hanzhong city before and after
were rare with an exception of Picture of Fire which the middle of 6th century CE. He was a Buddhist
collected a combination of paintings of various and good at arithmetic. He wrote three books on
constellation gods. Theory Against Taoism, two books on Five Classics
There were numerous paintings of star-gods of Arithmetics, five books on Five Cao Arithmetics,
available in Dunhuang accounts. Their popularity two books on Seven Luminaries of Calendar Art,
was due to their increasing inroads in folk customs nine books on Nine Chapters of Mathematics Art,
and beliefs as well as prevalvence of Esoterism. one book on the Notes of Zhoubi Mathematics Art
People believed that the unfavourable effects etc. The name of the books that Zhen Luan noted
arising from vicious constellations could be warded are three books of Xia Houyang Mathematics Art
off or weakened by means of enshrining pictures and Zhang Qiujian Mathematics Art; three books
of constellation gods and holding proper rituals. of Sun-Tzu Mathematics; one book of the Summary
Calamities could be diminished by prayers and of Mathematics; and one book of Three Kinds of
blessings. The folk belief thus accelerated the Mathematics. He developed the Tianhe Calender
popularity of constellation paintings. which was implemented in 566 CE, the year of
Picture of Fire, Collected in Toyota temple, in Tianhe in Northern Zhou and was used for the next
Tripitake, at the seventh roll, pages 693-704 12 years.
Picture of Buddha was a painting assembling In the fifth year of Tianhe ie 570 CE, Zhen Luan
Buddha and various constellation gods. It shared was ordered by the Emperor Wu to learn Buddhism
the effect of diminishing calamities and praying and Taoism in detail to confirm their length and
blessings. However, in this painting, Buddha dwelt determine their true and fictional portions. This
at the centre and the other constellation gods
gathered around.
Painting of Buddha and Five Planes, collected in
British Museum, NO. 1919,0101,0.31
Constellation-god paintings that were made as art
works and those out of Chinese Buddhist texts were
obviously closely related but differed in properties.
For example, a prominent change often is reflected
in alteration of the constellation gods’ riding
animals in painting of Five Planes and Twenty-eight
Constellations to their crowns in Buddhist texts.
Until today, constellation paintings that were
introduced in China cannot match Indian pass-
A picture of the book, 'Legacy of the Record of the technique of
on paintings. The first reason was that star-god counting', an ancient block-printed edition of Mao jin ji of the
painting has been a long-evolving subject. These Chongzhen reign period of the Ming Dynasty.

76
 Cultural Contacts

is the primary content of his book, Theory against Yixing

Taoism. Because Zhen Luan was a Buddhist, he was Yixing was born in 683 CE and died in 727 CE.
seriously against all kinds of points of Taoism and His common name was Zhangsui and the Buddhist
in 36 articles of the book, he referred to some of name was Jingxian. He was also called Monk
India’s universe/cosmos theories, such as inexorable Yixing, Acharya Yixing, or Honored Yigong. He was
doom, universe of 1,000,000,000 universes and a Chinese monk and astronomer in Tang dynasty.
trayastrimsa. He and an Indian monk, Subhakarasimha, translated
The Summary of Mathematics was written by seven books of the Great Buddhist Blessing Sutra that
Xuyue in Han dynasty and is noted by Zhen Luan. is Mahavairocana Tantra. Besides this, Yixing wrote
Qian Baocong thought that the book was both 20 books of the Notes of the Great Buddhist Blessing
written and noted by Zhen Luan and its authorship that is the Notes on Mahavairocana Tantra. Ordered
is inadvertently attributed to Xuyue but some other by Xuanzong Emperor, he developed the Dayan
scholars believe that it was truly authored by Xuyue calendar. Also, for calculation of auspicious and
and noted by Zhen Luan. The writer narrates in inauspicious time, four books on Buddhist tantrism
first person that he met Liuhong when travelled are classified under Yixing’s name which include
to Mountain Tai and Liuhong told him that he had one book each on Timing Ritual, Another Line Method
learned three kinds of scale system and 14 kinds of of Seven Telecom Stars, Methods of Protecting the Big
noting numbers from Tianmu whom he encountered Dipper and ROM: Obsidian Brahma Fire.
in mountains. Yixing was born in a very reputed family. His
What Liuhong mentions is the three kinds of scale great grandfather, Zhang Gongjin, had assisted
system. The bottom in 10 multiply 10, the middle Emperor Taizong Li Shimin and was involved in
in 10,000 multiply 10,000 and the top in number the Xuanwu Gate Incident. He was one of the 24
changed when there is no number. Ten multiply Meritorious Statesmen of Lingyan Pavilion but as time
10 is 100, 10 multiply 100 is 1000 and 10 multiply went by the fortune of his family declined. After
1000 is 10,000 and so on. Ten thousand multiply his parents’ death, Yixing became a monk and went
10,000 means 10,000 multiply 10,000 is a hundred to Song mountain to observe Shramana’s silence.
million and then billion, a hundred billion etc. The In order to avoid being called by the government,
number changes when there is no number means a he hid in Mt Dangyang in Jingzhou, and travelled
hundred million, billion and a hundred billion. This to the south. In fifth year of Kaiyuan, 717, Yixing
so-called number changes is the same as the point 45 was called into the capital by Xuanzong Emperor
in Buddhavatamsaka-Mahavaipulya-Sutra translated and translated the Indian Tantrik Classics together
by Siksananda in Tang dynasty; the article 25 of
The King of Hearts Bodhisattva Asks the Monk Named
A Seng in book 29 translated by Buddhabhadra in
Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Bodhisattva Arithmetics
in book 10 named Never Thinking of Liberated World
When All of the Elites Doing Good translated by Tang
monk Prajnaparamite Kawmira. If the Summary of
Mathematics was truly written and noted by Zhen
Luan, the way to getting involved in the arithmetics
is easy for him.
There is a sentence that reads, if you don’t know
how the Ksana rushes, how could you know peasant
woman in ups and downs of time; if you don’t know
the small, how could you know Buddhist cosmology
in the body of the Summary of Mathematics. In this
sentence, the words Ksana and Buddhist cosmology Yixing
are used in Buddhism, and Ksana hadn’t been
translated by its pronunciation into Buddhist Sutra with Subhakarasimha and Vajrabodhi. In ninth
in Xuyue’s time so there is a strong evidence of it year of Kaiyuan, 721, he made new calendar under
being treated as Zhen Luan’s book and the fake one the order of Xuanzong Emperor. In the 12th year of
being written by Xuyue. Zhen Luan referred the time Emperor Kaiyuan (724), Huangdaoyouyi was made
and length units in Lankavatara Sutra, four concepts and declared a national astronomical measurement
of the world in Buddhavatamsaka-Mahavaipulya- standard. In the 15th year of Kaiyuan (727), when
Sutra and the small, middle and the big Buddhist the draft of the new calendar was made, Yixing
cosmology when he noted the sentence. had died. Zhangshuo and the Calendar Officer
(Niu Weixing) Chen Xuanjing made up the draft into 52 books

77
 Cultural Contacts

and presented them to the government. In the 17th Moving Table is calculated starting from the farthest
year of Kaiyuan, 729, the new calendar, the Dayan point of earth.
Calendar, came into use. If the influence of the India astronomy is only
Yixing had made a lot of innovations in the Dayan vaguely observed in Yixing, it cannot be denied
Calendar. These reflect the influence of the foreign that, the way that the idea of India Calendar or
knowledge on astronomy. Firstly, Yixing made a the Western Calendar he directly referred from
correct description for the uneven movement of Mahavairocana was used to define the terms of
the sun for the first time in Few Examples of the Sun astronomy and calendar showed that Yixing had
grasped the India calendar sufficiently. In other way,
the name of the Dayan Calendar came from the way
of great changing in the Confucianism classic, Book
of Change. Yixing had read Taoist classics intensively
when he was young, so we can see that Yixing had
gotten the classics of Confucianism, Buddhism and
Taoism. Also we can see the content of astrology of
Taoism in his ROM. Obsidian Brahma Fire.
We have no historical records of the way Yixing
received the knowledge of the Indian astronomical
calendar. But as both Chinese and Indian scholars had
personal exchanges at that time, there must be books
on astronomy coming into Tang dynasty. For example,
the book 198 of Tang Annals recorded, Kawmira had
sent ambassadors to Tang in seventh year of Kaiyuan
(719), and paid in tribute an astronomy book, some
secret prescriptions and foreign medicine. Further, the
book 971 in Ce Fu Yuan Gui read that in June of the
Astronomical diagram/figure of the seventh year of Kaiyuan, Tuhuoluo Country had paid
Song Dynasty on a stone tablet
tribute to astronomers. After setting things right in the
state, Xuanzong Emperor paid more attention to the
Full and Empty in Dayan Calendar and the shape cultural construction and amendment of the calendar
of Sun in the Dayan Calendar with the maximum was one of the great measures undertaken then.
differential centre value calculated as 143’.29. Some In sixth year of Kaiyuan, 718, Xuanzong Emperor
scholar point that this result is almost the same as ordered Zhaitan Xida to translate Jiuzhi Calendar. Iin
the differential center value 143’.38. Probably the seventh year of Kaiyuan, some books on astronomy
latter was influenced in some ways by the Indian came from Jibin country and astronomers from
astronomy as mediation. Secondly, Yixing made a Tuhuoluo country joined them. All of these could
Tangent Table in Dayan Calendar which was treated have prepared the groundwork for the amendment
as the first one in the history. Some scholars thought of the calendar. Xuanzong Emperor thought highly of
it was transformed from the Tangent Table in Jiuzhi Yixing, and gave him full authority to pursue the work
Calendar by Yixing but some others insist that it of amendment. Therefore, Yixing, who was proficient
was his own invention in the form of the Chinese on ancient India language, could check up the foreign
aboriginal astronomy and calendar. Thirdly, while astronomy books kept in the library of royal household
introducing the uneven movement of the Five- and conveniently consult the astronomers.
Star Anniversary, Yixing referred to the Indian (Niu Wexing)
calendar. He thought that every star has its specific
love and hate relations when it meets good stars, Dharmacandra
it moves faster; when it meets bad ones, it moves Dharmacandra (652-743 CE) was an eminent
slower. Fourthly, the Calculating Eclipse Arithmetic monk from eastern India who came to China and
mentioned in Few Examples of Sun Eclipse of Dayan disseminated Dharma in the Tang Dynasty. His
Calendar is corresponding with the method of abbreviated name is Damozhan which was called
calculation in Jiuzhi Calendar. Fifthly, the method Fayue in Tang Dynasty and his personal deeds were
of calculation of vanishing and offsetting in Dayan recorded in the 14th volume of New Directory for
Calendar is obviously originated from India. For Buddhism in Zhenyuan Period written by Yuanzhao.
example, book five in the Abhidharma Theory has He once took a trip to central India and was
expressed the similar idea. Sixthly, some results in deemed as a citizen of Magadha. Dharmacandra
Dayan Calendar were based on the adoption of the made great contributions to the cultural exchange
division of 360 degree for the whole day. The Moon between India and China by the transmission of

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 Cultural Contacts

ancient books and records and through translation recorded that Dharmacandra, the eminent monk
of Buddhist scriptures and texts on Arthashastra, proficient in Tripitaka, had come to offer medicine,
medical science, astrology, pictures of esoteric new conjuration, various kinds of scriptures in
Buddhism and occult techniques. Sanskrit, Theory for Governing the Country, Astrology
Dharmacandra has a good knowledge of Tripitaka Records, and Various Prescriptions in Sanskrit.
and medical science. He used the materials Dharmacandra had paid tribute to the court many
according to specific conditions and travelled far times. His Theory for Governing the Country referred
and wide to disseminate dharma. In Qiuci (Kuqa in to Artha÷àstra written by Kauñilya, a minister of
Sinkiang now), he met his apprentice, Satyacandra Chandragupta of the Maurya Dynasty in India. The
Astrology Records is, without any doubt, a work for
astrology, while “Various Prescriptions in Sanskrit”,
just as its name implies included books on
medical prescriptions in Sanskrit. The Incantation
– Preface of Thousand–eyes and Thousand-arms
Avalokiteshvara Dharani, translated by Zhitong of
Tang Dynasty recorded that Damozhantuo, a monk
in Brahman of Udyana country (present-day Swat
Valley, Pakistan), “translate sutras according to the
orders” and offered Bodhisattva and incantation
as a tribute. Damozhantuo mentioned there was
actually Dharmacandra.
(Chen Ming)

Kasyapa
Kasyapa Xiaowei was an astronomer who worked
in the astronomy institution in the Tang Dynasty.
He belonged to the family of Kasyapa, one of the
three great Indian astronomical families that came
Sanskrit text of 'Favourable Opinions' (Li lun) to China in the Middle Ages. There is not much
description about Kasyapa Xiaowei’s deeds. After
(Zhenyue in Tang Dynasty; the surname is Bunaxian the Linde Calendar in Old book of Tang History
which is also called Liyan) and then devoted narrated the method for calculating the eclipse,
themselves to translation together. In the 18th year there were 400 words involved in the Indian method
of Kaiyuan period (730), they were recommended that he preached. This mainly explained that the
to enter court by Lu Xiulin, the military governor in Indian Eclipse Calculation Method calculated eclipse
Anxi. In the 20th year of Kaiyuan period (732), they points according to the speed of sun and moon.
arrived in Chang’an and entered the court. There This is a different method from what is recorded in
they presented the court with occult techniques, Linde Calendar that calculates eclipse points using
medical prescriptions, Buddhist books, medical a different formula created according to shuowang
herbs and sutras etc. In the years that followed, (lunar) great eclipse points. Additionally, Old book
the translated versions of Medical Prescriptions and of Tang also narrated presages about lunar eclipse,
Chinese Herbal Medicine were published. They not such as “the moon is wet as sweat”, it’s different
only offered material objects of medical herbs but from Chinese astronomical narrations and compares
also helped translate books on medical prescriptions with Indian Sanskrit astronomical documents.
and Chinese herbal medicine. These medicines The Indian Eclipse Method recorded here is close
and books which were derived from India or the to Vasistha Paulisa’s system for calculating lunar
Western Regions, were a great event for exchange eclipse. There is no lunar eclipse from 13 degree to
of Chinese and Western medicine. During the years 15 degree but the lunar eclipse takes place within
when they stayed in Chang’an, they also translated 13 degree (12 degree 15 cents in Chinese). Vasistha
Buddhist scriptures, such as Prajna Paramita Heart Paulisa’s calculation method was recorded in verse
Sutra for Ordinary Buddhist Monks. In the 29th year 1 through 10, chapter VI in Five Great Siddhantas
of Kaiyuan period (741), they left Chang’an and (Pañca Siddhanta) by Varaha Mihira.
returned to India, by way of the Shaqi, Western There were another two Kasyapas who worked for
Liang. Unfortunately, he caught an illness halfway Tang who could be identified. One is Kasyapa Ji who
and died in Cakra Temple of Khotan in the second was an astronomical officer in Jingyuan in the Period
year of Tianbao Period (743). The 971st volume, of Zhenguan (627-649 CE). Another one is Kasyapas
Wai Chen Bu – Tribute Four, Ce Fu Yuan Gui Zhong (or Zhi Zhong) who was a historiographer for

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 Cultural Contacts

Right General of Royal Guards and he was rewarded Gautama family was frequently used and considered
for dedicating an extol song to Queen Wei in the most appropriate.
second year of Period of Jinglong (708 CE). In the Gautama family, Gautama Siddhartha had
(Zhou Liqun) made outstanding contributions to astronomy.
According to the records in Volume 1 of Kai Yuan
Gautama Siddhartha Zhan Jing, in Jing Yun second year (711), Emperor
Gautama Siddhartha was a popular Indian Ruizong of Tang, Gautama Siddhartha was ordered to
astronomer who came to China and joined the Tang hold the repair work for the armillary sphere which
state as the Imperial astronomer in the early period was built by Emperor Ruizong of Northern Wei
of 8th century CE. Dates of his birth and death are Dynasty, which he completed in Xiantian second
unknown. As an imperial astronomer (the highest year (713 CE) of Emperor Xuanzong. Old Book
position in imperial astronomical organisation), he of Tang-Astronomical Log recorded that Gautama
compiled Jiuzhi Calendar and Kai Yuan Zhan Jing, Siddhartha was ordered to translate the Indian
comprising in total of 120 volumes. calendar Jiuzhi Calendar in Kaiyuan second year
From the epitaph of Gautama tomb explored (718) of Emperor Xuanzong (refer to Article Kai Yuan
by Xi’an Historical Relic Administrative Office in Zhan Jing). According to textual research, Gautama
May 1977, we know about Gautama Siddhartha’s Siddhartha was ordered to compile Kai Yuan Zhan
progenitor and later generations with names in the Jing after February, Kaiyuan second year (714),
following order Gautama Yi, Gautama Luo, Gautama and he completed the compilation before Kaiyuan
Siddhartha, Gautama Zhuan (the fourth son of 14th Year (726). Kai Yuan Zhan Jing compiled by
Gautama Siddhartha). Gautama Zhuan had six sons, Gautama Siddhartha collected many astronomical
with the first names in order of seniority being data during ancient and mediaeval times in China.
as Sheng, Bian, Yu, Huang, Yan and Mao. When Additionally, the translation and Jiuzhi Calendar
referring to Gautama’s progenitor, it said on the collected and recorded in Kai Yuan Zhan Jing are the
epitaph that he moved from central Indian region to Chinese Indian Calendar preserved till now.
China and then settled in Chang’an (today’s Xi’an, (Niu Weixing)
Shaan’xi). The epitaph also mentions that Gautama
Zhuan’s great-grandfather, Gautama Yi, was an kumara
eminent monk but entered the imperial court. But Jumoluo (Kumāra) was an astronomer who worked
from Gautama Siddhartha’s father, namely Gautama in an astronomy institution in the Tang Dynasty.
Luo on, all the four successive generations held posts His Sanskrit name was Kumāra which means boy
of imperial astronomer, astronomical supervisor, or prince and was one of the commonest names in
judge etc in astronomical organisation of Tang totally India. Both the books of Tang history mentioned
for more than 100 years. At that time, people called Jumoluo once as an appendix for recording the
Gautama Siddhartha as “Gautama Supervisor” and eclipse calculation method of Dayan calendar.
called the Indian calendar of Gautama’s family as The main content was to introduce the eclipse
“Gautama Calendar”. When noting Sutra on Taking calculation method by judging the sun preached by
him, which indicated that he was good at eclipse
calculation method and his method could be used
with Dashu. The constellation’s name Yuche in
Indian Astronomy Method was preached by him and
it corresponded to Number Jianglou in Chinese and
Constellation Yuche was Aries. Yuche sounded similar
to “iku” in Akkadian, and E．KUE in Sumerian of
Aries. It probably provided proof that Chinese Twelve
Numbers was the evolution of Babylon’s Twelve
Constellation. Further, the Jumoluo Occult Sciences at
West Gate was mentioned in the contents of Indian
Astronomy in General History was probably written
by Jumuoluo.
Kaiyuan Zhanjing (Zhou Liqun)

Auspices by Celestial Constellations and Bodies, Yang Works

Jingfeng mentioned that currently there were three
Indian calendars respectively – from Mahakasyapa Kai Yuan Zhan Jing
family, Gautama family and Kumara – and stored Kai Yuan Zhan Jing is a Chinese ancient astronomy
in Court Historian Library but the calendar from and astrology work. With the full name as Da Tang

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 Cultural Contacts

Kai Yuan Zhan Jing was compiled by Gautama and the corresponding divinations were collected
Siddhartha between 718-726 CE. Kai Yuan Zhan and recorded in volumes 111-120.
Jing was once lost after the Tang Dynasty but was On the whole, Kai Yuan Zhan Jing is a classic
rediscovered at the end of the Ming Dynasty and Chinese ancient astrological pandect. Such Chinese
then handed down up to now. traditional astrological pandect was organised for
compilation by an Indian astronomer who came and
took a post in Tang. So this work fully reflected the
depth and width of Chinese and Indian astronomy
exchange – undoubtedly Gautama Siddhartha well
mastered these Chinese traditional astronomical
and astrological contents. Jiuzhi Calendar collected
and recorded in volume 104 was an only exception
for the Chinese traditional astronomical astrology.
Jiuzhi Calendar is an Indian calendar which was
translated by Gautama Siddhartha in Kaiyuan sixth
year (718 CE) according to the imperial order and it
A picture of the book Kaiyuan Zhanjing has also not been recorded in other Chinese ancient
historical materials. So Kai Yuan Zhan Jing is the
Kai Yuan Zhan Jing totally includes 120 volumes only resource for it. Jiuzhi Calendar is the first to
wherein the cosmic theories of various scholars introduce the writing symbol for zero (refer to the
are collected and recorded in volumes 1 and 2. entry on “zero”) and the arithmetic for sine function
Various phenomena related to the sky and earth and sine function table in trigonometry. It also
and the corresponding divinations were collected distinguished perigee and winter solstice as well as
and recorded in volumes 3 & 4. Phenomena related apogee and summer solstice via ecliptic system of
to the sun and divinations thereof are collected coordinates and geometrical method and introduced
and recorded in volumes 5-10. The astronomical the method for calculating the visible diameter
phenomena related to the moon and the divinations change of the moon (refer to the entry on “Jiuzhi
thereof were collected and recorded in volumes Calendar”) etc. All the above-mentioned were the
11-17. The treatises pertaining to the astronomical newly introduced materials for Chinese mathematics
phenomena, such as condition of the five planets, and astronomy in those times. Moreover, Jiuzhi
apparent motion, planet-occulting/ approaching- Calendar is an important exhibit historically for the
fixed star, mutual occulting/ approaching of scientific communication between India and China
planets and divinations thereof were collected and has been well preserved till now by virtue of Kai
and recorded in volumes 18-59. The astronomical Yuan Zhan Jing.
phenomena pertaining to the fixed stars including (Niu Weixing)
28 constellations and three asterisms and the
divinations thereof were collected and recorded Jiuzhi Calendar
in volumes 60-70. The descriptions pertaining Jiuzhi Calendar is the only Chinese translation
to the occasional astronomical phenomena such for Indian calendar preserved till now which was
as shooting star, guest star, comet etc and the translated by Indian astronomer Gautama Siddhartha
corresponding divinations were collected and in Emperor Xuanzong the sixth Year of Emperor
recorded in volumes 71-90. The descriptions Kaiyuan (718 CE) in the Tang Dynasty according
pertaining to various climatic phenomena and to the imperial order (refer to entry on “Gautama
the corresponding divinations were collected Siddhartha”) and was collected and recorded in
and recorded in volumes 91-102. Lin De Li Jing Volume 104 of Kai Yuan Zhan Jing compiled by
written by Li Chunfeng of Tang Dynasty has himself (refer to entry on Kai Yuan Zhan Jing).
been copied in volume 103. Jiuzhi Calendar was Currently, there is no conclusive proof on the
recorded in volume 104. Shang Yuan Ji Nian existence of a Sanskrit original manuscript for Jiuzhi
and other basic constants of 29 calendars from Calendar. However, according to the researches of
6th Pre-Qin period to Shenlong Calender of Tang scholars, the contents thereof are closely related
Dynasty were collected and recorded in volume to the Indian astronomical work Pancasidhantika
105. The ancient fixed star map provided with an (about 550 CE which to a large extent relates to
introduction for the position difference between Khandakhadyka, 665 CE).
currently measured positions and the old star map The Jiuzhi Calendar was the carrier for the spread
was collected and recorded in volumes 106-110. of many mathematical astronomical contents into
The descriptions pertaining to various vegetation, China. For example, the Indian mathematical concept
birds, beasts, humans, ghosts, implements, etc for zero (refer to the entry on “zero”) entered China

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 Cultural Contacts

produces some unfocussed impacts on date calendar

and divination. A saying of “Seven Luminaries
Are Directly Used for Prediction, this Divination Is
Special” is included therein. Additionally, “Seven
Luminaries Are Directly Used for Prediction” herein
refers to a method for selecting auspicious days and
fortune telling on the basis of seven luminaries –
namely “Week” as stated by later generations (refer
to entry on Sutra on Taking Auspices by Celestial
Constellations and Bodies). Meanwhile, this record in
Jiuzhi Calendar indicates to the first reference of the
appearance of week calendar mode known till now.
(Li Hui)

Sardulakarnavadana
Modengjia Scripture (Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna) is a
Chinese translation of Buddhist metaphor scripture
involving knowledge of Indian astronomy. It was
Jiu yao in Guangsheng xiasi frescoes/mural paintings (Yuan Dynasty). translated by Zhiqiangong and Zhuluyan in the
It is now preserved in Horatio Nelson’s museum. period of Three Kingdoms. There are two versions
of this translation in volumes 2 and 3. It narrates a
for the first time via this Indian calendar. In terms of story that a Chandala girl picked up Ananda but she
astronomical calculation, Jiuzhi Calendar, at least, was finally converted by Buddha. The story includes
introduces six western astronomical elements to rich content on constellation and divination. Besides
China: 1. 360°circumference division 2. Counting Chinese, there are Tibetan, Sanskrit and more than
method for 60 binary 3. Ecliptic coordinates system 10 different versions.
4. Definition of distinctions between perigee and The name of the original Sanskrit version
winter as well as between apogee and summer is Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna while for Chinese, it is
solstice 5. Method for calculating the visible Modenjia. Tibetan version’s is called sTag rNa’i
diameter change of the Moon 6. Sine function rTogs pa brJod pa and its free translation is Tiger
calculation method and sine function table. Ear Metaphor Scripture abbreviated as Tiger Ear
The translated contents of Jiuzhi Calendar include Scripture. Modengjia in Modengjia Scripture is the
the motions of the Sun and the Moon and the eclipse transliteration of Mātaṅga in Sanskrit. It is the
portion but are not related to planetary motion, name of Chandala girl’s mother in the story. The
so it is difficult to speculate whether the Sanskrit part of pre-life story in the metaphor scripture’s
original manuscript includes planetary theory or Sanskrit version narrates that Brahman the Great
not. However, as far as the eclipse part is concerned Puṣpakārin questioned the King of Chandala
as the Chinese ancient astronomy does not include Triśaṅku in the ancient time. The latter gained
any geometrical method, it always lacked in terms appreciation of Brahman the Great by his erudition,
of eclipse calculation. The appearance of Jiuzhi reinterpretation of caste, retrospect of Vaishya’s
Calendar accordingly provides a totally new technical root and listing of horoscope prediction. The
reference for Chinese ancient calendar compilation. conversation between Brahman the Great and King
As far as the impact of Jiuzhi Calendar on Chinese of Chandala involved all kinds of discussion on
calendar is concerned, there is a “Public Record” in horoscope and early Indian calendar etc including
Chinese astronomy history in New Book of Tang that names and features of constellations; degrees of
informs that “Taien Calendar is an incomplete copy day and night, seasons of long and short, degrees
of Jiuzhi Calendar”. Taien Calendar is one of the of instant; units of length, units of gold’s weight
important calendars in the history of China, created and units of grain’s bulk. They also discussed
by Buddhist astronomer Yi Xing (refer to the entry fate of those who are born under each of the
on “Yi Xing”). In consideration of the Buddhist constellations; prediction about cities constructed
identification, generally, the most subsequent under constellations; prediction about rain in
Chinese ancient astronomers and modern the last month in summer under constellations;
researchers for astronomical history believe that prediction about lunar eclipse under constellations;
Taien Calendar refers to or adapts some contents of suitable and unsuitable things under constellations;
Jiuzhi Calendar. degrees of syzygy and day and night, length of
Jiuzhi Calendar not only greatly influences shadow, changing of seasons; prediction about
Chinese mathematical astronomy but also probably earthquakes’ result; prediction about releasing of

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 Cultural Contacts

another translated version of Modengjia Scripture.

This includes rich material on horoscopy and
the translation date of Twenty-eight Constellations
Scripture of Prince Shetoujian can be identified to
the Western Jin Dynasty by Zhufahu. Therefore,
the Chinese versions series of Tiger Ear Scripture
can be counted as early Chinese translation copies
of Buddhist horoscopy material. In the area of
Dunhuang and Turpan, fragmentary transcript
of Modengjia Scripture (S.3374 etc), fragmentary
transcripts of Sanskrit version (Or.15010/6 and
Or.15010/20 etc) and also the relevant Twenty-
Eight (seven) Constellation Horoscopy Book were
unearthed. The documents can prove that there
Illustration of 'Leng Yan Jing Shujie Meng Chao' are basis for mixed explanation of divinations of
lunar eclipse, interfluves and earthquake in Tiger
prisoners and features of good and evil occurred Ear Scripture’s Sanskrit version. Meanwhile, it
under constellations, among others. also illustrates that Tiger Ear Scripture influenced
Among so many Chinese versions of Tiger Ear people’s lives in the Western Regions.
Metaphor Scripture, the most complete and most After Tiger Ear Scripture came into China, the
closest to the original version is Modengjia Scripture. emotional entanglements between Ananda and
Modengjia Scripture consists of seven collections: Modeng girl (Chandala girl) sparked a lot of
Women Collection of Conversion, Karma Collection interest among the people. Generally speaking, the
of Going, Actual Collection of Truth Showing, Surangama Sutra written by Buddhists in the Tang
Question Collection of All Human, Picture Collection Dynasty set their story as the rallying cause. In
of Constellation, Auspicious Collection of Calamity the pictures for Surangama Sutra, Modeng girl and
Perceiving and Discern Collection of Lightening. The Ananda could be frequently seen. There were many
content of the last three collections are about works in the the Yuan Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty
horoscope and take up 50 per cent of the whole that took this story as the prototype. In Republican
scripture. They depict all kinds of predictions that Period, Shang Xiaoyun’s drama Mengdengjia Girl
occurr in light of the moon’s position in different and Zhang Daqian’s picture Modeng Girl copied
constellations by themes. When Modengjia Scripture from the grotto provided the Modeng girl as a
depicts horoscope, its depiction method is that of plump artistic image and the word “Modeng”
gathering a certain number of prediction themes (modern) became famous in Shanghai, spread over
into one collection with the translator adding the by people. But in India, this story was buried in
name of the collection. But the Sanskrit version of the dust of history for a long time. Between 1933
Tiger Ear Metaphor Scripture’s depiction method is to 1938, Rabindranath Tagore adapted the story
according to chapters, its division method is same into a drama Chandalika (Chandala Girl), hence the
as the Indian classical divination book, Guangji Indian literary and art circles paid attention to this
(Bṛhatsaṃhitā) which is divided into chapters interesting story again, and the drama was played
(Adhyāya). In Book of Sui History and Confucian all over the world from time to time until today.
Classics, there is the earliest recording about the (Zhou Liqun)
names of seven Indian astronomy books that came
to China and Modengjia Scripture, Picture Collection Sardulakarnavadana,
of Constellation were recorded as a separate Pictures of
document of Picture Collection of Constellation from Constellations
Modengjia Scripture. Sardulakarnavadana, picture collection of
Historically, materials on horoscopy is included constellation, is an ancient horoscopy book that
in Chinese translations of Buddhist scriptures. came to China from India. The astronomy division in
These are referred in Constellation Divination Book of Sui History, Confucian Classics recorded this
Method of Esoteric Buddhism, which primarily book’s name, set the section of Picture Collection of
have been discussed in Constellation Scripture of Constellation Fifth in volume of Modengjia Scripture as
Auspicious and Inauspicioul, Day and Time, Kind a separate document. Picture Collection of Constellation
and Wick Talked by Manjusri Bodhisattva and other had never appeared as a separate document before
Immortals, Modengjia Scripture, and Twenty-Eight that. Probably because of its special content, the
Constellations Scripture of Prince Shetoujian. Twenty- ancient directory editors put it under astronomy
Eight Constellations Scripture of Prince Shetoujian is content separately. This collection mainly depicts 28

83
 Cultural Contacts

constellations’ number of stars, shape of stars, time of rich content on horoscopy and a complete story.
running, names of the stars’ gods, sacrifice items, and Its horoscopy involves number of stars and width
the distribution of four-direction’s constellations, etc of each constellation, two equinoxes and two
this collection has an important value for advancing solstices, names of Muhurta (units of time), weights
Indian horoscopy knowledge that spread in China and measures, divination for birth time in certain
(refer to Modengjia Scripture). constellation days, divination for building a city
(Zhou Liqun) in which certain constellation days, divination
for raining in certain constellation days and
Prince Shetoujian’s constellations interfluves, etc. Different from that
Twenty-eight the Indian astronomy terminologies in Modengjia
Constellations Scripture Scripture were translated with corresponding
Twenty-eight Constellations Scripture of Prince Chinese native vocabularies, the terminologies
Shetoujian is a Chinese translation of a Buddhist in Twenty-Eight Constellations Scripture of Prince
scripture that discusses ancient Indian astronomy. Shetoujian were translated by the more direct free
The translator is Zhufahu in Western Jin Dynasty. translation, the names of 28 constellations were
This scripture was handed on for thousands of years translated as Name, Araise, Deer’s Head etc but not
and is an interesting combination of a vivid story and the common vocabularies in Chinese such as Mao
knowledge of ancient horoscope. This scripture has Xiu, Bi Xiu, Zi Xiu etc this was a trait when the
several parallel versions such as Sanskrit, Chinese, scripture was translated.
Tibetan and Uighurs, from 4th-19th centuries CE. Among the transcripts of Chinese, Sanskrit,
Its Sanskrit version is known as Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna Tibetan, the most important copies are the Sanskrit
and the one in Tibetan is sTag rNa’i rTogs pa brJod Fragmentary Transcript in Western Region. A copy of
pa. This can be simply be translated as Tiger Ear the similar transcript appeared in Nepal in the 17th
Metaphor Scripture in accordance with its Sanskrit century. The latter is not only of a later period but
and Tibetan titles. Shetoujian in the title Twenty- also includes many later additions. But the Sanskrit
Eight Constellations Scripture of Prince Shetoujian Fragmentary Transcript in Western Region transcribed
is the transliteration of Chandala prince’s Sanskrit in about the 4th century is slightly later than the
name Śārdūlakarṇa in his pre-life story, its meaning Chinese translation Twenty-Eight Constellations
is “tiger ear”. Scripture of Prince Shetoujian and earlier than that of
There are two kinds of Sanskrit fragmentary the Tibetan translation in the 9th century. Therefore,
transcript of Twenty-eight Constellations Scripture the Sanskrit Fragmentary Transcript in Western
of Prince Shetoujian unearthed in Western Region: Region possesses important value for understanding
(i) Sanskrit fragmentary transcript StP: SI_1942 Chinese, Sanskrit and Tibetan version of this
stored up in St Petersburg which was written in scripture. As far as comparison between the Sanskrit
about 4th century in Brahmi script with its content and Chinese versions is concerned, it may be noted
mostly related to horoscopy (ii) Weber transcript that the early Sanskrit version of Tiger Ear Metaphor
MS. Sansk.e.23 (P) is stored in Oxford library, Scripture came to China by the Silk Route in the
western part in China. It coincided with the main
transmission route of early Buddhism.
(Zhou Liqun)

Constellation Scripture
The full name is Constellation Scripture of Auspicious
and Inauspicious, Day and Time, Kind and Wick Talked
by Manjusri Bodhisattva and other Immortals and it
includes two scrolls. It was translated in 759 CE by the
eminent Esoteric Buddhist monk Amoghavajra (705-
Twenty eight constellations mirrored/
774), one of the four great scripture translators in
reflected in the Tang Dynasty stone tablets Tang Dynasty. According to its content, Constellation
Scripture is believed to consist of Amoghavajra’s oral
it appears that it contains the previous part to the account in light of his understanding about Indian
St Petersburg’s transcript by script, paper and content. horoscopy as well as records and annotation of his
There are three fragmentary transcripts of its Chinese students Shi Yao and Yang Jingfeng. The second
version unearthed in Dunhuang, ie S.6024, S.1648, scroll is the version of Amoghavajra’s translation
Russian Дx0059, they can be joined together. with the help of Shi Yao, and the first scroll is the
Twenty-Eight Constellations Scripture of Prince annotation version of Shi Yao’s translation annotated
Shetoujian is the earliest extant document with by Yang Jingfeng.

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27 Xiu’s Duty Table in Constellation Scripture

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Day

1 Shi Kui Wei Bi Can Gui Zhang Jiao Di Xin Dou Xu

White month

2 Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Yi Kang Fang Wei Nv Wei

3 Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Zhen Di Xin Ji Xu Shi

4 Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Jiao Fang Wei Dou Wei Bi

5 Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Kang Xin Ji Nv Shi Kui

6 Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Di Wei Dou Xu Bi Lou

7 Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Fang Ji Nv Wei Kui Wei

8 Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Xin Dou Xu Shi Lou Mao

9 Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Wei Nv Wei Bi Wei Bi

10 Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Ji Xu Shi Kui Mao Zi

11 Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Dou Wei Bi Lou Bi Shen

12 Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei Nv Shi Kui Wei Zi Jing

13 Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Xu Bi Lou Mao Shen Gui

14 Zhang Zhen kang Fang Wei Dou Wei Kui Wei Bi Jing Liu

15 Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Nv Shi Lou Mao Zi Gui Xing

16 Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou Xu Bi Wei Bi Shen Liu Zhang

Black Month

17 Jiao Di Xin Ji Nv We Kui Mao Zi Jing Xing Yi

18 Kang Fang Wei Dou Xu Shi Lou Bi Shen Gui Zhang Zhen

19 Di Xin Ji Nv We Bi Wei Zi Jing Liu Yi Jiao

20 Fang Wei Dou Xu Shi Kui Mao Shen Gui Xing Zhen kang

21 Xin Ji Nv We Bi Lou Bi Jing Liu Zhang Jiao Di

22 Wei Dou Xu Shi Kui Wei Zi Gui Xing Yi Kang Fang

23 Ji Nv We Bi Lou Mao Shen Liu Zhang Zhen Di Xin

24 Dou Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Jing Xing Yi Jiao Fang Wei

25 Nv Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Gui Zhang Zhen kang Xin Ji

26 Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Liu Yi Jiao Di Wei Dou

27 Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Xing Zhen Kang Fang Ji Nv

28 Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Zhang Jiao Di Xin Dou Xu

29 Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Yi Kang Fang Wei Nv Wei

30 Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Zhen Di Xin Ji Xu Shi

Constellation Scripture’s main content can be summed luck, evil, woe and blessing, according to the good and
up in two parts: Xiu Duty’s Divination and Yao Duty’s evil of Xiu and Yao which is on duty that day. These
Divination. Constellations (Xiu Yao) features good and contents belonged to an Indian native horoscopy
evil so there is the distinction between lucky and evil before the influence of Greece.
when different constellations on duty. The fortune- Xiu’s Duty and Yao’s Duty’s timing system is the
telling method that the Constellation Scripture provides key to these two divinations.
is to predict one’s life according to the relationship Xiu’s Duty: Twenty-seven Xius are on duty by
between one’s birthday and Xiu Duty and Yao Duty. turns that go round and begin again. But there are
The method for picking an auspicious day that the some special cases. The time cycle of 27 Xius in the
Constellation Scripture provides is to predict one day’s ideal Indian year cycle – 360 lunar days included in

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 Cultural Contacts

Twenty-eight Xius’s Duty Table as Annotation in Constellation Scripture

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Day

1 Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin

2 Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei

3 Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji

4 Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou

5 Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Niu

6 Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou Nv

7 Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Niu Xu

8 Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou Nv We

9 Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Niu Xu Shi

10 Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou Nv We Bi

11 Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Niu Xu Shi Kui

12 Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou Nv Wei Bi Lou

13 Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Niu Xu Shi Kui Wei

14 Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou Nv We Bi Lou Mou

15 Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Niu Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi

16 Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou Nv Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi

17 Yi Jiao Di Xin Ji Niu Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen

18 Zhen Kang Fang Wei Dou Nv Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing

19 Jiao Di Xin Ji Niu Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui

20 Kang Fang Wei Dou Nv Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu

21 Di Xin Ji Niu Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing

22 Fang Wei Dou Nv Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang

23 Xin Ji Niu Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi

24 Wei Dou Nv Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen

25 Ji Niu Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao

26 Dou Nv Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang

27 Niu Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di

28 Nv Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang

29 Xu Shi Kui Wei Bi Shen Gui Xing Yi Jiao Di Xin

30 Wei Bi Lou Mao Zi Jing Liu Zhang Zhen Kang Fang Wei

one year. After 13 cycles of 27 Xius, 351 days are duty turns, that go round and begin again. Yao’s Duty
taken and nine days are left so this ephemeris sets: appeared in Navagrahe before Constellation Scripture
January 30 and February 1, February 30 and March was translated (ref. clause Navagrahe), but the fortune-
1, March 30 and April 1, April 30 and May 1, May 30 telling method and method for picking an auspicious
and June 1, August 30 and September 1, September day according to Yao’s Duty appeared completely in
30 and October 1, November 30 and December 1, Constellation Scripture first.
December 30 and January 1, these nine consecutive Due to that, the Chinese adopt the 28 Xius’ system
two days (last day of this month and first day of but Constellation Scripture adopts the Indian 27 Xius
the next month) share one Xiu. Yao Duty: Sun, system. So Yang Jingfeng added one new table when
Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn are on he annotated it according to Chinese 28 Xius.

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 Cultural Contacts

and Flowing Pearl Magic Arts and a table same as 27

Xius’ Duty Table in its scroll XXI Twenty-eight Xius
Delivery Magic from Evil by Looking Constellations’
Status. Obviously, Taoism adopted 27 Xius’ Duty
system in Constellation Scripture completely and
built its own math and magic system on the former’s
foundation. And calendar system like Xiu’s Duty
often appeared in the latter calendars.
Seven Yaos’ Duty diffused into Chinese folk
culture widely. There are a large number of
contents about Yao’s Duty’s astrology in the books
in Dunhuang. In the calendar books in Ming
Dynasty and Qing Dynasty, the Honey day’s (day
of Sun) calendar annotation can be seen; its origin
might be the method for picking an auspicious day
in Constellation Scripture.
In the Heian period in Japan, Monk Kukai brought
Constellation Scripture into Japan. Xiuyaoism and
Xiuyao Horoscope were developed on this foundation
in Japan.
(Li Hui)

Brahman Siddhanta
Picture of the Chi sheng guang fo and the five planetary deities, painted Brahman Siddhanta (Brahmasphuṭasiddhānta) is
by the Tang Dynasty artist Zhang Huai Xing in the 4th year of the Qian
ning period (897). The text in tough silk fabric is preserved in London a classical Indian astronomy book. Its Sanskrit
museum. The painting has zhisheng guangfo as the central figure with the name is Brahmasphuṭasiddhānta which can be
five constellations surrounding it. These constellations have been painted
as human forms/figures. They are the eastern (year) star represented as freely translated as Brahman Clear Siddhanta. This
the lotus in their hands; the planet Mars represented as weapons from book was written by Brahmagupta (597–668 CE)
all four directions; the planet Venus represented as the music flowing
in from the direction of the Tibet Autonomous Region; the northern in 628 and had a great influence on subsequent
morning star represented as the paper and painting brush held in the Indian astronomy and even on Islam and western
hand; and the planet Saturn represented by the monk’s staff in his hand.
astronomy.
Brahmagupta spent most of his life in Bhillamala
Twenty-Eight Xius’s Duty Table as Annotation in (ie Bhinmal in India), Rajasthan, therefore he was
Constellation Scripture called “the teacher of Bhillamala” (Bhillamalācārya).
Fortune-telling method and method for picking There are many unique traits of the book he wrote
an auspicious day of Constellation Scripture diffused include understanding about “zero’s” mathematical
into Chinese native religion Taoism. Taoist Sutra role, algorithms of positive and negative numbers,
recorded a math and magic book named Golden Lock method for calculating square root, solutions for
linear and quadratic equation, rules of addition
series, Brahmagupta theorem etc. This book was
composed of poetic verses but not math symbols.
Traditionally, the ancient Indian astronomers
were divided into five sects, Brahman Siddhanta
belonged to the classical books of Brahman Sect
(Brahmapakṣa). Brahman Sect was the oldest one
among the five sects in the “Greek Period” of ancient
Indian astronomy, it originated from Western India
ruled by Gupta Dynasty in about 5th century,
and then spread to northern India. According to
D. Pingree’s opinion, the origin of Brahman Sect’s
astronomical knowledge was a non-Ptolemaic
traditional astronomy school under the influence of
Aristotle’s philosophy in ancient Greece. The Indian
astronomy books spread into China in the period of
the Six Dynasties, Sui Dynasty and Tang Dynasty
'Da Sui requesting for the Dharani Sutra' (Song
engravings). Also depicting the zodiac chart of 28
may relate to this school. Book of Sui History,
constellations and stars. Confucian Classics, seven astronomy documents,

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ie 21 volumes of Brahman Astronomy Scripture second, to understand the origin of illness whether it
(Original name: Talks of Brahman Immortal She), 30 be caused by wind, phlegm, saliva or various types
volumes of Astronomical Talks of Brahman Immortal of colds, whether the illness is acute or due to the
Jiejia, one volume of Brahman Astronomy, one season; third, to understand the antidotes eg there
volume of Brahman Astronomy, Picture Collection of are salves, cough remedies or emetics, laxatives,
Constellation, three volumes of Brahman Arithmetic, nose drops or aromatic medication; fourth, to be
one volume of Brahman Calendar, three volumes skilled in treating illnesses without fear of a relapse.’
of Brahman Arithmetic Scripture. There is, however, Analysing methods for classification of disease and
only Modengjia Scripture, Picture of Constellation investigation of its causes, it states the basic tridoşa
that exists in the world now, (ie Picture Collection principle of ancient Indian medicine kapha – tan 痰
of Constellation the Five of Modengjia Scripture in (phlegm), vāta – feng 風 (wind) and pitta – danzhi
Buddhist Library). Some scholars think that all the 胆汁 (bile) and general methods of treatment.
other six documents have Brahmin in title which Medical specialties that were prominent in ancient
probably indicates that these books belonged to Indian medicine, Kāyācikitsā, Kaumārabhŗtya,
the Brahmin School in India. The Indian Brahmin Śālākya and Vişagārapraśamana received great fillip
astronomical knowledge that appeared in the with the transmission of the science of medicine.
contents of Book of Sui History was just a flash in the Indian ophthalmology eg was acknowledged for
pan. After two Books of Tang History, there were no its sophistication. Wang Tao王 焘 (CE 670-755),
references of astronomical books originating from in his famous medical compilation Waitai miyao
India recorded in any historical books. 外台秘要 (Medical secrets of an official) included
(Zhou Liqun) a work on ophthalmology that claimed an Indian
origin, viz, Tianzhu jing lunyan 天竺經論眼 (Indian
classic of discussion on eyes). Two more Chinese
Medical Sciences ophthalmic works with Indian connections namely
Longshu (pusa) yanlun龍樹菩薩眼論 [Discourse of
Cikitsāvidyā (Bodhisattva) Nāgārjuna on Eyes] of 9th century
Concerned with suffering and illness as well CE and Longmu zong lun 龍木總論 [Någårjuna’s
as healing and deliverance of humankind, Comprehensive Treatise] in late 11th century or early
Buddhism had a special place for Cikitsāvidyā, or 12th century appeared soon after.
Bhaişajyaśāstra (medicine), since its inception. The Primary elements and their role in the formation
Pundit-monks were well acquainted with medicine and working of the human body were transmitted
because of their formal training in Pańcavidyā. They through translation of Buddhist texts like
practiced various medical specialties including Viśuddhimagga of the 5th century CE. These texts
surgery and provided treatment to the residents of informed that: “In this body what is stiffness and
monasteries as well as to the lay people in need. harshness is the Pŗthvī or earth element. What is
They were the first transmitters of ancient Indian fluidity or cohesion is Āpa or water element, what is
medicine to China. maturing or heat is Teja or fire element, and what is
The monks used cikitsāvidyā in three ways. First, distension or movement is Vāyu or wind element.”
the scientific medical terminology for ridding Pharmaceutical ideas and medicines were
the body of an illness was used as a metaphor to introduced too. One Indian monk named Bao
explain the doctrine of deliverance from worldly si wei jing 寶思惟靜 or Ratnacińtā translated
existence. Second, psychosomatic diseases were Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara’s Cintāmaṇidharaṇi
treated by magico-religious remedies like prayers classic in the Tang Dynasty. Indian medicines like
or invocations to Buddha, Nagarjuna or Jivaka Hu jiao 胡椒 or pepper, Niu huang 牛黃 or dried
or charms to be carried to drive away evil spirits. gallstone of domestic cattle etc to treat eye diseases
Lastly, medicine and surgery were practiced to are mentioned in this text. Moreover, it includes
relieve the human body of physical suffering. Thus, treatment for diseases like juvenile glaucoma,
medicine developed as an integral part of Buddhist pterygium using ointments made from the drugs
culture in China. Long nao xiang 龍腦香 and She xiang 麝香. A
The cikitsāvidyā entered China through translation Buddhist sutra Surańgamasūtra explains how the
of Buddhist sutras from texts like Samyuktāgama. Buddhists identified a drug by its physical properties
For example, a sutra translated in Chinese at the such as taste, its physiological effect (like poisonous
beginning of the fourth century CE invokes Buddha or non-poisonous) or its so-called intrinsic nature
and explains that the great king of physicians is the ie hot/ cold. Surańgamasūtra was translated by
one ‘who is able to realise the following principles; Pāramita around 705 CE and is part of the Chinese
first, to understand the illness well which means to Buddhist canon. Earlier, Surańgamasamādhisūtra
be able to differentiate between the various illnesses; was translated by Kumårajiva around CE 350.

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Buddhism can thus be credited for introducing

ancient Indian medicine with its concepts,
techniques and drugs into Chinese culture thus
contributing to the overall evolution of medicine in
medieval China.
(Vijaya J. Deshpande & Kamal Sheel)

Indian Medical Science and

Its Transmission to China
Science and technology display a phenomenon of
universality in their development. They tend to
quickly expand and facilitate connections in the world.
Diffusion of ideas and techniques from one culture
to another through intentional or unintentional
Cover of Liao Yu Chun's book,
transmission had been observed since ancient times. Ayurveda: India's traditional medicine
It spreads over a long period of time, even a few
centuries. One such significant transmission occurred body and health. Among the post-Sushruta works,
between India and China during the early medieval Aşţāńgahŗdayasamhitā, by Vågabhata, is of foremost
period when Sino-Indian Buddhist contacts were importance, for its scope and popularity. Several
followed by scientific/ medical contacts. prominent medical works and their commentaries
came about the following centuries eg
Ancient Indian Medicine – Mādhavanidānan (6/ 7th century CE), Kalyāņakāraka
Roots and Development (9th century CE), Śārangdharasamhitā (13th century
The Indian medicine followed a developmental CE), Bhāvaprakāśa (16th century CE) etc.
pattern that was no different from other ancient By the time Buddhism established itself in India
cultures. It started off with demonology and magical and began its outward transmission to Central and
medicine. This is observed in Atharvaveda, which East Asia particularly to China, Korea and Japan, the
is considered to be the first recognised scientific Indian medical system, its prominent theories and
text composed during the 7th-8th centuries BCE. disciplines were already defined. It has remained a
Cures suggested were both magic spells and plant controversial point whether the Buddhists borrowed
remedies. Yet Atharvaveda and other Vedic literature medical concepts from Indian medicine and gave
also reveal roots of various medical disciplines like them the philosophical overtures or vice versa. Some
scholars are of the opinion that significant growth
of Indian medicine took place in early Buddhist
monastic establishments followed by its later
Hinduisation.3 Buddhist canonical literature is full
of cursory references to medicine and surgery, but
they do not reflect deeper medical insights. It ought
to have been the case if the Buddhists were to be
credited with significant development in medicine.
Therefore, for all we know, it was the Buddhists who
borrowed the concepts of Ayurveda that reached
China with Buddhism in the 2nd/ 3rd centuries CE.

Buddhism and Medicine

Fragments containing records of Indian medicine unearthed on
Buddhists were deeply concerned with human
the Silk Route suffering and illness. Nirvāna being considered as
the state of the deliverance from all sufferings, the
anatomy, embryology and ophthalmology. The one who leads men to it ie Buddha was equated to a
first rational approach to medicine is seen in the physician. Therefore, the name Bhaişajyaguru or藥
composition of Carakasamhitā and Suśŗtasamhitā 師Yao shi, ‘The medicine-teacher’ or Bhaişajyarāja
when the indigenous medical philosophy that 藥王Yao wang, ‘The king of medicine’ was given
provided a theoretical foundation for etiology to him. A healthy body was considered as a pre-
and treatment of diseases viz, the Tridoşa theory requisite for the peaceful pursuit of knowledge and
evolved.1 Along with the Pańcamahābhūta2 theory, enlightenment. To assist the layman and monks alike
it reflected contemporary ideas of cosmology, in its achievement was the prime duty of Buddha
elemental theory and its relation to the human and Bodhisattvas. After recognising “suffering” as a

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“noble truth” ie inevitable part of life, the subsequent meditation, Dhyāna from which evolved the Zen
truths were recognised as “cause of the suffering, sect of Buddhism in Japan. A Buddhist monk Ta Mo
the path to overcome it, and its final stopping”. or Bodhidharma, in CE 527 taught martial arts to
These four truths correspond to diagnosis, etiology, the Chinese Buddhist monks at Shao Lin monastery
therapeutics and recovery in medical terminology.4 and his method finally evolved into what is known
Buddhists’ commitment to medicine paved as Shao Lin School of martial arts.
the way for entry of ancient Indian medicine or
Ayurveda into China and its eventual absorption in Chinese Absorption of Indian Medicine
Chinese body scientific. Medical knowledge which permeated in this early
period through the translated Buddhist texts was
Travels of the Buddhist Monks effective in introducing new ideas of composition of
Buddhism reached China in the 2nd century CE human body and evolution of diseases into China.
via Silk Route. Soon there was a regular flow of Chinese medical theories were so far based on the
Buddhist monks between India and China. Chinese theories of Yin and Yang symbolism – the male and
monks visited India for pilgrimage and also to female. This classified all the objects in the universe
collect canonical works. Buddhism thrived in into these two categories depending on their nature,
China during the Tang Dynasty and the number based on the five elements – wood, fire, earth, metal
of Buddhist monasteries and temples increased and water, the vital energy qi and the blood. Writings
rapidly. The early Tang emperor Taizong (627- of Tao Hongjing (5th century CE) depicted influence
650 CE) developed contacts with several Indian of Buddhist four element theory for the first time.
kingdoms including Magadha that was ruled by the Gradually, Ayurvedic concepts, methods and
powerful king, Harşavardhana. Nalanda University, medicines took root in China. It was manifest
therein, was a famous seat of learning at that time in diverse ways like Buddhist Canonical works,
and Chinese Buddhist monks visited it in large medical treatment provided by monks, Legends of
numbers. Since interests in Indian medicine and Buddha and Bodhisattva as Bhaişajyaguru, medical
other sciences were growing, these monk-travellers manuscripts like Qiposhu or Jīvakapustaka found in
wrote about the distinctive nature of Indian Dunhuang caves and pictures of medical treatment
medicine in their travelogues.5 By and large, under and engravings of medicinal formulae as in ‘Cave
the directive of Tang emperors, Chinese monks and of prescriptions’ in Longmen (Dragon gate) caves at
visitors searched for famous Indian doctors and Loyang in north China. Finally, Chinese historical,
drugs. Practice of medicine in Chinese monasteries popular as well as medical literature, also depicted
also grew rapidly and it is reflected in literature, Ayurvedic influence.
cave inscriptions and carvings of the time. Before long, standard medical works began
Xuanzang, 玄奘 during CE 629-645 and Yijing , referring to Indian medicine and surgery as seen
義淨 between CE 671-695 visited India. During in Sun Simiao’s 孫思邈writings.8 He was a famous
their stay, they made Indians aware of the Chinese medical personality who lived in 7th century CE. He
techniques of accupunture and pulse examination. had studied Buddhism and Taoism too. His work
On their return journey, they carried with them also lists several medicinal formulae attributed to
Buddhist works with their innumerable medical Jīvaka,9 a great medical personality of ancient India.
references. Also, valuable information on medicinal Transliterated Sanskrit terms pointing at
plants, methods of treatment, organisation of free Ayurvedic connections are numerous in Sun Simiao’s
hospitals and dispensaries. works eg “Agatuo” 阿迦陀 for “Agada” meaning
Indian monks visited China often to participate disease-free, “Ka mo lo” 迦摩羅for “Kāmalā” or
in the translation of Indian-Buddhist texts into jaundice and translated term “Zuo dao yao” 座導
Chinese. Because of Buddhists’ interest in medicine, 藥 for “Bastinetra” both meaning sitting-directing
their scriptures often referred to it. Among the medicine ie a suppository. Although suppositories
medicine-related essays some mentioned medicine were used in China earlier as seen in “Sengshenfang”
in general6 and others to some specific discipline of (profound medicinal formulae of the Buddhists),
medicine like pediatrics, ophthalmology, women’s a 5th century work but they were not under this
diseases etc.7 Standard Ayurvedic treatments of name.10 Sun Simiao also introduced concepts of
internal medicine and surgery are also mentioned. healing of mental sufferings by means of “Chan” 禪
Furthermore, they often cite “Tridoşa” theory for Dhyāna, and a method of Indian massage “An
that forms the basis of diagnosis and treatment mo fa” 按 摩 法 and called it a Brahmin’s method.
in Ayurveda. Sun Simiao was interested in Taoism as well as
With Buddhism, concepts of hot and cold food Buddhism so he was called “a new Vimalakirti”.
came into Chinese medicine. Also, healing of mental Demieville11 comments on Sun’s Buddhist
suffering was advocated and thus arose the art of connections as follows:

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“Sun Simiao, was an eclectic author, conversant apparent in the case of ophthalmology. The very
with the philosophies of the diverse Chinese schools first mention of ophthalmic surgery in Chinese
– chiefly with Taoism but he was interested in medical works is found in Sun Simiao’s work. He
Buddhism as well; a contemporary even nicknamed refers to cutting a white growth in the eye in the case
him "a new Vimalakirti",” (Jiu Tang Shu 舊唐書, of disease “pterygium” in his work “Prescriptions
卷: 4a-b). To be a good physician, he says in the Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold”.14
introduction (Taoist Canon 道藏1: 1b-2b), “It will There are several references in Chinese historical
not suffice to be versed in Confucian and Taoist documents which refer to Indians performing
literature: no one who has not read Buddhist books successful eye surgeries. Even popular literature
will experience love, compassion and the joy of was no exception. Famous Chinese poet Bo Juyi
renunciation. One will not know when approaching (772-846 CE) in one of his poems, refers to a classic
patients vow to convey succour to all animate of Nagarjuna – the Doctor and a medicine called
beings in all their sufferings, without distinction of “Drug of Bright Eyesight”15. Yet another poet Liu
rank, fortune, age, beauty, friendship or intimacy, Yuxi (772-842 CE) wrote in his poem, entitled “The
nationality (Chinese or Barbarian) or intelligence. Brahmin Priest Physician Who Bestowed Eyes”,
One will not succeed in considering all patients, with how an Indian monk, who also happened to be a
even mindedness, as one’s most dear friends.” This physician, removed cataract opacity from his eyes
quote reflects Buddhist medical ethics beautifully. and enabled him to see clearly once again. These
poems suggest that Nagarjuna was considered as
an authority on eye diseases at that time. His book
was well-known and specially the method of golden
needle for the removal of cataract was famous
as an effective surgical treatment introduced by
the Indians.
Since ophthalmology and surgery were not
developed in China at that time, these ideas aroused
the curiosity of Chinese Buddhists who were the
elites of that society interested in various scholarly
pursuits including medicine.

Surgery in Chinese Medicine

Ancient Indian medicine freely prescribed both
medical and surgical treatments. The situation was
different in the case of ancient Chinese medicine
Cover of Chen Ming's book, Medieval
where surgery, together with anatomy, was still the
Medicine and foreign culture most primitive branch of medicine. The reason is
two-fold. One being the Confucian doctrine which
Ophthalmology regarded human body as a sacred gift from one’s
When Buddhists wrote their philosophical literature parents, not to be mutilated in any way, came in the
they compared “removing ignorance by means of way of any development in the field of anatomical
wisdom” to “taking away cataract, using a golden knowledge and surgery. The second was the
needle”. Even a symbolic operation of cataract with prevalent medical philosophy which was based on
a probe was part of initiation ritual for monks, is the idea that imbalance of Yin and Yang gives rise
described in a work which was translated into to an illness. As a result, to counter this imbalance,
Chinese sometime in 4/ 5th centuries CE. pharmaceutical drugs were prescribed and usual
“Tathagata” surpasses mundane physicians in treatment for any malady was administration of
ophthalmology because he understood how to cut drugs. Before the introduction of Indian surgical
off the cataract (timira) of ignorance with the iron ideas Chinese medicine had not developed surgery to
of wisdom.12 any noticeable extent. This is perhaps the reason why
“Also, the Buddha, the king of physicians or Indian ophthalmic surgery sent waves in the then
Vaidya-Rāja clears away the membrane or Paţala, of Chinese medical circle and it was willingly absorbed
ignorance with a golden needle.”13 in their traditional system.
These and the other similar ideas expressed
in Buddhist canonical literature, which became Indian Ophthalmology and
abundant in China by 4/ 5th centuries CE, turned out its Special Features
to be an eye-opener to the Chinese, both figuratively Sushruta in his work, Suśŗtasamhitā, introduced
and literally. Influence of Indian medicine is most various topics related to the eye, its morphology,

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 Cultural Contacts

and relation of its parts ie the muscles, blood, Firstly, during Tang Dynasty there appeared Indian
white and black parts and empty channels, to five Classic of Ophthalmology compiled in 752 CE. A
principal elements viz bhu, agni, jala, vayu and little later, there was another text by Bodhisattva
akasa meaning earth, fire, water, wind and aether, Nagarjuna entitled ‘Treatise on Ophthalmology’
respectively.16 Then came the eye diseases and which must have been written around the mid-8th
their etiologies. Susruta classified the eye diseases century CE.17 This is the one which was mentioned
in a number of different ways eg they were based in the poems mentioned earlier. Then yet another
on 1. morphology of the eye, 2. curability of eye work appeared early in 12th century CE by the
diseases, 3. etiology of eye diseases and lastly 4. name ‘Nagarjuna’s complete treatise’18.
the treatment. This was a novel approach for that There were many new trends in Chinese
period. Classification of diseases in other ancient ophthalmology as a result of the Indian influence.
cultures used to be chiefly based on the symptoms The classification of eye diseases was now based on
only. Susruta discussed altogether 76 eye diseases anatomy, and treatments suggested were combination
which included diseases of junctional areas, eye- of Indian surgical methods and traditional Chinese
lids, conjunctiva, then those of cornea and also methods of internal medicine. Ophthalmic surgery in
those of the inner parts of the eye like various kinds all its aspects was introduced into Chinese medicine
of cataracts, glaucoma and night blindness. at this time. Inclusion of certain drugs in the
Treatment suggested by Susruta is of three types: prescriptions eg “Amalika” which was called A mo
1. general 2. local and 3. surgical. General treatment qin 阿黎勒 “Haritaki” or 訶黎勒He li qin in “Triphalā”
includes purification of the body. The local treatment translated as 三果, “Chakshus” or Jue ming zi決 明
includes spray, fomentation, application of fine 子and “Jaţāmańsī” or Ma xi and黃連 Huang lian in
powders in the eye and chemotherapy. Surgical Chinese, further suggest a useful integration of the
methods include scraping, cutting, needling, two medical systems.19
puncturing or trephining. Entry of Indian knowledge provided foundation
Ancient Indian medical men tried to diagnose for the establishment of ophthalmology as a separate
the eye diseases on the basis of the lesion location, discipline in Chinese medicine and remained a
symptoms and pathogenesis. Functioning of the dominant element in its development for over a
inner parts of the eye eg the optic nerve or the millennium, in its various aspects such as medical
relation of the flow of aqueous humour to intra philosophy, etiology, nosology, diagnosis, treatment,
ocular pressure, all this was unknown at that time. medical writings and education. As to ophthalmic
Yet they recognised diseases like optic atrophy and surgery the Indian imports remained the sole dominant
glaucoma to be different from cataract. They could factor till perhaps the entry of western surgery.
recognise this from their experience. Incurability
of optic atrophy and also that of the final stages Other Medical Disciplines - Gynecology
of glaucoma was known to them. Temporary With ideas and techniques, technical terms traversed
relief of elevated ocular pressure was achieved by too eg Nao sha for Navasāra ie Ammonium chloride
bloodletting, sometimes using leeches. and Totamu for Tutthanāga ie zinc (frequently
Ideas like classification based on anatomy of used in alchemy and metallurgy) and Zuo dao yao
the eye involving basic principles of surgical for Bastinetra which was employed in gynecology.
interventions, eg removal of cataract opacities, Medical personalities like Jīvaka or Qi po 耆婆,
polypus-like growths, cautery to stop the unwanted Kaśyapa or Ka ye fo 迦葉佛 and ‘Rāvaņa’ or Lu fu na
growth, epilation and tearing of the eyelid in the 囉哺拏 are mentioned in the context of gynecology,
case of entropion and bloodletting to relieve the obstetrics and pediatrics respectively.20 Both Jīvaka’s
intra-ocular pressure in the case of glaucoma, as and Kaśyapa’s names are closely related to ancient
well as pharmaceutical prescriptions which are Indian female pathology and pediatrics.21 Likewise
miotic/ mydriatic or germicidal in their application, Rāvaņa’s name is associated with pediatrics in
agree basically with the modern understanding of ancient Indian medicine.
the diseases and their treatment. As monastic medicine flourished, gradually some
monasteries became famous for their medical
Nagarjuna in Chinese treatment. The Monastery of Benevolent Aid or惠
Ophthalmological Works 濟寺 Huijisi is located at the Xiaoshan county in
From the 6th century CE onwards there appeared Zhejiang province of China. It is locally called 竹林
several Chinese texts which mentioned Indian 寺 Zhulinsi or the Bamboo Grove Monastery. It has
medicine, and especially Nagarjuna’s ophthalmology. been famous for its practice of medicine till the 19th
Also three prominent works on ophthalmology century. Monks of the Bamboo Grove Monastery
which appeared in China over a period of some were regarded as experts in the treatment of
four-five centuries were related to Indian medicine. women’s diseases. 22 Yixinfang also quotes a Sanskrit

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Dharaņi or Mantra from a canonical work大集陀羅 of Taoist Scriptures in the Period of Wanli. In his later
尼經 Da ji tuo lo ni jing (Mahādhāraņī classic). It is years, he lived in seclusion in the Luofu Mountain,
to be uttered to ease difficult childbirth.23 Guangdong province, to study alchemy, and his
study made a far-reaching influence on medical
Pharmaceutics
The Bibliography of Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE) enlists
Indian books on scientific topics like mathematics,
pharmaceutics and astronomy. They were attributed
to Bodhisattva Nagarjuna and Brahmin sages. As
the use of Indian drugs increased, they found entry
in Chinese pharmacopoeia eg 本草拾遺 Bencao
shiyi (a supplement for the pharmaceutical natural
histories) of 725 CE by Chen Zangchi. He added 368
new entries including阿勒勃 A-le-bo or Āragvadha
(Cassia Fistula L). He also wrote about波羅門皂莢
Bolomen zaojia (Brahmin Soap Bean Tree, Glenditsia Ge Hong
Sinensis). 段成式 Duan Chengshi has also described
it in his work 酉陽雜俎 Yu yang za zu (Miscellany of science to later generations. According to Study on
Yuyang Mountains) of 860 CE. Again, Buddhist cave Five Internal Organs by Zhang Zhongjing, Dunhuang
engravings viz Longmen caves and others included manuscript collected by the French National Library,
pharmaceutical formulae. the alchemy of Huainan Gehong was very effective
The Silk Road not only carried Chinese and mysterious and had remained a secret recipe for
porcelain, gun powder and paper but also the art later generations and the prescriptions of Ji Yan were
of accupuncture and pulse examination to the widely used by people. It shows that Geng Hong’s
West. Similar was the case when Indian spices, alchemy or way of becoming immortal is highly
precious stones traversed to foreign lands, Buddhist valued by later generations. After his death, his
philosophy and the pragmatic knowledge went Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies was further
along. Just as medicine came in handy to the supplemented by Tao Hongjing, a famous medical
Christian missionaries, it became bait for the scientist in the Liang Dynasty of the Northern and
sympathetic reception of Buddhist faith in China. Southern Dynasty, and the new book, totalling 101
Silk Route, which linked China to India, Arabia chapters, was renamed as the Supplement of Handbook
and further west, was thus a bridge between the of Prescriptions for Emergencies for One Hundred and
eastern and Western civilisations where along with One Diseases by Huayang Hermit. The “One Hundred
exchange of goods it promoted scientific exchanges and One Diseases” in the title is based on a theory
and mutual cooperation in their development. in Buddhist texts that, a man’s body is made up of
Vijaya J. Deshpande & Kamal Sheel four major elements namely “earth”, “water”, “fire”
and “wind”, and the discordance and imbalance of
Personalities one of them will cause one hundred and one kinds
of diseases. It demonstrates that traditional Chinese
Ge Hong medicine scientists in the Northern and Southern
Ge Hong (282-364 or 343? CE) was a Taoist and Dynasty had acquired preliminary understanding of
medical scientist in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317- the Indian medical theory of Buddhism and took it
420), styled as Zhi Chuan, also known by his literary down in their own writings.
name Bao Puzi. He was born in Jurong, Danyang (Chen Ming)
(present-day Jurong County, Zhenjiang City,
Jiangsu province) and was widely referred to as Tao Hongjing
“Taoist Immortal Ge”. Tao Hongjing (456-536 CE) was a very famous
Ge Hong was an expert in alchemy and medical Taoism thinker, medical scientist, spagirist and
science. He was also a master in Taoism and litterateur in the Southern Dynasties (including four
Confucianism and wrote a number of books in his dynasties of Song, Qi, Liang and Chen). He was born
life, including The Master of Preserving Simplicity, in Moling, Danyang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu
The Tales of Immortals, Handbook of Prescriptions for Province) and styled Tong Ming, also well-known by
Emergencies and Yuhan Prescriptions. It is said that his literary name Huayang Hermit. His posthumous
the famous Chinese literary sketches, A Miscellany title was 'Zhen Bai'. Many of his books widely cited
of the Western Capital, is also one of his works. the terms of Indian Buddhist medicine.
There are a total of 13 books by him collected in the Tao Hongjing lived in three dynasties of Song,
Orthodox Collected Taoist Scriptures and Supplement Qi and Liang and was an expert in both Buddhism

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as “Jade and Stone”, “Herb”, “Insect and Beast”,

“Fruit”, “Vegetable”, “Food” and “Disused”.
Now, there are two editions of Collective Notes
to the Canon of Materia Medica available in the
world, one is collected in the library of Ryukoku
University in Japan, a manuscript of Buddhist
texts from Dunhuang Caves Temple discovered by
Otani Expedition during their third exploration.
The front of the original volume (the serial
number is Dragon 530) is Collective Notes to the
Canon of Materia medica and Mahaprajnaparamita
Tao Hongjing
Upadesha while the back is Dharmagupta-vinaya
Buddhist  Monk Pratimoksa. This is the foreword
and Taoism, thus being widely recognised as the of Volume I of the book and its contents were
“Prime Minister in the Mountain”. Most of his basically completely preserved. The other edition
life stories are recorded in Book of Liang, Volume is collected in the National Library of Germany,
51, History of Southern Dynasties, Volume 76, the fragmented pieces of Collective Notes to the
Recording of Huayang Hermit and Biography of Canon of Materia Medica unearthed in Turpan,
Huayang Hermit Tao, etc. He was very fond of codenamed as ch. 1036v. This is the Volume III of
reading The Tales of Immortals by Ge Hong in his the book, transcribed at the beginning of the Tang
childhood and then in his adulthood, he became Dynasty (the start of seventh century). The other
an official but later he unexpectedly chose to live books written by Tao Hongjing include Essentials
in seclusion in the prime of his life by retreating to of Nature Cultivation and Longevity, Zhen Gao and
Maoshan to explore Taoism for years during which Supplementary Records of Famous Physicians and so
he created the Maoshan Fraction, and eventually on. About more studies on Tao Hongjing, please
grew into a leading authority in the development refer to Collected Essays on Tao Hongjing (Qilu
of Shangqing Taoism. Tao was also very interested Publishing House, 2003).
in Buddhism and maintained a very close personal (Chen Ming)
relationship with Emperor Wu of Liang Dynasty,
a firm believer in Buddhism. As a very excellent Sun Simiao
thinker proficient in medical science, Tao Hongjing Sun Simiao (?-682 CE) is the greatest physician of
made the 86-chapter Handbook of Prescriptions for the traditional Chinese medicine. He was born in
Emergencies by Ge Hong (living in the Eastern Jingzhao Huayuan (present-day Yao County, Shaanxi
Jin Dynasty) into a great medical book totalling Province) and lived for more than 100 years, whose
101 chapters which he renamed as Supplement of life story and achievements can be found in Old Book of
Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies for One Tang. He is widely known as one of the Three Medical
Hundred and One Diseases. And in the foreword, he Sages in China along with Zhang Zhongjing and Li
quoted one saying from Buddhist texts that a man’s Shizhen, one of the “Three Greatest Taoist Medical
body is made up of four greatest elements, “earth”, Scientists” with Ge Hong and Tao Hongjing as well
“water”, “fire” and “wind” and the disharmony as the King of Medicine with temples built all over
and imbalance of one of them will cause 101 kinds the country for people to worship his contributions.
of diseases. It is based on the theory of 404 kinds His works absorbed a large scale of the essentials
of diseases in Sutra of Medicine. We can recognise of ancient Indian medical and Buddhist knowledge,
how deeply Tao was influenced by the Buddhist a vivid embodiment of influence of Indian medical
theories of medicine by the book’s name in which science on traditional Chinese medicine.
he added One Hundred and One. Sun Simiao showed his intelligence when he was a
Meanwhile, Tao Hongjing, on the basis of little child and he was able to recite 1,000 words a
reviewing and revising Chinese Ephedra from Shen day. As a quite knowledgeable person, he was very
Nong’s Chinese Materia Medica, added some new fond of discussing Taoism and dissecting various
knowledge on medicine found at his time into his Schools of Thought and was an absolute expert in
book Collective Notes to the Canon of Materia medica, medical science and as a gentleman of noble nature
another classic for the development of the Chinese and unsullied character, he never sought fame and
traditional medicine and herbalism. The book is wealth but lived in seclusion, practised medicine
available in the three volume or seven volume and tried his best to help the poor. He wrote a large
version, collecting 730 kinds of drugs which are number of books in his life among which Essential
first categorised in accordance with the property Recipes for Emergency Use (finished in 652 CE with
of a medicine and include such seven categories 5,300 prescriptions in total) and Supplement to

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Invaluable Prescriptions for Ready Reference (finished in

682 CE, collecting 2,571 prescriptions), each totalling
30 volumes, are the most important classic literature
in the history of Chinese traditional medicine. The
two books systematically summarised the medical
achievements before the Tang Dynasty and the
author’s practical experience, and can be rated as the
earliest encyclopaedia on clinical medicine.
Sun Simiao’s works have been dramatically
influenced by foreign culture with great absorption
of Buddhism and Indian medical knowledge. Among
them, Essential Recipes for Emergency Use-Volume
One adopted the theory of the “404 Diseases” from
Buddhist texts, but changes the idea of the “disorder
of ‘earth’, ‘water’, ‘fire’ and ‘wind’, the cause of
diseases” into the “irregularity of Qi, the cause of
diseases”. Sun Simiao also copied the theory of
General Treatise on the Cause and Symptoms of Diseases
(by Chao Yuanfang) in his book. In Essential Recipes for
Emergency Use-Volume 27, he said, “Various diseases
can deteriorate the functions of the five internal
organs; each of the organs corresponds to 81 kinds of
illnesses; coldness, heat, wind and Qi altogether can
lead to 404 kinds of illnesses in total”.
His saying applies the five-internal-organ theory
of traditional Chinese medicine to the theory of 404
Picture of Sun Simiao feeling the pulse

the foreign prescriptions such as Agada Pill and

Jivaka’s Recipe for Malignant Diseases. The Rhizoma
Atractylodis Pill includes various aromatic drugs like
fructus chebulae, pistacia lentiscus, radix curcumae,
styrax and aconitum napellus etc all from India and
Persia. Agada Pill makes good use of such five herbs
as pterocarpus indicus, barberry, madder root, radix
curcumae and pepper similar to the Mahà-gandha-
hasti-agada in Caraka-saühità, another classic of
Indian Ayurveda. There are also “Jivaka Decoction”,
“Beisang Decoction” (from Persia and Ta Chin,
Sun Simiao
the latter referred to as Eastern Rome in ancient
China), “Drug Infusing Method in Wine” in Jivaka’s
diseases in Indian Buddhism medicine, and changes Prescription-Study on the Diagnosis and Treatment of
the “earth, fire, water and wind” into “coldness, Diseases Caused by Wind, “Jivaka’s Prescription for
heat, wind and Qi”, which demonstrated that Sun Various Diseases of Internal Organs and Replenishing
Simiao’s medical ideas have both absorbed and Life Extension Recipe” and Bans for Family Harmony,
revised something of the Indian medical science. and so on, all pertained to foreign medical science.
In Essential Recipes for Emergency Use, there are also The Acorus Calamus Prescription in Supplement to
Jivaka Pill for Various Diseases and Indian massages Invaluable Prescriptions for Ready Reference is typically
etc and the latter can also be found in Taiqing Daolin a foreign prescription which was brought to China
Health Conservation Theory and this is the first by the envoy sent by Tripitaka Dharma Master Bamo
time that this essential Yoga practice method in Midi from the kingdom of Magadha in ancient India
India was translated into the classic of traditional and Tujue in the eighth year of Daye Period (612
Chinese medicine. CE) and then translated by Master Zhuju in Pure-
Supplement to Invaluable Prescriptions for Ready land Monastery on July, 23, the sixth year of Wude
Reference is based on the theory that almost every (623 CE) Sun Simiao learnt a large amount of foreign
material on earth is the panacea to a specific kind medical knowledge by the eminent monks of Middle
of disease. Volume 21 of the book lists some of Earth, which were collected in his own works and

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even appropriately revised in accordance with the

theory of traditional Chinese medicine. His works
further strengthened and enlarged the influence of
Indian medical knowledge and Buddhism thought on
traditional Chinese medicine.
(Chen Ming)

Wang Tao
Wang Tao (670-775 CE or 690-756 CE), born in Mei
County, Shaanxi Province (present-day Mei County,
Shaanxi Province), is a renowned medical scientist
of the prosperous period of Tang dynasty. He is
Tang Dynasty physician-scholar Wang
the author of Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Tao’s ‘Wai Tai Miyao Fang Shu’
Library, a well-known medical book which recorded
lots of medical knowledge of India and was widely ideas. However, he was demoted due to the marital
upheaval, and then dismissed to Fangling (present-
day Fang County, Hubei Province) and later he took
the office of prefecture chief of Daning (Xi County,
Shanxi Province). Wang Tao travelled a lot of
places around the country and made good use of his
medical knowledge and some classical prescriptions
to save ordinary people’s lives. He devoted himself
into medical science and eventually through years
of painstaking efforts, completed the compilation
of Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library in the
11th year of Tianbao period (752 CE), an immortal
Wang Tao book focussing on the discussion and exploration
of medical science and an invaluable asset through
acclaimed as the most essential collection of generations. His works also include Summary of
historical materials on the history of the India- Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library (10 volumes
China Medical Communication. in total), On Recipe for Lacteal Calculus in Essentials
Wang Tao’s life story and experience is attached of Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library (two
after Biography of Wang Gui in the New Book of volumes), Bright Hall Moxibustion Therapy (or Bright
Tang. Wang Gui (571-639) is the great-grandfather Hall Acupuncture and Moxibustion Chart), Prescription
of Wang Tao, once assumed several important posts for Typhoid fever in Arcane Essentials from the Imperial
such as Privy Counsellor and Director of the Board Library Volume One and Two or Medical Secrets from
of Rites after engaging in politics. The epitaphs of the Royal Library and so on. Arcane Essentials from
Wao Tao’s grandson, Wang Shizheng and great- the Imperial Library, which is 40 volumes in total,
grandson, Wang Tan have both been unearthed, collecting a total of 10 classic books from the Han
which offer a short introduction to his official to Tang Dynasty, absorbed the advantages and
positions. Wang Tao was in poor health when he essence of each book, and it is no wonder that
was a little child but he was very kind and obedient medical scientists in later generations all believed
and treated his parents very well, and in order to that a person cannot be a good doctor if he’s never
treat his mother’s disease, he pushed himself very studied the prescriptions in Arcane Essentials from
hard to explore medical science and even travelled the Imperial Library and explored the discourse on
with some famous doctors at his time across the prescription in Essential Recipes For Emergent Use.
whole country, in the process of which, he almost Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library extracted
acquired all of the skills and knowledge of that a great amount of foreign medical knowledge and
doctor. Though the medical achievements he made was therefore one of the most valuable resources to
are not as influential and far-reaching as those of study the medical communication from six dynasties
some medical giants such as Sun Simiao, his skill of Sui and Tang Dynasty.
and experience is undoubtedly profound and deep. (Chen Ming)
He was once appointed as supervising secretary,
managing numerous volumes of literature and books Li Shizhen
in Hong Wen Library for more than 20 years and Li Shizhen (1518-1893 CE) was an expert of
during this process, he read a wide range of books traditional Chinese medicine in the Ming Dynasty,
and managed to acquire their essentials and main and wrote Compendium of Materia Medica which was

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the great work of Chinese pharmaceutical science.

He absorbed the achievements of pharmaceutical
science development in past dynasties, recorded
knowledge of multiple foreign medicines and wrote
Compendium of Materia Medica which became an
important historical book to study ancient Sino-
foreign (especially India-China) medical exchanges.
Li Shizhen, whose courtesy name was Dongbi,
was also known as Binhu. He came from Qizhou,
Hubei (Qichun, Hubei). He was born in a well-known
family of traditional Chinese medicine. Being edified
by what he saw, he visited famous doctors and
accumulated many medicine books while especially
being fond of conducting site investigations on
herbal medicines, and finally compiled Compendium Compendium of Medical Herbs compiled by Li Shizhen

five viscera, strengthen muscles and bones and help

in digestion. It could reduce weight and was good
for facial appearance after having been taken for
a long time. So it was called as salsify. Common
people obtained it after the spread from the palace
and Tantric Master Amoghavajra presented it to
court officials and further extended the scope of its
use in China. Li Shizhen absorbed the achievements
of previous literature as well as corrected previous
errors, supplemented new recognition and methods
Li Shizhen of medicines, and made some Indian medicines (such
as haritaki and chavica roxburghii) which became
of Materia Medica in 1578 after nearly 30 years of common drugs of traditional Chinese medicine and
great effort. This was considered to be the ultimate gradually lost the characteristics of foreign culture
work in the history of ancient traditional Chinese and completed the process of thorough localisation.
medicine. It had 52 volumes, divided into 16 parts (Chen Ming)
and 56 categories and collected 1,892 medicines
including 374 new medicines. The book collected George Hatem
widely from medical books and Buddhist explanation George Hatem (1910-1988 CE) was a modern
classics and added annotations of transliteration Chinese expert on venereal diseases and leprosy.
forms for Sanskrit medicine names from India and He was an Arab American and his family origin
Central Asia. In terms of collected Indian medicines, was Lebanon. He was born in Buffalo, New York
the main original versions of Compendium of Materia in the United States of America on September 26,
Medica were Supplement to Materia Medica of Chen 1910. He died on October 3, 1988 in Beijing. He
Cangqi in the Tang Dynasty and Classified Materia was a famous international communist fighter
Medica was finished by Tang Shenwei in 1082, who and won the Gandhi International Leprosy Award
was the folk doctor in the Northern Song Dynasty. granted by India because of his outstanding medical
Particularly the latter had many revised versions. It achievements.
had 30 volumes, collected 1,746 medicines and was George Hatem began to learn medicine in 1927
claimed as a great achievement integrating herbalism in America, received a medical doctor degree from
of previous generations and the Tang and Song University of Geneva Switzerland in 1933 and came
Dynasty. Compendium of Materia Medica recorded to Shanghai to investigate the conditions of tropical
multiple medicines related to India such as black disease in the same year. In the spring of 1936,
pepper, nutmeg, asafetida, rhizoma picrorrhiza, with the help of Song Qingling, George Hatem and
aragbadha, emblic leafflower fruit, terminalia Edgar Snow arrived in North Shaanxi and engaged
belerica, haritaki, long pepper, dutchmanspipe root in disease prevention, treatment and scientific
and benzoin etc as well as rhizoma curculiginis research for decades in China since then. During
offered by Brahmin monks to Emperor Xuanzong of the period working in hospitals of Yan’an, George
Tang in the first year of Kaiyuan of the Tang Dynasty Hatem received Indian doctors including M. Atal,
(713). It was named Asvagandha in Sanskrit and D. S. Kotnis and B. K. Basu who came to support
could dispel wind-evil, warm waist and feet, nourish the Anti-Japanese War, and they exchanged ideas

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mutually and worked together. After the founding

of the People’s Republic of China, George Hatem
became the first foreigner who was approved to join
Chinese nationality. As one of the pioneers of the
health service of New China, he helped establish
Central Institute of Dermatology and Venereology,
committed himself to prevention and research of
venereal diseases and leprosy and found effective
methods to treat syphilis which was suitable for
China’s conditions. He set up comprehensive

Tang Youzhi teaching opthalmology students

Beijing Guang’anmen Hospital and China Academy

of Chinese Medical Sciences and engaged in clinical,
research and teaching related to ophthalmology.
The gold needle couching originated from ancient
India, and was recorded in Medical Secrets from
the Royal Library written by Wang Tao in the Tang
Dynasty but it had been lost in China and India for a
long time. Since 1960, Tang Youzhi restored to use
George Hatem the gold needle couching successfully and solved the
problem of the early complication such as glaucoma
research bases to prevent leprosy in Hai’an County after operative incision on pars plana and couching
of Jiangsu province and Chao’an County of clinically. In 1966, the couching was recognised
Guangdong province and made great contributions by Ministry of Health and was promoted as the
to eliminate venereal disease and leprosy in China. first scientific research achievement of traditional
George Hatem developed cooperation and exchange Chinese medicine which was verified by Chinese and
in Chinese and foreign medical circles actively western medical experts scientifically. Tang Youzhi
and as the advisor of China Ministry of Health, he conducted the golden needle couching for important
led a delegation of 10 people to participate in the domestic and foreign political members such as Mao
12th International Conference on Leprosy in India. Zedong, Prince Penm Nouth of Cambodia, Kim II
In 1985, he held the first International Exchange Sung of North Korea, Wahid of Indonesia etc and
Conference on Leprosy in China. In his later years, made them recover their eyesight.
he visited different areas with poor health and In 1981, Tang Youzhi, the then deputy director
made his due contribution to prevention of leprosy of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences,
on an international level. George Hatem’s medical led the delegation of traditional Chinese medicine
achievements were recognised by the world and visited India. They visited six Indian cities and
he was granted with the American Damien-Dutton widely discussed traditional medical theories
Leprosy Award in 1982. He received the Gandhi
International Leprosy Award granted by India in
1988 which was of great importance in the modern
India-China medical exchange history.
(Chen Ming)

Tang Youzhi
Tang Youzhi (1926) is an ophthalmology expert of
traditional Chinese medicine. His style name was
Kunwu, he came from Hangzhou City, Zhejiang
Province and his main achievements are restoration
and innovation of ancient Chinese “gold needle
couching” originated from India.
He began to learn ophthalmology from his
teachers since 1942. He studied in medical
department of Beijing Medical College from 1952 to
1957. After graduation, he successively worked at Tang Youzhi performing operations

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and technologies of both countries with peers in 16th centuries CE in China. Some of them mention
India’s medical circle. At Varanasi, the delegation Nagarjuna as the author, others have “Discourse
got together with several hundred of experts of on Eyes” as the title, yet their contents point to
Traditional Indian Medicine Institute and watched Nagarjuna’s text as the source which point to 72
the documentary film of Chinese doctors including kinds of eye diseases and their prescriptions. Almost
Tang Youzhi doing “the gold needle couching”. a century before Bo Juyi’s reference to Nagarajuna,
Indian experts felt surprised and pleased to see Indian ophthalmology was noted by Chinese medical
the revival of this unique ancient skill. This was a writers in Tianzhu jing lunyan 天竺經論眼 “Indian
much told story in the modern India-China medical Classic of discourse on eyes” which was part of a Tang
exchange history. work viz. Waitai miyao外臺秘要 “Medical secrets of
(Chen Ming) an official’ compiled by Wang Tao in 752 CE.

NAGARJUNA - THE PHYSICIAN

Nagarjuna is a name common to several famous
scholars in ancient and medieval India linked with
correlated areas like Buddhist philosophy, tantrism,
medicine as well as alchemy, all of whom lived in
the period ranging from 2nd to 9th centuries CE.
He connected with the revision of Susŗtasamhitā, an
ancient Indian work on medicine, especially surgery.
He is traditionally considered to be the author of its
last chapter that includes ophthalmology. Nagarjuna (Fotucheng)
In Chinese history, Nagarjuna’s name (recorded
in Chinese as Long Shu龍樹, Long Shan龍勝or Long Nagarjuna’s “Discourse on Eyes” mentioned by
iMeng龍猛, literally, Dragon tree, Dragon conqueror Bo Juyi is preserved in a later medical compendium
and Dragon the brave or transliterated as 那伽閼剌 viz. Yi fang lei ju醫方類聚 (a collection of various
樹那) appears in two contexts. The first as a “Second medical prescriptions) which was compiled by Jin
Buddha” – the founder of Madhyamak philosophy Li-meng, a Korean who studied medicine in China
of Mahayana Buddhism who contributed 24 at the beginning of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644
philosophical works to the Chinese Tripitaka. The CE). The first essay in this book categorically states
second as a great doctor with specialisation as that the method for the removal of cataract was first
an ophthalmologist producing several works on taught by Bodhisattva Nagarjuna.
medicine on topics ranging from pharmaceutics, Nagarjuna’s Longmu Zonglun 龍木總論is
compounding of perfumes and incense, nourishing included in a later work Michuan Yanke Longmu
the vital essence and ophthalmology. Zong Lun 秘傳眼科龍木总論 which secretly passed
The bibliography of the “History of the Sui down comprehensive discourse of Nagarjuna on
Dynasty” (581-618 CE) mentions 12 titles on ophthalmology that appeared around the 13th
medicine authored by Indians out of which three century CE and was used as standard text for
are attributed to Nagarjuna viz Pharmaceutics of students of ophthalmology till the 16th century CE.
Bodhisattva Nagarjuna (Longshu pusa yaofang龍 Even the standard examination paper for Tai yi ju,
樹菩薩藥方), Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Methods the imperial medical service contained excerpts
for Compounding Perfumes and Incense (Longshu from Nagarjuna’s works.
pusa hexiang fa 龍樹菩薩和香法) and Bodhisattva From the contents of the doctor Nagarjuna’s works
Nagarjuna’s method for nourishing the vital essence in Chinese, it is apparent that the ancient Indian
(Longshu pusa yangxing fang 龍樹菩薩養性方). ophthalmology influenced Chinese ophthalmology
Unfortunately, none are available now. in various ways eg etiological, morphological, as
Further, in the 9th century CE, Nagarjuna’s name well as related to classification of eye diseases. This
appears in a poem entitled Mu-bing目病 (eye suggests the prominent position Nagarjuna enjoyed
disease) of Bo Juyi白居易 (772 - 846 CE), the famous in medieval Chinese medicine and his contribution
poet of the Tang dynasty (CE 618-907). It was about to the historical evolution of ophthalmology in India
ophthalmology. Bo Juyi had a serious eye-disease in as well as in China.
his old age. He subsequently refers to his problem in (Vijaya J Deshpande & Kamal Sheel)
many poems referring to “Nagarjuna’s classics” and
“a drug for clear eyesight”. Buddhacinga (Fotucheng)
After the first allusion in Bo Juyi’s poem, Nagarjuna Buddhacinga (232-348 CE) was an eminent monk
and his work are repeatedly mentioned in medical from the Western Region who visited China in the
works and compendia written between the 9th and late Western Jin Dynasty. His last name before

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pravrajana was Bo. Buddhacinga’s stories have been construction of over 1,000 temples and enrolled
recorded in the 10th volume of Biography of Eminent over 10 thousand students which is why his stories
Monks, “Log of Buddhism and Taoism” in Book of Wei are still spreading in the later ages and affecting
and “Biography of Buddhacinga” in the Book of Jin. more people. There are transcripts of Stories and
Buddhacinga himself made significant contribution Luck of Monk Buddhacinga (No. S.1625va, P.2680j)
in the dissemination progress of Buddhism in China. and Glorifications about Arhat Buddhacinga – the
After his arrival in China, Buddhacinga Monk (No.0276vc) unearthed from the Dunhuang
disseminated Buddha Dharma with his magical Sutra Cave. There are also wall paintings about
skills and expertise in ingenious technologies. Buddhacinga in middle section of the northern wall
It is said that he was good at spellings and was of No.323 Early-Tang Dynasty grotto among Mogao
capable of ordering ghosts and spirits with sesame Grottoes, including Picture of Buddhacinga Educating
oil-rouge mixture painted on his hand, he could Shi Le, Picture of Buddhacinga Extinguishing Fire in
see scenes thousands of miles away through his Youzhou, Picture of Buddhacinga Reading Omens by
hand. By hearing sound of bells, he could read Hearing Bells, Picture of Buddhacinga Washing Gut by
good or bad omens; by washing gut near pools, River. Such paintings are of rather important value
he could purify his body; moreover, he could in the study of Buddhacinga’s life and transmission
history of northern Buddhism in Later Zhao Dynasty.
(Chen Ming)

Jīva
Jīva (Jīvaka) is an Indian monk who visited China
in the late West Jin Dynasty. Jīva is transliterated
from Jīva or Jīvaka in Sanskirt. His story is recorded
in “Part I of Miracles”, ninth volume of Biographies
of Eminent Monks. Jīva introduced magical Indian
invocation therapy into southern China.
Buddhacinga (Fotucheng)
By maritime route, Jīva travelled from India,
Kingdom of Funan to Jiaoguang. After stepping
also summon rains to put out fire on his whim. on China’s land, Jīva continued his journey,
Buddhacinga possessed splendid healing skills, he passed by Xiangyang and eventually arrived in
could treat people’s difficult diseases and patients Luoyang in late years of Emperor Jinhui’s govern
would recover just as he said. He also possessed (306). He believed that palaces in and around the
profound understanding in Buddhism dharma with urban area of Luoyang was constructed by divine
incomparable explanation profession and a great
goal of spreading great dharma, he was never
short of words in discussions; Shi Le, Shi Hu, Guo
Heilue and other people educated by Buddhacinga
all began to uphold benevolent rules for saving
all creatures on earth and enrolled masses of
followers. Buddhacinga’s dharma dissemination
later became foundation for thriving of northern
Buddhism in the period of the 16 Kingdoms and
primarily created the dissemination mode of
Buddhism-Monarch (Imperial Power) Combination. 'Shi Hua Yuanliu
Buddhacinga eventually passed away in fourth Yinghua shiji' Jiva
treating his patients
year of Yonghe (348) during the rule of Emperor
Jin Mu at the age of 117 years. Buddhacinga
had students like Shi Daoan and Zhu Fatai and craftsmen from the Trayastrimśa  heaven. Jīva
they were all knowledgeable people with high possesses untrammelled, magical characteristics
morales. Since most stories about Buddhacinga and biblical arts of healing, and has been involved
contained mysterious and divine elements, these in two medical affairs in China. One affair is about
have foreshadowed his otherwise excellent Teng Yongwen who was the governor of Hengyang
accomplishments in Dharma and righteous deed. County and was lodged in Manshui Temple. Teng
His stories are categorised in Biographies of Eminent was affected by some tough disease which twisted
Monks by people in later generations. his legs and affected his ability of walking. Jīva
Buddhacinga is of quite some divinity. He sprayed some conjured water with a willow vimen,
assisted Shi Zhao for over 30 years, organised on Teng’s leg and his disability healed. Another

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affair is about a dying patient who had been affected Treatment Methods of Buddhist Diseases). Esoteric
by heatstroke. Jīva placed an empty bottle on the Treatment Methods of Buddhist diseases includes
belly of the patient and covered the bottle with a two volumes and involves “72 treatment methods
white cloth. Then, Jīva cast thousands of spells and of Aranya heart disease”, “treatment method of
forced disgustingly smelly foul materials hidden choke”, “treatment method of walker’s corruption
in the patient’s stomach into the bottle and saved and obscenity”, “treatment method of sore-prone
the patient’s life. As for dharma dissemination, disease”, “treatment method of violation of
instead of those profound philosophies and ideas, commandment”, “treatment method of indulgence
Jīva advocated to act more and speak less. Most in music”, “treatment method of enjoyment in
stories about Jīva are quite singular, it is said that extolling Buddhist verses”, “treatment method of
he could form double-gangers to perform dharma diseases caused by flood”, “treatment method of
dissemination and was capable of many other headache, ophthalmodynia and epicophosis caused
mysterious skills. Some people believe that Jīva was by internal heat”, “treatment method of insane
performing some magic of forbidden willow spell disease due to fear of inauspicious things predicted
and such kind of magic actually originated from during samadhi”, “treatment method of gale” and
an ancient philosophy in the Western Regions but “treatment method of various uneasy diseases
not in India and they took fine willow vimen found of tyros caused by ghosts and goblins” mainly
in a tome along the south path of the Silk Road as to adjust and treat different unwell and chaotic
proof for such opinion. Methods involving spraying phenomena during the process of studying Buddha
water with willow vimen were actually rarely seen dharma. Recently, some scholars think that this
in documents about Indian Esoteric Buddhism. In scripture was made in Central China which have
Jīva’s story, willow vimen was just applied as a tool not been confirmed.
for healing magic while the key for the magic was (Chen Ming)
the conjured water. Therefore, it is not necessary to
identify Jīva’s healing method as a kind of ancient Jīva Jīvaka
witchcraft belief from Western Regions. Jiva Jivak, or Jivaka Komarbhacca (in Chinese
Jīva (Jīvaka) is also the Chinese name of another Qi Po), is famous as the doctor of Lord Buddha.
eminent healer from India (see the “Qipo” entry). Introduced to China through the translated Buddhist
(Chen Ming) Tripitakas, he became a celebrated personality
of ancient Chinese medicine on account of his
Buddhasena excellent accomplishments in the field of medicine
Buddhasena [Buddhasena] was an eminent monk (gynecology, obstetrics and pediatrics) and surgery
of Kasmira, Uttarapatha (now Kashmir) who came (especially neurosurgery). In Sanskrit, Pali, Chinese
to China in Northern Liang Dynasty (397-460 CE).
His name can be transliterated into Fuoduoxian and
Fuodaxian and the meaning is a soldier or general.
Buddhasena was the master of Sarvastivada and
inheritor of Buddha dharma later. He converted
the people in Kasmira and was the leader of the
third training. He once studied Buddha dharma
with Bhadrabahu and his disciples then spread
it to Central China. According to the Records of
Buddhist Esoteric Treatment Scriptures, Volume
nine of Record Set of Tripitaka written by Sengyou,
Buddhasena was very talented. He recited a mass
of gatha, was proficient in Buddha dharma and Fragments of the 'Five Buddhist
researched Buddhist and non-Buddhist classics Scriptures' now in possession of
Chinese Tibetan Museum
deeply so that he was then called “the disciple of
the most excellent master”. Buddhabhadra once
learned from Buddhasena and translated two and Tibetan traditions, he is considered to be the
volumes of Dharmatrata Scriptures after coming to son of an unwed mother, probably a courtesan of
China. The king of Hexi areas of Northern Liang the famous Magadh king, Bimbisara. He had been
learned Buddha dharma from Buddhasena in Qumo thrown out of his place of birth and was found alive
Emperor Temple of Khotan with his brother, Juqu (hence his name from the Sanskrit root, jiva meaning
Anyang marquis Juqu Jingsheng who translated life) and raised by the king’s son, Abhaya. Jīvaka
the Buddhist scriptures he recited namely Buddhist was written as Qi Po耆婆 in Chinese. Many other
Esoteric Treatment Scriptures (also named as Esoteric phonetically equivalent characters were also used

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to represent Qi Po eg 耆域 Jiva, 時縛迦 Jīvaka. The women’s standard diseases) and Ka ye jin jie jing
word, Qi气, which means “life force” in Chinese, has 迦葉禁戒經 (a classic of Kaśyapa’s prohibitions for
probably originated from the Sanskrit term Jīva. pregnant women) . Fa Xian in the late 10th century
Some scholars date Jivak to the 5th century CE. CE translated Ka ye xian ren shuo yi nu ren jing 迦
All versions of his life story refer to his interest 葉仙人説醫女人經 (a classic on women’s diseases as
in study of medical sciences and then going out told by the Sage Kaśyapa) into Chinese.
possibly to Taxila for a long advanced training (Vijaya J Deshpande & Kamal Sheel)
in medicine and neurosurgery. He probably had
training under Ótreya (Ótreya Punarvasu), the Works
famous sage who learned medicine from Bhårdvåja
and whose disciple was Agniveßa. There are Valuable Prescriptions
many narratives in various canonical texts about for Emergency
his successful treatment of kings, merchants and Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency was a famous
commoners and their family members. He thus work of traditional Chinese medicine in the Tang
earned fame and wealth and was honoured with the Dynasty. The author was the famous Tang medical
title of “king of physicians” by his King, Bimbisara. scientist, Sun Simiao. The book reflected the
According to a legend, he was assigned to Buddha tendency of traditional Chinese medicine to absorb
as his personal physician by the King and treated knowledge of Indian medicine and Buddhism.
Buddha for ailments contracted in the course of Sun Simiao collected medical books from different
travel. In various stories, it is claimed that Buddha schools and massive folk prescriptions in successive
told him: “I heal the soul, you heal the body”.
There are numerous references to Jīvaka in
later Chinese works both historical and medical.
For example, in the history of Sui Dynasty, a
section is attributed to Qi Po. In a contemporary
medical compendium viz Zhu bing yuan huo lun,
諸病源候論 (a complete discussion of the origins
and symptoms of diseases) written by Chao Yuan
Fang in CE 610, some medical treatise of Qi Po
(Jivaka) are mentioned. Sun Simiao, a well-known
medical writer of the time, known as the “king of
pharmaceutics” writes: “A great medicine man of
India, Jīvaka has said that all things under heaven
have medicinal efficacy.” His two compilations
Beiji Qianjin Yaofang 備急千金要方 (Emergency
medicinal formulae worth a thousand pieces of
gold) and its supplement Qianjin Yifang 千金翼
方 (Supplement to the medicinal formulae worth
a thousand pieces of gold), there are medical ‘Beiji Qianjing Yaofang’ (Valuable Prescriptions
for Emergency)
prescriptions attributed to Qi Po.
Excavations of the Dunhuang caves in the early
20th century unearthed some medical manuscripts dynasties, learned from sutras extensively, deleted
as well. One is named Qiposhu 耆婆書 or complicated contents, absorbed advantages of
Jīvakapustaka which was written both in Sanskrit various schools, and compiled the book in the third
and Brāhmi. It has been extensively studied by Chen year of Yonghui period (652). The book’s name came
Ming as well as Jean Filliozat. A Japanese scholar, from the sentence that “importance was attached
Tanba Yasuyori in 984 CE made a collection of to human life, it valued a thousand pieces of gold
Chinese medical works viz Yixinfang. These include and virtues exceeded relief in a region so it was
formulae for women’s diseases like stomach ache named”. Valuable prescriptions for Emergency had 30
during menstruation, pregnant women’s problems, volumes, dividing into 232 sections, covered over
treatment for infertility etc. It thus appears that the 5,200 prescriptions and had rich collections and
incomplete work Qiposhu (Jīvakapustaka) is a short profound contents which was a great medical work
version meant for practical use. in the nature of encyclopedia and made outstanding
A Central Asian prince monk, An Shikao, is contributions to the development of traditional
said to have translated two works in 147 CE that Chinese medicine for later generations.
were accredited to Jīvaka-Kaśyapa. They were Nai Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency had important
nu qi po jing 佛説柰女耆婆經 (Jīvaka’s classic on clinical values and it has been circulated, copied and

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 Cultural Contacts

issued for thousands of years which was carved and and Indian medicine had active effects on Sun
printed for over 30 times. The book has different Simiao’s knowledge structure and clinical thinking
versions, volumes and words differ slightly and it is which made him one of the main driving forces
divided into three great systems: the official carved in the change of medical knowledge in traditional
version revised by Medical Book Revision Bureau of Chinese medicine history. On the other hand, the
the Northern Song Dynasty, the manuscript of the foreign knowledge further enlarged its influences on
Tang Dynasty which wasn’t revised by courtiers of China because of the collection in his work.
the Song Dynasty and the version of Orthodox Taoist (Chen Ming)
Scriptures in the Ming Dynasty. The books has also
other names like Newly Carved Valuable Prescriptions Supplement to Valuable
of Saint Sun, Authentic Valuable Prescriptions, Valuable Prescriptions
Prescriptions of King Medicine (combined issue of Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions It was a
Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions) etc. famous traditional Chinese medicine book in the
Sun Simiao “was good at talking about theories Tang Dynasty. The author was the excellent medical
of Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu and various schools of scientist Sun Simiao in the Sui and Tang Dynasty.
thoughts and was proficient in explaining classics” The book was as important as Valuable Prescriptions
so Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency “collected for Emergency to study India-China medical culture
widely and deleted complicated contents” and exchange in the period of the Six Dynasties as well
quoted deep knowledge from Buddhist and Indian as the Sui and Tang Dynasty.
medicine. “Virtues of a great doctor” in its Volume After Sun Simiao compiled Valuable Prescriptions
1 Preface Case proposed that “all people shall be for Emergency in the third year of Yonghui Period
equal including the rich and the poor, the old and of Emperor Gao in the Tang Dynasty (652 CE), he
the young, the beautiful and the ugly, the resentful was worried about omissions, so he collected secret
and kind-hearted friends, Chinese and foreigners, prescriptions for another 30 years, including Treatise
the wise and the stupid, who shall be treated as on Febrile Diseases of Zhang Zhongjing, combined
close relatives in terms of treatment with diseases”. clinical experience of dozens of years and compiled
It showed influences of the Buddhist concept of Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions. The two books
mercy. In the matter of theory of causes of disease, were an excellent match like flying birds so that
the Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency, absorbed readers could cure diseases, keep healthy and
the theories of “body being composed of the four benefit greatly. Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions
elements including earth, water, fire and wind” also had 30 volumes, supplemented over 2,000
as well as “404 diseases” of Indian Buddhist ancient prescriptions which weren’t collected in
medicine. Replacing “101 diseases being caused Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency. The part of
by one great abnormity” with the theories of “Qi” Medicine Record in the preface of the book collected
and “spirit” of traditional Chinese medicine, Sun over 800 medicines and greatly enriched materia
Simiao writes that the “abnormity of one Qi leads medica knowledge in the Tang Dynasty.
to 101 diseases, 404 diseases are caused by action Sun Simiao absorbed medical knowledge from
of the four spirits”, which reflected his acceptance Indian Buddhism actively and held a positive
of foreign medical knowledge. attitude towards the famous doctor Jīvaka in the
Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency also contained era of Buddha. He accepted Jīvaka’s theory that
some prescriptions using Indian medicines. Its “all things were medicines”. “Section II Medicine
Volume 12 of Gallbladder had the section on “Pills Names” in volume I of “Outline of Medicine Record”
and Powders for 10,000 Diseases” and recorded 13 of Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions wrote that
prescriptions, among which “Jivaka Pill for Ten “the great Indian doctor Jīvaka said that all things
Thousand Diseases” was the most representative under the heaven were panaceas. Everything was a
medicine. The pill for 10,000 diseases “had mainly medicine. The one who knew this was a great doctor.”
bezoar, so it was also named bezoar pill; it was named This medical thought that “all things were medicines”
Jivaka pill because of the good doctor Jīvaka”. Jīvaka broadened Sun Simiao’s vision and widened the
was a famous doctor recorded in Indian sutra using scope of herbalism, and had great significance. Under
his name to name a medical prescription showed that the influence of this thought, Sun Simiao absorbed
Sun Simiao knew about Indian medical thoughts and a lot of folk or foreign medicines. Compared with
Jivaka prescriptions to some extents, and absorbed Newly Revised Materia Medica, Valuable Prescriptions
them. Volume 27 of Cultivation of Temperament for Emergency and Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions
in Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency collected had 680 more kinds of medicines, medicine species
“Indian massage which was a Brahman method”. were enriched greatly and the thought had played
This was a relatively rare Indian massage method in an active role in promoting development of materia
Chinese literature. On one hand, Buddhist thoughts medica in later generations.

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Sun Simiao also paid attention to a combination in the recuperating way”, “prescription of asafoetida
of Indian and Chinese medical principles. Volume 21 pill”, “prescription of kuhseng and nitrel liquor”,
“Jīvaka’s Curing Malignant Diseases” of Supplement “prescription of great white paste”, “prescription of
to Valuable Prescriptions pointed out that “there great black paste”, “prescription of great white paste”,
were 404 disease winds. Generally speaking, there “prescription of immersion soup”, “innocence pill for
were five types, ie they were caused by five winds. one hundred fears”, “prescription curing ten leprosy
Every hundreds of disease is related to five internal diseases” and “magic prescription curing leprosy” in
organs, and each internal organ may cause 81 kinds volume 21 Ten Thousand Diseases and “prescription
of diseases altogether 404 diseases. Every disease of the great doctor Jīvaka curing 10,000 diseases of
shall be treated with the category well known.” The viscera, tonifying and prolonging life” in volume 22
sayings that “there were four hundred and four kinds Flying and Refining came from Indian prescriptions.
of disease winds” and “each internal organ had 81 As for “the prescription taking calamus”, Sun Simiao
kinds in terms of the five internal organs”, reflected clearly recorded that “Indian Tripitaka Dharma
that Sun Simiao tried to combine the Indian medical Master Varmanmiti from Rajagrha City, Magadha
theory of “404 diseases” with inherent theories of Kingdom became was an envoy of Tujue in the 8th
traditional Chinese medicine (such as the theory of year of Daye Period and it was translated by the Great
Virtue Master of Luozhou and Master Ju in Pure Land
Temple on July 23, the sixth year of Wude Period.
Master Ju was Master Xing Ju in the early the Tang
Dynasty. The source of “immersing method in liquor”
attached to “the prescription of kuhseng and nitrel
liquor” was “from Treatise on Prescriptions of Jīvaka:
Method Curing Moderate Gale”. Supplement to Valuable
Prescriptions kept many Indian prescriptions and
used much more prescriptions of Indian medicines
including asafoetida, especially flavour prescriptions
including lavender.
Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions also collected
medical mantras with Indian Tantric colour, such
as “spell eliminating ghosts” in volume 13 and
“method of forbidden order for harmonious family”
‘Qianjin Yifang’ (Supplement to in volume 30 of Forbidden Sutra, Part II, which
Valuable Prescription) showed that Sun Simiao absorbed knowledge of
Indian medicine and religion. Although Jīvaka’s
five elements and the concept of viscera pathology) medical prescriptions under the pen of Sun Simiao
and further enriched the traditional Chinese medical has source factors of Indian medical science, they
pathological theories. Supplement to Valuable had not been pure Indian prescriptions. A lot of
Prescriptions kept many prescriptions named after elements of traditional Chinese medicine and
Jīvaka. As early as in 1936, Fan Xingzhun pointed Taoist medicine had been added, which showed
out in the paper, Study on Prescriptions in the Western the tendency of combining Chinese medical science
Regions that “acute conjunctivitis prescription” with Indian medical science in the Tang Dynasty.
and “prescription curing acute conjunctivitis” in (Chen Ming)
volume 11 of Children’s Eye Diseases of Supplement to
Valuable Prescriptions, “prescription taking calamus” Arcane Essentials from
and “Jīvaka soup – the prescription for extreme the Imperial Library
deficiency, cold wind, weakness and colourlessness ” Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library is the
in volume 12 of Cultivation of Temperament, “sulfur most important collection of the large medical and
grundum simmering – the prescription for flaccidity pharmaceutical books during the Tang Dynasty.
of lower limbs and cold caused by deficiency” in Compiled by Wang Tao (670-755 CE or 690-756 CE)
volume 17 Apoplexia Part II, “honey simmering – during the 11th year of Tianbao period (752 CE), the
the prescription for consumptive thirst”, “goat spinal book treasures a large collection of knowledge on
cord simmering – the prescription for consumptive ancient medical science and Buddhism of India, an
thirst, dry mouth and throat moistening” and “honey embodiment of great influence of Indian medicine
simmering – the prescription for thirsts” in volume on China before the Tang Dynasty.
19 Miscellaneous Diseases, “Ajanta medicine – the With 40 volumes and 1,104 categories in total,
prescription for diseases which can be helpful for Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library always
look and cure diseases after taking for a long time probes into the causes and development of a disease

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and then recommends the appropriate prescriptions. widely collected the ancient and current discourses
It is based on General Treatise on the Cause and on prescriptions. A lot of books on which the
Symptoms of Diseases by Chao Yuanfang and Essential quotations of Arcane Essentials from the Imperial
Recipes for Emergent Use by Sun Simiao and records a Library were based were lost and therefore, this book
total of more than 6,000 effective prescriptions, all is the only way for people to understand how those
classified into proper categories and covering a wide lost books had absorbed the outside culture and
range of areas. The book quotes lots of ancient classic how they were transformed. Arcane Essentials from
prescriptions and writings by influential people in the Imperial Library recorded immense information
history “from the period of patron of agriculture all on outside medical science, the most important
the way down to the prosperous Tang Dynasty, the part of which is the 21st volume Tianzhu Scriptures
book almost contains everything that is valuable and on Eye Preface One, written by a Longshang Taoist
precious to medical science”. It collects an enormous priest whose surname is Xie, living at the beginning
number of ancient prescriptions with reasonable and of the Tang Dynasty to the most prosperous period
unique interpretation and analysis, and compared of Tang. It’s said that Xie acquired knowledge
with Essential Recipes for Emergent Use which is divided from a Serindia monk in Qizhou (now Jinan City,
Shandong Province). Tianzhu Scriptures on Eye is a
miniature of ophthalmology knowledge in India
including the Four Element Theory of Buddhism
and traditional technique for couching cataracts
which is not merely the very important and
valuable historical materials for later generations to
understand the Indian ophthalmology knowledge
but also boasts essential clinical value for today’s
ophthalmic medical practice. Arcane Essentials
from the Imperial Library quotes so many things
from Jinxiao Prescriptions which are basically the
effective time-honoured one from the beginning of
the Tang Dynasty to the prosperous Tang period.
Among them, the Brahmin monk therapy for
‘Waitai Miyaofang’ (Arcane
diseases caused by wind, therapy for heat-toxicity
Essentials from the Imperial Library) by alchemical medicine and disease that hands and
feet are unable to coordinate, Alternanthera Sessilis
into two volumes, Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Cream which originally belongs to Brahmin’s
Library seems more precise and convincing by clearly prescriptions and Liaosan, 50-year Red Eye and
showing the origin of quotations, by which, people Bingtaichi prescription in Essential Prescriptions
view it as a mirror of classic historical books. As a Compiled by Cui Zhiti which are strictly based on
result of treasuring many medical literature before medicine in west regions of Tang as well as the
the Tang Dynasty with clear annotation of origin of Gentiana Macrophylla Cow Milk Soup in Xu Renze’s
quotations, the book provides so much convenience Prescriptions are all the best examples of outside
for scholars in later generations to trace the source, prescriptions transmitting and gaining popularity
and thus be able to outline a clear and accurate picture in China during the Tang Dynasty. Several
of development of medical science from Han to Tang prescriptions in Jinxiao Prescriptions include some
Dynasty, and it can be viewed as one of the three drugs which obviously are foreign drugs such as the
valuable collections for us to explore the medical, He Lile, Persian verdigris, sweet basil, arrowhead,
social and literature history of the Tang Dynasty. and long pepper. Most of the prescriptions we see
In 1069, a re-proofreading and re-printing job was in Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library are
carried out by Cheng Yandao but unfortunately it was similar with those in Yajur (Life) Veda classics of
not done perfectly. So Lu Xinyuan in Qing Dynasty India, representing the great influence of ancient
wrote the book The Correction and Complementation Indian medicine on traditional Chinese medicine
to Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library and in in Tang Dynasty.
Japan, there is the photo-offset copy of Song Dynasty (Chen Ming)
edition by Seikado Bunko Library. As of now, the
checking and annotating version of Arcane Essentials Bodhisattva
from the Imperial Library by Gao Wenzhu is the most Nagarjuna’s Treatise on
popular one. Ophthalmology
Wang Tao made good use of collection of books It was a kind of ophthalmology work named after
in Hong Wen Library (created in Tang Dynasty) and Bodhisattva Nagarjuna in the Middle Ages and

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the author was unknown. It was similar to Indian Volume 26 of Prescriptions of Medical Heart written by
Sutra and Shastra on Ophthalmology quoted from Japanese Yasuyori Tanbo (912-995 CE) quoted two
the Medical Secrets from the Royal Library written entries of Nagarjuna’s Prescriptions which were witch
by Wang Tao in the Tang Dynasty and the name ways for respect and love between men and women
of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Sutra on Ophthalmology rather than flavor methods. Bodhisattva Nagarjuna
reflected the historical fact that ancient Indian and Flavour Methods shall be the same as that in Book
ophthalmology knowledge was popular in China. of the Sui Dynasty: Confucian Classics Records. It shall
Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Sutra on Ophthalmology was be related to Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Seal Treatise on
one volume of Nagarjuna’s Treatise on Ophthalmology Five Sciences quoted in Book II of Nagarjuna’s Treatise
recorded in the books such as Chongwen Overall on Five Sciences. Catalogue of Books Seen in Japan also
Catalogue and Reading Record in Chief’s Residence, compiled similar Secrets of Nagarjuna’s Treatise on
etc., Reading Record in Chief’s Residence said that, Five Sciences and Nagarjuna’s Methods to Leave Seal.
“Buddhist sutra of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna can cure Nagarjuna’s Treatise on Ophthalmology was
eye diseases. According to its statement, it integrates relatively famous in the Tang Dynasty. Bai Juyi
prescriptions which can treat with seventy two eye
diseases”. The book described causes and treatment
methods of eye diseases and explained the couching
methods in detail. The original Bodhisattva
Nagarjuna’s Treatise on Ophthalmology was lost and
some contents were quoted in Volume 64 and 65
of Collection of Prescriptions compiled by Kim Ye-
mong of North Korea in the Ming Dynasty. The
ophthalmology works such as Nagarjuna’s Treatise,
Longmu’s Treatise and Nagarjuna’s Overall Treatise
on Secret Ophthalmology etc were named after The Treatise on Opthalmology
Nagarjuna by later generations.
Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, as a medical scientist, was wrote in the poem Eye Disease that “Nagarjuna’s
a character different from Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, Treatise is spread on desk and semen cassiae torae
the Mahayana founder in the history of Buddhism. is stored in a box. No prescriptions are helpful in
Volume 34 of Confucian Classics Records III of Book of the world, and gold needle operation will be a
the Sui Dynasty recorded dozens of names of medical try.” This is an example of “gold needle operation”
books of India and the Western Regions including (couching) in Nagarjuna’s Treatise on Ophthalmology
four volumes of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Prescriptions, which was popular in the society. There were Indian
two volumes of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna and Flavour monks who were good at curing eye diseases with
Methods and one volume of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s gold needle in the Tang Dynasty, for example, Liu
Healthy Methods. Chinese medical books in Catalogue Yuxi’s For Oculist Brahman Monk described that “the
of Books Seen in Japan were introduced from China, master is good at gold needle operation, why does
the medical books named after Bodhisattva Nagarjuna he think about ways of enlightenment.” In 2012,
included one volume of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna Indian scholar Vijaya Jayant Deshpande published
and Flavor Methods, one volume of Bodhisattva Restoring the Dragon’s Vision – Nagarjuna and
Nagarjuna’s Sutra on Ophthalmology, one volume of Medieval Chinese Ophthalmology with the Chinese
Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Seal Methods, and one volume scholar Doctor Fan Jiawei from Hong Kong in
of Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Secrets of Bodhisattva Chinese Culture Center of City University of Hong
Asvaghosa (written by Shramana Shanti, and some Kong, and translated Nagarjuna’s expositions on
versions claimed that it was “written by Shramana ophthalmology in ancient Chinese literature into
Bohdi”), in which some Indian medical elements were English which is another good example of modern
included. These classics may be copied and compiled India-China medical exchange.
by Chinese monks or foreign sutra translators (Chen Ming)
according to some contents in Indian Buddhist
sutras. Bodhisattva Nagarjuna and Flavor Methods Sutra of
shall be Volume nine of Fei Changfang’s Records of Buddhist Medicine
Three Treasures throughout Successive Generations and Buddhist sutras for medical knowledge in ancient
one volume (Common Fifty Methods) of Bodhisattva India was translated in the Three Kingdoms
Nagarjuna and Flavor Methods quoted in Volume four period. Its full name is Dharma Sutra of Buddhist
of Dao Xuan’s Buddhist Catalogue of the Great Tang Medicine and there are also other translated names
Dynasty was translated by Indian Tripitaka Dharma including Buddhist Medical Classic and Dharma
Master Ratnamati in the period of Emperor of Liang. Medical Classic. It had one volume in total and

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the translators were Zhu Luan, a Buddhist monk preface and annotations are included. Lore Sander
of India and Zhiyue of Yuezhi who came to Wu thought that The Bower Manuscript which was
in the Three Kingdoms Period. The Sutra had written in the pattra-leaf brich bark was a product
exerted certain influence on the medical theory in of Kashmir. The language used was Sanskrit, mixed
ancient China. with some folk adage. In addition, it was copied
The Sutra of Buddhist Medicine has short contents. in the Gupta period in which the typeface style
Baochang and Zhisheng, scholars of Buddhism of Mathura and Rajasthan-Malawi are included.
Catalogue, thought that it was, in fact, selected and It is supposed to have been written in the later
translated from a long Buddhist text instead of a period of Gupta Dynasty (about 320-550) in India,
complete sutra and that it should be an abbreviated namely in the beginning or middle period of the 6th
sutra. The Sutra of Buddhist Medicine, from the century. However, there is another possibility that
perspective of Buddhist medical knowledge, it was brought to Xinjiang by the Buddhists who
explained the basic theory of Buddhist medicine transmitted the Indian culture.
in ancient India including theories like Four For The Bower Manuscript, much significance was
Discordance (earth, water, fire and wind), Si Bai Si attached to its medical contents. It is not the only
Bing, Diseases and Diets in Four Seasons, Ten Causes material of Indian medicine copied in Sanskrit, but
of Falling Ill, Nine Causes of Dying, Four Kinds of also a demonstration for the medical achievements
Foods, Six Causes of Vegetarianism, Five Crimes of ancient India. There were three volumes of
of Eating Too Much and Various Kinds of Pains. medical content in which the first one is a remaining
It embodied the fundamental view of primitive chapter with five leaves, 132 odes in total and no
Buddhism in India on physical and mental health title. It directly starts from a kalpa for making up a
as well as protection against diseases. It stated in
the sutra that the human body is composed of four
elements including earth, water, fire and wind and
once the four elements are in disorder, a disease will
come. In addition, seasonal variation, improper diet
as well as bad psychological status and living habits
will in company with growth and decline of the
four elements, throw internal mechanism of human
body into disorder thus causing diseases. Four
Discordance, Si Bai Si Bing, the essential theories in
the sutra, have exerted certain influence on medical
concepts in ancient China to some extent. Some
Cover of Bower Manuscript.
scholars thought that there were Yin-Yang and Five English version
Elements as well as Taoism regimen in the sutra. So,
it was an apocrypha, in which the contents were prescription, in which miraculous medicinal benefits
obtained from Taoism scriptures and the contained of garlic were described including the origin of
information was inaccurate. garlic, the name and nature of the item, Garlic
(Chen Ming) Festival, as well as the prescription of garlic and
other medicines and their effects. The next section
Bower Manuscript of the manuscript seemed like a small tantra, which
Bower Manuscript is a Sanskrit text found in Kuqa, composed of illogical sections including emphasis
Sinkiang in 6th century CE. It has seven remaining on digestive ability, methods for obtaining a good
volumes in which the medical contents showed us memory, instructions for pharmaceutics, all kinds of
the achievements of ancient India and the influence prescriptions, methods for curing eye disease, usage
on Chinese medicine. of sticking plasters on face, eyewash and methods for
This batch of manuscripts was derived from controlling alopecia and maintaining the black colour
an ancient site near Kuqa, Xinjiang in 1889 and of hair as well as methods for curing cough and other
was obtained by Hamilton Bower, Lieutenant of diseases. The second volume of The Bower Manuscript
British Forces, the next year. Without a title, the is Nàvanãtaka (also translated as Jingzhi) which was
original manuscript was generally called The Bower relatively complete with 32 leaves, 1,119 odes in
Manuscript by the Academia for convenience. The total. It was a practical medical formulary which
original volume was later collected by the Bodleian was compiled based on various kinds of effective
Library of Oxford University. A F Rudolf Hoernle prescriptions for immortals recorded in medical books
(1841-1918) spent more than 20 years in working and its introductory title is Nàvanãtaka. Belonging to
on a research on it and published three books in another medical tradition in ancient India namely
which board charts, translation, transliteration, hand-me-down apart from “Agnive÷a” and “Bheóa”,

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Nàvanãtaka covers all aspects of internal medicine. medicine as well as extra-territorial medicine and it
There were previously 16 volumes in Nàvanãtaka but is also of great significance to the comparative study
now only 14 exist which illustrate the use of medical of Chinese and Western medicine.
butter, medical oil, enema, tonic, medical gruel, The fourth and fifth volume of The Bower
aphrodisiac, collyria, hair lotion, neochebulinic acid, Manuscript is relatively short and the contents are
trogopterus dung and Whiteflower Leadword Root as related to the kalpa called Pà÷aka-kevalã which is a
well as prescriptions for pediatrics, pregnant women, kind of Geomancy for predicting the future by dicing.
praying for children and longevity. However, There are 64 kinds of dicing methods in the fourth
pestilence, hydrargyrum and opium were not volume while the fifth volume is a remaining chapter
mentioned. A basic framework for life, Veda in India, about the dicing. The sixth volume, together with the
has emerged in The Bower Manuscript. For example, seventh volume, is a volume of Dhàraõã scriptures
it described the Sanye Theory, the role of digestion in including incantation used for those hurt by snakes
health, terms for diseases as well as the diversity of and other demons. The name of the scripture is
drug preparation. The third volume is the remaining Mahàmàyårã Vidyàràj¤ã.
one of an ancient medical book or dispensatory. Starting from The Bower Manuscript, the discovery
There are missing contents both in the beginning and of these ancient manuscripts directly stimulated
M A Stein. In 1990, he began his first exploration to
the Western Regions, which initiated an international
wave of archaeological exploration to this area. It
was the wave of large-scale investigation, exploration
and cultural relic collection that eventually enabled
Dunhuang Studies and Turpan Studies to be the
Bower Manuscript, now in the possession of Oxford University Library international knowledge branches attracting much
attention in the 20thcentury.
end, with four leaves and 72 odes in total. Viewing (Chen Ming)
from its contents, the arrangement, approximately
for the first three chapters within the second volume, Siddhasàra
was relatively disorderly. The forms of medical herbs Siddhasàra is a very important classic medical literature
covered by it were: oiling agent, powders, smearing laying special emphasis on clinical knowledge which
agent, butter agent, pills and syrups. was written by Ravigupta in mid-7th century CE
The Bower Manuscript is obviously related to in India. The book is available in several versions
Buddhism. At that time, Buddhism, with a wide of the Chinese Northwest ancient languages and
coverage, was at its booming period and the Canon contemporary Chinese and is well known as one of
of Medicine in Central Asia and Xinjiang was the representative writings on Ayurveda medicine
absolutely to be influenced by Buddhism. Those which has been widely spread into the East.
books and records for medicine were probably Siddhasàra is the Sanskrit name of the book, also
written by Buddhists or their followers. The academic known as Xi Tan Suo Luo by transliteration in Chinese.
significance of The Bower Manuscript lies, at least, in The full name of this book can also be Vaidyàka-
three aspects: It recorded the names of many ancient Siddhasàra which means Medical Achievements
famous doctors and their prescriptions which enabled Essence in Chinese. Ravigupta, the writer, is the son
people to gain a more intuitive understanding of of Durgagupta, a famous veterinarian proficient in
the medical achievements in India. Being a foreign treating horse’s disease and the brother of Devagupta.
culture, it exerted influence on medical science, There is, however, very little information about him.
not only to Xinjiang but also to other nationalities. Siddhasàra is the selection of medical prescriptions
It helped save some historical data of ancient India featuring medical treatise. It carefully collects those
which can be used for discussing the folk-customs effective prescriptions from a range of medical books
significant to folk life and medical treatment. The and is divided into 31 chapters in accordance with
medical prescriptions in The Bower Manuscript were the newest methods of edition and arrangement at its
collected from medical books in India such as Caraka time. The first four chapters of which mainly focus
Samhita, Pilu Samhita, and Susruta Samhita etc while on traditional theories, thus making the book a great
other contents were probably from some kalpas and Canon of Medicine. The second and third chapters
tantras of even earlier times. The Bower Manuscript is talk about the nature and effect of a variety of drugs,
characterised by selected prescriptions, an elaborate which is similar to the herbalism writings of the
selection for basic health and curing special diseases. Chinese traditional medicine. From the fifth to the 30th
Like the Jīvaka-pustaka and Siddhasara, The Bower chapter, based on different symptoms, the causes and
Manuscript also plays an important role in researches categories of various diseases and the prescriptions
on inland Chinese medicine, ancient Xinjiang in particular are presented. The last chapter can be

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regarded as a supplementary instruction of different understanding of new knowledge. In the meantime,

medical methods which allows the book to be a giant there is another possibility that other books in
medical masterpiece. The whole book introduces the Serindia (ancient Xinjiang province and the Middle
treatment of a wide variety of diseases concerning East region) or some local things were also added.
internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics and gynecology There are some prescriptions in Siddhasàra, which
and so on. could also be found in The Bower Manuscript, a medical
The contribution that Siddhasàra has made writing in the 6th century unearthed in Kuqa, Xinjiang
is its unique and special method of edition and province of China, in Jãvaka-pustaka, a bilingual
arrangement. Its structure, in the history of India canon of medicine in both Sanskrit and Khotanese
medicine, can be viewed as a turning point. Before unearthed at the same time with the Dunhuang cave
this book, Caraka-saühità, a monograph focussing on for preserving Buddhist sutras and in Prescriptions
internal medicine and Suśruta-samhitā and Aùñàïga- of Miscellaneous Diseases written in Uighur script of
hçdya-saühità, monographs on surgery are all books Turpan and rGyud-bzhi which had been passed down
arranging their contents in line with Aùñàïga, through generations as well as in some Chinese ancient
the traditional classification method of Ayurvedic medical writings uncovered in Serindia. And even the
medicine. After Siddhasàra, Màdhava-Nidàna or Ghent Azalea Leaf Powder in Kharoùñhi, one of the
earliest fragmentary prescriptions known currently,
can also be seen in Siddhasàra. Just like the Bower
Manuscript, Siddhasàra has also been transmitted
throughout the culture circle around Serindia in the
ethnic minorities’ language and the Ghent Azalea Leaf
Powder is just a good example. Siddhasàra, along with
many other Indian medical masterpieces, has greatly
enriched medical science of the Middle Ancient Times
across Serindia and meanwhile, polished it with the
distinct characteristics of Indian medical science.
The Indian Canon of Medicine in Sanskrit-Siddhasàra
(Zhonghua Book Company, 2002) written by Chen
Cover of Chen Ming's 'Indian Ming, firstly translated Siddhasàra into Chinese, thus
medical Classics' in Sanskrit offering a window for people to explore and study
(Research on Siddhasara)
ancient medical history of India.
Màdhava Nidànam, written by Màdhavakara or (Chen Ming)
Màdhava in short, was not divided into different
segments but only composed of 70 chapters, each Jivaka pustaka
of which mainly probes into various prescriptions The Jãvaka-Pustaka is a book for medical prescription
and therapies for just one disease. And such an written in medieval Khotanese and Sanskrit
arrangement thus became the editing standard for discovered in a Dunhuang cave for preserving
the medical literature of later generations in India. Buddhist Sutra. Jãvaka-Pustaka was discovered by
Siddhasàra treasures a large number of valuable A Stein in Dunhuang and was later collected by the
clinical prescriptions, however, if as far as the library in London-India Affairs, (now it is collected
transmission and communication of the Indian by the Collection Department of East-India Affairs in
ancient medical culture is concerned, its significance British Library). There it is numbered Ch.ii 003 (the
is of more importance. The book was translated into new number is IOL Khot 87-110). Jãvaka-Pustaka
Tibetan in the 9th century, into Khotanese in the 10th reflected the influence of Veda medicine in India to
century and into Uighur in the 13th century. Some of medicine in Xinjiang regions of China.
its contents were also spread in Arabia around the Jãvaka-Pustaka is a classical Indian medical work.
end of the 9th century or the beginning of the 10th Along with Siddham as a symbol, it includes, at least,
century. The Khotanese version Siddhasàra (Ch ii four parts of medical literature and is characterised
002 or P.2892v) was found in the Dunhuang cave for by the best collections of medical prescriptions.
preserving the Buddhist sutras which was the longest There are 91 existing prescriptions in Jãvaka-Pustaka
manuscript in Khotanese that existed. Compared to and these prescriptions are divided into four forms:
Siddhasàra in Sanskrit, the Khotanese and Tibetan “Agada Prescription”, “Butter Prescription”, “Oil
versions have both been added with quite a few Prescription” and “Powder Prescription”. In Jãvaka-
of new information which means there were some Pustaka, the prescription is arranged in accordance
annotations about the original work after it was with different forms of the medicament and medical
introduced in some places such as Tibet, Kingdom theory is not involved. The Sanskrit edition of Jãvaka-
of Khotan and Dunhuang for the sake of easier pustaka is the original text while the Khotan edition

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is its translation. However, one edition is not directly joy and happiness with the blessing of gods and all
correlated to the other and sometimes there are gaps living creatures immersed themselves in the bliss of
and omissions in contents. five desires with plants and natural things as their
Jãvaka-Pustaka is the product of Indian medical food; kings were honest and just and people were
culture and there are many prescriptions which can not worried about life, senility, illness and death.
be sourced from Veda Literature in early times; it This is what the very beginning of the world looked
is, at the same time, an example for Khotan to learn like in the genesis mythology of Buddhism, similar
from Indian Medicine. When Jãvaka-Pustaka was with the creation myths in The Medium Works of
translated into Khotan, they incorporated the original Hinayana Sutra (Volume 39), Scripture of the Origin of
knowledge form their own medical practice as well
as the local medical knowledge into the translation,
which was equipped with “creative compositions”.
Jãvaka-pustaka in Khotan is, in fact, not a faithful
translation to the original Sanskrit edition. The main
changes, as compared to the Sanskrit edition, in
Khotan were: There were more functions for a certain
kind of prescription and a certain kind of prescription
was composed of different medicaments. There
were more medicaments for composition of one
certain kind of prescription. There were more names
for these prescriptions, the medicaments were in 'Fragments of Classics on Medicine'
different forms, there were specialised explanations from Turfan now in Russia
for collective noun of medicaments and there were
detailed descriptions for the process of pharmacy. Brahman Brahmin (Volume II), Abhidharma Theory on
The indigenous dose unit was used and typical the Creation of the World and Shunzheng Theory.
Buddhist medical terms such as “Si Bai Si Bing” were Essentials of Prescriptions by Various Medical Scientists
mentioned. Jãvaka-Pustaka is one of the products for (Volume I) cannot be found in ancient medical and
exchange and blending of Vedic medicine in India historical booklist of past dynasties thus being viewed
and indigenous medicine in the Kingdom of Khotan. as a valuable unique copy. It is the selected works of
(Chen Ming) medical prescriptions, collecting the essentials of a
great variety of medical books and documents. The
Essentials of Prescriptions Ch.3725v Fragmented Pieces is only the foreword of
by Various Medical the book which can be regarded as the introduction
Scientists of Buddhist medicine in the broad sense.
Essentials of Prescriptions by Various Medical Scientists The name of the book is similar with those of
is a great medical book compiled in the Tang Dynasty Bibliography of Chronicles of the Sui Dynasty and
and unearthed in the Jiaohe Ruins, Turpan, Xinjiang Collection of Important Prescriptions by Famous
province, with only some fragmented pieces left Medical Scientists in Western Regions in meaning
today. Now collected by the Berlin National Museum, which implied the real nature of the literature itself.
Oriental Division, numbered as Ch.3725v, these It shows, at that time, there were various medical
fragmented pieces bear the distinct traces of Indian books featuring diverse characteristics in the
Buddhist knowledge that has been deeply integrated Western Regions whose contents were transcribed
into Chinese medical literature. or assembled from the medical works of previous
Essentials of Prescriptions by Various Medical dynasties. In effect, regardless of “Essentials of
Scientists, if judged by its contents, has something to Prescriptions” or “Collection of Important Prescriptions”,
do with Ba Zhu (Дх09888, front and back), and also both can be viewed as the accurate translation of the
fragmented pieces collected in Dunhuang Documents word samgraha in Astanga-samgraha, a giant medical
collected by Soviet Union and Prescription for Heartache masterpiece in India in the 7th century. Essentials of
Caused by Ghosts (Дх09170, front and back). The front Prescriptions by Various Medical Scientists, Collection
of the fragmented pieces of Essentials of Prescriptions of Important Prescriptions by Famous Medical Scientists
by Various Medical Scientists is the Study of Jivaka on in Western Regions and Astanga-samgraha all boast
Internal Five Organs and these pieces have six lines similar nature, representing the close relationship
in total. The first line is Essentials of Prescriptions between the Indian and Western medical science
by Various Medical Scientists Volume One while the as well as the great influence of translation of the
other five describe the situation at the beginning of Indian medical literature on the development of the
the creation of the earth and heaven in the genesis traditional Chinese medicine.
mythology of Buddhism when everyone lived with (Chen Ming)

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TECHNOLOGICAL 7 quoted “pepper wine method” in Records about

EXCHANGES
Vast Topics where the cold or hot wine can be drunk
after smashing one liang of dry ginger and 70 peppers
into powder, mixing five litres of spring wine and
Qi Min Yao Shu juice of five pomegranates, warming it on fire. This
Important Means of Subsistence for Common People “Biba wine” formulated by Hu people was a common
(Qimin Yaoshu) was a comprehensive agricultural Indian pepper medical wine and had the function
book in the Northern Wei period and was one of of curing diseases. Important Means of Subsistence
the four ancient “agricultural books” as well as for Common People recorded multiple wine-making
the earliest and most systematical important book methods with pungent and fragrant materials such
in global agriculture history. It was written by Jia as black pepper, dry ginger, caryophyllus and Piper
Sixie between 533-544 CE. The book recorded some longum Linn etc which witnessed eastern propagation
crops from foreign areas (including Indian crops) and of ancient Indian medical wine.
provided relevant knowledge. It was an important (Chen Ming)
historical book to know about Sino-foreign (including
India-China) agriculture knowledge exchanges. Sugar Making
Important Means of Subsistence for Common People India is one of the countries in the world which have
had 10 volumes and 92 chapters. It expounded a long history of sugar making and consuming. China
comprehensive contents in the aspects of agriculture, is the near neighbour of India and they both have had
forest, animal husbandry, sideline production and close exchanges of technology in sugar making for
fishery such as fruits, vegetables, crops, agriculture, more than a thousand years.
horticulture, forestation, farming, brewage, The earliest sweets in ancient China were not made
breeding and relief etc. It was claimed as one of of sugar. Yi and Tang, as the main sweets during the
“ancient Chinese encyclopaedias” and had profound times from the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BCE-256 BCE)
influences. Volume 10, “foreign products including to the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420 CE-
five cereals, fruits, melons and vegetables” recorded 589 CE), were made from rice, wheat or barley. It
over 100 tropical and subtropical plants and over was much late when sugarcane was introduced and
60 wild and edible plants, included varieties such planted from abroad, and, as a precious variety of
as cucumber, coriander, shallot bulb, rocambole, crops, it was not afforded by normal families for a
walnut, celery, clover and grape etc. Volume 10 of long period of time.
Important Means of Subsistence for Common People Sugarcane was generally cultivated during
quoted growth season of Indian wheat from Records the times of Northern and Southern Dynasties.
of Countries in the Western Regions, “wheat is grown However, its planting region was confined to south
on the Winter Solstice ie November 6 and it is ripe China. There are various theories about the native
on December 16 which is called as the 12th month habitat of sugarcane and quite a lot of scholars
of the lunar year”. It also quoted records related produce linguistic evidence in favour of India as the
to the thinking tree (bodhi) from Records of Song homeland of sugarcane. They argued that the name
Mountain. This tree is the Indian Ficus bodhi tree of a country in central Bengal was Gauóa and this
and its scientific name is Ficus Religiosal. Historical word was derived from Sanskrit guóa meaning sugar.
materials such as bodhi tree in Important Means of Besides, one of the most famous families in ancient
Subsistence for Common People and Mochu tree from India was Ikùvàku and its name came from Sanskrit
Simhala (or Sri Lanka) have certain values to study ikùu meaning sugarcane. India has a long history of
history of crop plantation in China and South Asia. sugarcane planting partly because the environment
Important Means of Subsistence for Common People also of many places. Bengal, for instance, is very suitable
collected methods of some foreign species. Its Volume for sugarcane growing. All these tend to form the
grounds for the argument favourable to India as the
native habitat of sugarcane.
In China, the cane sugar-making seemed to begin
at some time between the Three Kingdoms (220 CE-
280 CE) and the Tang Dynasty (618 CE-907 CE),
while the Northern and Southern Dynasties merits
special attention. Being left behind in technology
Chinese decided to learn from their neighbours.
During the reign of Tang Taizong (598 CE- 649 CE),
he sent envoys to India to get the sugar-making skill.
It is recorded in vol. 221 of New Annals of Tang
Qi Min Yao Shu's book Dynasty that “the king of Magadha, a former vassal

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state of Central India Kingdom, lived in the city of And in Bengal, at the same time, puùpasità was also
Pàñaliputra which was situated at the south bank of called padma-cãnã or phul-cãnã. Since cãnã had the
Gaïgà. In the 21st year of Zhenguan Era (627 CE- meaning of Chinese, it implies that Chinese white
649 CE), a diplomatic mission was sent by him to sugar had been imported and its relevant making
the royal court of the Devaputra (Tang Taizong) with technology introduced into India before 16th century.
as a present the palà÷a(?), a sort of tree like white Therefore, it seems to be able to conclude that China
poplar. And Taizong also sent a mission later on with and India had learnt from each other to make high
the duty to get the sugar extracting technology.” quality sugar and through this kind of exchange, they
It is also recorded in vol. 4 of Continuation of the both contributed much to the improvement of sugar-
Biographies of Eminent Monks that “Tang Taizong making technology in the world.
sent Wang Xuance and 20 other persons in search for (Ge Weijun)
craftsmen skilled in making gritty-honey among the
monks in Mahàbodhi Monastery. Two craftsmen and Tea Cultivation
eight monks came to Eastern Xia (China) and were Indigenous tea plants have been growing in the hilly
soon despatched to Yuezhou (nowadays Shaoxing, areas of Assam and Northeast India for a very long
Zhejiang Province) where they successfully made time. The use of the leaves for brewing and drinking
sugar from sugarcane”. Here the gritty-honey was by local people has also been practiced. However,
the ancient name of granulated sugar. By acquiring systematic cultivation of tea in India, based on
the Indian technology, China made considerable Chinese tea plants and Chinese tea cultivation and
progress in sugar-making. Also can be found in books processing methods, began in the 19th century.
like Tangshuangpu by Wang Zhuo is a well-known Given the enormous quantities of tea that Britain
tradition of Tang Dynasty about a monk named Zou purchased from China, the British were very keen to
who taught the sugar-making technology to the find a way to cultivate tea within their own empire.
people in Suining, Sichuan province. The “discovery” by British botanists that a variety
Song Yingxing made his comment on this matter in of tea plants was flourishing in Assam, led them
his famous book Tiangongkaiwu published in Ming to decide on the hills of Assam and north Bengal
Dynasty, saying, “China knew nothing in ancient as a suitable region for beginning the systematic
times about the fact that sugar could be made from cultivation of tea. During the visit of the British
sugarcane. It was Western monk Zou who imparted the envoy, Lord Macartney to China in 1793, tea plants
technology to the local people when living in Suining were smuggled out of China to India but these failed
during Dali Era (766 CE-779 CE) of Tang Dynasty. to flourish. Initially, the British East India Company
Sugarcanes are widely planted now in Sichuan and was reluctant to jeopardise its monopoly of trade
they are actually introduced from Western Regions with China by smuggling out tea plants and trying
gradually.” It is clearly indicated that the cane sugar to undercut its own profitable trade in Chinese tea.
has its origin in Western Regions including India. However, with the end of the Company’s monopoly
Another example, a Dunhuang fragment found in the in 1833 and faced with financial difficulties in its
early 20th century, is still more concrete. It is about administration in India, it began to actively encourage
the sugar-making process written in Chinese and a the cultivation of tea in India. In 1834, it set up a
kind of high quality cane sugar called Shageling is Tea Committee and sent G. J. Gordon to China for
mentioned here. According to Prof Ji Xianlin, this this purpose. Apart from acquiring Chinese tea seeds
curious word is the transliteration of Sanskrit ÷arkarà and tea seedlings, the company’s representatives
meaning granulated sugar. This is good evidence that were charged with recruiting Chinese tea growers
Indian sugar making technology spread widely and and persuading them to go to India. In this venture,
had a remarkable influence in ancient China.
However, having mastered the technology learnt
from India, Chinese workers exerted their effort
for generations and achieved excellent progresses
including invention of the method to decolourise
the granulated sugar. In the light of the evidences in
books such as Minshunachanzhi and Wulixiaoshi, it
can be sure that, at least, before Ming Dynasty (1368
CE-1644 CE), China had been able to produce high
quality white sugar on a grand scale. In India, on
the other hand, two new names of sugar, puùpasità
and sitopalà, appeared in a well-known medical
book, Bhàvaprakà÷a of 16th century. Both of these
compounds had the same word sita meaning white. Classic of Tea

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In 1908, Zhu Kezhen began to study in Shanghai

Fudan Public School. In 1910, he went to the United
States and studied at the College of Agriculture,
University of Illinois at public expense. In 1913,
he obtained the Bachelor’s degree in Agronomy.
Afterwards, he studied meteorology in the
Department of Geography of Harvard University
Research Institute and obtained the doctoral
degree in 1918. In 1927, he became the dean of the
Department of Geosciences of the National Southeast
Song Dynasty (Picture of dou cha) University. In 1928, he served as the head of the
Institute of Meteorology of Academia Sinica. He also
they faced many difficulties as actual tea-growers used to teach at Wuchang Higher Normal School,
in China were reluctant to emigrate. Efforts were the National Southeast University and National
then directed to recruiting Chinese labourers from Central University and took part in the founding of
Penang and Singapore, even though many of them the Geographical Society of China. In April 1936,
were not at all familiar with tea cultivation. A total he became the President of Zhejiang University. In
of about 300 Chinese were sent to Assam to engage 1948, he was elected as academician of Academia
in tea cultivation. The first Chinese tea-grower came Sinica. After the founding of the People’s Republic of
over to Assam in 1832 and worked in the Chubwa China, he successively worked as the Vice President
tea estate. The first export of tea to Britain made in of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Vice President
India by Chinese cultivators took place in 1838. The of China Association for Science and Technology,
Assam Tea Company was formed in 1839. With the Director General and Honorary Director General of
invention of airtight Wardian cases, it became possible Chinese Meteorological Society and Director General
to transport hundreds of thousands of Chinese tea of Geographical Society of China.
seedlings by sea to Calcutta via Hong Kong. He published an article, Southeast Monsoon and
The British made two innovations to the process Rainfall in China (Acta Geographica Sinica, Edition
of tea cultivation. One was the cultivation on a large 1, 1934), in which he compared the similarities and
scale in huge tea estates. The other was mechanisation differences between Indian monsoon and Southeast
of the processing of tea leaves including withering,
rolling, breaking, drying and sifting. Together with
the introduction of new methods of cultivation and
plucking, these enabled the tea industry in India and
Ceylon where tea cultivation on similar lines was
introduced to forge ahead. The reliance on skilled
Chinese tea growers was virtually eliminated by
the plantation method of cultivation which could
be operated with large numbers of unskilled labour
sourced in India itself. From forming 91.4 per cent
of tea imports into Britain in 1866-70, the share of
Chinese tea exports to Britain steadily decreased to
just 4 per cent in 1905 with most of the tea imported Zhu Kezhen
into Britain coming from India and Ceylon, instead.
By the 1880s, tea planters in India also gradually Asian monsoon by quoting the historical data
came around to the view that the indigenous variety about the journey of an eminent monk, Fa Xian in
of tea plant was more suitable for cultivation than the Jin Dynasty to India by sea. He also compared the
hybrid tea plant based on Chinese seeds and seedlings similarities and differences between Chinese and
that had been used earlier. Indian constellations in The Time and Place of the
(Madhavi Thampi) Origin of the 28 Lunar Mansions (Thought and Times,
Edition 34, 1944) and pointed out that Chinese and
Zhu Kezhen Indian 28 lunar mansions were of the same origin
Zhu Kezhen (March 7, 1890-February 7, 1974) was a while Chinese 28 lunar mansions were originated
Chinese meteorologist, geographer and an educator. from the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. In November
He was styled Ou Fang and born in Dongguan Town, 1946, he went to Calcutta India and visited Visva-
Shaoxing County, Zhejiang province (present-day Bharati University and University of Calcutta, and
Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province). He used to be was received by Tan Yunshan and Zhou Dafu et al.
academician of Chinese Academy of Sciences. (Liu Lei)

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IV
Exchanges based on
BuddhisM

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116
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Exchanges Based On Buddhism

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Exchanges based on
buddhisM
Overview

Both India and China are ancient countries in world

civilisation. The Chinese have always called India
Tianzhu or Shendu. Volume 118 of the Hou Han shu
(History of the Later Han) says : “Tianzhu, also called
Shendu, is located thousands of miles southeast of
the Yuezhi. Its customs are the same as those of the
Yuezhi. Its terrain is low and the weather is hot.”
Much before the beginning of the Christian era,
during the time of the Han Dynasty, India and China
had established commercial exchanges. In the first
year of Yuanshou of the Han, the Imperial Court Kāśyapa Mātaṅga Memorial and Dharmaratna Memorial at
the While Horse Temple, Luoyang, Henan Province, China
sent Marquis Zhang Qian to Daxia (Bactria) to forge
an alliance with Daxia and to stop the harassment
by the Xiongnu. When Zhang Qian saw fabrics from has also influenced the lives of Chinese people for
Shu and bamboo being traded in the markets of more than 2,000 years and still plays an important
Bactria, he asked where the goods had come from. role. In the two-way communication of Buddhism
The answer was: “They come from Shendu in the and culture between the two countries, the main
southeast, several thousands of miles from here. aspect is the transmission of Indian Buddhism to
They were traded by merchants from Shu.” Volume China. The Chinese traditional culture and thought
116 of the Shi ji (Record of the Historian) informs us also to some extent were once transmitted to India.
that more than 2,000 years ago, there already were In 3rd century BCE, Indian Buddhism began
commercial exchanges between these two nations. to expand to other areas. It was transmitted to
The fabrics of Shu and the bamboo, seen by Zhang Sri Lanka via southern India where it was called
Qian in Bactria, were from present-day Sichuan “Southern Buddhism”. In China, one stream entered
in China and they had been sent to the Indian via Thailand and Myanmar and spread to the frontier
market and then on to Europe. But the most unique minorities in Yunnan such as the Dai and Achang.
aspect of exchanges between India and China was This is known as “Yunnan Theravāda Buddhism”.
not commercial but religious and cultural. In this “Northern Buddhism” was the section which moved
respect, Buddhism played the most important role. from northern India and finally entered China
through Central Asia. It was further sub-divided
I. into two main sub-systems. One primarily spread
Buddhism originated in India. During the Han in the region of the Han ethnicity. The second one,
Dynasty, the Chinese knew about Indian Buddhism. known as Tibetan Buddhism, spread among the
Volume 118 of the Hou Han shu (History of the Later Tibetan and other nationalities. There are four main
Han) records: “(India) is a country near by the sea northern transmission routes of Indian Buddhism.
where soldiers do battle on elephants. Its people are The first one is the ancient Silk Road which goes via
weaker than the Yuezhi. They practice the Buddhist Jibin (present Kashmir region) and reaches Central
path of non-violence, and that has become their Asia. It enters the Western Regions, ie, the Xinjiang
custom. Buddha is named Fo (in Chinese).” Buddhism region of China and finally arrives in the interior
has been the bond in the religious and cultural mainland area. The second one goes via Myanmar
exchanges between the two countries. Dominating along the ”Yangchuan ancient path” to Dali in
international communication of religion and culture, Yunnan. It then enters the interior area. It is called
it was the most important basis for foreign relations “’ācārya’ Buddhism.” The third one goes via Nepal
between the peoples of ancient India and China. It enters the Tibetan region and reaches Mongolia

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and Qinghai. It then enters mainland China. It is vehicle.” Buddhism developed vigorously under the
called Tibetan Buddhism. The fourth one goes via protection of the king of Qiuci. Buddhism of the
the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean and the islands of greater vehicle spread to Hotan. In Faxian zhuan
the Southeast Asia and finally arrives in Guangzhou, (Biography of Faxian) it is written that: “he reached
and then spread to the interior area. Hotan on the fifth day of the first month on his way
The area of Xinjiang in the Western Regions was (to India). This country was rich and the people
incorporated in China as early as the Han Dynasty. prosperous. They all practiced the law (dhamma).
The central government installed a governor to They entertained each other with the joy of the
administer the Western Regions. Indian Buddhism law. The saṅgha counted over 10,000 people. They
was transmitted to the Western Regions, ie, to mostly studied the greater vehicle and all had plenty
Xinjiang in China before the Christian Era. This can of food. The people of that country live scattered
be seen in the archaeology of the Western Regions. and in front of each home, there always is a small
Volume II of the Gaoseng zhuan (Biographies of stupa. The smallest can be about a zhang high. They
Eminent Monks) explains that Taizu of the Liu Song have made square rooms for guest monks. Their
once sent the Śramaṇa Daopu with 10 scribes to the temples are called qumodi. They are temples of the
West to search for Buddhist sutras. Daopu “travelled greater vehicle. Three thousand monks eat together.
through the countries of the Western Regions. He When they enter the dining hall, they are dignified
witnessed worshipping of the venerable images and and orderly and they sit down in the proper order.
the carrying of the Buddhist alms bowl. He also saw They are all silent and their bowls do not make a
four pagodas and trees along the road as well as sound. The pure eat more. They may not call each
(hallowed) footprints and images; there was none other but they make hand gestures.” Because the
he did not meet with. He was versed in Sanskrit and Western Regions were far away from China’s Central
equipped with writings in languages of different Plain, the influence of Chinese culture was less.
countries. He travelled through different areas.” Buddhism, which is prevalent there, mainly reflects
Daopu travelled thoroughly and explored the the influence of the Indian religion and culture.
Western Regions and found Buddhism widespread During the period of the Eastern Han, Indian
there. In the region of Xinjiang, two great centres of Buddhism began to enter China’s interior area. The
Buddhism were formed in Qiuci and Hotan. In the Chinese saw India as the “Buddhist country in the
land of Qiuci, both the greater and lesser vehicle West.” There is a famous legend about the entry
(Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna) were developed. In of Buddhism in China. It tells that one night in
Da Tang Xiyu ji (Great Tang Dynasty Record of the the seventh year of Yongping of Emperor Ming of
Western Regions), Volume 12, master Xuanzang of the Han (64 CE) was keeping vigil at his mother’s
the Tang thus describes Qiuci: ”More than a hundred ancestral tablet in his palace in Luoyang. In a dream
temples and more than 5,000 monks. They practice he saw a spirit who came flying in the sunlight in
Sarvāstivāda, Buddhism of the lesser vehicles. The front of his palace. The next morning he gathered
teachings of the sutras and the rituals of the vinaya his important ministers in front of the palace and he
come from India and what they read is in their own held a meeting inquiring which spirit was the spirit
language...”. The You fang ji chao (Abstract of Travel of his dream. Great minister Fu Yi bravely stood up
Records) mentions– “In this land of Qiuci, there are and explained: “I have heard it said that someone
many temples and many monks. They practice the who has obtained the path in India in the West,
law of the lesser vehicle. They eat meat and shallots is called “Buddha”. He can fly in the sky and his
etc. The Han monks practice the law of the greater persona has the light of the sun. I am afraid that the
spirit in your dream was “Buddha”!” When Emperor
Ming heard this, he was very glad. He decided to
send the envoys, Cai Yin and Qin Jing, to India.
The envoys met eminent Indian monks She Moteng
(Kāśyapa Mātaṅga) and Zhu Falan (Dharmarājan/
Dharmaratna) in the country of the Greater Yuezhi
in Central India. They returned together with them
to Luoyang using white horses to carry Buddhist
scriptures and a Buddha image. Four years later,
Emperor Ming ordered the construction of the
Baima (White Horse) Temple in the capital Luoyang,
bringing worshippers to the Buddha image and to
the eminent monks. Furthermore, in Luoyang they
translated the first Buddhist scripture, the Sishier
Photo of the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters zhang jing (Sutra of 42 Sections). Introduced to

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China because of the dream of Emperor Ming of the

Han, Buddhism to a great extent, transformed the
spiritual and the cultural lives of the Chinese.
Buddhist cultural exchange between the two
countries was carried out by Buddhist monks who
went East or who came from the West. From ancient
times, the Silk Road has been an important passage
for relations of China with the outside world and for
trade. She Moteng and Zhu Falan were the precursors
for Buddhist exchanges between India and China.
Buddhists have been following the caravans of
merchants on this road. The Shijia Fangzhi records:
“Before Qin and Zhou people were still simple. They
did not go far away. That is why they sent envoys to
engage. They were limited to the Divine Land. After
Han and Wei, the literacy was widespread. Talents
were well-developed and their learning reached
farther. Therefore, premises for interpreters were
built in Gao street. They went beyond Kongsang and
crossed the Kunlun Mountains. They went beyond
Memorial in commemoration of Faxian’s return
Jitian and passed Niaoxue. Beyond their region, to the shore of China at Laoshan, located at
they could still pursue Lungwen blood-sweating Qingdao in Shandong Province

thoroughbred horses. The treasures of bright

jewels and of blue kingfisher feathers were brought abroad. But seen from the angle of culture, the
forward from the horizon. They exhausted their spread of the Buddhist teaching was the beginning
troops and engaged in war. They truly made their of the journey of the conversion to kindness and
troops suffer in Dayuan. They upheld moderation propriety. Believers were willing to lay down their
and filled up lakes. They trusted that the king’s life for their belief, looking for scriptural texts and
commands were without abuse. When Xianzong sending delegations. For example, tradition says
felt it was auspicious, he established the source of that Xianzong of the later Han, Emperor Xiaoming,
kindness. They served their faith and cherished the dreamed about a golden person one night. When he
path. From then on, it gradually became prosperous. sent his senior secretary Cai Yin and the scholar Qin
Or noble-mindedness arose in the borderlands and Jing, to India in search of the teachings of Buddha
they cast away their lives in the four directions. Or and when he invited the ‘śramaṇas’ Jiaye Moteng
they spread conversions with the law, bringing their (Kāśyapa Mātaṅga) and Zhu Falan (Dharmarājan/
policies to the eastern spaces. Or they opened up Dharmaratna) to China, Buddhism began its spread
the teaching track themselves, not going far to look in China. Zhu Fahu (Dharmarakṣa), a ‘śramaṇa’ from
for scriptures. Or they personally went to peruse Dunhuang during the Eastern Jin, travelled through
divine signs and established customs. While this 36 countries in the West and along the way he
was quite frequent, they also turned to the teaching translated the Da ji Hu jing (Great Sutra presented by
of Śākyamuni. And so, making a general distinction, the West). In Chang’an, he erected a temple outside
the opening up of the spirits generally began during of the Qing gate. Shi Baoyun, a śramaṇa from
the former Han. Up to the great Tang, several Liangzhou during the Eastern Jin, and Shi Faxian,
envoys went and came back in succession,about Shi Zhiyan, etc, entered India and understood the
20 times. Zhang Qian went in search of the source meaning of their sounds. They returned to Chang’an
of the Yellow River, something ordinary, but he and to the region south of the Yangtze River and
established the name of the Buddha and then they carefully translated their scriptures. Shi
Buddhism began its gradual conversions.” Zhimeng, a śramaṇa from Jingzhao, went with 15
The meaning of this passage is that before Qin and companions to the West from Liangzhou, to the
Zhou, the teaching of Buddhism had not started yet countries of Shanshan and reached Jibin (Kashmir).
in China. Exchanges were limited just to the Divine He met five hundred arhatas, explored the local
Land. After Han and Wei, the horizon gradually customs and returned. Most famous, of course, is
broadened. In their pursuit of the blood-sweating Xuanzang, the śramaṇa from the Great Zhuangyan
precious horses and rare treasures, people went Temple in the capital of the Great Tang. In the third
searching in the four directions. Then they gradually year of Zhenguan, he went by himself to the West
undertook to expand their military operations in search of Buddha’s original teachings. He crossed

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 Cultural Contacts

150 countries on his way. He translated scriptures

by imperial command and he wrote the Xi yu ji
(Record of the Western Regions).
In the history of the interactions of ancient
China with the outside world, Buddhism plays an
important role. During the long period of more
than a thousand years from the Han Dynasty to the
Ming Dynasty, more than a thousand people have
travelled one after another along this road. Chinese
and foreign monks have travelled back and forth in
order to propagate Buddhism. This has without any
doubt promoted religious and cultural exchanges
between the two countries.
The Han, Jin, and the Northern Dynasties, up to Statue of Xuanzang, Yuhuagong Palace,
Sui and Tang is the period when Chinese and Indian Tongchuan, Shaanxi Province, China
Buddhist interactions peaked. Apart from the
eminent Chinese monks – Zhu Fahu, Shi Baoyun, had crossed passes gazing into the mist, or who met
Shi Faxian, Shi Zhiyan, Shi Zhimeng, and others – together and investigated, and who had probably
master Faxian was the earliest one. At the advanced lost eight or nine out of 10”, already had produced
age of 60, he left the country all by himself. On a base and a foothold on Chinese territory, thus
his way, he passed through shifting sands, he exerting their influence. At the same time, the
crossed natural barriers and he went West without appearance of Chinese monks in India attracted the
stopping. It is recorded that “He followed his path, attention of the Indian courts. The great king, Shili
forgetting about his own body and yielding to fate Jiduo (Śrīgupta), had great respect for the Chinese
he propagated the law”. In the history of Chinese monks and he ordered the donation of land and the
Buddhism, he was the first monk who went all the construction of a “Zhina (Chinese) Temple”. There
way to India and studied there a heroic undertaking the Chinese monks could stay. He further allocated
in search of scriptures. When he finally reached 24 great villages to them. Therefore, the Wei Shu
India, he became the first Chinese Buddhist monk to recorded: “Śākyamuni has passed away but he has
appear at the main Buddhist sites. He also recorded left his traces, his nails and teeth in India. They now
with brush in hand, the situation in India at that still exist. As the Middle Regions come and go, they
time in his Fo guo ji (Record of Buddhist Countries). do call to see them”.
He left valuable historical material for the later During this period, apart from Chinese monks
generations. Jiumo Luoshi (Kumārajīva) was going to India in search of the law and to obtain
another famous scholar who had studied in India. scriptures, there were even more Indian monks
After returning to China, he dedicated himself to the who came to China to transmit the scriptures and
propagation of Buddhism. Buddhist monks during to bring precious objects. She Moteng and Zhu
the Northern Dynasties went one after another to Falan had set an example for those who came later.
India, either alone or as a group. The eminent monk They came in succession, uninterruptedly. During
from Youzhou, Tanwu Jie, led a group of 25 people the period of the Western Jin, the Indian monk
and went West in the first year of Yongchu of the Qiyu reached Guangzhou, the area of Xiangyang
Liu Song (420 CE). Twenty people died on the way, etc, by sea. He further cured people in Luoyang.
one after another, and those who were left, visited During the period of the Eastern Jin (317-420 CE),
many places in India. They brought back the belief the number of Indian monks who came to China
in Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) which would later steadily increased. They carried many scriptural
become widespread in China. The śramaṇa of the texts and they transmitted the Buddhist teachings
Former Wei, Daoyao, the śramaṇa of the Chongli then flourishing in India. All these monks arrived
Temple, Huisheng and Songyun from Dunhuang either over land or by sea in Chang’an in China,
travelled with the support of the court to different or in the big city of Guangzhou. After they
countries in northern and central India. During had arrived in China, they actively translated
the Northern Qi, a group of 10 monks, śramaṇas Buddhist scriptures in cooperation with Chinese
Baoxian, Daosui, Sengtan, Zhizhou, Sengwei, Fabao, monks. They accepted students and resolved their
Zhizhao and others went in search of the dharma in doubts. They discussed Buddhist studies and while
India for seven years and they made pilgrimages to the monks of both countries worked together,
the holy places. In short, these pioneering eminent Buddhism in China prospered. The ideas of the
monks and groups “who had all passed beyond the greater and of the lesser vehicle were introduced
hindrance of the desert and crossed dangers or who and vinaya was instituted. Moreover, the Dilun

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 Cultural Contacts

(Daśabhūmikasūtraśāstra/Daśabhūmivyākhyāna) numerous archaeological excavations. Xuanzang

school which had characteristics of different studied and lived in India for 17 years and was
schools, the Shelun (‘Mahāyānasaṅgraha’) school, successful in achieving his aims. Declining various
the Sanlun (Madhyamaka) school, and other offers to stay back in India, he returned to China via
Buddhist schools appeared too. Out of respect over the land route.
for the monks, the Imperial Court built temples Yijing, succeeding Xuanzang, went to India in the
especially for them. For instance, the Indian dhyāna second year of Xianheng (671 CE) and he studied for
master Fotuo (Buddhabhadra) was paid a great 10 years. He returned to China with many scriptural
honour by Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei. texts via the maritime road. He compiled Nanhai ji
He built the Shaolin Temple for him on Mount Song. gui zhuan (Account of Buddhism Sent from the South
The dhyāna master from southern India, Puti Damo Seas). He left precious geographical and historical
(Bodhidharma), landed in Guangzhou and later materials about Buddhism and many countries in
arrived in the Shaolin Temple. He was honoured India and Southeast Asia. Besides them, there were
as the first patriarch of the Chan School in China. Huiri a disciple of Yijing, Wukong-a śramaṇa from
The Indian monk, Damo Bore (Dharmaprajñā), Jingzhao during the Tang, Xuanzhao - a śramaṇa
was appointed as the clerical official "Governor from Taizhou, Daoxi and Shibian - śramaṇas from
Zhaoxuan" by the Court of the Northern Qi. Qizhou, Daofang and Daosheng - śramaṇas from
Bingzhou, Modi Senghe - a śramaṇa from Jingzhao,
II Xuanhui - a śramaṇa from Chang’an, Mingyuan,
The Sui-Tang period saw the summit of Buddhist Yilang and Yixuan - śramaṇas from Yizhou,
exchanges between India and China. The coming Daolin and Wuxing - śramaṇas from Jingzhou,
and going of monks of both countries also reached Lingyun - a śramaṇa from Xiangyang, Sengzhe - a
its climax. Master Xuanzang was the most famous śramaṇa from Lizhou, Zhihong - a śramaṇa from
and most successful monk during that period. In Luoyang and numerous other śramaṇas and devout
the third year of Zhenguan (629 CE), he went descendants from unknown places studied in India
from Chang’an to the West. He arrived in the for many years and ultimately returned home.
highest institution of learning in central India, Their studies and experiences enriched the content
in the monastery of Nālandā and studied with of Buddhist and cultural exchanges deepening
bhadanta Śīlabhadra. He studied Yogācāra and further the relationship between India and China.
every treatise of the greater and of the lesser They compiled works about the study of India, eg,
vehicle. He compiled the Hui zong lun (Treatise Zhong Tianzhu xing ji (Record of Travels to Central
about the Teaching of the Community) and the Zhi India), Tang Xiyu tu zhi (Records and Maps of the
e jian lun (Treatise about the Establishing of Wrong Western Regions during the Tang), Xiyu zhi (Record
Views). Because his scholarship was outstanding, of the Western Regions). Yancong, a monk in the
he was honoured as one of the 10 most virtuous translation office of the Shanglin Academy in the
monks in the monastery. He further participated in Eastern Capital of the Sui, translated, at the request
the great religious gathering without restrictions of Indian monks in Rājagṛha, the Renshou sheli rui
(pañcavārṣika) in the city of Kanyakubja organised tu jing (Text about Auspicious Maps of Relics during
by the Indian Buddhist world. In the gathering, he Renshou) and the Xiangrui lu (Record of Auspicious
debated heretics. He obtained the titles of “Divinity Things) from Chinese to Sanskrit, and transmitted
of the Greater Vehicle” (Mahāyānadeva) and of them to India.
"divinity of deliverance" (Mokṣadeva). Meanwhile, During this period, the number of Indian monks
he was requested by King Śīlāditya to translate the who came to China also peaked. The Indian monks
Da sheng qi xin lun (Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra) Damo Bore (Dharmaprajñā) and Naliantili Yeshe
and the Dao de jing (Canonical Text about the Way (Narendrayaśas) received a courteous reception
and its Power) of Laozi from Chinese to Sanskrit. from the court. Piniduo Liuzhi (Vinītaruci) received
This was the first translation of Dao djing in a instruction from the monk Sengcan, the third
foreign language for transmission to India. He patriarch of the Chan school in China. Damo Jiduo
specially wrote the Da Tang Xiyu ji (Record of the (Dharmagupta) and Shena Jueduo (Jñānagupta)
Western Regions during the Tang), 13 volumes, about presided over the Translation Hall during the Sui.
Buddhism and the historical and geographical Boluopo Jialuomiduoluo (Prabhākaramitra), Adi
conditions in 138 countries of India and of the Quduo (Atikūṭa/Atigupta), Fachang and Anan
Western Regions which he had crossed and about Lümucha, Jiaye (Kāśyapa) and others brought letters
which he had information. He provided authentic from the Indian monks, Zhiguang (Jñānaprabhā)
basic materials for the writing of early Indian and Huitian (Prajñādeva), paying respect to
history. Later, during the colonial period in India, Xuanzang. They received gifts from Xuanzang.
his work became a significant basis for conducting Nati, Naluo Ersuopo, and Lujia Yiduo prepared a

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 Cultural Contacts

“long life medicine” for the Tang emperor. Dipo The court granted him the title of noble doctor and
Heluo (Divākara), Huizhi (Prajñājñāna), Fotuo Boli promoted him to treasurer, ceremonially at the
(Buddhapāla), Ani Zhenna, Puti Liuzhi (Bodhiruci), level of the three supervisors. It installed him as a
Sengqie Fandamo, Mouni Shili (Muniśrī), Shiluo duke, with revenue of 3,000 households. After his
Batuoluo (Śīlabhadra), Puti Xian (Bodhirṣi), the death, he was given the title of minister of works,
śramaṇa Jin Juzha and others came to China and of Tripiṭaka with wide knowledge and abundant
translated scriptural texts. They also introduced eloquence.
the belief in Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara) and Wenshu Buddhism during the Tang not only spread within
(Mañjuśrī) to China. Building “Indian style temples” Han territory but also reached Nanzhao in Yunnan
and bringing latest esoteric texts of Indian Buddhism, and the Tubo territory of Tibet. In these areas there
they advanced knowledge of India and attracted were also Indian monks living there. In the 7th
great attention from Chinese Buddhists. Moreover, century, the Indian A Zali (also given as A Zhali)
the Indian monk Damo Zhannieluo (Dharmacandra) (Ācārya) and his master Zantuo Jueduo (also given as
was good at medical prescription. In Chang’an, he Shili Daduo) (Candragupta or Śrīdatta) came to the
offered books about medical prescriptions, Indian country of Nanzhao from Mojietuo (Magadha) and
medicine and herbs. He translated some volumes of spread esotericism. He was respected by the king of
the Yifang ben cao (Herbal Prescriptions), the Pubian Nanzhao, Xi Nuluo. They erected five esoteric altars
zhizang bore xin jing (Scriptural Text about the Heart and promoted yoga. The group of Zantuo Jueduo
of Prajñā, of Samantajñānagarbha). Bore (Prajñā) and Zhang Zichen, Luo Luoyi and others formed
and the Persian monk Jingjing (Adam), together the “seven masters of Nanzhao”. They promoted A
translated scriptural texts and also represented the Zhali’s teaching. The Indian monk Li Chengmei and
court as envoys to northern India and Kashmir in his disciple Chan Hezi, reached Dali from central
search of Sanskrit texts. Jueduo (Gupta) went to India in the 9th century and introduced the belief in
study under Huineng, the sixth patriarch of the Guanyin to the country of Nanzhao.
Chan school and he offered the Sanskrit text of the The Tibetan region originally practiced the
Huayan jing, Puxian xing yuan pin (Avataṃsakasūtra, traditional teaching of Bon. The Tibetan king Songzan
Chapter about Samantabhadra’s Practice) to the Tang Ganbu sent people to Sri Lanka to find out an image
Court, copied in his own hand by the king of the of Guanyin with 11 faces, made of 'uragasāracandana'
country of Wucha (Uḍa) in southern India. Eight (sandal). They also went to the border area of
people, śramaṇas from the Da Puti (Mahābodhi) India and Nepal, asking for an image of Guanyin,
Temple in Central India and two craftsmen came made of haricandana (this image now still is in the
to China during the years of Zhenguan and they Potala palace). Songzan Ganbu adopted a policy of
transmited the technique of making sugar. They kinship with the nations in the neighbourhood. He
made rock-honey with sugarcane from Yuezhou asked for Tang princess Wencheng in marriage and
(present Shaoxing in Zhejiang). Because of their became a relative of the Tang Court, establishing
remarkable success, many were commended friendly relations. Princess Wencheng brought a
by the Court and were given the purple robe Buddha image from the Han territory. The Chan
and called Sanzang (Tripiṭaka). The “three great School of Han Buddhism had already entered this
beings of Kaiyuan”, persons who came to China region. Songzang Ganbu further married princess
and who transmitted Indian esotericism during Chizun (Bhṛkuṭī) who brought a Buddha image
the years of Kaiyuan of the Tang, Shan Wuwei from Nepal. During the first transmission of Tibetan
(Śubhākara), Jingang Zhi (Vajrabodhi), and Bukong Buddhism, the Han Chinese master Da Tianshou,
(Amoghavajra), were the monks whose influence the Tibetans Tunmi Sangbuzha, Damo Kuoxia and
was greatest among many Indian monks. They Lalong Jingangxiang, the Indian master Gu Sare and
arrived in Guangzhou by ship and went north to the Brahmin Shang Jieluo (Śaṅkara), the Nepalese
Chang’an to transmit the newest wave of Indian master Shiluo Manshu and others cooperated with
Buddhism. The Court thought highly of them and each other translating Buddhist scriptures and
both commoners and elites respected them. Bukong restoring temples. In 794 CE, Tibetan King Chisong
was specially famous as Tripiṭaka and dharma Dezan personally presided over a debate between
master, propagated esotericism and was renamed the monk of the Chan school, Mohe Yan (Mahāyāna),
at court. He performed initiation (abhiṣeka) for the and Lianhua Jie (Padmaśīla), on the merit of sudden
emperor. His position was prominent. He also went and gradual insight. Mohe Yan finally lost and the
by decree to the five regions of India and to Sri Chan School withdrew from Tibetan territory. The
Lanka in search of esoteric scriptures. Promoted esoteric school of Indian Buddhism thus began to
by the three great beings, Buddhist esotericism in spread its influence in the Tibetan territory.
China prospered. An esoteric school was established With the support of Chisong Dezan, Buddhism
and Bukong himself gained a special reputation. developed in Tibet but at the same time, it was

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 Cultural Contacts

also opposed by some nobles who believed in influenced Tibetans on a large scale, letting them
the teaching of Bon. The Indian monk, minister go forth and receive the precepts. Groups of monks
Sanang, went to the Indian court and performed began to be established in the Tibetan territory.
ceremonies at the holy places of the Mahābodhi The seven Tibetans who were first to receive the
Temple and of the Nālandā Monastery. In Nepal, precepts were called “seven enlightened persons.”
he met master Jingming [also translated as Jihu At the same time, the Tibetan King also sent sons
(Śāntipāla)] and invited him to Tibet to propagate of the nobility and other people to India to study
the law. The Indian monk Ānanda won over Bon and get training as talented translators. The Indian
followers in debates and he established the position monks Vimalamitra, Buddhaguhya and others
of Buddhism in Tibet. actively spread the Buddhist teachings in Tibet.
The first temple, the Sangye Temple, was erected The Esoteric School of Buddhism thus began
in the Tibetan area, with paintings and drawings to spread. But following the death of Chisong
modeled after the Feixing Temple (Odantapuri) Dezan and his son, Xide Zudun, ministers who
in India. The Tibetan King also invited a disciple did not believe in Buddhism took control of the
of Jingming, master Padmasaṃbhava. Through government. In 841 CE, Tibetan King Lang Damo
the actions of Padmasambhava, Buddhism in the began to persecute Buddhists. Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan area developed further. Twelve bhikṣus, then entered a period of decline. In history, this is
who followed the vinaya of the Sarvāstivāda recognised as the period of the first propagation of
school, were invited to Tibet from India. They Tibetan Buddhism.

Xuanzang’s & Yijing’s Journey to India

shi Talas Suiye
ng Issyk-Kul Hi
lls
Ka Chach Lake
Aqini Gaochang
(Yanqi/Karasahr) (Xizhou)
Samarkand (Tashkent
Yumen Bohai
ns

Qusha (Shule) Kucha

ai

Iron Pass Sea

nt
ou

Gate Pass
M

Yellow
Balkh Zhuojujia (Zhujubo)
Khabandha
Nirangcheng Nafubo
Tocharians (Shichengzhen)
Liangzhou River
Kapisi Udyana Zhemotuona Loulan
Gostana
(Khotan) (Boxianzhen) East
Caojuzha China
(Jaguda) Kasmira
Gandhara Chang’an Sea
Parvata
Rivdus
er

Simhapura Tubo Tang

In

Jalandhara Srughna
Mulasthanapura Kapisi
iang
Changj ze)
(Yangt
Yamuer
Riv

Sindh
Langala
Mathura
Shravasti CHINA
na

Kapilavastu
Pundravardhana

Gurjjara Kanauj
Vaishali
Mahesvarapura
Varanasi Gan
ges Kamarupa Guangzhou
Kausambi

Prayaga Magadha
Ujjayini Champa
Malava Nalanda Samatata
Surashtra INDIA Monastery
Tamralipti
Maharashtra Kosala
Udra

Kalinga
Konkanapura South
Chola
China Sea
(Zhanghai)

Nicobar Islands
Dravida (Narikira)

Kedah

Sr
iv
Xuanzang Travels to India ija
ya
Xuanzang’s Return Journey Melayu

Srivijaya
Yijing’s Journey

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III time of Emperor Huan, there was a śramaṇa from the

An important aspect of the exchange of Buddhism country of Anxi, An Jing (recorded as An Shigao).
and culture between India and China is the As scriptures kept arriving in Luo, his translations
complete and thorough study made by Chinese were most intelligible. In the time of Emperor Ling,
Buddhists about Indian Buddhist scriptures. India the Yuezhi śramaṇa Zhi Qian, the Indian śramaṇa
used curved Sanskrit letters and China used square Zhu Foshuo and several others translated Buddhist
Chinese characters and ideograms. If one wants to scriptures. Scholars think that Zhi Qian’s translation
understand the theories and the thought of Indian of the two volumes of Nihuan jing (Parinirvāṇasūtra)
Buddhism, one has to break through the barrier most coherently conveys the fundamental meaning.
of characters. That is why in China a long period At the end of the Han, the Prefect Zhu Rong also
of several hundreds of years was dominated by honoured the law of Buddha. In the time of the
translation activities. Sui shu (History of the Sui), Three Kingdoms, a śramaṇa from the Western
volume XXXV, mentions: “The investigation of books Regions, Kang Senghui, came to Wu with Buddhist
and records started before the Han when they were scriptures and translated them. The ruler of Wu, Sun
not transmitted to China yet. Some say that they had Quan, respected him greatly. During Chuzhong of
long been spread but in the time of the Qin, they the Wei, the Chinese for the first time engaged with
were destroyed. Later, Zhang Qian was sent to the Buddha’s precepts and practiced taking the tonsure
Western Regions where he heard about the teaching to become monks. Chinese records notes that first a
of Buddha. In the time of Emperor Ai, the learned śramaṇa from the Western Regions came here and
disciple Qin Jing sent Yi Cun to orally preach the translated the Xiao pin jing (Lesser Scriptural Text
scriptures of Buddhism. It was not believed when it ie, the Aṣṭasāhasrikā). There were, however, many
was first heard in the heartland. Emperor Ming of mistakes, from beginning to end, and one could
the later Han dreamed at night that a golden person not understand it. During Ganlu, another śramaṇa,
came flying to his palace. He asked his court about Zhu Shixing went to the Western Regions, to the
it and when Chuan Yi replied it was the Buddha, country of Hotan and obtained the 90 chapters
the emperor sent his secretaries, Cai Yin and Qin of the text. During Yuankang of the Jin, he went
Jing to India to enquire about him. They obtained to Ye and translated it with the title Fang guang
the Buddhist text Sishier zhang (Forty-two Sections) bore jing (Scriptural Text about Shining Prajñā).
and a standing image of Śākyamuni. They returned During Taishi, the Yuezhi śramaṇa, Zhu Fahu
East with the śramaṇas, She Moteng and Zhu Falan. Dharmarakṣa) travelled to several countries in
While Yin was on his way, a white horse carried the the West, obtained many Buddhist scriptures and
scripture and that is why he erected a Bai Ma (White translated them in Luo, counting many divisions.
Horse) Temple to the west of the Yong Gate of the The spread of Buddhism to the East was smooth
city of Luo to place it there. The scripture was kept from this time on.”
in a brick room of the Lan Terrace and the painted The Sui shu describes the situation of monks in
image was on the Qingliang terrace on the Xianjie Chinese Buddhism. It also points out the problems of
Hill. In the time of Emperor Zhang, the prince of Chu, translation during the early propagation of Buddhism
(Liu) Ying, was known for his respect for the law of in China, and its spread and transmission. From
Buddha and numerous śramaṇas from the Western Wei-Jin and the Northern and Southern Dynasties,
Regions who kept arriving with Buddhist scriptures. the Chinese had already begun translation activities
During Yongping, Falan also translated the Shi zhu in general. In Chang’an in the North and in Jinling
jing (Daśabhūmikasūtra). The other transmitted in the South they established several translation
translations often were incomprehensible. In the offices. Zhu Fahu, Jiumo Luoshi (Kumārajīva),
Faxian, Zhendi (Paramārtha) and others, all were
famous translators then. They brought out a great
quantity of scriptural texts and they promoted
the development of translation activities for the
Buddhist teachings. The period of the Sui and the
Tang saw the peak of translation activity in Chinese
Buddhism.
With the support of the Imperial court, Xuanzang,
Bukong, Yijing and others established translation
bureaus for Chinese Buddhism during the Tang
period. Once organised, the translation system
was complete. Most scriptural texts of Indian
Statue of Kumārajīva, located in front of the Kizil Grottoes, Baicheng,
Buddhism were translated by Chinese Buddhists.
Xinjiang Province, China The amount of translated volumes reached more

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 Cultural Contacts

than 5,000. From the Song period onward, Chinese Buddhism required people to practice filial piety,
translations of Indian Buddhist scriptural texts follow the constant obligations of morality and
gradually decreased but, on the other hand the ethics and preserve rules of social order. For
work of Tibetan translations entered its peak. instance, when Buddhism was just introduced
Large quantities of Indian esoteric scriptures were to China, it attached itself to Huang-Lao. At that
translated. This work continued up to the end of time, people saw it as a kind of stratagem,or they
the Ming. After that, translation activities in both saw it as one popular belief or magic current at
Han and Tibetan Buddhism basically stopped. The the time. Translated Buddhist scriptures often
translation of the Indian Buddhist texts not only borrowed the terminology of the Confucianists
accelerated the spread of the doctrines and theories and of Daoists or of Daoism. Subsequently, the
of Indian Buddhism in China but also produced a influence and the strength of Buddhism gradually
long lasting influence on the Chinese language increased. Its special characteristics came to the
and its characters and on thought and culture. It fore, little by little. Its way of thinking and the
facilitated the introduction of Indian religion and nature of its culture gained the attention of the
thought to the Chinese people. On the basis of people, and at the same time, with the support
translated Indian texts, Chinese Buddhists arranged of the court, especially with the support of the
the framework of the Three Storehouses (Tripiṭaka) ruling classes, Buddhism began to be established
of Buddhism. They brought out Chinese and Tibetan together with Confucianism and Daoism. In the
editions to organise the scriptural texts in the great end, it stood like one of the three legs of a tripod.
Tripițaka. At the same time, they also transmitted The study and the assimilation of Indian Buddhist
Chinese traditional scriptures to India. For example, theories and its teaching and thought demonstrate
responding to the request of the Indian king Jieri cosmopolitanism of the Chinese people. Indian
(Śīlāditya) during the Tang, Chinese Buddhists Buddhism thus finally gained great lustre in China.
translated the scriptural text of Daoism, the Dao Xiang jiao (teaching of images) is a special
de jing’ (Classic of the Way and its Power) to Sanskrit. appellation used in Buddhism for Buddhist art
Buddhism was obviously the most characteristic such as Buddhist images and paintings. Its studies
feature of the cultural exchange between India and facilitate our historical comprehension of the
China. Before the introduction of Buddhism, the process and the development of Buddhism for more
traditional Chinese thinking stressed on human than 2,000 years. The origin and rise of Buddhist art
values. “Not knowing life, how can one know in China owe much to the influence of the Indian
death!” Considerations about the meaning of Buddhist Art. Scholars generally divide the art of
human life and about the understanding of life Indian Buddhist images into four periods: The first
were not profound. Buddhism aroused the interest one is from the 3rd century BCE beginning with
of the Chinese in the fate of human beings and life. Emperor Aśoka, up to hundred years after him.
The Chinese learned that, apart from the path of In this period, Buddha’s images had not as yet
filial piety, there also was the theory that life is appeared. There just were artistic representations of
suffering, the theory of deliverance through the persons, spirits, animals etc, which had a relation
eightfold path of leaving suffering and obtaining with Buddha’s life and with stories. Reaching a
happiness. The Buddhist theories of the greater considerable number during a short period, these
and of the lesser vehicle of Indian Buddhism were art figures were powerful and majestic as well as
fully transmitted to China. However, except for prosperous and moving reflecting awesome energy.
the areas of national minorities in Yunnan, in all The lion’s throne and relief sculpture now kept in
the other areas of China Buddhism of the greater the Sarnath Museum is a representative work of
vehicle was prevalent. The study of ‘prajñā’ and of this period. The second period is that of Gandharan
consciousness only (vijñānavāda) and the theories art which characterises the Mahayana Buddhist art
and the teaching of the esoteric vehicle were all form of India. It witnessed emergence of images of
spread in China to different extents. The scriptures the Buddha and of bodhisattvas. Because they had
of these different schools were translated into absorbed the sculptural art of ancient Greece in
Chinese and/or Tibetan. The Chinese embraced their creative technique, the models possessed a
an attitude of learning an ideology that came from strong and realistic feeling. The engraved Buddhist
outside. In the process of learning, they combined images had deep eyebrows and a high nose and the
Buddhism with traditional Chinese thinking and ornaments were simple, the lines protruding. The
made several changes and elaborations to the third period was that of Gupta art, from about the
thoughts and the concepts of Indian Buddhism. middle of the 4th century to about the middle of the
This drew the Buddhist world closer to traditional 7th century. This was the most prolific period for the
Chinese thought through absorption of elements production of Buddhist images which reflected the
of both Confucianism and Daoism. The sinicised return of the art to native roots and local tradition.

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Its models had a light feeling. The Buddhist images

were elegant but not overly so. In the treatment of
some parts, they paid more attention to detail. The
carving of ornaments and of the background was
complicated. The technique was fine and smooth
and the lines were graceful. They were very rich
and moving. Concerning basic similarity, they
paid even greater attention to the spiritual effect.
From form to content, they give expression to a
high degree of integration of aesthetics. The fourth
period is that of the art of esotericism and starts
from the 8th century on. The art of Buddhist images
during that period received even more the artistic
influence of Brahmanical Hinduism. Artistic models
were exaggerated and the depiction of the parts Image of Xuanzang, an illustration from the Marathi textbook
for the primary school
became complicated. There was, however, a lack of
innovation and the emphasis was on stylisation.
Indian Buddhist art entered China after the second that there are three great relics of the Buddha in
period. The earliest art are the wall paintings of the China. The first is the finger relic in the Famen
dwellings in Kezi’er (Kizil) in the district of Baicheng Temple in Shaanxi, China. The second is the tooth
in the Xinjiang area. Its paintings offer the life of the relic in the Lingguang Temple in Beijing. The third
Buddha and Buddha’s birth stories (Jātakas). This is skull bone relic in Nanjing. In the world there
art is also shown in the Buddhist caves of Kumutula presently are few famous tooth relics of the Buddha.
(Kumtura) and in the Buddhist caves of Senmusemu Southern Buddhism worships Buddha’s tooth relic
(Simsim) in the district of Kuqa. In the picture in the Temple of Buddha’s Tooth in old Kandy, Sri
Temptation by Māra’s Daughters of Kizil cave 76, in Lanka. Northern Buddhism has Buddha’s tooth relic
the centre there is an image of the emaciated body in the Lingguang Temple in Beijing, Buddha’s tooth
of Śākyamuni practising asceticism, very similar to relic in the Taizi Ling Zong (Divine Footprint of the
Gandharan sculptures. Gupta art of the third period Crown Prince) Pagoda of the Baoxiang Temple in
was even better transmitted to China, in the Mogao Wenshang, and Buddha’s tooth relic in the wooden
grottoes of Mingsha Mountain in Dunhuang, in the pagoda in the district of Ying, Datong, Shanxi etc.
rock caves of Bingling Temple in Yongjing, and Historical records mention a total of more than 70
in the rock caves of Maijishan in Tianshui. There such places of worship in China. Now there still are
are also the rock caves of Yulin in Anxi, the rock more than 30 places left.
caves of Yungang in Datong, Shanxi and the caves Moreover, the phonology of Indian Buddhism
of Longmen in Luoyang, Henan. In such places, also had its influence on Chinese characters. After
its art is represented. It has influenced the artistic the Chinese had received Indian phonetics, they
production of Chinese painting. The painting of the produced their own system of four tones. Chinese
Buddha image in "Cao’s Clothing coming out of the literature too received the influence of Indian
Water" of painter Cao Zhongda during the Northern Buddhism and culture. This could be witnessed in
Qi in China was probably inspired by Buddhist adoption of the narrative (avadāna) literature of
images of the Mathurā art style of the Guptas. The Buddhist literature, the vocabulary used etc.
art of the fourth period is mainly manifested in the
art of the thangkas of Tibetan Buddhism. In brief, IV
the influence of Indian art on Chinese Buddhism By the Song period, the process of sinification of
is comprehensive. Chinese Buddhists took in the Buddhism had completed. Most scriptures of Indian
basics of Indian Buddhist art but in the end, they Buddhism had been transmitted to China and they
began to form their own artistic style of creating had been translated. Meanwhile, the process of the
Buddhist images. decline of Indian Buddhism had also begun. The
The influence of the construction of Indian main current now was the trend for the esoteric
Buddhist pagodas on Chinese Buddhist architecture vehicle (Vajrayāna) school of Buddhism. In Song
is obvious. After the death of the Buddha Śākyamuni, times, they continued to use the system of the Tang
his physical body (śarīra) was transformed to relics. and established a state-run Yijing Yuan (Translation
These were collected by eight kings in the area Bureau). In the fourth year of Qiande (966 CE),
and distributed over pagodas which were built eminent monks like Xingjin and 157 others were
for worshipping. When Buddhism entered China, sent to the Western Regions as well as to Kashmir
relic worship also followed. The scriptures record and other parts of India in search of the law

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(Dhamma). Zhixuan, śramaṇa from Quanzhou, and sent them to India. He exhorted them to invite
Daoyuan, śramaṇa from Cangzhou, Jicong, śramaṇa master Bao Jingang (Ratnavajra) from the land of
from Bianjing, Guangyuan, śramaṇa from Yizhou, Kaśmīra, master Damo Boluo (Dharmapāla) from
Zhongda, śramaṇa from Taiyuan, Keyun, śramaṇa eastern India and master Moni Zhou (Maṇidvīpa)
from Xihe, Huaiwen, śramaṇa from Bianjing and from the land of Jialu in the West. They further
others, more than 140 persons, returned home from learned two tantras and a compendium from master
India. They brought back mainly esoteric scriptures. Bore Fuli from central India (1: Jimi (Guhyasamāja);
They at the same time promoted the popularity of 2: She zhenshi jing (Tattvasaṃgraha) and also the
the belief in bone-relics of the Buddha during the She zhenshi jing qingxi zang she lun (Compendium
dynasties of Song and Liao. of the Storehouse of Joy from the Tattvasaṃgraha).
The practice of movement of Indian monks From Moni Zhou and Damo Boluo they learned
to China, however, continued and their number the Duanchu e zhang xu (Tantra about the Doing
did not diminish at all. During the period of the Away with the Obstacles of Evil) and a commentary.
Northern Song, there were Fatian (Dharmadeva), They learned the Mantuoluo sanbai sishi zun (340
a monk from central India, Tian Xizai (Śāntideva), Venerables of the Maṇḍala), made by Shengtian, and
Shihu (Dānapāla) and others. They all were famous the Maṇḍala ritual of the Jimi (Guhyasamāja) (made
eminent monks of that time. They were received by the bodhisattvas Fo Zhizu and Longmeng). From
by the Song Emperor and the purple robe was master Bao Jingang, they learned Shilun (Kālacakra)
bestowed on them. It was arranged for them and the Si jingangzuo xu shi lun (Explanation of the
to translate scriptural texts in the Translation Tantra about Four Vajrāsanas). The Tibetan monk
Bureau. There further were Fahu (Dharmapāla), Yangrongba Shenghui received the precepts from
a monk from Kashmir, in northern India, Richeng Fahu (Dharmapāla) and further went to Nepal to
(Sūryayaśas), a monk from central India, Tian study vinaya under Zhi Dajia. In Nepal, Kashmir and
Jixiang, Zhi Jixiang, Jin Zongchi, and others. They other regions, he studied all exoteric and esoteric
also worked in the Translation Bureau. There were teachings with each great master and vinaya
also the śramaṇas from Mojietuo (Magadha), Bo specialist (vinayadhara). He further invited Zuo
Taluo and Lifu Riluo, Manshu Shili (Mañjuśrī), Xinkai, Zuo Lianmi, Fo Xiangjing, Fohu Lianhuami
śramaṇa from central India, Su Getuo, sramaṇa and others to come to Tibet to translate exoteric
from western India, Butuo Chiduo, śramaṇa from and esoteric discourses. He specially attached
Nalantuo (Nālandā) Monastery, Jialan Nashandi, importance to the translation of Yoga texts and
śramaṇa from northern India, Juejie, śramaṇa from the Jimi xu (Guhyasamājatantra), and propagated
central India, and others, more than 80 persons. them on a large scale. He later also invited the two
They propagated the Buddhist doctrine, scattered masters, Fahu and Huihu, to transmit the precepts.
over other areas. Because of the weakness of the The Tibetan King, Guanghu’s eldest son, Jixiang Zhi,
Song, the Xixia (Western Xia), the Liao and the Jin selected the intelligent youths, Zhuomi Shijiazhi
in the North had also established their dynasties (994-1078 CE) and Daluo Tongjing, and sent them
around the same time. They also accepted the to India to study the dharma, the vinaya and also
belief in Buddhism. Some monks who came from prajñā (indicating the teaching of the Xianguan
India, went to their areas via the Han territory eg, zhuangyan lun (Abhisamayālaṅkāra) and esoteric
Zongxian, a monk from central India; Cixian, a spells. The two later went to the Vikramaśilā
monk of the esoteric school and Moni (Maṇi), an Monastery to study the dharma under six great
Indian monk. They served as national preceptors of masters (Jijing from the eastern gate, Yuzizai
the Qidan. Sutuo Shili, a monk from the Nālandā Cheng from the southern gate, Bore Shenghui from
Monastery in central India, came sailing to China the western gate, Na Reba from the northern gate
with his disciple, Fotuo Shili and seven others. and Bao Jingang and Zhi Jixiang from the centre).
They arrived on Mount Wutai in China and paid a Zhuomi was close to master Jijing for eight years.
respectful visit to the divine remains. He also studied the law under other masters and
Tibetan Buddhism, at this time, entered the so- himself became a great master. He further went to
called period of the later propagation of Buddhism. eastern India and thoroughly received initiation
Through the common efforts of Tibetan and Indian (abhiśeka) from master Hui Wangming and also
monks, some Tibetan monks arrived in India in his instructions to understand the scriptures and
search of the dharma and many famous Indian practices. He also obtained the teaching about the
monks came to Tibet to expound the scriptural texts. path and its fruition (lam-rim). In 1044, master Jiaye
This led to the overall revival of Tibetan Buddhism. Daluo came to the Tibetan area and studied under
With greater support of the Tibetan King Songnei, Zhuomi for five years. Zhuomi studied altogether
Buddhism became renowned and its knowledge for 13 years in India and Nepal. His influence on
spread. He selected 21 youths from the area of Alisan Tibetan Buddhism is tremendous. His disciple,

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 Cultural Contacts

translator Maba (1012-1097 CE) called Fahui went lived for 150 years. His teaching formed a separate
three times to India. He was close to Nare Ba, Mile branch, Xiang ba of the Jiaju (Bka’-brgyud) school.
Ba, Jingxian, Pangting Ba and other great masters. By the end of the Yuan Dynasty, Indian
He learned the teaching of the Jimi (Guhyasamāja), Buddhism had entered its final decline and it did
Shengle (Cakrasaṃvara), Shuangxi Jingang (Hevajra), not have any influence. Buddhist and cultural
Mohemoye (Mahāmāyā), Si zuo (Four Āsanas) etc exchanges between India and China were basically
and became the refuge for the Sajia (Sa-skya) school interrupted. There were, however, some scattered
of Tibetan Buddhism. Translator Kuoku Balaze, a Indian monks who came to the Han region of China
disciple of Zhuomi Guai, also went three times to to transmit the teaching. They practiced the secret
India. He was close to 72 great masters, siddhas. He doctrine of union of male and female and they
stayed there for a very long period with translator were opposed by Chinese traditional ethics. For
Jingxian and studied the Jimi (Guhyasamāja) and instance, western monk during the Yuan, Hamo
the teaching of the Longmeng school. He translated (Hama), transmitted the yantie’er (In Chinese:
works such as the Shengle Jingang kongxing xu Great happiness, mahāsukha) way at the court.
(Cakrasaṃvaratantra), Si zuo xu (Tantra abouth “The Emperor then gave the instruction to make
Four Āsanas), Mohemoye xu (Mahāmāyātantra), and the western monk, Situ (Minister).” In the end, he
the Shuangxi Jingang xu (Hevajratantra). The great was strictly forbidden to enter the court. Indian
translator Luodun Xierao (1059-1109 CE) was in monk Zhikong stayed for a long time in the area of
Kashmir for 17 years to study. He studied logic Yan. “The Emperor was astonished and presented
(hetuvidyā) from Lita Xian and from Shangen Wang him a black robe with golden motifs. He sent him
and from Sana and Kuomi Qimei and others; he back but the next year he called him back. He
learned the five treatises of Maitreya and all exoteric ordered him to build an altar to pray for rain. He
and esoteric teachings. After his return to Tibet, he immediately agreed. He was given the name Jizhao
translated commentaries about logic and Paradise Yuanming (Quiet and shining bright light). He was
(Vyūha). He propagated logic, prajñā, Ru xing lun given the task to aid the hungry and the weary and
(Bodhicaryāvatāra), etc. Translator Bacao Richeng he was ordered to head the Haiyin Chan Temple...
also went to Kashmir and studied there for 23 From the prime minister down to the soldiers and
years. He invited master Jiana Jiafuma to Tibet to brave warriors, there was none who did not seek
translate the discourses of Yuecheng (Candrakīrti) refuge with him.”
and of the Zhongguan (Madhyamaka) School. The During the Ming Dynasty, very few monks came to
theories of the Yingcheng (Prāsaṅgika) branch of China. “Because some Buddhist scriptures had been
Indian Buddhism thus greatly prospered. In 1042 lost, the court ordered Chan master Zongle of the
CE, the venerable A Dixia (Atīśa), an Indian monk, Tianjie Temple and more than 30 of his disciples to
arrived in Ali in Tibet and propagated vinaya. He go to the Western Regions to look for them.” Chan
compiled Buddhist scriptures and contributed to master Huiri from the eastern sea “stayed in India
a Buddhist renaissance. Interaction with Indian for about 25 years.” After his return home, he was
Buddhism impelled the overall prosperity of Tibetan treated with respect by the Court. “He was asked
Buddhism. Many different schools of Tibetan about the path to be rescued or to go down in the
Buddhism have an important link with the monks of sea and he fully explained the reasons.” Zhiguang
this period. Apart from the Sajia (Sa-skya) School, “was sent to the Western Regions. He crossed a
the Jiaju (Bka’-brgyud) school and the Jiadang bridge with a single plank and rope and he arrived
(Bka’-gdams) School, pious Kings studied Shilun in the Indian country of Nibalafan. He proclaimed
(Kālacakra) from Zhuodun Nanglaze from Kashmir, the teaching and made conversions. He called on
and the teaching of scriptures and treatises of the master Mage Putu and passed on the Jingangman
Jimi (Guhyasamāja). They became the forerunners
of the Juenang (Jo-nang) school. The Indian
Padang Basangjie transmitted the teaching of
boreboluomiduo (prajñāpāramitā) which became the
fundamental teaching of the Xijie (Zhi-byed) school.
Yoga master Qiongbo went seven times to India to
study. He was close to many people there, of whom
the main were the following six: Da Jingangzuo,
Mile Ba, Juduo Yuqie, Luohouluo Juduo, Nigu
Kongxingmu and Lechengjiu Kongxingmu. After his
return to Tibet, he built 108 temples in the area of
Xiang. He promoted Buddhism for 30 years. He had
more than 80,000 disciples and it is claimed that he Ruins of Nalanda monastery, Bihar, India

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(vajramālā) altar 42 times. He greeted the precious came to China and he consulted the layman Yang
Diyong Pagoda and the people of the Western Renshan. They both agreed to revive Indian
countries respected him. Shi Fanliang went to the Buddhism. Dhammapala described the condition of
Western Regions. Emperor Wen Taizong thought Buddhist sites in India. The Chinese found out about
that his going and coming were difficult and he a great gathering to revive the Bodhi tree in the
further discussed theories of the Tripiṭaka with him. twin forests outside of the city of Kuśinagara. For
His comprehension was profound and he enjoyed the Buddha’s birthday each year, Buddhists from
it.” Sangke Bala, a man from central India, travelled every country gathered together about one month
together with Zhiguang to China. “Taizong advanced and 30,000-40,000 people a day (visited the place).
the purpose of the master and he ordered him to Master Qingfu from Chengdu, Sichuan, went at the
promote the teaching to the foreigners... he was in end of the Qing to India via Myanmar. “When the
charge of the altar or he assisted in the propagation. master was in India, he stayed altogether more than
He made the esoteric vehicle known, abundantly a year. He travelled all over the five parts of India
and widely.” Master Jusheng Jixiang, in Sanskrit, and visited places: where Buddha was born, where
Paṇḍita Sahajaśrī, was someone from Kapilavastu he meditated and realised the path and where he
in central India. He was of kṣatriya lineage. After preached the law and died.”
he had entered China, he first went to the Shouan
Chanlin in Wutai. Later, he stayed on Mount Jiang V
in Nanjing. "Those who took refuge gathered like In the early 20th century CE, exchanges between
wind and rain." Diwa Dasi, someone from eastern the two countries gradually increased. Buddhism
India, stayed in the Qingshou Temple in Beijing, was still the common bond. In 1940, China entered
China. "He liked the serenity of ponds and trees. To the period of its War of Resistance. Master Taixu
the right of a dragon spring he built a hut and stayed led a group on a visit to Southeast Asia and
there. This gave him satisfaction and he did not go he publicly advocated resistance to Japan. On
to town any more. His replies and uprightness of January 11, 1940, Taixu went to Kolkata, India,
character were not common. His attainments were via Myanmar. After that he went to the Buddhist
great." Even though there were not many Indian holy places and paid his respects. He received a
monks who came to the Han region of China during warm welcome from Indians everywhere. In every
this period, nevertheless all monks who came to the place in India, Taixu gave speeches and lectures.
Han region were respected by the Chinese. They He praised the influence of Indian Buddhism on
were given favourable treatment. But in Tibet the Chinese Buddhism and he encouraged the increase
interaction with India remained uninterrupted. The of cultural exchanges between the two countries.
monks who came and went to Tibet and to India, He said: “In ancient China, Indian culture entered
were mainly concentrated in the region of Bengal. through Buddhist relations but during the Zhou
The traditional Buddhism from northern and central and Qin in China the doctrines of Confucius, Mozi,
India was no longer a factor. Laozi, and Zhuangzi were hardly transmitted to
During the Qing Dynasty, Buddhist exchanges India. Recently, the Department of Chinese at the
between India and China did not continue. The Visva-Bharati has undertaken the task to import
Chinese did not know anything about the situation Chinese science and culture to India. It would
of Indian Buddhism. Due to developments in on the other hand also introduce modern Indian
means of transportation, some individual Chinese culture to China. In this way, Chinese culture can
monks went to the Buddhist holy places in India become a mutual confluence. China will have a
to pay obeisance to the Buddha. In 1891, Damo good understanding of ancient Indian culture.
Boluo (Dhammapāla) convened an international But, because of its isolation for about a thousand
conference of Buddhists in Bodh Gayā. A Chinese years, China still needs a better understanding and
delegation attended. At the end of the Qing and dissemination of modern Indian culture. India’s
the beginning of the Republic master Wanhui from ancient Buddhism has spread to every country
Sichuan wanted to rescue the Buddhist cause by but unlike other nations where it is one-sided, in
“going West in search of the law.” During the reign China it is most complete. Especially the greater
of the Guangxu, emperor went from Guiyang to vehicle developed by Longshu (Nāgarjuna) and
Yunnan. He made a detour via Myanmar to India Wuzhuo (Asaṅga) really has to be transmitted
and he looked for learning in a Sanskrit school in again to India.”
Benares/Varanasi. He studied Sanskrit, Hindi and Taixu introduced the revival of Chinese
the Ṛgveda. He later went to the Asiatic Society Buddhism to the Chinese in India. He pointed out
Library in Kolkata and undertook the task of putting that “Chinese Buddhism is on the way from decline
in order the Chinese books. In the reign of Guangxu, to revival.” He urged the Indian Chinese to set up
the Sri Lankan monk Damo Boluo (Dhammapāla) Buddhist organisations, with the belief that ”if

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in the whole world as one’s object.” He travelled

to the Buddhist countries of Myanmar, India and
Sri Lanka and engaged with the Buddhist scholars
and believers in the different countries.He thus
believed that he could really unite all Buddhists
in the world and let Buddha’s light illuminate the
whole world because "truly representing eastern
culture, only Confucianism and Buddhism can do
that. Buddhism basically aspires to save the world
with kindness and compassion and to save all
beings. The spirit of egolessness and of fearlessness
can remedy the disadvantages of western
technological civilisation." In order to strengthen
Buddhist and cultural exchanges between China
Chinese Buddhist Temple at Sarnath, India and India, Taixu specially sent five monks to India
to study Buddhism. After completing their studies,
they can set up Buddhist societies, this will, on these monks returned home and became famous
the one hand, raise the morality of countrymen Chinese scholars at the time. They made active
residing abroad and also advance even more contributions in the development of India-China
their spirit of unity. On the other hand, because Buddhist culture.
India is the homeland of Buddhism, even though At the same time, as Jiang Weqiao has written,
there now are no monks and temples, Buddhist influenced by Western and Japanese studies,
thought still fills the mind of everyone in India. the Chinese scholarly world believed that ”the
Moreover, Sri Lanka and Myanmar all have their history of Buddhism could now for the first time
Buddhist organisations in India. We must also be systematically investigated through the use
have matching organisations, set up Buddhist of the scientific methods of Western scholars
teams of Overseas Chinese and have Buddhist and could gradually be sorted out. Japanese
relations with Indians and with every country. It scholars continued this. Our Buddhists were
can strengthen us internationally. I hope you can previously also influenced by India. When they
set up divisions of Buddhist societies, in order to unknowingly had to pay attention to history, they
increase the well-being of all, to increase harmony occasionally wrote about it and they just limited
between China and India and to internationally themselves to biographies and records and to the
strengthen the power of our Chinese Republic!” year of composition. If one looks for a systematic
Under the influence of Taixu, the Chinese in general history of Buddhism in ancient books,
India set up organisations. They restored Chinese it is absolutely not there, much to the regret of
Buddhist temples in Kolkata, Bodh Gaya etc. scholars.” Gong Jun has written that, “Buddhism
The Chinese Buddhist temple of the Deer Park was finally not a product of the Chinese soil but
(Sarnath) was built through the contribution of it originated as a creation of Indian civilisation.
an Overseas Chinese from Singapore, Li Juncheng. Traditional expositions of Chinese religious history
Furthermore, there were many Tibetan lamas for the most part consider Chinese Buddhism as
living and studying in the different holy places in central. But as a brief comment on Indian religious
India and they built Tibetan temples. Taixu was a history, in the spread of contemporary intellectual
propagator of world culture. He sent his disciple, historical concepts, an important inspiration
Fafang, to South Asia and to southeast Asia to study shows up in the writings about a general history
and to propagate Chinese Buddhism of the greater of Buddhism, namely that, when dealing with
vehicle. Master Fafang took up a teaching post at Chinese Buddhist history, one has to be able to
the Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan in West Bengal, understand Indian religious history to the extent
India. He thought that “when we understand the that only through the investigation of the history
present, study the law of Buddha and propagate of Indian thought and culture (Indology) one can
Buddha’s law, it is just not enough to take China obtain true understanding.” In the context of the
as one’s object. Because we must save China, we above, the Chinese intellectual and the Buddhist
have to save the world first. When the whole world pay great attention to investigation and
world knows peace and when humankind knows research of the Indian Buddhist history and Indian
happiness, only then can China be saved. That Buddhist philosophy. Wang Enyang put forward
is why one should take world Buddhism as one’s that “because Buddha’s law began in India,
object when studying Buddha’s law now. When Indian Buddhism is fundamental to the study of
propagating Buddha’s law, one must have mankind Buddhism.” Research scholars like Gong Jun paid

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a climax. The Indian Government organised a

grand ceremony to celebrate 2,500 years of
Buddha’s nirvana. China’s Premier Zhou Enlai
sent a message of congratulations. At the time, the
Indian monks Bhikku Jagdish Kāśyapa and Rahul
Saṅkṛityāyana and their organisations came under
the programme for Buddhist exchanges. Leaders
of the Chinese Buddhist world: Master Banchan
(Panchen Lama), Zhao Puchu, President of the
Buddhist Association and other public figures of
the Buddhist world often led delegations on visits
to India. Such visits by the Buddhists strengthened
the friendship between the two countries. After
1959, a group of believers of Tibetan Buddhism
Famen Temple, Fufeng County, Shaanxi Province, China went to India. Their influence on the development
of Indian Buddhism at the time was very great. After
considerable attention to the source, thinking that 1970, more Taiwanese Buddhists went to India on
“the prevalent awareness of general history cannot a pilgrimage. At its peak, there once was a group
only orderly present the development of the whole of 200 Buddhists on a pilgrimage to India. After
of Buddhism in this style of compositions but it can 2000, Chinese Buddhists on pilgrimage to India
help us see in them the rules of rise and decline of became ever more numerous reaching more than a
Buddha’s law, letting us benefit from the history.” hundred thousand in a year. India-China Buddhist
Under the influence of this trend, the Buddhist and cultural exchanges have become a great source
world has offered important points for study and of binding together the religion and culture of both
research in the history and philosophy of Indian countries, now and in the future.
Buddhism. Master Taixu also thought that “in the
research of principles in China, looking over the
texts, there just has never been a system. Every Sects
school or sub-school of venerables just succeeded
one another since ancient times. Now, in the Chinese Buddhism
light of research about the methods of the history After long-term interpretation, translations, lectures
of world religions, it is not the same as before.” and research on Buddhist scriptures, Buddhism got
And so, against this background, all books writing introduced to China thus forming various academic
about Buddhist history go back to India. They and religious sects with national characteristics
pay particular attention to the theories of two meanwhile externally spreading to Korea, Japan
great schools in Indian Buddhism: Zhongguan and Vietnam.
(Madhyamaka) and Weishi (Vijñānavāda). The
study of Buddhist philosophy, which had almost Early introduction
discontinued in the past in India, revived with In recent archaeological discovery, statues of
the input from Chinese language materials on Buddha has been found in tombs of the Eastern
Buddhism. This is one of the greatest contributions Han Dynasty at Pengshan, Sichuan and the cliff
to Indian Buddhism brought by the studies of the inscriptions of Buddha has got discovered in
Chinese Buddhist world and by its academia in the Kongwang Mountain at Lianyungang. It is said that
recent past. the introduction of Buddhist scriptures is started
In the present age, India-China Buddhist and at the oral introduction of Borobudur scriptures
cultural exchanges have entered a completely (Buddhist scriptures) from Yi Cun who was the
new phase. In 1947, India became an Independent envoy of Da Yue Shi Tribe to Jing Lu in the first
Republic. Following the trend of the development of year of Yuan Shou in Han Dynasty (2 BCE). But
world Buddhism, the new government paid attention it is difficult to ascertain the scripture to which it
to Buddhism. In 1954, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai belonged to since it has been lost for a long time.
concluded a friendship treaty with Indian Prime The Sutra of 42 sections, which was taken from the
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru which emphasised Western Regions by the envoy of Emperor Ming in
“Five Basic Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.” Yongping years (58~75), is conventionally taken as
For these “Five Principles”, Indian Buddhists used the evidence of the original introduction of Buddha
the Buddhist technical term pañcaśīla namely “five Dharma into China but in recent years its historical
precepts”, conveying a sense of pride. In 1956, the veracity has been doubted making it a controversial
activities for the revival of world Buddhism reached evidence. While an exact date for the entry of

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Buddhism in China is still doubtful, it is, however,

certain that by the Common Era Buddhism had
to spread to Chinese Han regions, especially
intensively in areas like Chang’an and Luoyang as
well as Pengcheng (Xuzhou) etc. Buddha was then
initially considered as a kind of supernatural being
so much so that Emperor Huan of Han sacrificed
for the Buddha along with the Yellow Emperor
[Huangdi] and the founder of Taoism, Lao Zi and
recognised Buddhist monks as necromancer.

3rd and 4th centuries CE

After the Han Dynasty, Buddhist monks of India,
Parthia and Kang Ju, such as Dharmakala,
Dharmasatya, Samgha-varman etc successively
came to Luoyang, the capital of Wei State to engage Longmen Grottoes, Luoyang, China
in translating the Buddhist scriptures. Then, Zhi
Qian, Kang Senghui etc came to Jian Ye, the volumes of A Collection of the Six Perfection, namely
capital of Wu State (present Nanjing, Jiangsu) for Sat-Paramita – Samgiti. At that time, popular texts
promoting Buddhism. Zhi Qian won the courteous of both Hinayana and Mahayana were part of the
reception of Sun Quan and was knighted as a translation activities wherein Hinayana focussed on
learned scholar and a temple was established for Buddhism and laid emphasis on mental cultivation
Kang Senghui. Dharmakala and Dharmasatya were (“follow your mind”), Mahayana laid particular
skilled at the study of temperament, thus translating emphasis on Hannya. In a word, the translations
one volume of Mahasanghikavinaya namely Seng of Buddhist scriptures and the promotion and
Qi Jie Xin which advocated the monks to abide the research on Buddhism belief had laid the
by the Buddhist system and the commandment. preliminary foundation for the development of
This was the first original material for the Buddhism during the period of Wei-Jin, Northern
foundation of Buddhism in China. Dharmasatya and Southern Dynasties. Additionally, numerous
also translated one volume of Dharmagupta-vinaya temples and Buddha figures were constructed in
in Baima Temple. Additionally, Kang Senghui is that period but only a few has remained preserved
credited with the translation of four works such till now.
as Uqradatta and The Sutra Of Eternal Life. The
translation of Buddhist scriptures in Wu State was 5th and 6th centuries CE
started in Wuchang and was popular in Jianye. Zhi Most of the emperors of the Southern Dynasties of
Qian devoted himself to the translation of Buddhist Song, Qi, Liang and Chen believed in Buddhism.
ancient books and records related to Hinayana and Emperor Liangwu sincerely believed in Buddhism
Mahayana Vinaya-sutra totally to 88 books and and called himself “san bao nu” [three precious
118 volumes of which 51 books and 69 volumes slave] and wanted to be a Monk for four times
still exist. Kang Senghui also translated nine and was finally redeemed by the money provided
by the state. He established a large number of
temples and expounded the texts of Buddhism by
himself and held large-scale fast ceremonies. There
were 2,846 temples in Liang Dynasty including
82,700 monks and nuns. In Jiankang (present-day
Nanjing, Jiangsu) alone, there were more than 700
temples, including 10,000 monks and nuns. Though
Buddhism was officially prohibited during the period
of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei and Emperor Wu
of Northern Zhou but in general practice even the
emperors of these dynasties supported Buddhism.
Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei ordered to
excavate Yungang Grottoes at Datong and Emperor
Xiaowen ordered to build Longmen Grottoes in
honour of his queen mother after moving the capital
to Luoyang. At the end of the Northern Wei Dynasty,
Grotto 20, Yungang Grottoes, Datong, Shanxi, China there were totally 415 books and 1,919 volumes

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of Buddhist scriptures, about 30,000 temples and Shou years, there were 3,792 important temples
two million monks and nuns. In the Northern Qi and 2,30,000 monks in the country who wrote
Dynasty, the monk administrators took charge 46 books and 3,28,616 volumes, reviewed and
of about 4 million monks and nuns and 40,000 corrected 3,853 old scriptures, built and repaired
temples. In the Northern and Southern Dynasties, 15,08,940 stone Buddha figures.
a large number of foreign monks came to China to Tang Dynasty is the greatest and most prosperous
promote Buddhism, which included such famous age of Chinese Buddhism. Although the emperors
monks like Gunavarman, Gunabhadra, Paramartha, of Tang Dynasty called themselves the descendants
Bodhiruci, Ratnamati etc. Additionally, a number of of the ancestor of Laozi and respected Taoism,
Chinese believers also came to India for the study they actually also concurrently adopted Buddhism.
tour, for example, famous Fa Xian, Zhi Meng, Song Emperor Taizong of Tang received assistance
Yun, Hui Seng etc came to India for pilgrimage and from monks in his efforts to unify the state and
carried back numerous Buddhist scriptures. bring peace to disturbed areas. So instantly after
inheriting the throne, he sent out an imperial decree
7th ~ middle 10th centuries CE to establish temples at the “war-disturbed places”
The development of Buddhism in Wei-Jin Northern in the country and founded the scripture translation
and Southern Dynasties created the ideological school at Da Ci’en Temple so as to invite the well-
and economic conditions for establishing the known monks at home and aboard to translate and
Buddhist sects with Chinese characteristics in Sui promote scriptures and cultivate a large number
and Tang Dynasties. After unifying the Northern of eminent monks and scholars. After Emperor
and Southern Dynasties, Emperor Wen of Sui sent Gaozong inherited the throne, official temples
out an imperial decree to construct one temple were established in the capital and various cities in
for each of the Five Mountains and recover the order to pray for peace and prosperity. Moreover,
temples and Buddha figures which were prohibited Empress Wu Zetian ordered to establish Da Yun
in the Northern Zhou Dynasty. Additionally, the Temple at various cities. During the whole Tang
state temple – Da Xing Shan Temple which was Dynasty, the Buddhist monks were highly respected
used to execute Buddhism policies was established and received many honours and rewards. Monk
in the capital, namely Da Xing City (Southeast Amoghavajra once served for Emperors Xuanzong,
Chang’an city of Han Dynasty). During Ren Shou Suzong and Daizong of Tang and was promoted as
years (601~604), 111 dagobas were established in Su Guo Gong (a Chinese nobility title) and after
the country and the places for translation were also his death, Emperor Daizong of Tang cancelled the
widely arranged for collecting Chinese and foreign morning court meetings for three days so as to
translators to translate and expound Buddhist grieve over his death. There were many famous
scriptures. Inheriting the Buddhism protection Chinese monks in Tang Dynasty whose a deep
policy of Emperor Wen of Sui, Emperor Yang of and wide comprehension of Buddhist philosophy
Sui established the famous Huiri (Jñānādivākara) far exceeded those of the previous generations.
Bodhimanda in Yangzhou as the centre for These monks laid the theoretical foundation for
spreading Buddhism and continued to develop establishing various religious sects with national
the previous translation activities. Buddhism thus characteristics. Meanwhile, Buddhist beliefs were
became very popular in that period. During Ren also widely accepted by the masses thus leading
to the growth of folk tales, narrative literature etc
which greatly contributed to the development of
architecture, sculpture, painting, music etc and
enriched the Chinese culture and art. In Tang
Dynasty, a large number of foreign monks and
scholars came to China to engage in missionary work
and Buddhist scriptures translation. Meanwhile
many Chinese monks (such as Xuan Zang, Yi Jing
etc) travelled to India for pilgrimage and studies.
Their works spread Chinese Buddhism to Korea,
Japan, Vietnam and Java (present-day Indonesia)
and strengthened the relationship between China
and other Asian countries on religion, culture and
commerce. However, during the 5th Huichang
Year (845 CE), there was large-scale persecution of
The imperial palace hall of the Daxingshan Temple, Xi’an, Shaanxi
Buddhists due to social and economic reasons etc
Province, China Emperor Wuzong ordered to expropriate the landed

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Sichuan). In the first Tai Ping Xing Guo year (976

CE), 1,70,000 monks were taken across, and the
scripture translation school was established within
five years to recover the scripture translation which
was interrupted for up to 170 years since the sixth
Yuan He Year of Tang Dynasty (811 CE). Although
the scale of scripture translation was greater than
that of the Tang Dynasty, the achievement thereof
was poorer. The Chan Buddhism, especially Lin
Ji and Yunmen, was most prosperous among the
religious sects followed by the Tian Tai, Hua Yan,
Vinaya Schools and the Pure Land Sect. Since
The horizontal inscribed board at the Xiangji Temple of the Buddhist Sect
of Pure Land Buddhism, Shenheyuan, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China sects like Hua Yan Chan and Nian Fo Chan etc
were combined with each other and advocated
property of the temples, destroy Buddhist temples, “consistency of Buddhism (Tian Tai Hua Yan) and
derobe Sramana and force the monks to resume Chan” and “consistency of contemplation and Chan”,
secular life. According to the records of Tang Hui they were widely popular. Additionally, the Tiantai
Yao, about 4,600 temples and 40,000 Buddhist sect which was divided into Shanjia and Shanwai
buildings such as monasteries, Caturdesa etc were sects as well as the Nianfo Chan association was
destroyed at that time. Properties of temples were greatly prosperous and had a great influence over
also expropriated and 2,60,500 monks and nuns the masses. In the fifth Tianxi year (1021 CE), there
were forced to resume secular life. Obviously, were 4,60,000 monks and nuns and 40,000 temples.
Buddhism suffered from a great persecution.. The year 1021 was, therefore, regarded as the peak
The flourishing development of Buddhism period of development of Buddhism in the Northern
promoted emergence of independent sects and Song Dynasty. During the period of Emperor
schools of Mahayana during the Song and Tang Huizong (1101~1125) since the imperial court
dynasties. For example, the Tiantai Sect was sincerely believed in Taoism, an order was issued
founded Zhi Yi; the Three Treatise School by Ji to integrate Buddhism with Taoism and change the
Zang; the Dharma Character School by Xuan Zang Buddhist temple into Taoist temple. Buddhism thus
and Kui Ji; Vinaya Schools by Dao Xuan, Fa Li once again suffered from persecution.
and Huai Su respectively at the South Mountain, In the Southern Song Dynasty, Jiangnan Buddhism
Xiang Bu and East Tower; the Pure Land Sect which was still prosperous. Sects other than Pure Land and
was initiated by Tan Luan of the Northern Wei Chan, however, gradually fading due to the official
Dynasty, continued by Dao Chao of Sui Dynasty and restrictions on the development of Buddhism.
integrated by Shan Dao of Tang Dynasty; the North Because Chan sect did not reserve any word records
and South Schools of Chan Buddhism respectively and not focus on scriptures, it had a small impact
established by Daman Hongren’s follower Shen Xiu during Huichang Buddhist persecution and wars
and Hui Neng; “the Five Schools of Chan Buddhism of the Five Dynasties. The Pure Land Sect focussed
(namely Weiyang, Linji, Caodong, Yunmen and on whole heartedly chanting the name of Amitabh
Fayan)” successively appearing at middle Tang Buddha so it was simple and easy. Meanwhile,
Dynasty; the Hua-yen school established by Fa Zang; the Chan monks after the Northern Song mostly
and the Esoteric Buddhist Sects founded by Indian belonged to Pure Land Sect so Pure Land Sect could
monks Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi, Amoghavajra continue to be prosperous till modern times.
and Hui Guo. Many of these Mahayana sects Confucianism and neo-Confucianism of Song
were introduced overseas instantly after their Dynasty not only absorbed the thought of Hua Yan
establishment thereof along with the development and Chan sect to enrich the contents thereof but
of external communication in China in Sui and also criticised and rejected Buddhism. Ouyang Xiu
Tang Dynasties. was the most well-known Buddhism excluders but
the rejection was once opposed by Qi Song monk,
Middle 10th ~ middle 13th centuries CE the prime minister of Song Dynasty namely Zhang
At early Northern Song Dynasty, the imperial court Shangying, Li Gang, Liu Mi etc. Zhang Shangying
adopted the protection policy for Buddhism. In the wrote The Sastra on Protecting the Dharma and
first Jianlong year (960 CE), 8,000 monks were created Three Religions Compromise Theory. The
taken across and successively 157 monks such as thought of Kong Zi was the same as those advocated
Xing Qin were assigned to India for seeking Buddha by Buddhism. Confucianism could be used to cure
Dharma, and meanwhile Zhang Congxin was order skin disease, Taoist could cure blood vessel disease
to engrave Tripitaka at Yizhou (present Chengdu, and Buddhist were to cure bone marrow disease so

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by himself and advocated that all sects shall chant

the name of Buddha thus imposing an important
impact on Buddhism of modern times. Emperor
Qianlong issued Qianlong Version Tripitaka and
edited Combined Tripitaka of Man, Han, Meng
and Zang which certainly drove the development
of Buddhism. Since the late Qing Dynasty, Yang
Wenhui, Ouyang Jingwu and others established
scriptures inscription office, Buddhist college,
Buddhist association etc under the promotion of
Japanese and Western Europe Buddhist research
and thus opened a new era for researching the
philosophical connotations of Buddhism. Modern
Painting depicting unity between the three religious doctrines of Chinese intellectuals, such as Kang Youwei, Tan
Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism, Qing Period Citong, Zhang Taiyan, Liang Qichao, and others
were all influenced by Buddhism. Liang Qichao’s
the real intention of the three sects were consistent famous work Belief of Kindness was inspired by the
with each other. Moreover, San Jiao Ping Xin Lun Buddhist philosophy. Additionally, a large number
created by Liu Mi also had the same purport. of famous monks, such as Yue Xia, Di Xian, Yuang
Ying, Tai Xu, Hong Yi and others contributed to the
Middle of 13th ~ 19th centuries CE promotion and development of modern Buddhism
The governor of Yuan dynasty advocated Tibetan in China to a prosperous and flourishing belief.
Buddhism but also adopted the protection policy for (Huang Xinchuan)
Chinese Han Buddhism. Chan Sect and Rissh Sech etc
in Buddhism continued to spread and develop with Tiantai School
increased temples and monks and nuns. From Shi Tien-Tai School is the earliest Buddhist schools
Zu to the 28th year of Yuan (1291 CE), there were established in China and is named after Mount
42,318 temples, 2,13,000 monks and nuns in the Tiantai because its founder Zhiyi of the Sui Dynasty
country and meanwhile, strict monk administrators lived there.
were set in centre and local governments so as to Tien-Tai School honoured Indian Longshu
supervise the monks. Moreover, Rectified Baizhang’s (Nagarjuna) as its initial patriarch, Huiwen in the
Commandments by Imperial Order was issued and Northern Qi Dynasty (550-577) the second, Huisi
enforced and the famous Tripitaka of Puning Temple the third, Zhiyi the fourth, Guanding the fifth,
was also engraved in that period. Zhiwei the sixth, Huiwei the seventh, Xuanlang the
After the period of Emperor Wanli of Ming eighth and Zhanran the ninth.
Dynasty, Zhu Hong, Zhen Ke, De Qing and Zhi In the first year of Tian Jia Period of Emperor
Xu emerged and further internally developed the Wen of Chen Dynasty (560 CE), Zhiyi, the founder
theories of Chan sect, Buddhism, Rissh sect etc. of the school, followed Huisi, his teacher to study
They externally combined with Confucianism, Fahua Samadhi at the Dasu Mount (present-
Buddhism and Taoism. Such an integration was day Xinyang, Henan) and finally gained the true
greatly welcomed by literatti and officialdom and essence. He came to Jinling (present-day Nanjing,
believed by the common people. This also promoted Jiangsu) in the first year of Guangda Period (567
development of Buddhism with more Chinese CE) and was invited to live in the Waguan Temple
characteristics. to deliver lectures on Saddharma Pundarika and
During the early Qing Dynasty, the imperial paraphrase Mahāpraj¤āpāramitā Upadeśa where he
family believed in Tibetan Buddhism and adopted not only addressed speeches but also wrote books
the policy of restricting Chinese Han Buddhism. The and set up his own theories. In the seventh year
restriction was slightly relaxed during the period of of Taijian Period of Chen Dynasty (575 CE), Zhiyi
Emperor Kangxi and Emperor Kangxi. They invited led his over 20 disciples including Huibianto to
eminent monks who had gone into seclusion at the live in Mount Tiantai for 10 years and established
late Ming Dynasty to return back and make decadent the Tien-Tai School. Finally, Zhiyi died in Sui
Buddhism active again. Emperor Yongzheng paid Dynasty and was buried at the foot of Xinchang
attention to Tibetan Buddhism but he advocated Buddha in Zhejiang. His disciple Guanding who
that Confucianism and Buddhism shall run parallel was faithful in promoting his theories and essences
in the same system and various sects of Buddhism built the Guoqing Temple. The Tien-Tai School
shall be fused with each other. He also prepared The then blossomed to its peak but declined soon after
Magic Book pick differentiation and Yu Xuan Yu Lu his passing away. With support from emperor

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Xuanzong, Suzong and Daizong of Tang Dynasty, Puṇḍarīka (The Lotus of the True Law) as its basis so
the ninth patriarch of the school Zhanran began it was also called Nichiren Buddhism.
to revive it by following transmitted knowledge, The Tien-Tai School took Saddharma Puṇḍarīka as
spreading their doctrines and confronting other its tenets, Mahāpraj¤āpāramitāśāstra (Great Treatise
schools. During the Song Dynasty, the Tien-Tai on the Perfection of Wisdom) as its guidelines and
School was divided into two wings: Shanjia Wing the Nirvana Sutra as its basis and Prajna Sutra as
and the Shanwai Wing. The Zhili branch living in its method to visualise the truth. Varieties of sutras
Siming (present-day Ningbo, Jiangsu) considered were cited to increase creditability and various
itself to be the straight successor of the Tien-Tai scriptures were referred to gain success. In addition
School and called itself, the Shanjia Wing, while to inheriting and developing the One Noting Mind
the other branch with Wu’en, Hongmin, Yuanqing, and Three Reflections of Huiwen and Huisi, the
Tianzhao and Zhiyuan as representatives and School also absorbed thoughts of the “Three
holding different thoughts was degraded as the Treatises” that was popular in the Southern Dynasty
Shanwai Wing. These two wings violently debated and Praj¤ā and inherited critically the ten Panjiao
on various aspects of Tien-Tai doctrines when the (analysis and judging on for teaching) of North and
Zhili branch moved ahead. However, after that, the South. As a result, theories of the Tien-Tai School
the Tien-Tai School gradually tended to fall in silent are combination of the Southern philosophical
oblivion. In Ming Dynasty, the founder pavillion of connotations and the Northern’s emphasis on the
the Tien-Tai School was rebuilt and its ancestral practices in the Northern and Southern Dynasties
temple with carved scriptures was repaired towards (420-589 CE). It proposed to make use of Samatha
the end of Qing Dynasty. Guxu and Dixian of early and Vipasyana equally for learning theories and
Republic of China further advanced the School and contemplating.
spread its doctrines across China. Today, Yanxu, According to Huisi, all things in the world were
Xingci, Jingquan and a number of eminent monks unreal. All phenomena were seen as the substratum
are expanding doctrines of this school with great of existence and phenomena were empty of self-
commitment. Since the Yuan Dynasty, the Tien- nature. Phenomena were seen as unchanging and
Tai School has, however, been not as popular as undifferentiated substratum of existence which was
ever before. It later grew in the form of a religion. untruth designation. All things arose from causes and
The contemporary development of the school there was no constantly unchanged substance,which
has been emphasised and studied in detail by was called as “emptiness”. But “emptiness” was also
modern scholars. a part of the dharma-nature instead of being beyond
When Zhiyi was alive, he simply made narration the nature or being produced and worked out, which
instead of writing so that his disciple Guanding was called the “Middle Path”. Therefore, all things
recorded and edited the “Three Major Masterpieces were neither totally empty nor entirely untruthful,
of Tien-Tai School” namely Saddharma Puṇḍarīka but half-empty, half-untruthful. It was empty,
Sūtra Sentences, Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra Doctrines untruthful and half-empty and half-untruthful at
and Maha Samatha Vipasyana which were considered the same time. None of these three elements may
as the essential classics of Tien-Tai School. Besides, exist if they are independent without relying on the
there are “Five Short Classics of Tien-Tai School”, other two. Reflecting emptiness and untruthfulness
namely, Guan Yin Xuan Yi, Guan Yin Shu, Jin Guang from the middle path showed the wholeness of
Ming Xuan Yi, Jin Guang Ming Sentences and Guan these three elements which was regarded as their
Jing Shu. The Tien-Tai School regarded Saddharma integration. As regards to meditation and practice,
the Tien-Tai School demanded “reflecting emptiness,
untruthfulness and the middle with one mind” to
cast off avidya and acquire liberation and Nirvana.
The Tien-Tai School stressed that thoughts and
true suchness were the same because that all things
were products of the moment of thought, existed
in the “Ten Realms”, of which were composed by
the six mortals like gods, human beings, asuras,
hell denizens, hungry ghosts and animals and the
four immortals like śrāvakas, pratyeka-buddhas,
bodhisattvas and buddhas. The six mortals could
ascend to the level of the Buddha and the Buddha
could also appear in the six mortals. The “Ten
Realms” were composed by themselves mutually
Guoqing Temple, Tiantai mountain, Zhejiang Province, China and all constituted the “Hundred Realms”. What

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Icchantika never lost the goodness but stopped to

conduct goodness. So it could be said that goodness
and evilness existed in everything. The three
dharma ie, citta-dharma, Buddha Dharma and Sattva
Dharma, all have the 3,000 worlds and integrate
with each other in spite of their differences in
nature, cause and effect. That is why no difference
exists in the three dharma. Siming Zhili (960-1028)
of Shanjia Wing in Song Dynasty proposed the
theory of “following other theories according to the
conditions” which means that the truths proposed
Tiantai mountain by other schools are not contained in the different
things and are separated with the things. Therefore,
the “Ten Realms” relied on were form, sensation, it was also called the “other theory” or “but theory”
conception, conduct and consciousness which or “one theory”. According to the perfect teaching,
further constituted the “secular world” while the true suchness contained different phenomena
rivers, mountains and lands constituted the “non- which combined into each other. All dharma were
sentient world”. All the three worlds existed in the left alone to be what they really were, that is, all
“Ten Realms”, thus totally having 30 varieties of performed according to conditions and remained
worlds. There were 3,000 varieties of worlds in the unchanged. To be unchanged was to follow
“Hundred Realms” that’s “one mind creates 3,000 conditions which meant to be unchanged. This was
worlds”. Meanwhile, this “one mind” is neither “following one theory according to the conditions”.
outside the three thousand worlds nor in the front On the contrary, the Shanwai Wing insisted on
of them but contains them. contemplation out of true thought and valued the
The Tien-Tai School was also divided into spirit of natural thought. From the Yuan Dynasty
five different Buddhist periods ie the period of period onwards, the theoretical aspect of the School
Avatamsaka, the period of Agamas, the period of failed to make any significant new additions and the
Vaipulya, the period of Prajā and the period of successors approached Tien-Tai by means of deep
Dharma-pundarik/Nirvana period and declared that meditation which promoted the blending of deep
the Tien-Tai School lied in the highest Avatamsaka meditation and theories of the Tien-Tai School.
period. It was divided by the four-fold methods In respect of meditation and practice, Tien-Tai
and four doctrines, the former meant such forms School proposed the three contemplations in one
or methods as employed by Śākyamuni, including thought and the 3,000 worlds in single thought,
sudden enlightenment teaching, gradual teaching, there were such four kinds of meditative formats as
secret teaching and variable teaching; the doctrines long-sitting, long-walking, sitting-waking and half-
were explanations made by Śākyamuni based on the sitting and half-walking. Prior to the beginning of
profoundness, including tripitaka teaching, shared meditation, the 25 varieties of conducts ought to be
teaching, distinctive teaching and perfect teaching. made including acquiring five favourable conditions,
The eight teaching methods were integrated in cleaning five desires, casting five coverings,
the four periods of Dharma-pundarik. Saddharma adjusting five matters and doing five dharmas. The
Puṇḍarīka was the saying at the last term and was 10 objects were contemplated at the time of formal
considered as the ultimate of teaching with pure practice namely five skandhas, vexation, sickness,
perfection and exclusiveness and the best among karma, mara, samatha, all evil sight, arrogance,
the eight teaching methods. The Tien-Tai School two vehicles and Bodhisattva. Ten contemplation
thus belonged to a complete Buddhism with perfect methods were used including meditating
doctrines. It was founded by Zhiyi, spread widely inconceivable objects, arousing buddhi heart, resting
by its fifth patriarch Guanding and prevailed for a the thought beyond samatha and vipasyana, cutting
time but gradually perished. At the middle of Tang persistence, recognising block, adjusting aids, aiding
Dynasty, Zhanran further proposed that Buddha against blocks, placing, tolerating, and liberation
existed everywhere in the nature, that is, Buddha from love while the precedence obtained were the
was ubiquitous in all realms, never blocked by the six contained in perfect teaching including principle
consciousness or by the nature. Therefore, it could Buddha, name Buddha, contemplation Buddha,
be said that Buddha existed in even a single grass, similarity Buddha, breaking-demonstrating Buddha
a rock or a dust. All contained 3,000 worlds and and ultimate Buddha.
defilement, purity, virtuousness and evilness could Since the Tang Dynasty, the Tien-Tai School
all be seen as natural virtues. Śākyamuni never got began to spread to foreign countries, successively to
rid of evil but could avoid conducting evils and the northern Korea, the southern Korea and Japan,

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where it witnessed phenomenal development and decline after Zhizhou and became oblivious by the
have maintained influences even today. time of the Song Dynasty. With decline in direct
The Tien-Tai School continued to have an impact contact with India, this sect withered and became
on Chinese Buddhism and many persons studying the most short-lived sect. In the late Ming Dynasty,
Buddhism take great interests in its theories. As one Faxian School once had influence on many thinkers
sect of Chinese Buddhism, it attracts both scholars like Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692 CE) whose Vein of
and believers. Faxian had quite a refined analysis on basic concepts
(Huang Xianian) of “Ci’en School”. During the period of the Republic of
China (1912-1949 CE), there was once a renaissance
Faxiang School of the Consciousness-Only School. Public figures in
Faxiang School is a school of Buddhism originated Buddhist circle set up research institutions to cultivate
in China. It was founded in Chang’an (present Xi’an) Buddhist talents and found some lost ancient books
in Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) by Master Xuanzang about Faxian School from Japan to collate sutra and
who spent 17 years in India, travelling and studying scriptures and published philosophical texts. Lay
under various Buddhist masters. Buddhists under the leadership of Ouyang Jingwu of
After the 1st century CE, Yogacara with doctrines Nanjing China Buddhist College believed that Faxian
of consciousness-only started to appear in Indian and Consciousness-Only were two different schools.
Mahayana. Additionally, with the theory teaching But Taixu proposed opinions from perspectives of
that our understanding of reality comes from our development of Buddhist thoughts and believed
own mind, it is also named as the Vijnaptimātratā that Faxian and Consciousness-Only were the same
School (“Consciousness-Only School” in Chinese). school. Some people thought that the Consciousness-
Faxian School obtained its name because of dealing Only School contained a number of positive factors,
with the phenomenal appearances of dharma. therefore, Faxian was taken as a compulsory course,
Xuanzang was given strong support and many which was known as “Faxian as the standard for the
assistants by the Tang Dynasty, the Faxian School teaching dharma”.
therefore flourished at that time. Xuanzang’s Faxian School claims that there are “Six
disciple, Kuiji, is considered to be responsible for sutras and Eleven Scriptures”, the basic text of
the development of the Consciousness-Only School. the Sect. Six sutras refer to Avatamsaka sutra,
Since he lived in Ci’en Temple in Chang’an for a Sajdhinirmocana-sutra, Sutra on Merits and Virtues
long time, he was addressed respectfully as “Master of the Buddha, Abhidharma sutra, Lankavatara sutra,
Ci’en” and the Faxian School was also named as and Ghana-vyūha-sūtra, while the 11 scriptures
the “Ci’en School”. Another sect opposite to Kuiji are Yogacarabhumi-sastra, Aryavacaprakarana-
was Ximing School founded by Silla monk Yuance. sastra, Mahayana sutralamkara, Pramanasamuccaya,
Kuiji’s disciple Huizhao (650-714 CE) endeavored to Mahāyāna-samgraha-śāstra, Bhumi-sastra, Yogacara-
vindicate the teaching of his master and “Ci’en Sect” vada Sastra, Alambanapariksa, Vimsatika Vijnapti
entered into a period of great prosperity. Huizhao’s Matrata Siddhih, Madhyanta Vibhaga Tika, Mahayan
disciple Zhizhou (668-723 CE) treaded on the heels abhidharma Samuccaya Vyakhya. Among the six
of his master and wrote books and developed his sutras and 11 scriptures, Vijnaptimatratasiddhi-
propositions. However, Faxian School began to Sastra, Yogacarabhumi-sastra and Samdhinirmocana-
sutra are fundamental sutras and scriptures. Another
saying proposes, “One main and 10 branches”,
that is, Yogacarabhumi-sastraas the main sutra and
another 10 as branches which included Mahāyāna-
śatadharma-prakāśamukha-śāstra, Pañca-skandha-
prakaraņa, Aryavacaprakarana-sastra, Mahāyāna-
samgraha-śāstra, Mahayanabhidharma Samuccaya
Vyakhya, Madhyanta Vibhaga Tika, Vimsatika
Vijnapti Matrata Siddhih, Vijnaptimatratasiddhi-
trimsai-kakarika-sastra, Mahayana-sutralamkara
and Yogacara-vada Sastra. Annotation on
Vijnaptimatratasiddhi-Sastra by Kuiji, The Cheng
Weishi Lun Liao-yi-deng by his disciple Huizhao and
The Cheng Weishi-Lun-Yanmichao by Zhizhou are
the renowned “three masterpieces of Yoyacara” and
are basic books for understanding Yogacara theories.
Statue of Xuanzang, Dacien Pagoda, Xi’an,
With its deep level in theory and thought,
Shaanxi, China Faxian School is one of the most closely connected

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sects with the Indian Buddhism. It advocates the

ideology of “Consciousness Only” believing that
all kinds of things and phenomena in the world
are gained by subjective consciousness of human.
The central doctrine of the School is that of eight
consciousnesses, that is, five sense consciousnesses
including eyes, ears, nose, tongue and body,
the sixth or sense-center consciousness which
forms conceptions, the seventh or thought-center
consciousness (manasvijnana) which wills and
reasons on a self-centered basis and the eighth or
storehouse consciousness (alaya). The last one is the
most important as it is the source of all phenomena,
and can produce manifestation of the world which
is named as the “seed consciousness”. Besides
emphasising “consciousness” as the universal
noumenon, the system of the school also constructs
five dharma and hundreds of changes, proposing in Sequence in the path of Mahāyāna: the
stately Sūtra of emancipation
the final analysis that matters in the world rest on
five dharma and its hundreds of manifestations. Five
dharmas include: (1) Citta (2) Cetasa (3) Rūpa (4) this relationship nothing on earth can originate.
Citta-viprayukta-dharma and (5) Asamskrta-dharma. Parinispanna-svabhava identifies that after getting
Citta-dharma has eight types of changes, and to know the two misunderstandings of cognitions
belongs to brain thinking phenomenon. Caitasika- of sentient beings on parikalpitah-svabhava and
dharma refers to 51 kinds of changes generated in paratantra-svabhava, practitioners will know that
concert with heart such as all annoyances. Rūpa natures of all things on earth are empty and will
refers to matter; however, it generates from heart achieve satisfactory sunyata cognition which is
consciousness, and has 11 types of changes. Citta- also called asthusness, bhuta-samjna, dharmadhatu,
viprayukta-dharma has 24 types of changes, that dharma nature, nirvana and so on and is the supreme
is, phantasm of universal changes which are not valid cognition. There are progressive relationships
influenced by Citta and Caitasika-dharma such as among the three, with parikalpitah-svabhava as
time, space, quantity, scale, gain and loss, birth and the universal phenomena of people’s cognition,
death, character and so on. Asamskrta-dharma has paratantra-svabhava as relationships founding in
six changes, that is the still and permanent stage people’s cognition and parinispanna-svabhava as the
of dharma without birth, death and changes. This ultimate completeness of the cognition. Faxian School
is the truth shown in the Buddha dharma, and the believes there are four kinds of cognitions including
fundamental of the Consciousness-Only School. division of characteristics, division of seeing, self-
Five dharma and hundreds of manifestations are witnessing aspect and re-witnessing aspect. Division
the perspectives of Vijnaptimātratā School on the of characteristics refers to external matters which
whole world, with Citta and Cetasa belong to mental can be perceived by eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body
phenomena, Rūpa and Citta-viprayukta-dharma and consciousness, that is, objective existing matters.
to natural phenomena and Asamskrta-dharma to Division of seeing refers to the reaction on external
realm pursued by philosophy and religion. They matters generating from six cognitions, that is, the
form various kinds of relationships. Among these objective knowledge of people. Self-witnessing
relationships, heart consciousness is the highest, aspect refers to further cognition based on division
without which all matters in the universe cannot of seeing, that is, subjective cognizance. Re-
exist. Tri-svabhava is the epistemology in Yoyacara witnessing aspect refers to the ultimate and absolute
for observing the creation of all things in the world. correctness of cognition. Vij¤aptimātratā School had
The so-called Tri-svabhava refers to parikalpitah- a metaphor on four kinds of cognitions, division of
svabhava, paratantra-svabhava and parinispanna- characteristics like the cloth, division of seeing like
svabhava. Parikalpitah-svabhava insists that the the scale, self-witnessing aspect like counting the
cognitions on the world of all living creatures are size of the measured cloth and re-witnessing aspect
the cognitions generating from abhuta-kalpana and like proving the correctness of the result. The theory
acquisitive instinct. Paratantra-svabhava states that of four kinds of cognition is the unique proposition
since all things on earth are dependent arising of Yogacara and one of precise theories of Yogacara
from others, relationships of dependent co-arising masters. Pancagotrāni theory includes Shravakayana
exist between all things on earth and without caste, pacceka caste, Buddha caste, indefinite caste

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and outcasts. These five caste theories are the basis Tripitaka (Three Treasures) in Turo. In the heyday
to demonstrate the enlightenment. The former of Buddhism, Tibet banned the spread of Buddhism,
four castes can achieve the buddhahood of arhat, making Tibetan Buddhism entre into centennial
Bodhisattva and Buddha, however the last one can dark ages.
not become Buddha. Besides, Faxian School made Bastan pa phyi dar started from the 10th century
contributions to the development of Buddhism CE and ended during the emergence of dge lugs
tsema by the need of debates. The Yogacara theory pa in the 15th century CE and it lasted for 400 to
has played an important role in promoting the 500 years. In bstan pa phyi da, Tibetan Buddhism
altitude of Buddhism on philosophising, therefore, resurrected in Tibet and ushered a new era after
it is emphasised and studied by intellectuals fond of being banned for a period when some young
thinking in successive dynasties. Tibetans converted to Buddhist and went to India to
In the late 7th century, Faxian School was study. In the early 10th century CE, a large number
introduced to Japan and Silla and so far there are of young Tibetans went to India to study dharma,
still many people studying Yogacara. of which lo chen rin chen bzang po (958～1055
(Huang Xianian) CE), vbrog mi shakya ye shes (993～1074 CE), nag
tsho lo tsaw ba tshul khrims rgyal ba (1011～1064
Tibetan Buddhism CE) and mar pa chos kyi blo gros (1012～1097 CE)
Bod brgyud nang bstan chos lugs, also known as stood out from others. After completing study in
Tibetan Buddhism, is one of Chinese major Buddhist India and returning to hometown, they taught sutra
sects, Mahayana Buddhism, one of three languages and dharma and translated sutra at the same time,
of Buddhism. launching a campaign for spreading Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism emerged in the 8th and 9th in Tibet. It is worth mentioning that Aatisha (982
centuries CE and matured in the 12th and 13th ～1054 CE) made disciples and taught dharma in
centuries CE and it was characteristic of Indian Tibet, making a great contribution to the formation
Buddism in the middle and late period. In the 7th and development of various Tibetan Buddhist sects.
century CE, Buddhism spread from India, Nepal, the Tibetan Buddhism is renowned for complete
Tang Dynasty and the Western Region to Tibet and Tripitaka (Three Treasures), namely Sutra Pitika,
evolved into Tibetan Buddhism characterised by Vinaya Pitika and Abhidharma Pitika including
humane and geological environment, undergoing Chinese Tripitaka of bkav vagyur ( Sutra Pitika
epoch-making dynastic history of bstan pa snga dar and Vinaya Pitika) and bstan vgyur (Abhidharma
and bstan pa phyi dar. Pitika) as well as numerous well-preserved and
Bstan pa snga started from King Songtsan Gampo spread literatures and sutras which boast all-
(the middle 7th century CE) and ended in the inclusive contents and encompass rig gnas bcu
period of Gldarma banning Buddhism (the middle such as technology, medicine, phonetics, Astika,
9th century CE) and it lasted for about 200 years, Buddhism, rhetoric, rhetorique, prosody, drama and
entering into a golden period of Buddhism spreading astrology and humanities and social sciences and
to Tibet and evolving into Tibetan Buddhism. In the natural science including Buddhism, philosophy,
8th century CE, Tibet sent envoy to India to invite logic, history, culture, ethics, moralities, geology,
eminent monks such as Santiraksita/zhi ba vtsho ecology, literature, arts, architecture, astrology,
(the 8th century CE), pad ma vbyung gnas (the 8th calendar and medicine.
century CE), Bimalamitra (the 8th century CE) and Tibetan Buddhism acquired mastery of theg
Kamalashila (740-795 CE) to build temples, form dman (sthaviravada), theg chen and rdo rje theg
monk groups, translate Sanskrit scriptures and teach pa (Trantrism), Tripitaka (Three Treasures) or
three teachings and developed Tibetan Buddhist
theoretical system and practice methods for
percept lineage, systematic doctrines, sectarian
insights, Tantric lineage, practice sequence and
achieving complete Buddihahood. Therefore,
Tibetan Buddhism is characterised by integration,
system and lineage. Additionally, it achieved great
attainments in theoretical system such as Tantric
lineage, reincarnation of living Buddha, temple
education, religious rites, literatures and sutras,
Nyaya sutras and Madhyamika and developed unique
sectarian style and distinctive religious culture.
Tibetan Buddhism split into more than 20
Image of Princess Wen Cheng at Jokhang Temple, Lhasa, Tibet, China relatively independent sects and schools with

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ma, nye brgyud gter ma and zab mo dag snang gi

brgyud pa. In reality, ring brgyud bkav ma and nye
brgyud gter ma spread and zab mo dag snang gi
brgyud pa depended on ring brgyud bkav ma and
nye brgyud gter ma and thus it was not classified as
an independent lineage system.
Ring brgyud bkav ma went through the early,
intermediate and late development stages and
became a sect boasting long history and orthodox
dharma lineage in Tibet. The sutras such as sgyu
vphrul, vdus pa mdo and sems phyogs expounded
The Tripiṭaka edition composed by Jinzhi, preserved at the Drepung
the doctrine of Ring brgyud bkav ma. It is worth
Monastery, Lhasa mentioning that gnyags dzanya na ku ma ra (the
8th century CE) in the early stage, gnubs sangs
different doctrines and distinctive style, including rgyas ye shes (772～867 CE) in the intermediate
five major sects such as dge lugs pa, rnying ma stage and zur gsum in the late stage all made a great
pa, sa skya pa, bkav brgyud pa, jo nang ba plus contribution to promoting the development of Ring
other sects and schools such as bkav gdams pa, zhi Brgyud bkav ma.
byed pa, gcod lugs and bu lugs. In particular, bkav Zur po che shakya vbyung gnas (1002-1062
brgyud-pa featured complicated dharma and many CE), zur chung shes rab grags pa (gsang bdag sgro
branch sects including three dharma lineages such phug pa, 1014～1074 CE) and zur shakya seng ge
as shangs pa bkav brgyud, mar pa bkav brgyud (gsang bdag sgro phug pa, 1074～1134 CE) were
and dwags po bkav brgyud. Among them, dwags collectively known as zur gsum. After zur gsum
po bkav bragyud developed its own style and had preached ring brgyud bkav, especially gsang bdag
four branch sects such as karma bkav brgyud, sgro phug pa developed many disciples, ring brgyud
tshal pa bkav brgyud, phag gru bkav brgyud and bkav spread widely. When it spread to mdo khams,
vbav ram bkav brgyud and eight branches such as ring brgyud bkav was called khams lugs.
vbrug pa bkav brgyud, vbri gung bkav brgyud, stag Nye brgyud gter ma is the most important Sharia
lung bkav brgyud, gayav bzang bkav brgyud, khro teaching lineage of Nyingma and its dharma lineage
phu bkav brgyud, shug gseb bkav brgyud, yel pa traces its history back to bstan pa snga dar (the 8th
bkav brgyud and smar tshang bkav brgyud, which century CE). Eminent monks such as pad ma vbyung
spread across Tibet. gnas stored Tantric sutras, Buddha statues and
Meanwhile, Tibetan Buddhist sects emerged and sacred vessels in different secrete places and named
developed in an imbalanced way. Due to variation it gter ma. In bstan pa phyi dar (the 12th century
in space and times and subjective and objective CE), many Tertons appeared with legend unearthed
conditions, some sects such as shangs pa bkav brgyud the Terma and built temples to teach it, creating
were ephemeral; some sects such as Kadampa and Terma lineage system. Nye brgyud gter ma split into
Zhi-byed-pa assimilated into other sects by means of byang gter and lho gter.
proselytism and the dharma lineage had link with Byang gter was founded by Terton rig vdzin rgod
others; some sects such as dwags po bkav brgyud ldem dngos grub rgyal mtshan (1337-1409). After
achieved prosperity and spread widely. unearthing mdzod lnga and other Terma sutras at
Tibetan Buddhism spread in the minorities’ areas the age of 19, he compiled and taught Terma and
where Tibetan, Mongolian, Tu Nationality, Yugur founded byang gter. The temples such as rdo rje
and Naxi Nationality resided, some domestic regions
such as Wutai Mountain in Shaanxi and Chengde,
Hebei Province and some foreign countries and
regions such as Bhutan, Nepal, India, Mongolia,
Russia, North America and Europe.
(Kalsang gyal)

rnying ma pa Sect
Mying ma pa, one of the major sects of Tibetan
Buddhism, the dharma lineage sourced from bstan
pa snga dar (the 8th century CE) and it was called
mying ma by posterity to distinguish from gsar ma
founded in bstan pa phyi dar. Rnying ma pa had
three major lineage systems of ring brgyud bkav Mindrolling Monastery, Lhasa,Tibet, China

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brag dgon and dzogs chen dgon were representative Many eminent monks stood out from others
temples that preach the doctrine of byang gter. and formed different schools such as Exoteric
Lho gter was founded by Terton gter bdag rat Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism and Tantric lineages.
na gling pa (1403～1482 CE) who complied and For Exoteric Buddhism, gayg phrug sangs rje dpal
collated Terma Part Ⅰunearthed by nyang nyi ma (1350～1414 CE) imposed the precepts for studying
vod zer (1124～1192 CE), Terma Part Ⅱunearthed and practicing the doctrine of Exoteric Buddhism
by gu ru chos kyi dbang phyug (1212-1273 CE) and and his disciple rong ston smra bavi seng ge (1367-
Terma unearthed by himself and founded lho gter. 1449 CE) carried forward the precepts. In 1435
The temples such as Mindroling Kloster and Palyul CE, rong ston smra bavi seng ge built na len dra
Temple were representative temples that preach the in vphan po ( present-day Lin Zhou County, Lhasa)
doctrine of lho gter. and established teaching system for studying and
Nyingma eminent monk Klong chen rab vbyams
pa (1308-1363 CE) built thar pa gling in Bhutan/
vbrug yul. Then, Nyingma spread to regions such
as vbras ljongs, Nepal and India and built many
temples in different regions and Nyingma monks
went to rdzogs chen dgon to study Buddhism in
the 1950s.
(Kalsang gyal)

sa skya pa Sect
sa skya pa, one of the major sects of Tibetan
Buddhism and its Buddhist dharma lineage,
attributed to Indian master birlawpa and Tibetan
translator vbrog mi shwakya ye shes (993-1074) Drepung Monastery, Lhasa, Tibet
who went to India to study Buddhism dharma and
returned to Tibet to teach vkhon dkon mchog rgyal
po (1034-1102). In 1073, vkhon dkon mchog rgyal
po built temples and taught Buddhism dharma,
founding sa skya pa that advocated, preached
and practiced lam vbras. Sa skya gong ma rnam
lnga, namely, kun dgav snying po (1092～1158
CE), bsod nams rtse mo (1142～1182 CE), grags
pa rgyal mtshan (1147～1216 CE), kun dgav rgyal
mtshan (1180～1251 CE) and vgro mgon vphags
pa blo gros rgyal mtshan (1235～1280 CE) made a
great contribution to promoting the development
of sa skya pa. Sakya Monastery in Shigatse, Tibet, China
Sa skya pa was in its heyday in the Yuan Dynasty,
fell into decline in the Ming Dynasty and was at practicing the doctrine of Exoteric Buddhism to
a low ebb in the Qing Dynasty. With its temples teach monk tshad ma rnam vgrel, mngon par rtogs
distributed across Tibet, Sa skya dgon in sa skya pavi rgyan, dbu ma, mngon pa mdzod, sdom gsum
County, Shigatse, Tibet was renowned as an rab tu dbye ba and other sutras. Na len dra used
ancestral temple and central temple. to house 700 to 1,000 monks and some eminent
Since the foundation, sa skya adopted family monks who completed their study built temples and
hereditary system. In the late Yuan Dynasty (1324 preached Buddhism dharma in different regions.
CE), the sect split into four bla brangs, namely, gzhi Therefore, dbu ma established many branch temples
thog, rin chen sgang, lha khang and dus mchod that and had important influence on Tibetan Buddhism.
had their own people, land and religious power. In Tantric Buddhism featured three major Buddhist
the middle of Ming Dynasty, the hereditary system of dharma lineages, namely, ngor lugs, rdzong lugs
gzhi thog, rin chen sgang, lha khang was ceased and and tshar lugs. Among them, ngor lugs lineage was
dus mchod held the dharmaraja power of Sa skya. founded by ngor kun dgav bzang po (1382-1456
Subsequently, dus mchod split into phun tshogs CE). In 1429 CE, ngor kun dgav bzang po built Ae
and sgrol ma whose immediate family members lwang chos idan in ngor in Shigaste, Tibet (present-
succeeded as dharmaraja in turn with the religious day Kangma County, Shigaste, Tibet) and taught
power of sa skya in name only. Actually, they were Sakya Tantra, founding the Tantric lineage of ngor
granted limited appeal and power. lugs which spread widest among other Tantric

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1100 CE) and Matripa. Tibetan eminent monks such

as mar pa chos kyi blo gros (1012-1097 CE) and
khyung po rnal vbyor (990-1140 CE) went to India
and studied sutras under the instruction of Naropa
and Maidripa for many times and returned to Tibet
to teach sutras and founded “bkav brgyud pa”.
“Bkav brgyud pa” splits into “mar pa bkav
brgyud”, “shangs pa bkav brgyud” and “dwags po
bkav brgyud”. The former was ephemeral and the
latter spread widely and evolved into four branches,
namely, “karma bkav brgyud”, “tshal pa bkav
brgyud”, “vbav rom bkav brgyud” and “phag gru
bkav brgyud”. In the Qing Dynasty, “tshal pa bkav
brgyud” and “vbav rom bkav brgyud” demised.
Since modern times, “bkav brgyud pa” spread to
India as well as other regions and built temples and
formed monk groups there.
“Karma bkav brgyud pa”, one of four sub-sects
Monks at the Sakya monastery in Lhasa of “Bkav brgyud pa”, was founded by Bkav brgyud
pa (1110-1193). In 1157, Master dus gsum mkhyen
lineage of sa skya pa. In the Qing Dynasty, Aelwang pa built “karma lha steng dgon”, also known as
chos ldan and dgon chen were renowned as temple karma “gdan sa dgon”, in Karma Village, Chamdo
for preaching the Trantric lineage of ngor lugs. County, Kang Prefecture, Tibet and preached the
Rdzong lugs split into rdzong ba snga rabs or mus doctrine and ritual practices of “bkav brgyud pa”
srad pa and rdzong ba phyi rabs. The Buddhism and his Buddhist teachings, founding “karma bkav
dharma originated from bstan pa bsod nams rgyal brgyud pa” as the first branch of “bkav brgyud
mtshan (1312-1375 CE) and rdzong pa kun dgav pa” and named the sect after his temple. In 1189,
rgyal mtshan (1382-1446 CE) studied and preached dus gsum mkhyen pa built “mtshur phur dgon”
dharma, founding rdzong ba snga rabs or mus srad in stod lung sde chen. Altogether, there were two
pa. In 1464 CE, thu ston kun dgav rnam rgyal (1432- ancient temples. Subsequently, mtshur phur dgon
1496 CE) built gong dkar rdo rje gdan (vajrasana was extended as ancestral temple of “karma bkav
dgon) in Gongga County, Shannan Prefecture, Tibet brgyud pa”.
as preaching centre to teach the Tantric lineage “Karma bkav brgyud pa” is renowned as the first
of rdzong lugs and come up innovation, founding Tibetan Buddhist sect that built the living Buddha
rdzong ba phyi rabs, also known as gong dkav ba. reincarnation system and developed several living
As direct Tantric lineage of sa skya pa, Tshar Buddha reincarnation systems characterised by
lugs, also known as hearing lineage of Tantra, was Black-hat Sect Living Buddha System and Red-
founded by blo gsal rgya mtsho (1501-1561 CE). hat Sect Living Buddha System, having profound
Although it enjoyed prestige within and outside sa religious influence on Tibetan Buddhist believers.
skya pa, tshar lugs didn’t spread wider than Tantric In modern times, “Karma bkav brgyud pa” spread
lineage of ngor lugs. In the Qing Dynasty, sa skya to Sikkim in India and built temples. “Tshal pa bkav
dgon at Shigatse of Tibet and surrounding temples brgyud”, one of four sub-sects of “bkav brgyud pa”,
were known as temples for preaching tshar lugs. was founded by zhang tshal pa brtson vgrus grags
In history, sa skya pa attached importance to (1123-1194), disciple of Dog polha-rje.
studying Sanskrit and carrying out academic Zhang tshal pa brtson vgrus grags, also known as
exchange with Indian scholars. Saban kunga Bla ma Zhang, was born in skyyi shod (present-day
gyaltsen debated with six Indian scholars and Caibazhu Village) in Lhasa, Tibet, with original
defeated them, wining reputation across Tibet and name of “dar ma”. Because Bla ma Zhang’s father
starting the campaign for studying Sanskrit. was a layman Buddhist who practiced Tantric
In modern times, sa skya pa spread to Nepal and Buddhism, Bla ma Zhang was edified by his father
India and built many temples. and obtained insight into Buddhism. At the age
(Kalsang gyal) of nine, he began to study esoteric Buddhism and
toured mdo khams. At the age of 26, he received
bkav brgyud pa Sect Bhikshu precepts and was given the name of zhang
bkav brgyud pa, one of Tibetan Buddhist sects and tshal pa brtson vgrus grags. In 1153, he was granted
its dharma lineage originated from Indian eminent an opportunity to meet sgam po ba tshul khrims
monks Ti lo pa (988-1098 CE), Na ro pa (1016- snying po, nephew and disciple of Dog polha-rje

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and became his disciple to study the tantra of dwags in vbri gung. In 1179 CE, he started massive
po bkav brgyud including Mahamudra. In 1175 CE, construction and extended the small temple into
bla ma zhang built tshal pa dgon in Caigongtang vbri gung mthil. In particular, rin chen dpal carried
Village nearby Lhasa and developed disciples out religious activities such as preaching Buddhist
to teach Buddhist doctrine with the support of dharma and precept, abstaining from alcohol and
Tibetan aristocratic descent Gar Family. In 1187, meat and teaching unique esoteric Buddhism and
he built tshal gung thang dgon in the vicinity of consequently vbri gung mthil became a temple in
tshal pa dgon and both tshal gung thang dgon and which many monks practiced, founding vbri gung
tshal pa dgon were well-known temples of tshal pa bkav brgyud pa.
bkav brgyud. In modern times, vbri gung bkav brgyud pa spread
In 1268 CE, sangs rgyas dngos grub, abbot of to India and built temples, having certain religious
tshal pa dgon, was conferred a title of high-ranking influence on believers.
official and “Tshal pa bkav brgyud” became an “Stag lung bkav bgyud”, one of eight branches
important sect that adopted the theocratic system. of “bkav brgyud pa”, was founded by stag lung
With the emergence of dge lugs pa, tshal gung thang thang pa bkra shes dpal (1142-1210 CE), disciple
dgon and tshal pa dgon were transformed into the of phag mo grub pa, who studied the phag gruvi
temples of dge lugs pa and tshal pa bkav brgyud bkav brgyud. In 1180 CE, he built stag lung dgon
assimilated into dge lugs pa. in stag lung and developed disciples to teach
“Vbav rom bkav brgyud”, one of four sub-sects Buddhist doctrines, preach precepts and increase
of “bkav brgyud”, was founded by dar ma dbang the number of monks, founding stag lung bkav
phyug (the middle 12th century CE), disciple of bgyud. Subsequently, sangs rgyas vod (1251-1294
Dog polha-rje, who built vbav rom dgon in Angren CE), disciple of stag lung thang pa bkra shes dpal,
County, shigatse and developed disciples to teach went to western Kham to spread Buddhism and built
Tantric Mahamudra and Exoteric Mahamudra at the rib bo che dgon in Leiwuqi County. Stag lung bkav
temple, founding vbav rom bkav brgyud. bgyud had two well-known temples, among which
After dar ma dbang phyug passed away, his family stag lung dgon is the upper main temple and also
members succeeded as abbot of vbav rom dgon and named as yar thang dgon and ri bo che dgon is the
vbav rom bkav brgyud was demised due to the lower main temple and also named as mar thang
constant conflicts within the family. The doctrine dgon, each with 3,000-4,000 monks, respectively.
and ritual of vbav rom bkav brgyud were still “Vbrug pa bkav brgyud”, one of eight branches of
preached and practiced at several temples in mdo “bkav brgyud pa”, was founded by gling ras pad ma
khams (Yushu Prefecture, Qinghai). rdo rje (1128-1188 CE), disciple of phag mo grub
“Phag gruvi bkav brgyud”, one of four sub-sects pa. Gling ras pad ma rdo rje was born in Niangdui
of “bkva brgyud”, was founded by phag mo grub pa Village, Tibet, and studied medicine since childhood.
(1110-1170 CE), one of four well-known disciples of At the age of 17, he converted to Buddhism and
Dog polha-rje. There are different historical records studied esoteric Buddhism, famous for proficiency
on his family background and clan family and Pha in incantation. When he was 38 years old, he went
gruvi bkav brgyud integrated with Lang Family to to gdan sa mthil and became a disciple of phag mo
achieve mutual development and prosperity. In grub pa to study Tantra. Subsequently, he travelled
the late Yuan Dynasty, the theocratic Phagmodru around Tibet and taught local personages. In his later
regime was established and “phag gruvi bkav years, vbrug pa bkav brgyud developed disciples
brgyud” became another sect that came to power in and taught tantra, laying a doctrine foundation for
Tibet after sa skya pa. founding of vbrug pa bkav brgyud.
Phag gruvi bkav brgyud had profound influence Gtsang pa rgya ras ye shes rdo rje (1128-1188
on society and split into eight relatively independent CE), heir disciple of gling ras pad ma rdo rje built
branches, namely, vbri gung bkav brgyud pa, stag
lung bkav brgyud, vbrig pa bkav brgyud, gyav bzang
bkav brgyud, khro phu bkav brgyud, shug gseb bkav
brgyud, yer pa bkav brgyud and smar tshang bkav
brgyu, spreading across Tibet.
“Vbri gung bkav brgyud pa”, one of eight
branches of “bkav brgyud pa”, was founded by rin
chen dpal (also known as skyob pa vjig rten mgon
po, 1143～1217 CE), disciple of phag mo grub
pa. Rin chen dpal was born in dan-ma (present-
day Dengke County, Ganzi Prefecture, Sichuan
Province) and served as an abbot of a small temple Chupu Monastery, Duilongdeqing County, Tibet, China

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 Cultural Contacts

tsha (1118-1195) and kon ldan ras pa (1148~1217),

disciples of phag mo grub pa. After completing
study, they returned to hometown and built temples
to preach Buddhist dharma, founding kho phu bkav
brgyud. In the middle 14th century CE, kho phu
bkav brgyud was declined.
“Shug gseb bkav brgyud”, one of eight branches
of “bkav brgyud pa”, was founded by tshul khrims
blo gros (1144-1204), disciple of phag mo grub pa.
In 1152, he became a disciple of phag mo grub pa to
study Buddhist dharma. In 1181, he built shug gseb
dgon at Niepu and founded shug gseb bkav brgyud
which was declined and disappeared gradually.
“Yel pa bkav brgyud”, one of eight branches of
“bkav brgyud pa”, was founded by ye-shes-brtsegs-
pa, disciple of phag mo grub pa, who built Yel-phu
temple and developed disciples to teach Buddhist
Monastery of the Kagyu School of the dharma and found yel pa bkav brgyud. The heir
Tibetan Buddhism
disciple of ye-shes-brtsegs-pa built Dana Temple in
present-day Angqian County, Qinghai province and
klong rdol dgon nearby Lhasa, ra lung dgon in ra the dharma lineage continues till today.
lung and vbrug dgon in Qushui County in southwest “Smar tshang bkav brgyud”, one of eight branches
Lhasa, founding vbrug pa bkav brgyud. Vbrug pa of “bkav brgyud pa”, was founded by shes rab ye
bkav brgyud chose vbrug dgon as main temple shes, disciple of phag mo grub pa, born in western
at first and then ra lung dgon as main temple to Kham and birthday and death date were unknown.
preach the doctrines, also known as middle vbrug Shes rab ye shes went to Tibet to study Buddhism and
pa bkav brgyud. then returned to hometown to build the zhok dgon
In 1241 CE, lo ras pa dbang phyug brtson vgrus housing 2,000 monks and then kao dgon to educate
(1187-1250 CE), disciple of gtsang pa rgya ras and edify many monks, founding smar tshang bkav
ye shes rdo rje built dkar po chos lung dgon as a brgyud, also known as maba bkav brgyud.
main centre for preaching Buddhist doctrines and Bkvav brgyud preached phag rgya chen po and
developed many disciples. Additionally, he also advocated practicing na ro chos drug which had its
built temples and spread Buddhism in different roots in Tantric lineage attributed to Indian master
regions, founding upper vbrug pa bkav brgyud. In Kukkuripa and thus named after Kukkuripa. Phag
1226 CE, rgod tshang ba mgon po rdo rje (1139- rgya chen po and na rochos drug completed with
1258 CE), another disciple of gtsang pa rgya ras ye each other.
shes rdo rje built rgod tshang dgon in Shekar Village (Kalsang gyal)
to develop disciples and teach Buddhism dharma
and trained many well-known disciples, founding dge lugs pa Sect
lower vbrug pa bkav brgyud. dge lugs pa, also known as Bkav gdams pa gsar ma, is
Vbrug pa bkav brgyud mainly spread to the one of major sects of Tibetan Buddhism, commonly
Kingdom of Bhutan with many temples and lots known as “Yellow-hat sect” in Chinese, which was
of disciples. founded by Tsong kha pa (1357-1419).
“Gyav bzang bkav brgyud”, one of eight branches The dharma lineage originated from Candrakirti/
of “bkav brgyud pa”, originated from ska ldan ye Zla ba grags pa (600-650) and Aatisha (982-1054)
shes seng ge (unknown-1207) and founded by chos and Tsong kha pa treasured and preached dbu
smon lam (1169-1233). Skal ldan ye shes seng ge, ma la vjug pa by Candrakirti/Zla ba grags pa and
disciple of phag mo grub pa, built so ras dgon after byang chub lam sgron by Aatisha as the basis for
completing study and developed disciples to teach establishing the doctrine of Dge lugs pa.
Buddhism dharma. Among his disciples, chos smon In 1409, Tsong kha pa succeeded in holding the
lam became his heir. In 1206, chos smon lam built Monlam (or Grand Summons ceremony) at Jokhang
gyav bzang dgon in gyav bzang and founded gyav Temple for the first time, creating a great sensation
bzang bkav brgyud. He formed an alliance with among monks and believers and winning religious
local government and was conferred the title of prestige as well as raising social status for Tsong
high-ranking official in Yuan Dynasty. kha pa. In the same year, Tsong kha pa built dgav
“Khro phu bkav brgyud”, one of eight branches of ldan rnam par rgyal bavi vgling in vbrog ri bo che
“bkav brgyud pa”, was founded by rin po che rgyal (present-day Dazi County, Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous

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Region) and founded Dge lugs pa centering around stong from generation to generation. After the sixth
dgav ldan dgon. generation of disciple Kun Spangs Thugs Rje Brtson
In 1416, Tsong kha pa instructed his disciple Vgrus (1243-1313 CE) built temple and developed
vjam dbyangs chos rgyal (1379-1449) to build vbras the gzhan stong school into jo nang pa, byang sems
spungs dgon pa in the western suburb of Lhasa. In rgyal ba ye shes (1257～1320 CE), Mkhas Btsun Yon
1418, his disciple byams chen chos rgyal (or Shakya Tan Rgya Mtsho (1260～1327 CE), Dol Po Ba Shes
Yeshe, 1352-1435) built se ra theg chen gling in Rab Rgyal Mtshan (1292～1361 CE), lo tsa ba blo
the northern suburb of Lhasa. The construction of gros dpal (1299～1353 CE), hyogs las rnam rgyal
three major temples in Lhasa laid a solid religious (1306～1386 CE), nya dbon kun dgav dpal (1345
foundation for dge lugs pa. ～1439 CE), kun dgav grol mchog (1507～1569 CE)
After three major temples were built in Lhasa, and da ra na tha (1575～1634 CE) stood out from
dge vdun grub pa (1391-1474) built bkra shes lhun others and made a great contribution to promoting
po in gzhis ka rtse in 1447. Before long, stod shes the development of jo nang pa.
rab bzav po built stag movi chos sde in mngav ris In particular, da ra na tha who was well versed
and smad shes rab bzav po built chab mdo dgon in in Sanskrit and frequently contacted with Indian
monks in Tibet and composed rgya gar chos vbyung
based on their oral information. In Buddhist
history, the works played a vital role in studying
the history of Buddhism in India and had a wide
influence on India-China cultural exchange. Thus,
it was translated into Chinese, English and other
language versions. In 1615, da ran a tha built rtag
brtag dam chos gling in present-day Lazi County,
Shigatse, Tibet and invited 20 artisans from Nepal
to make sculptures and draw paintings and thus the
Buddiha statues and murals there were full of Nepal
and Indian Buddhist artistic style.
Ganden Monastery of the Gelugpa sect, Tibet After da ra na tha passed away, jo nang pa fell into
decline. In the early Qing Dynasty, its temples in
khams. From then on, Dge lugs pa established its Tibet were disappeared. However, eminent monks
stable temple organisations in the entire Tibetan built temples and preached dharma in mdo khams
area and the late comer came at the top. In the early (some Tibetan autonomous prefectures in Sichuan
16th century CE, Deg lugs pa took shape in Tibet and Qinghai) and continued the Buddhist lineage of
and developed on an unprecedented scale in Tibetan jo nang pa till today.
Buddhist history. In 1425, drung rrna shri (or dkav bzhi pa rin chen
In the Qing Dynasty, Dge lugs pa was in its heyday dpal, 1350-1435 CE) built dpal vdzam thang chos sde
and became the most influential mainstream sect in vdzam thang (present-day Rangtang County, Aba
in Tibetan Buddhism. What’s more, three major Tibet Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province)
temples in Lhasa (dgav ldan dgon, vbras spungs and preached the doctrines and ritual practices of
dgon pa and se ra theg chen gling), bkra shes lhun jo nang pa in accordance with the instruction of
po, stag movi chos sde, tar lamasery, labuleng si and Chogle Namgyal. Subsequently, his heir disciples
chamdo champa ling still have a profound influence such as chos rje rgyal ba bzang po (1419～1482
in minorities regions where Tibetan, Mongolian, Tu CE), tshes bcu rrna kwirti and Aa rge nyi ma vod
Nationality and Yugurs resided. zer extended temples and established the temple
In modern times, Dge lugs pa spread to India
and built many temples in India. In south India, it
replicated three major temples in Lhasa (dgav ldan
dgon, vbras spungs dgon pa and se ra theg chen
gling). Dge lugs pa houses numerous monks and has
a great influence.
(Kalsang gyal)

jo nang pa Sect
jo nang pa, one of the major sects of Tibetan Buddhism
and the Buddhism dharma originated from yu mo
mi bskyod rod rje (in the 11th century CE), who
founded gzhan stong and believers preached gzhan Monastery of the Jonang sect, Tibet, China

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 Cultural Contacts

layout of the coexistence of chos rgyal dgon, tshe

bcu dgon buit in 1456 and gtsang ba dgon built in
1730. Additionally, they set up the living Buddha
reincarnation system for living Buddha chos rje,
tshes bcu and gtsang pa, etc.
Gtsang ba dgon developed into a central temple
for lineal Buddhism dharma lineage of jo nang pa
and extended its religious influence. Additionally, it
had established many branch temples in surrounding
areas such as Sichuan Aba Tibetan Autonomous
Prefecture and Qinghai Golog Tibetan Autonomous
Prefecture. In the late Qing Dynasty, jo nang pa
built a total of more than 30 temples which were Aryasta-sahasrika-prajnaparamita-sutra in Tibetan
mainly distributed in mdo khams.
(Kalsang gyal) the basic idea and understands the objective things
according to this basic idea, so as to cut off or put
thi byed Sect out all the pains and troubles. But Xi Jie Sect does
Thi Byed Sect (Xi Jie Sect) is one of the sects of not escape and negate the reality but transform the
Tibetan Buddhism in China. It was set up by Pa bitter troubles in real life into the things that can be
Danbasanje (pha damba sangje, unknown-1117), a used in Buddhism by understanding their meanings
famous eminent monk and mahasiddhas from the and mind, and finally cut off all troubles and
south India, in the middle of the 11th century CE. achieve the Buddhist result. Xi Jie Sect thinks that
“Xi Jie” (thi byed) is from Tibetan Language that the external objective phenomena and all things lie
means “still quiescence” or “to quench”. Its Tibetan within the wise hear, so all things the heart shows
full name is “Du A Xi Jie” (sdug bsng thi byed) that are distinguished. If you can understand the heart
means “to perish the pain”. It is said that studying and distinguish the doubtful heart, the Wudu that
the doctrines and arguments of Xi Jie Sect can causes people to worry will become Wuhui or Wuzhi
quench or eliminate all the troubles and pains in that is the thought of enlightenment.
the world, hence it got the name “Xi Jie Pai”. From Xi Jie Sect is a sect that focusses on Buddhist
the 11th-15th centuries CE, this sect had ever had a practice and cultivation, and it requires that each
great impact in Tibet. But later its impacts gradually practitioner that “body, following three doctrines.
faded away. Road, into the ascetic. Result, altruism”. The
The doctrines and arguments of Xi Jie Sect are practice of religious doctrines and arguments
based on the Prajna Paramita and combine the should be clear and that is the condition and quality
Asceticism of Yoga which aim at quenching or that the practitioners must have. Pa Danbasanje
eliminating all the pains and troubles. Xi Jie Sect thought the carriage cannot run on the road without
believes that Ben Zong Sect concentrates six kinds being treated clearly; the water cannot flow in
of Prajna inheritance of Pa Danbasanje that is the the winding and rugged channels; the dirty water
essential inheritance inheriting from Tushita Palace, is difficult to show images; the burnt pots are
the Dragon King’s Palace, Wu Zhangna (Ougran), water-proof and if the root is not clean the merits
East India’s Pangalo (Phan Kiara) and South India’s and virtues will not appear. Therefore, Xi Jie Sect
Bedara (bedhala) and the south of Candanavana. At requires the practicers to practice in order. First of
the same time, this Sect absorbed Pa Danbasanje’s all, to cultivate the “Savaka Curse” in accordance
four kinds of inheritance of Shastras which are with the guru’s Buddhist thoughts. Second, to
the secret key to the inheritance of Yidam, the pursue solitary enlightened one and cultivate
common inheritance of the 54 male and female “the Curse of Solitary Enlightened One”. Third, to
Yoga practicers, the fantastic inheritance of the 36 enlighten the compassion and practice “Bodhisattva
mahatmas and the special inheritance of Dakini Duozhi Curse”. To cultivate in order, to understand
XinSui. All those as the secret teachings and simple the nature of heart with altruism and without
methods of freeing from samsara, constitute the differentiation and to put out all the troubles and
distinctive characteristics of Xi Jie Sect. pains are very important for Xi Jie Sect.
The source of the right views or thoughts of Xi Jie The practicer of Xi Jie Sect often cultivate in the
Sect can be originated back to Prajnaparamita,and barren hills and forests, the snow-capped mountains
all thoughts or sutras are in accordance with the and the cemeteries. The famous “Cultivating
Nagarjuna. The right views of Xi Jie Sect are Method of Yoga in Cemeteries” is a kind of secret
not beyond those of Madhyamika. It takes the method to cultivate in the cemetery. They think that
understanding of the nature, wisdom and mind as cultivating in the cemetery is good for understanding

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the change and bitterness of life and can remove The Outline of the Overall Doctrines, Scatter-Gather,
the “Avidya”. So Xi Jie Sect advocates penance and The Mutual Touching of the Mouth and Nose and
transforms all the troubles or wrong things into The Later Wideness; the main classics of Sojo
the path to Buddhism or helpful friends. It also Gantownbel include The Teaching of 54 Male and
advocates the understanding of the nature of mind Female Siddhas, The 51 Edge-removing Teaching
and the empty nature of things. Therefore, people Method, The Doctrine Biographies of 32 Gurus,
can abandon greedy thoughts and the troubles of The Biographies of 17 Sages, The Classification
Avidya, and quench pains to attain enlightenment. of the Method to Open Eyes, The Classification
Xi Jie Sect always stresses the “empty self-nature” so of the Method to Dakini, The Teaching of Timer
as to reflect the thought of Prajna or Madhyamika. and Microtimer, 106 Cognitive Methods, Not
The classics of Xi Jie Sect were written by Pa Covered, Peace and Quiet, Dorje Sattva Tunnels,
Danbasanje’s disciples according to his dictation. and The Big and Small Dhyana Seiza Methods; the
Because Pa Danbasanje taught disciples according classics of Wofgang Yasitenza include Respectively
to their aptitude and an uncountable number of Using of Doctrines along with Paramita, Eight
people, the classics of this sect are numerous and Characteristics of Abhisamaya, Paramita Sutra, The
complex. His disciples also added a lot of classics First Characteristic of Morality, To Teach People to
according to Pa Danbasanje’s thoughts. That not Quite Catur-satyas, and Practicing the Scattering.
only formed many different thoughts and also The representatives of the small branches are Gussie
formed various classics of inheritance branches. Orizaba (bge bshes graw ba), Gussie Djerba (bge
The inheritance of Xi Jie sect can be divided into bshes lce ba) and Jiang Gadams (ljang bkav gdams
early, mid-term and late inheritances and some pa). The main classic of Gussie Orizaba is Nine
small or fragmented inheritance branch. The early Kinds of Methods to Extinct the Bright Torch. The
inheritance began when Pa Danbasanje went to main classics of Gussie Djerba include The Common
Tibet for the second and third time and the main and Different Paramita, The Common and Different
successor is Chane Bernard Gu Haya (Dznyvan gu Esoteric Buddhism and other 108 kinds of teaching
hya) in Kashmir. In that year when Pa Danbasanje methods. The main classic of Jiang Gadams is The
passed through Kashmir, he gave The three Books No-character Teaching of Paramita etc.
of Xi Jie Ming Deng, The Cultivating Method of The late inheritance is called “the Secret and oral
Yamantaka and The Sixteen Classics to Chane inheritance of Xi Jie Sect” and also called “the Three
Bernard Gu Haya and the inheritance was formed Gurus’s Only Inheritance” which began after the
after him and spread in Tibet. That was called the construction of Xi Jie Sect’s basic dojo –Lang Kuo
early inheritance by Tibetan Buddhism. Temple (glang vkhor). The successor is Jiangqu Sanhua
The mid-term inheritance compromises three big Gongga (1062-1124) who is one of the disciples of
branches and a number of small branches which the four Yoga sects. His main classics include The
began when Pa Danbasanje went to Tibet for the Mahamudra of MoZhu ba, Amala (the teaching of Pa
fourth time. The representatives of the three big Danbasatngjie), The Essence of the Points of Ming
branches are Magon Cogihige (ma chos kyisherab) in and The Practical Cultivation, including common
Yar lung, Sojo Gantownbel (sochung dge vdun vbar) teaching methods like The Practice Xian Mi Jing Xu,
and Wofgang Yasitenza (skam yeshe gyaltshan). After Pro Training and Ear Teaching, Essence of Amala, All
they respectively got the knack from Pa Danbasanje, Volumes of Juanluo and different teaching methods
they created their own inheritance of thoughts and like The Overall Outline of Tantra Gyu, The Guide for
had ever had a certain of influence on the history Abhisheka Gradual Path, Three Secret Libraries and
of Xi Jie sect. All these three representatives have Eight Aquarius.
many classics. The main classics of Magon Cogihige The three big branches and some small branches
include Top 64 Stones Introduction with Xu Method, have ever been spread in the entire Tibetan area. In
Deveioubg Bidgucukka, Make a Detour to Practice, the later 16th century, Xi Jie Sect gradually declined
and its thoughts and sadhana drubtab were also
brought into the Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya and Deluk
of Tibetan Buddhism. And many classics about Xi
Jie sect have been lost.
(Deji zhuoma)

Theravada Buddhism
in Yunnan
A school of Buddhism in China. As the followers are
mostly the ethnic minority of Dai, it is also known
Wooden block-printed edition of Buddhist Sutras as “Dai Buddhism”.

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the degree of strictness with the commandments

(such as vegetarian and non-vegetarian etc) and the
loudness and speed of reciting incantations.
Yunnan Theravāda Buddhism is a religion
followed by all the residents. Men are obliged to
spend some time in a monastery, at least, once in
a lifetime. Generally, when serving as monks in
the temple, the young aspire to serve Buddhism
and at the same time learn Buddhism and culture
in the temple. Only those who have served in a
monastery would obtain their rightful place in
Southern Buddhism Temple at Menghan County, Xishuangbanna,
society and gain respect. Theravāda temples are
Yunnan, China located throughout the Dai-inhabited area, forming
the view of “every village has a Buddhist temple,
Theravāda Buddhism is mainly distributed in two and every family has a Buddhist shrine”. The
parts of Yunnan province. One is Xishuangbanna Dai monasteries are of four levels. At the top is the
Autonomous Prefecture, Simao, and Lincang areas; general temple of an administrative area which is
and the other is Dehong Dai Jingpo Autonomous responsible for coordinating Buddhist activities
Prefecture and Baoshan area. It was disseminated for Buddhists, promulgating related religious
roughly between the 6th and 7th centuries and is regulations, formally approving the promotion of
popular among the Dai, Blangs, Achangs, some of the monks and holding religious ceremonies for
the Vas and people of other nationalities. Burmese newly reported officials and senior chieftains. At
Buddhism was the first school of Buddhism to the second are the general monasteries of Mengs in
be introduced in China but went into decline charge of their respective religious affairs within the
later due to the war. After the 8th century, Han Meng. A number of central uposatha monasteries
Buddhism also had an impact on this area. In 12th comprising four temples in the same area or more
century CE, Thai Buddhism was disseminated into villages are the third-level monasteries responsible
Xishuangbanna area. Soon, Burmese Buddhism for the monthly Buddhist practice activities on the
found its way into Dehong area which underwent routine day, the supervision of the monks observing
great development after the 15th century and has the commandments, the approval and appraisal
survived till today. of monk promotion. At the bottom are the village
Dai Buddhism mainly comprises of two sects due temples responsible for the daily worshipping and
to different dissemination paths: Run and Baizhuang. chanting activity courses of the villagers and the
Each sect is divided into several sub-sects. Buddhist education and cultural training for young
Run spread from the northeast area of Thailand people. The orders of the monks vary with the region
and consists of two subsects of “garden temple sect” and the sects. Run has eight levels while Baizhuang
and “lotus temple sect”. The former is also named and Duolie have four levels respectively. Theravāda
Baisun, popular in the large Menglong, Jinghong, has no bhikkhuni but has female Buddhists who can
and Menghan regions along both sides of Lancang only be engaged in charity but not host Buddhist
River. The latter is also known as Baiba which is activities.
distributed at the mountainous area of Xiding Bulang, Yunnan Theravāda Buddhism has its own classic
Mengzhe, Menghai, and Menghun barrage areas. Tripitaka written with the sound of southern
Baizhuang, also known as “the temple sect”, belongs disseminated Tripitaka in the Pali language. The
to the Buddhism sect disseminated from Myanmar. texts are written in four languages of Daile, Daina,
With relatively early introduction, it is mainly Daibeng, and Jinpingdai on pattra leaves or dog-
distributed in Dehong Prefecture and the residential skin paper. The writings of eminent monks and
areas of Dai, Benglong and Achang minority groups scholars of all ethnic groups and Dai translations of
in Baoshan area. Baizhuang and Run have the most important sutras and notes are also included in the
monks with the greatest influence and constitute Buddhist scriptures.
the main body of Yunnan Theravāda Buddhism. Important Buddhist festivals include the Water-
Besides the two main sects, there are the Duolie and Sprinkling Festival, Yu’anju, Haogan Festival etc
Zuodi sects that also belong to the Burma Buddhism during which the people will have a great time.
system. They have four sub-sects of Dagongliang, Theravāda Buddhism joined the Buddhist
Suteman, Ruijing and Mianzuo, and are popular in Association of China after 1949 which has played
Mangshi, Zhefang, Mengding and other areas with an important role in making the Chinese Buddhism
temples but no monks today. These sects, having integrated from the content to the form.
basically the same doctrines and systems, differ in (Huang Xianian)

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Acharya Buddhism only obtain his religious name after the authorities
It is a Buddhist cult among the Bais inhabiting Dali, of a county applied to the Central Government on
Yunnan, China. It is a sect of Tantrism or esoteric his behalf. Without a legal status, he could not hold
Buddhism. The Sanskrit term acharya means guru religious services for the masses.
or teacher. Buddhism practiced by the Bais allows Acharya Buddhism has declined in modern times.
an acharya to get married and beget offspring. Most of the hereditary acharyas have given up their
His position as a priest is hereditary. In 8th-9th religious positions and are engaged in farming
centuries, Tantrism was in vogue in India and some nowadays. Scriptures-chanting is merely their side
acharyas went to Dali, Yunnan to do missionary occupation.
work. In 839 CE, Acharya Candragupta reached (Lan Jifu)
Nanzhao, a kingdom in Dali then. King Quan
Fengyou appointed him as state mentor and married
his younger sister to Candragupta. Since then on,
Buddhist Sacred
Places
acharyas enlisted the support of the political power
and financial charity of the Nanzhao upper ruling
classes and went in for large-scale construction of
Buddhist temples and images, absorbed followers Lumbini
among the Bais. Consequently, Tantrism developed One of the four holiest pilgrimage sites of the
vigorously and acharyas became state mentors first Buddhists, Lumbini, is the birth place of Siddharth
of the Kingdom of Nazhao (738-902 CE) and then Gautam. It is located in the southern terai region of
the Kingdom of Dali (937-1254 CE) for generations. Rupandehi (Rummindei) district of Nepal bordering
The influence of Acharya Buddhism began to with India. It is believed that the wife of Shakyan
wane gradually in the upper society of the Bais king Shuddhodan, Queen Mayadevi, stopped in
since the 13th century, but it was still flourishing in Lumbini gardens/ forest on the way to her parents’
rural areas. Acharyas once called upon the people home in Devdaha (about 35 km from Lumbini).
of various nationalities to resist against rulers of the Attracted by the beauty of evergreen forest having
Yuan Dynasty (1206-1368 CE) and the Ming Dynasty abundance of sal trees in the shadow of Himalayan
(1368-1644 CE). As a result, Zhu Yuanzhang, mountain ranges, she decided to rest here. According
Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty, once banned to several accounts, while watching the beauty of
the dissemination of Acharya Buddhism. However, the garden/forest standing under a sal tree, Maydevi
he later abolished his prohibition and set up an office had labour pain. Holding the drooping branch of the
to administer the affairs of Acharya Buddhism. Zhu tree she gave birth to Prince Siddharth– the future
Di, Emperor Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty, once Buddha. The most widely accepted date of Buddha’s
ordered the acharya of Beitangtian, Dali to go to birth is Viasakh Purnima (ie, full moon day in April-
Beijing to pray for his blessings. Nevertheless, during May) 563 BCE. Some controversy about the date,
the reign of the Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty however, still exists. Lumbini thus became among
(1616-1911 CE), the office in charge of affairs with the most sacred places of the Buddhist religion.
regard to Acharya Buddhism was revoked. Incidentally, Devdaha, the ancient capital of
Acharyas performed various duties and ceremonies Koli(ya) Kingdom was not only the Siddharth
including Buddhist scriptures reading and funerals. Gautam’s maternal home. It was also the home of
As the host of a Buddhist altar, an acharya, since the his step-mother Prajapati Gautam as well as of his
reign of Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty, could wife, Yashodhara’s father, King Suprabuddha.
The discovery of Buddha’s birth-site owes much
to travel descriptions of Faxian and Xuanzang.
Following the leads provided by both the Chinese
travellers and the discovery of an Asokan Pillar at
Rummindei by the Nepali archaeologist Khadga
Samsher Rana in 1896, several archaeological
excavations, the latest of which was conducted
recently between 1990s and 2000s jointly by
Nepalese and Japanese archaeologists, claim
to have found the exact location of Siddharth
Gautam’s birth.
The Rummindei Asokan Pillar inscription
announces that when King Devanampriya
Shaxi xingjiao temple, Jianchuan County, Yunnan Province, China Priyadarshi (Asoka) had been anointed 20 years,
he himself visited this place and worshipped at

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believed to have spent first 29 years of his life here.

It was then the capital of ancient Shakya Republic
of which Siddharth Gautam’s father, Shuddhodana,
was an elected king. Considered among the earliest
republics of the world, the Shakyas belonged to the
16 mahajanpadas (republics) of the 6th century BCE.
The discovery of the exact site of Kapilvastu
owes to the travel records of Faxian and Xuanzang.
During their visit, both these Chinese travellers
found the capital city and the surrounding towns
destroyed, desolate and only sparsely populated
for long. The whole region was divided into many
small states ruled by several kings. The land was
Ruins of Lumbini fertile and the people peaceful. They located
the remains of old palatial buildings as well as
this spot. He erected a structure/ stone pillar with about 1,000 sites of a monastery. By the time of
wall here to mark that the Blessed One (Buddha Xuznzang’s visit there were about 30 monks of
Sakyamuni) was born here. In mark of respect for the Hinyana sect living in a monastery and there
the Blessed One, Lumbini was exempted from the were two non-Buddhist [Íaiva ?] temples. Faxian
payment of state taxes. The pillar has an additional refers to remains of drawn images, erected topes
inscription carved by the early 14th century local and constructed marks/ chaitya related to the
king Ripu Mall to record his pilgrimage. By the 15th narratives of the early life of Siddharth Gautam.
century, the place fell into historical obscurity due On the basis of these records, archaeologists have
to various reasons. located the site at Tilaurakut in Nepal.
Excavations in Lumbini have now unearthed Yet recently, some archaeologists have made
ruins of ancient monasteries and stupas of various claims that Piparhawa, in the border-district of
Buddhist sects from 3rd century BCE to 15th century Siddharthnagar in India and about 40 km from
CE, the Mayadevi temple– where the exact spot of Tilaurakut in Nepal, is the site of historical
Buddha’s birth is marked by an ancient rock stone Kapilvastu. Remains of a large Asokan Stupa over
and the famous bathing pond famous as Pushkarni a Shakyan stupa with Buddha’s urns in it and an
(where according to legends Mayadevi bathed inscription proclaiming it to be the the Kapilvastu
before the delivery). Buddhist Mahavihara were found there. Some
Presently, Lumbini has once again gained the historians link Kapileshwar in Orissa (now Odisha)
fame as one of the holiest Buddhist pilgrim sites. Its with historical Kapilvastu. The controversy
renovation and development tasks are being carried remains unresolved. Near ancient Kapilvastu
out under the UNESCO’s World Heritage schemes was Nigrodhārāma (in the present village of
and the Lumbini Development Trust. In 2006, Kudan which is about 6 km from Tilaurakaot,
the Nepal Government established the Lumbini Nepal) where archaeologists have found a site of
Buddhist University there. A large Peace Park has monastery. According to several accounts, Buddha
been developed with Chinese help. There are also was provided a residential place here in the banyan
plans to have temples of different sects of Buddhism
from various Buddhist countries be built there.
With increase in pilgrim tourists world-calls hotels
and restaurants are developing. A China-based
Asia Pacific Exchange Cooperation Foundation has
reported to have signed a deal to invest $3 billion
to develop Lumbini. Similar proposals are also afoot
from other countries. Lumbini has thus woken up.
(Kamal Sheel)

Kapilvastu
Kapilvastu, located in the western part of present
day Nepal and bordering India, is most famous
as a Buddhist site linked with the childhood of
Siddharth Gautam (Buddha) and the early phase
of his life after attaining enlightenment. Born
in nearby Lumbini village, Siddharth Gautam is Ruins of Kapilavastu

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grove by a Shakyan-turned-Buddhist monk to stay Sambodhi is the first name used for the Uruvela
during his visits to his home town. It is believed that village in an Asokan Rock Edict of 256 BCE. Another
he preached cula dukkhakkhandha sutta, sakka sutta, name Bodhimanda refers to a circular area around
madhupindika sutta and promulgated several vinaya the Bodhi tree which was, according to Kalingabodhi
rules here. Yet in the absence of further concrete Jataka, covered with clean and shining sand without
evidences, Tilaurakut in Nepal is widely believed to a blade of grass growing on it with surrounding
be historical Kapilavastu and the site at Piparhawa trees and shrubs bending in its deference. The
was located, an extension of large Kapilvastu name, Vajrasan, derives from the famous "Diamond
kingdom where a large Shakyan Monastery under Throne" meditation seat, sitting over which Buddha
the control of Buddhist sangha. received enlightenment. However, Mahabodhi was
(Kamal Sheel) the most commonly used name until the rediscovery
of the site in the mid-19th century.
Bodhgaya According to Buddhist texts, more than 2,550
Bodhgaya is the place where Gautam Buddha years ago, Siddharth Gautam spent six years in
attained enlightenment. It is one of the four holiest Uruvela [Bodhgaya] subjecting himself to intense
sites which Buddha himself recommended his penance and fasting. Failing to attain the required
disciples to visit for pilgrimage. The other three knowledge, he accepted the rice pudding from
are Sarnath, Lumbini and Kushinara. Bodhgaya is a local woman devotee Sujata who lived just
originally a village at the fringes of the ancient city across the Niranjana River. Finally after deep
of Gaya and not far from Nalanda, Rajagriha and meditation for three days under a peepal tree, he
Patliputra (Patna) in southern Bihar. attained enlightenment and became the Buddha
It was historically known as Uruvela and was on Vaishakh Purnima (full moon day in April-May).
situated at the banks of River Niranjana (Lilanjan) He then spent seven weeks in seven different sites
which merged with the holy River Falgu that flowed here in contemplation before setting off to Sarnath
past the city of Gaya. According to 5th century in Varanasi to announce his newly discovered
commentator Dharmapala, the name Uruvela derived knowledge, wisdom and truth. From Sarnath, he
from the abundance of sand (vela). Others link its returned to Uruvela again on the way to Rajgriha.
name to the existence of a or many vilva trees (Aegie He met here three ascetic brothers, Nadi Kasspa,
marmelas) there. Archaeological excavations of the Gaya Kassap and Uruvela Kaasap. Deeply impressed
local village site, however, reveal that it was an area by his serenity and wisdom, they along with their
with human settlement dating at par with Indus 1,000 disciples requested to be ordained as monks
Civilisation of about 4,500 years ago. and proceeded to Rajgriha with him. Buddha
After its linkages with Gautam Buddha and probably never returned to this place again.
the disappearance of its original name due to The holy site of Bodhgaya initially developed
disuse, it was referred to differently as the city of around the Bodhi tree and the Vajrasana. The Bodhi-
Smbodhi [Complete Enlightenment], Bodhimanda tree shrine, which later became the Mahabodhi
[Enclosure containing the holy Bodhi tree], Mahavihara [temple], was built by the Emperor
Vajrasana [Diamond throne] or Mahabodhi [Perfect Asoka in the 3rd century BCE. The structure of the
Knowledge/ Enlightenment] until its present name temple underwent many changes over the time.
Bodhgaya gained popularity after the rediscovery of During the Sunga period (2nd-1st centuries BCE) a
this site with a large temple and other ruins in the two storied structure enclosing the tree and a stupa
early 19th century. were erected and the stone meditation seat was
decorated with a diamond-shaped design pattern.
The original Mahabodhi temple [mulagandhakuti]
had been built by the second half of the 6th century
CE, with extension and addition during the Pala-Sen
dynasty (10th-12th centuries CE).
Bodhgaya had become a famous Buddhist pilgrim
centre by the time of Asoka whose visit to the
city of Sambodhi [Bodhgaya] is recorded. Since
Buddha’s time, patronised by men and women of
both royal and commoner households as well as
by monks and seekers of knowledge, it has been
at the centre of the Buddhist pilgrimage map.
Among famous earliest visitors from abroad, one
finds evidence of Sri Lankan monk Culla Tissa
Bodhgaya, Bihar, India and a group of lay pilgrims making their way to

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Vajrasana
Vajrasana, translated often as Diamond Throne,
refers to the stone seat decorated with diamond
pattern surface on which Gautam Buddha sat in
meditation and attained enlightenment under
a peepal tree [Ficus Religiosa or Bodhi tree] in
Uruvela village (Bodhgaya). It is also known as
the Victory Throne of all Buddhas (Sabbabuddha-
nam Jayapallankam) or the Navel of the Earth
(Pathavinabhi). The Vajrasana and the peepal tree
The railings of the Bodhi temple at Bodhgaya are recognised as the most significant sacred spots
for Buddhists. The Mahabodhi Temple, which was
Bodhgaya in about 100 BCE. Inscriptions and other later erected to enshrine the place, was called
material evidences indicate visit and renovation of (Vajrasana Gandhakuti). It was believed that when
this place by disciples from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, the universe will be finally destroyed, this would be
China, Nepal, Tibet, Sumatra, Vietnam and other the last place to disappear and that it would also
Buddhist countries. In 4th century CE, Sri Lankans be the first place to form with the beginning of
built the great Mahabodhi Monastery which later the re-evolution of the universe. Emperor Ashoka
grew into a great monastic university for the study built a red sandstone structure with railings here in
of Theravada Buddhism. Buddhaghosa wrote both the 3rd century BCE to mark the exact spot of the
the Atthasalani and the now lost Nanodaya at this meditation seat. Until the popularity of the name
monastery. Other famous names associated with it Bodhgaya for Uruvela, the place was for some times
include Chinese monks Ijing, Jin Hong and Xuan also known as Vajrasana.
Chao, south Indian monk Dharmapala, who was In Pali texts, the most often quoted story is that
the author of the Madyamakacatuhsatika, Kashmiri Buddha went into extreme austerities in the banks
scholar Ratnavajra, Tibetan Tsami Lotsawa Sangye of Niranjana River for six years but was not able to
Trak, Sri Lankan Anandashri etc. Chinese traveller- attain "supreme knowledge". He then accepted the
monks Faxian and Xuanzang provide the earliest sweetened rice-milk from a local village girl, Sujata.
detailed description of the place identifying areas Gaining strength from it, he sat in deep meditation
of its sacred sites. The last one to write about the under a peepal tree facing east on a kush-grass mat
place was Tibetan scholar-monk Dharmasvamin offered by a local grass-cutter with a strong resolve
who came there in 1234 CE and found the place that he would not rise until the attainment of perfect
deserted with only four monks staying there. A enlightenment. Disturbed by the power of his
series of attacks by Indo-Turkic rulers since the 12th meditation, Mara (the god of illusion and worldly
century led to its fast decay. vices) first sent his beautiful daughters and apasaras
Rediscovered during the colonial period in a (celestial maidens) to break his resolve and lure
decayed state, its restoration commenced first by him to worldly pleasures. When they failed, Mara
Francis Buchanan in 1811-12 and finally, in 1881 sent bolts of lightning, wind and heavy rain one-
by J D Beglar under the supervision of Alexander by-one,and finally his demonic armies. None could
Cunningham. After the initial renovation of the dissuade Gautam Buddha from his virtuous path.
temple, the first International Buddhist Conference
was held in Bodhgaya in 1891. This brought this
famous sacred site once again on the pilgrim tourist
map. In 1956, the 2,500 the anniversary of Buddha
was celebrated here under the auspices of the
Government of India with participation by a large
number of representatives from different Buddhist
sects and countries. In 2002, the Mahabodhi
Temple complex was declared a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. Bodhgaya is now fast developing as
an internationally recognised Buddhist religious
and pilgrim centre with Buddhist chanting in
different languages of various countries buzzing
the area and temples, monasteries and parks
of different Buddhist sects and countries being
erected all over the place.
(Kamal Sheel) Vajrasana

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Meditating on Vajrasana with his hand touching

the earth, he conquered all of them through the
strength of his virtue and compassion and attained
the perfect enlightenment on the full moon day of
the fourth month of lunar calendar. He became the
Buddha, the "Enlightened One".
Xuanzang’s travelogue also provides other legends
for the place. He describes that the Vajrasana was
located in the middle of the enclosure surrounding
the Bodhi tree. This "diamond throne" has come
up in the beginning of Bhadra-kalpa (refers to the
recreation of the universe in the present aeon)
and stands at the centre of three "meta-thousand" Pipal/Bodhi trees
worlds. Appearing on the surface of the earth, it
is connected below with the golden wheel. Made granted him the boon that anybody performing
up of the hardest stone (diamond), it was known worship in the area covered by his body shall
as the Vajrasana because in Bhadra-kalpa, 1,000 attain salvation. The Vishnupada (Vishnu’s footstep)
Buddhas had meditated here and were enlightened. Temple erected there later commemorates that
It was also known as the Bodhi-mandapa. Standing event and is the most famous and holiest temple
still even at the time of an earthquake, this was of the city. Another legend found in Mahabharat as
the place which provided Buddha protection to well as in Buddhacharita attribute the name of the
pursue his meditation without any interruption. city to the holy residence of a most respected sage
Buddhism, it was believed, would decline with called Gaya. Xuanzang in his travelogue too refers
the sliding down of the Vajrasana to the earth. to this story.
To protect it, kings and emperors had installed Historically, Gaya has been known as a prominent
two statues of Avlokitaeshwara befitting its size. city under the Magadh empire. During the time of
Xuanzang, however, found the statue in the south Bimbisar, the fifth king of the Sisunaga dynasty
had already slid down to the chest thus indicating in 600 BCE, the city became more famous as it
the decline of Buddhism. Similar legends are found came into the limelight because of its significant
in Buddhagosh’s discourses too. association with Lord Gautam Buddha and
Presently adorned beautifully with golden clothes Mahavir. After the brief rule of Nandas, the city
and colourful umbrella, this is a must-visit place in came under the Mauryans whose great emperor
the Mahabodhi Temple complex for pilgrims. Ashoka,] patronised the city after having embraced
(Kamal Sheel) Buddhism. The famous Mahabodhi Temple and
Ashokan Pillars adorned the city. During Gupta
Gaya dynasty, it became the headquarters of Bihar district.
Among the ancient living cities of India, Gaya has The Guptas were followed by the Palas whose king
been famous for both of its Hindu and Buddhist Dharamapala built/ rebuilt the present Mahabodhi
connections. Situated at the bank of River Falgu Temple at Bodhgaya. During his visit to Xuanzang,
(referred in Ramayana as Niranjana), it actually he found it inhabited by about 1,000 respected
encompasses the historical village of Bodhgaya Brahmin families belonging to earlier sages. They
(about 11 km), the place where Buddha achieved had their own exalted social status independent of
enlightenment. It is not far from Patliputra (about the King’s political authority. Between 12th and
100 km), the ancient capital of Magadh and 18th centuries, Gaya was ruled by the Muslims like
Maurya kingdom, or Patna, the present capital of Bakhtiyar Khilji and Shershah Suri until it came
modern Bihar province. Ancient cities of Vaishali, under the control of British after the battle of Buxar
Rajagriha, Nalanda (about 70 km) are also close-by. in 1764. It became an independent district in 1865
It is surrounded by small rocky hills (Mangla-Gauri, and after India’s Independence, it was incorporated
Ram-Shila and Brahmayoni) by three sides and the in Magadh Division in 1981.
river flowing on the fourth (eastern) side. Most of the references of Gaya describe it as
The history of origin of Gaya is shrouded in an important centre of pilgrims for Hindus. It is
legends. In Puranas, the city’s name is linked with believed that offerings made here in the name of
the tale of a demon Gayasura who lived here and ancestors earned enough merits for a person to get
attained divine power after severe penance. Fearful rid of all the sins and attain salvation. The spiritual
of his power intruding the work of gods of Heaven, merit of Gaya is mentioned in Mahabharata as well
Lord Vishnu killed him by pressing his chest and as in Puranas like Padma, Naradiya, Varaha, Kurma,
body down to earth by his foot. He, however, Garuda and Vayu. Lord Rama came to this city with

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his wife Sita to perform offering-ceremonies for

his departed father, King Dashrath. Even now, the
city is visited by hundreds and thousands of Hindu
pilgrims to worship for their ancestors. Beside the
famous Vishnupada Temple (renovated by the Devi
Ahilya Bai Holkar in the 18th century) and the
sacred Akshyavat (the everlasting banyan/peepal
tree), there are sacred shrines on the hilltop at Rama
Shila, Mangla Gauri and Brahmayoni and are part of
the pilgrimage circuit. Bhumihar Brahmins, known
as Gayawal Pandas, are the traditional priests here.
Buddhist tradition regards the footstep in the
Vishnupad Temple as those of Gautam Buddha
(who is regarded by a section of Hindus as an
incarnation of Vishnu). Buddhists, however, regard
the Brhmayoni Hill (Xuanzang refers to it as Gaya-
Shir), an important sacred place. Buddha preached Dhamekh Stupa, Saranath
the Fire Sermon (Adittapariyaya Sutta) to a 1,000
former fire-worshipping ascetics who all became reason for him to be so selfish and cruel. He must
enlightened while listening to this discourse. Ashoka follow his dharma. He then immediately issued a
had built many stupas on the way to this hilltop. royal order granting full protection to deer there.
Presently, Gaya is the second largest city of Bihar The forest area became known as the protected place
province and an important hub of social, political offered to deer as their share of "royal inheritance"
and intellectual activities of the region. ie, Mrigdaya or Mrigdava. This story is also referred
(Kamal Sheel) in Xuanzang’s travelogue.
The full name of this place was Rishipatan [Isipatan]
Mrigdava Mrigdaya/ Mrigdava [Migdaya]. Mahavastu Avadan
In Buddhist texts, Sarnath, one of the four most mentions that it was so called because remains of the
significant spots of Buddhist pilgrimage, is referred bodies of hundreds of Pratyeka-Buddha (sages) fell
alternatively as Mrigdava/ Mrigdaya, or by its full here. These Buddhas, who lived here, were advised
name Rishipattan Mrigdava in Sanskrit and Isipatan by the gods to vacate this place for the arrival of
Migdaya in Pali. Mrigdava literally means deer Gautam Buddha. They, therefore, attained nirvana
forest while Migdaya indicates place offered to a and went to heaven. They burnt their bodies while
deer as their share of "inheritance". Rishipatan/ going up and its remains fell here. The place was
Isipatan refers to a place where bodies of sages fell. then called Rishipattan. These two names based on
The historical origin of these names is not known. two different stories when joined together became
Avadana and Jatak stories, however, tell about Rispattan Mrigdava (present-day Sarnath).
legends associated with these names. In Mahavastu Following the above names for Sarnath in
Avadana as well as in Nigrodhmigjataka, there is Buddhist texts the Chinese translation refer to it
a story about the king of Kashi, Brahmadutt, who, as Luye [鹿野] = Deer Forest; Xianren luye yuan
frequently indiscriminately hunted deer in the [仙人鹿野苑]= "Deer Forest" Garden for Sages
nearby forest. Many a time, injured by his arrows, Luye yuan zhong xianren zhuchu [鹿野苑中仙人住
the deer used to run away deep in the forest where 處] = Abode of Sages in the "Deer Forest" Garden;
they either died due to their wounds or became Xianmian chu [仙面處]= Place Where Sages Are
easy prey of other animals or birds. Distressed by Seen Shi lu lin xianren duochu [施鹿林仙人堕處] =
such wanton destruction of their herd, the deer- Place for Sages in the Bestowed Deer Forest; Xianren
leader met the king and offered to send him one duochu luye yuan [仙人堕處鹿野苑] = Sages’ Abode
deer daily to stop the indiscriminate hunting. The in "Deer Forest" Garden; Xianren duochu shi lulin
king accepted the proposal. One day, it was the turn [仙人堕處施鹿林] = Sages Abode in Bestowed
of a doe to go to the king. She was pregnant so she "Deer Forest" etc.
appealed to the leader that she be exempted until (Kamal Sheel)
the delivery of a fawn. Pitying her condition and
finding no one else offering to go, he himself went to Sarnath
the king to maintain his promise. Surprised, the king Lord Buddha proclaimed four holiest pilgrimage
asked him the reason for offering himself. When he sites of Buddhism which were related to important
heard the full story, he felt that if an animal could events of his life. Of these four sites, Lumbini was
be so upright and compassionate then there was no related to his birth, Bodhgaya to his enlightenment,

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Sarnath to his first sermon and Kushinara to his of Turko-Muslim kings followed by ransacking by
attainment of nirvana. Sarnath is thus famous as the local roving powerholders for building material,
place where Buddha set in motion the wheel of law Sarnath was completely destroyed.
(Maha-Dhammacakkappavattana), by preaching his The glorious heritage of Sarnath was finally
first five ascetic companions the fundamentals of uncovered by the British archaeologists, especially
Buddhism ie, Four Noble Truths and Eight Paths as A C Cunningham during the 19th century. They
well as several other suttas [discourses/ teachings]. found tall and huge Dhamekh stupa, foundation
He thus laid the foundation of Buddhist dharma remains of Dharmarajika Stupa (bricks of which
and sangha which spread both in India and abroad, were pillaged aand used as building materials in
making Buddhism once the largest religion of the Varanasi), severely destroyed Chaukhandi stupa
world. Located close to Varanasi-Kashi in eastern constructed to spot the site of Buddha’s meeting with
Uttar Pradesh, it is historically known as Rishipattan five ascetics – later over which Akbar constructed
or Ishipattan (place of sages) and Mrigadaya (deer a memorial to mark his father Humayun’s hiding
park). The popular name Sarnath is derived from its place after defeat by Sher Shah Suri. They also
association with Rishi Sarangnath (master of deer), found ruins of Mulgandhkutivihar. (In 1930, Sri
a Saiva sage. Lankan monk Anagarik Dharmapal constructed a
Sarnath is widely referred to in various Buddhist new Mulgandhkuti Temple there.) They also found
writings. The Jatakas have several stories connected the Ashokan Pillar broken, with its top which had a
with events and activities as well as several legends statue of four lions that has been declared a national
about Lord Buddha there. Both Faxian and Xuanzang symbol and is now adorning the Sarnath museum.
found it to be a grand and flourishing place. Besides this, located in Sarnath are also Jaina and
During his visit in the early 5th century CE, Faxian Shaiva temples.
noted four stupas and two monasteries here. Two Now fast developing as the Buddhist pilgrim
centuries later, Xuanzang witnessed the whole area centre, almost all the major Buddhist countries
to be religiously very active. In Varanasi, the city have their temples here with each representative
under whose boundary was Sarnath, he found over having the architecture of their respective native
30 monasteries and approximately 3,000 resident land. A Chinese temple was constructed in 1939
monks of Sammatiya sect. Sarnath was surrounded by donations from Fukienese Buddhists through
by a wall. Within it were buildings and pavilions as the Kolkata-based Chinese Association in India.
well as several lakes and gardens built in line with The modern Thai Temple there has a huge statue
good planning. Near 1,500 monks of Sammitiya of Buddha. Recently, Koreans and Japanese too
sect lived there. There was a tall and huge temple/ have built their temples besides one old one
monastery with a golden top shaped like a mango. by Myanmar. It is now a part of much-travelled
The temple had a copper statue of Buddha in Buddhist tourist circuit.
dhammchakkapavattan style. He noted many stupas, (Kamal Sheel)
some of which were more than 200 feet in height.
There was also a 70 feet stone pillar which was very Shravasti
soft, shining and had inscriptions. Once among the six largest and flourishing cities of
Xuanzang observed the grandeur of art and craft ancient India, Shravasti was the capital of the Kosala
that characterised Sarnath during the Mauryas, kingdom during 6th century BCE. By this century, it
Sungas, Kushanas and the Guptas and were evident had almost vanished. The city remained in oblivion
in Dhamekh and other stupas, Ashokan Pillar, the until Alexander Cunningham discovered its ruins
Buddha statue and scores of various artifacts. The
Sarnath School of Buddha sculpture produced
the most beautiful stone statue of the preaching
Buddha, the style of which was emulated in India
and abroad and particularly in pre-Angokorine
Cambodia. Coomaraswamy noted this statue as
one of the three best sculptures of the world. Sarnath
retained its charm even during the Pala period.
Plunder by Afghan-based Mahmud Ghajni's and
Ghori’s invasions in the first and decades of 11th
century Sarnath. Kumardevi, wife of Govindchandra
(1114-1154 CE) of the Gahadavala dynasty, built a
large monastery at Sarnath which is probably the
last impressive monuments raised here. By the
beginning of 13th century, the periodic onslaught Ruins of Śrāvasti

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in 1862. Its geographical location is in northeast it to be a city in fast decline. They witnessed and
Uttar Pradesh in Sahet (modern Gonda district) identified most of the places referred to in the Pali
and Mahet (modern Baharaich district), along the texts. Xuanzang found two Ashokan stupas and
bank of River Rapti, which led to the creation of a piillars at the eastern gate of the city.
modern Shravasti district with the Bhinga town as Shravasti is also famous as a Jain sacred place
its headquarters by carving out Bharaich and Gonda where it is also known as Kunalnagari, Chandrikapuri
districts. It is about 150 km away from Lucknow, and Manikpuri. It was associated with the 3rd Jain
the capital of Uttar Pradesh. Tirthankar Sambhavanath as well as with the last
Not much is known about the origin of ancient Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, who spent several
Shravasti. According to Vishnu Purana, the city was chaturmaas in the city. Kosal King Prasenjit was
founded by Ishvaku King Shravast or Shravastak, a follower of the latter. According to Jaina texts,
along the bank of Achirvati river. In Pali Tripitika many of the shresthis (businessmen), as well as
texts, Buddhaghosh writes that the city was named members of the royal family from the city embraced
Savatthi after the Sage Savattha who lived here. Jainism. This included famous businessman,
At another place, Pali texts note that it was named Nagdutta, and son of King Jitshatru, Mrigdhwaj.
Sravasti because everything for human consumption The ancient Shobnath Temple and other Jaina
and entertainment was available in this mega town monuments indicate strong Jain connection. During
and capital of the powerful Kosal kingdom that had 10th and 11th centuries CE, the city was ruled by
a large population and market. successive Jain kings like Mayurdhwaj, Hansdhwaj,
Shravasti has been referred as one of the richest Makardhwaj Sudhavadhwaj and Suhridhwaj.
cities of Buddha’s era. It was connected with all (Kamal Sheel)
the other five largest cities through trading routes.
The route from Shravasti to Rajgriha was the most Rajgriha
famous and frequented. According to Buddhist Now a small decrepit town known as Rajgir, the
Sanskrit text, Divyavadan, this commercial route ancient city of Rajgriha, was the famous capital of
passed through the ancient cities of Setatya, Saket, the mighty Magadh kingdom of ancient India until
Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Pava, Bhagnagar and the rise of Patliputra in 5th century BCE. Located
Vaishali. It had to cross River Ganges for which boats close to Nalanda (Bihar), it is about 100 km from
were arranged by either Licchavis of Vaishali or the Patna (Patliputra) and 75 km from Gaya. According
rulers of Magadh during the time of Ajatshatru. to Ramayana and ancient Puranic texts, the city
Another commercial route that connected Shravasti was founded by Brahma’s grandson King Vasu and
with Paithan (Pratishthan/ Pishtapuram) was the was called Vasumati. In the period of Mahabharat,
illustrious capital of Satvahana empire in southwest with the founding of a dynasty by Brahadrath, it
India. This touched the cities of Saket, Kaushambi, became known as Brahadrathpur. A successor of this
Vidisha, Gonaddha, Ujjain and Mahishmati. dynasty was the legendary king Jarasandh. It was
Most of the references to Shravasti, however, then also known as Girivajra (ie, mountain-fenced
relate to its Buddhist and Jain connections during or collection of hills) because it was surrounded
the era of the Kosal kingdom. Buddha spent 24 by five hills. In the Mahabharat, these hills are
chaturmaas (four-month rainy season) in Shravasti. mentioned as Vaibhara, Varaha, Vrishabh, Rishigiri
The most famous Buddhist monastery, Jetvanaram, and Chaityaka. The Pali texts identify them as
was located here. This was constructed by a local rich Vebhara, Pandava, Vepulla, Gijjhakuta and Isigili.
merchant, Anathpindaka (Sudatta), and donated to Later Buddhist and Jain texts as well as Xuanzang’s
Buddha. Its magnificent entrance gate was built by accounts. identify the city also as Kushagrapura.
Kumar Jeta. Another famous monastery was built by According to available historical evidence, it was
Vishakaha Mrigarmata under the direction of Monk King Bimbisara (6th century BCE) of the Haryanka
Mahamodglayana and was known as Purvaram dynasty who built or rebuilt it and named it Rajgriha
monastery because of its location near the eastern meaning "the abode of royalty".
gate of Shravasti. King Prasenjit also constructed Modern archaeological excavations trace the
a monastery for Buddhist nuns, Rajkaram, here. history of Rajgriha to 1,000 BCE. However, this
On the request of Mahaprajapati Gotami, Buddha ancient city gradually lost its pre-eminence due
had preached a sutta (verse) of Majjhimnikaya. In to various reasons including the shift of capital to
fact, Buddha presented the maximum number of Patliputra. Much information of its physical setting
discourses on suttas and Jatak stories in this city. is available through the travel records of Chinese
The dreaded robber and murderer, Angulimal, was traveller-monks – Fa Xian, Xuanzang and Yijing
ordained here. which note the existence of an old and a new city
Both Faxian (5th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th and describe that the city lies within a valley and
century CE) had travelled to Shravasti. Both found is surrounded by low-lying hills. It is demarcated

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and Ajatsatru are well recorded. The Pali texts

indicate it to be a favourite place of Gautam
Buddha. According to legends, King Bimbisara
respectfully received Gautam Siddharth as the son
of kshatriya Shakya King Shuddhodan and made
him promise to visit him again after attaining
enlightenment. Buddha kept his promise. Not only
did he visit Rajgriha soon after his enlightenment
but also ordained Bimbisara and his large retinue
to his newly established Buddhist fold. Bimbisara
dedicated his favourite Venuvana garden to Buddha
and his disciples after building a vihara [monastery]
there. This was the first Buddhist monastery.
Buddha spent many rainy seasons [chaturmasa] here
and visited this city for the last time just before his
Mahaparinirvana [ultimate liberation of soul] in
Kushinagar. A Pali text describes his happiness and
fascination with different sites of the city. These are
Bath at the hot spring of Rājagr̥ha, India. According identified and are now pilgrimage sites and tourist
to legends, Buddha would bathe at the hot springs
near the south-west cliff of the Vaibhara Giri Hill. It
attractions. Buddha’s famous disciples, Sariputta
is said that there were 500 hot water springs here. and Moggallana, belonged to this place. Soon after
his death, the first Buddhist Council [Sangiti] was
by an earthen embankment (the Inner Fortification) held here under the leadership of Mahakassapa to
which associated with the Outer Fortification, a codify his teachings.
complex of cyclopean walls that runs (with large Similarly, the city is also linked with Lord Mahavir,
breaks) along. New Rajgir is defined by the larger the last (24th) and the most famous Jain Tirthankar
stone embankment constructed outside the northern [enlightened immortal]. The Jain texts record that
entrance of the valley to the plain. These are dated he spent 14 chaturmasa [four months] here and had
to the period of Bimbisara and Ajatshatru in the 6th- many disciples which included King Ajatshatru. It is
5th centuries BCE. When the Chinese Buddhist monk one of the important pilgrim centres for Jainas. The
Faxian visited Rajgriha in the early 5th century CE, he hills of the city are adorned with Jain temples and
found the city largely shorn of its earlier splendour. many Jain legends are linked with it.
He however, noticed many monasteries and stupas. Modern Rajgir is now a famous tourist spot with
This included one constructed by Ajatshatru over many popular ancient sites like Jarasandh’s akhara
his share of Buddha’s relics which were divided [wrestling ground or gymnasium], Ajatshatru’s Fort,
into eight portions and distributed among claimant the prison where Bimbisara was detained, Cyclopean
neighbouring kingdoms; as well as a large stupa Walls, Sonbhanadar (gold treasury), Saptaparni
with the elephant-capital on top of the pillar, later and Pippila caves, site of Venuvana Monastery,
built there by Emperor Asoka. During his visit to Griddhakuta hill, hot springs etc. Among the recent
the city in the middle of 7th century CE, Xuanzang addition is the World Peace Stupa containing a large
too notes the decline of the city but located various statue of Buddha. It has been built by the Japanese
sites connected with historical Buddha. The city, at an altitude of 400 meters and can be reached by
according to literary evidences, survived until 12th a ropeway. Numerous ruins and sites linked with
century CE. Lost for seven centuries with even its landmark historical events in India bear testimony
exact location erased from historical memory, it to its illustrious past.
was later rediscovered by British archaeologists (Kamal Sheel)
during the colonial period following the Chinese
travellers’ records. Griddhkuta Hill
The city has been referred to in numerous Hindu, Famous as a favourite rainy season retreat of Gautam
Buddhist and Jaina texts. Its fame is linked to the Buddha, Griddhkuta Hill (Vulture’s Peak) is one of
exploits of Mahabharat’s powerful legendary King the five large hills that surround the ancient capital
of Magadh, Jarasandh who had many battles with of Magadh, Rajagriha or Giribraja (see the entry).
Lord Krishna. Jarasandh, was finally killed in a duel GriddhkutaIt was so named because it resembled
by Bheem, one of the famous Pandava brothers, the beak of a vulture. In Pali texts, Attakatha, the
with the help of Krishna. The city’s linkages with other four hills are known as Pandava, Vemar, Isigili
historical Buddha and Jain Thirthankar Mahavira and Vupullu. The Jain text, Vividhatirthkalpa, refers
as well as with contemporary kings, Bimbisara to Griddhkuta as Ratnagiri and other hills have

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so melancholic that he spent the whole night there

chanting Surangama sutra in a cavern there. He,
however, found the large brick prayer hall where
Buddha preached in ruins and identified the place
where Buddha’s protection saved Ananda from evil
designs of Mara and the cavern where Buddha and
Arhatas meditated.
Two centuries later, when Xuanzang was asked
by the king of Turfan reasons for his perilous
visit to India, he replied that it was "to kneel at
the Griddhkuta (Vulture’s Peak) to show respect
for Buddha and prostrate on the hill for receiving
Buddha’s blessings". In his description of the visit
to Griddhakuta, he notes the existence of stairways
The memorial archway at Gr̥ddhakūṭa Hill, India that King Bimbisar had built to facilitate people
to go up to the top of the hill to listen to Buddha.
been mentioned as Vipulgiri, Udayagiri, Sonagiri There were two small stupas on the way. The one
and Vaibhargiri. These hills had connections with designated the spot after which the movement of
Gautam Buddha and Lord Mahavir. As such both carriages of kings and members of royal family
Buddhist and Jain texts had accorded it a sacred was prohibited. The other indicated the place up
status, declaring it an important pilgrimage centre to which common people could go. On the western
for their respective followers. slope of the hill, there was a large and tall prayer
Pali texts link many of the significant events hall where Buddha used to preach. Xuanzang found
of Buddha’s life to Griddhakuta Hill. He met and there a large standing statue of Buddha in sermon-
ordained here the Magadh King Bimbisara and delivery pose. He details all other places that were
his royal retinues. While living at this place, he linked with different events in Buddha’s life like the
delivered many of his sutras during interactive place when the stone thrown by Devdutt fell, the
sessions with monks and disciples. This included stone house/cave where he meditated, the spot of
the famous Sadharmpundrika Sutra (Lotus Sutra) and his meditative perambulation/ stroll, the hole in
Mahaprajnaparmita (Perfection of Wisdom) Sutra. stone created by his extending hand from another
It is said that Buddha’s cousin, Devdatt, made an cave to protect Anand from Mara, the stone slab with
attempt on his life by throwing a large slab of stone clear white and shining lines appearing on account
on him which injured his toes and fell here. When of Buddha drying his robe there, his footprints on
Bimbisar was imprisoned by his son, Ajatsatru, on the stone, etc.
a hillock, he wanted his prison to be so constructed Presently, a World Peace Pagoda and Nipponzan
that he could see Buddha passing by in the morning Myohoji Temple adorn the top of the hill which
and evening. This was also the final resting place could also be reached by a ropeway constructed by
for Buddha before he departed to Kusinara for his the Japanese. This is now an important pilgrimage
Mahaparinirvana (total liberation). site of the Buddhists.
The hill existed as a famous Buddhist pilgrim (Kamal Sheel)
place when Faxian (5th century) and Xuanzang (7th
century) visited the place. Both devoted specific Vaishali
separate sections in their travelogue on their visit Vaishali was among the largest and most flourishing
to the hill. In a moving description, Faxian writes cities during the Buddhist era of ancient India.
about spending a night on the top of the hill. He Governed by the Khastriya Lichchavi clan under
describes going up to this beautifully green and the the Vajjian confederacy, it was the capital of the
highest of the five surrounding hills with incense Lichchavi Republic which is historically considered
sticks, flowers, oil and lamp along with two long- among the earliest democratic states of the world.
timer resident monks for making his offerings. It was located on the banks of Gandak River and
Looking at Buddha’s footprints and abode, he was was on the trade route connected in north with
overfilled with emotion. He writes: “Here Buddha Shravasti and Kapilavastu and in south with
delivered the Surangama (a Mahayana Buddhist Rajgriha. Like many other ancient cities of the
Sutra linked with Nalanda’s Buddhist school which Buddhist era, it too was lost in oblivion. Its exact
literally meant "indestructible"). I, Faxian, was born location and identification owe much to travel
when I could not meet with Buddha. And now, I records of Faxian and Xuanzang. In 1861, following
only see the footprints which he has left, and the their travel path mentioned in these records, famous
place where he lived and nothing more.” He became British archaeologist Alexander Cunningham

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located its ruins in Basarh village in the district of he spent a chaturmaas (rainy season) in the city
Muzzaffarpur, Bihar. The old district has now been and later came here several times. Many of his
carved to create the modern district of Vaishali with Vinay Suttas were first enunciated here like Mahāli,
its headquarters in Hajipur, about 50 km to the Mahāsíhanāda, Cúla Saccaka, Mahā Saccaka,
north of Patna, the capital of modern Bihar. Tevijja, Vacchagotta and Sunakkhatta. These also
The origin and early history of Vaishali is not included the Ratan Sutta, mentioned by both Faxian
widely known. The city and the legends of its and Xuanzang with reference to Vaishali, which
origin are, however, mentioned in Hindu, Buddhist he prescribed to people there to rid the city of all
and Jain texts. According to some Hindu texts, it misfortunes and evil. During his last visit to the city,
was founded by King Vishala and was, therefore, he confided to his disciple, Anand, of his impending
named Vaishali. Tracing its history, Vishnu Purana Mahaparinirban and made his last journey to
mentions its 34 kings starting with democratic Kushinagar after leaving behind his alms bowl. The
conscientious Nabhaga to Sumati who is considered city is also linked with Buddha’s ordaining of his
to be a contemporary of Ayodhya’s King Dashrath stepmother, Maprajapati Gotmi, and establishment
(father of lord Rama). Pali texts note Vaishali of sangha for the Buddhist nuns. In fact, many of
as a rich and flourishing city with numerous the organisational ideas of sangha were derived
buildings and ponds, with a large population. from the governing practices of the city. The famous
Due to an expanding settlement, its boundaries city courtesan, Amrapali/ Ambapali became his
were extended three times. It, therefore, became devotee here and donated her mango grove. After
famous as Vaishali. Buddhaghosh too refers to this the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha, Lichchavis built a
explanation for the name of the city. Jatak stories stupa over their share of his relics. Later, another
describe three large surrounding boundary walls of larger stupa with a pillar crowned by a beautiful
the city adorned with towers. Jain texts mention Asiatic lion was erected by Emperor Asoka. There is
one of the walls covering the city of Vaishali also a stupa over the relics of his foremost disciple
and two others protecting the suburban cities of Ananda. The second Buddhist Council was convened
Vaniyagama and Kollaga. They describe it as a here in 383 BCE by the King Kalashok to resolve
beautiful garden city surrounded by forests or a schism in the Buddhist order.
well-endowed heavenly city. The city thus appears Vaishali’s linkages with Jainism were equally
to be flourishing by 6th century BCE. Faxian in 3rd intimate. Lord Mahavira, the last Tirthankar of the
century CE finds that many of the buildings still Jains, was born in Kshatriyakund at the outskirts
exist. It had, however, declined to a great extent of the city to King Siddhartha and Queen Trishila.
by the time of Xuanzang’s visit (7th century CE) He lived there till the age of 22. After attaining
who notes flourishing agricultural fields and fruit enlightenment, he returned here and spent 12 of
gardens but only a few remains of its thousands his 42 rainy seasons. Presently, the Government of
of old buildings and hundreds of monasteries, and Bihar celebrates the birthday of Lord Mahavir on the
a greatly reduced population. Of all the sectarian full moon day in Vaishakh (mid-April) as Vaishali
disciples, digambaras (Jaina) were most. Mahotsava (Great Fair). The place has become
The name and fame of Vaishali owes to its Buddhist a famous tourist site. Besides ruins of various
and Jain connections. Prince Siddharth first came monuments linked with Buddhism and Jainism,
here from Kapilavastu after renunciation in search there is a huge mound with a circumference about
for enlightenment. Udraka Ramaputra and Alara 1 km which is said to be the ancient parliament
Kalama of Vaishali were his first spiritual masters. house of Lichchavis as well as a coronation tank in
Five years after the attainment of his Buddhahood, the sacred water of which an elected representative
was anointed before swearing-in. Among the
modern addition is the World Peace Stupa built by
Japanese Buddhists.
(Kamal Sheel)

Kushinagar
Among the four holiest pilgrimage sites highlighting
landmark events of Buddha’s life, Kushinagar is
linked with his last sermon and Mahaparinirvana
(complete extinction/ passing away). Located in
the eastern part of India’s Uttar Pradesh province
and bordering Nepal, it is about 52 km from
Gorakhpur. Presently a small town, it finds earliest
Asokan Stone Pillar at Vaiśali references in Ramayana as the city of King Kushha,

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Drona intervened and divided his ashes into eight

equal parts and distributed it to representatives of
eight kingdoms for preserving as relics. The Mallas
erected a big stupa over his ashes at the cremation
place. Later, Emperor Ashoka renovated and
expanded the stupa. According to legends, he further
divided Buddha’s ashes and built more than 84,000
stupas over the relics.
Both Faxian and Xuanzang refer to their visit to
Kushinagar and describe various legends associated
with Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha. Faxian found
in existence various stupas and viharas though he
writes that, “In the city, the inhabitants are few and
far between comprising only the families belonging
Maha Nirvana Stupa and Mahaparinirvana Temple, Kuśinagar, India to the (different) societies of monks.” By the time of
Xuanzang’s visit, Kushinagar had, however, become
the son of Ayodhya’s legendary king, Lord Rama. a lonely and desolate place with many of its grand
During Buddha’s time, Kushinagar and Pava were structures in ruins. Based on their description in the
two important places located on the link trade- Chinese travelogues, these sites were rediscovered
route passing through the Republic of Mallas and during the British colonial period due to efforts of
connected with ancient highways. In Jatakas, this explorers and archeologists like E. Buchanan, H H
city is known as Kushavati and elsewhere is also Wilson, A C Cunningham, A C L Carlleyle and others.
called Kushinara and Kasia. After identification of the site by Cunningham,
According to Buddhist texts, the Republic of Malla Carlleyle in 1876 was successful in locating the
was divided into two parts with one governed by the famous temple containing the large Buddha statue
Kusinerika Malla having its capital in Kushinagar, in lying/ nirvana state that was referred to by
and the other by Paveyakka Malla with capital Xuanzang. After this discovery, Kushinagar began
in Pava. River Kakutha was the boundary line to regain its fame as one of the four most important
separating these two kingdoms. Gautam Buddha Buddhist pilgrimage sites. Many sites connected
loved his Malla admirers and the region. During with the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha have now
the course of his wanderings, he visited this area been found and excavated by archaeologists.
several times. At the age of 80, when he decided Modern Kushinagar consists of many Buddhist
to take his last voyage from Rajgrha to Kushinagar, temples and viharas of different Buddhist sects
his disciple, Anand, resisted saying that this was from regions of China, Japan, Korea, Sri Lanka,
a small uncivilised rural town. Buddha, however, Myanmar, Thailand etc that surround the restored
reminded Anand that this was, in fact, Kushavati, a ancient sites like Nirvana Stupa, Mahaparinirvana
well-known, highly civilised and prosperous capital Temple, Mathakuar Temple and Ramabhar Stupa.
of King Mahasuddassana and preached to him about The Archaeological Museum is noteworthy for its
Mahasuddassana Sutta. It is said that Buddha mostly valuable collection of different remains dating back
stayed in Baliharan in Kushinagar. But during his to the 3rd century BCE. It may be noted that the city
final visit, he chose Upvattan forest area covered was found to have an association with Parinirvana/
with sal trees as his last stop. Out of his three passing way of Lord Mahavira, 24th Tirthankar of
discourses for the Bhikku, known as Kusinara Sutta, the Jainas in the nearby Pawa (present-day Fazil
two were delivered at Baliharan and the last one Nagar) which was the second capital of Mallas.
was at Upvattan. Having falling ill after having (Kamal Sheel)
taken the meal served with sukaramaddava at the
house of his disciple, Cunda, in Pava, just before his Mahabodhi Vihar
death, he invited the Bhikkus to satisfy their queries Mahabodhi Vihar refers to the main Buddhist temple
if any. They all, however, remained silent. He then at Bodhgaya (Uruvela) at the spot where Gautam
finally left his body lying under two huge sal trees. Buddha attained enlightenment. The Vihar includes
Buddha’s body was laid in state for seven days at a the famous Bodhi tree (Ficus Religiosa or the peepal
coronation hall/ Chaitya of the Mallas and offerings Tree) and the Vajrasana (Diamond throne). The
were made to him. The last rites, it is said, were original temple existed as tree shrine (bodhi-ghar)
performed by Mahakashyap of the Mallas at Mukut with railings constructed by Emperor Ashoka in
Bandhana, Ramabhar (in Kushinagar) on the banks 3rd century BCE. Its earliest depiction is found on
of Hiranyavati River. There were scrambles among reliefs at Bharahut (c. 80 BCE) and Sanchi (c. 25
the kings to collect his ashes. Finally, a Brahmana BCE) stupas. This indicates its early recognition

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as one of the most significant Buddhist centres of fruit). The main building consisted of three storeys
worship. So much so that until the popularity of and the outer gates of the building had niche like
the name of this place as Bodhgaya in the 19th chambers in right and left sides. The left side had
century and after the disappearance of its original a statue of Boddhisattava Avalokiteshwar and the
name Uruvela due to disuse within two centuries of right had Bodhisattava Maitreya. Both the statues
Buddha’s enlightenment, it was known as Sambodhi, were made of silver and were of 10 feet in height.”
Bodhimanda, Vajrasana and Mahabodhi. The most He also notes existence of a small temple made by
long-lasting and popular name was, however, Emperor Asoka and many other smaller temples and
Mahabodhi which was still being used when A stupas erected by his disciples. The temple housed
Cunningham visited the place in mid-19th century. a seated Buddha, which according to legends is the
The Mahabodhi Vihar has gone through several exact replica of the historical Buddha created by the
structural changes during its existence. The original Maitreya Buddha himself. This became the model
tree shrine was expanded into a two storeyed of many later Buddhist images. According to an
structure enclosing the tree in Sunga period (2nd inscription of 588-89 CE, this image was renovated
-1st century BCE) with Vajrasana and the Bodhi tree by a Sri Lankan devotee, Mahånåman.
as main objects of veneration. The first mention of The temple underwent further extension and
the rising of a structural temple is found in Faxian’s renovation during the Pala-Sena dynasty (10th-
travelogue who visited the place in 5th century CE. 12th century). Mahabodhi Vihar, which now exists,
He notes a tall tower standing near the sacred tree is the renovated structure of the same building. Its
and Vajrasana. Depiction of tower–shrines on reliefs flourishing state and active status is also evidenced
of the Kushana period, link structural expansion by two Chinese Song dynasty inscriptions of the late
of the temple to 1st-3rd centuries CE. By the time 10th and early 11th centuries. Other contemporary
of Xuanzang’s visit (7th century CE), a large brick inscriptions note rulers of Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar
temple of the late Gupta style had been erected and other Buddhist countries funding restoration
there. Xuanzang provides a detailed description of and development projects. The temple site had such
the temple, stating – “The Vihar stood in the east of an appeal that its replicas were made in Myanmar,
Bodhi tree and was about 170 feet high. It was made Nepal, Thailand, China and Tibet which provide
of blackish-blue fired bricks and covered with lime. beautiful models of this grand temple complex.
Golden figures of Buddha adorned all the niches By the 12th century, with the rise of Indo-Turkic
carved in each row. All the four sides of the wall Muslim rule and the decline of Buddhism in the
were full of heavily ornamented wonderful design- Indo-Gangetic area, the temple gradually decayed as
work depicting strings of pearl or figures of gods. the protector-monks abandoned the place. Deserted
Surmounted on the spire of the Vihar was a gilded by the original Buddhist caretaker–monks, the place
bronze model representation of aamlak (mango was then annexed by a local Brahmin leader as his
private property. The ownership matter was finally
resolved through a long legal battle waged by famous
Sri Lankan monk, Anagarika Dharmapal, through
a 1949 special Bodhgaya Temle Management Act
that transferred it to a trust with equal number of
Buddhist and Hindu representatives under the local
district magistrate.
"Buried under accumulation of rubbish", the
temple was rediscovered during 1811-12 by Francis
Buchanan. It was later excavated by Major Mead
in 1863. The King of Myanmar also sent people
to clean the site. In 1878, Dr Brajendra Lal Mitra
published his work on the Temple of Bodhgaya.
In 1879, A Cunningham found the site was still
not satisfactorily excavated and restored. Finally
in 1881, British engineer J D Beglar was entrusted
with the task of the full restoration of the temple
and its site. The excavated temple was, however,
found in a very fragmentary condition. Beglar then
restored the temple mostly using its 12th century
stone model available in a museum in Kolkata.
Once restored, the temple complex again became
Mahābodhi Temple, Bihar, India an active site of Buddhist pilgrimage with numerous

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buildings, stupa and parks built by devotees from place several times. It was also the birthplace of
various Buddhist countries. In 2002, the temple Sariputra, one of the great disciples of Buddha.
complex was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage According to Jain tradition, the historic discourse
Site on account of it being one of the few examples between Lord Mahavira and Gosala took place at
of the earliest classical-styled, brick structured, Nālandā. Lama Taranath associates this place with
large temples in India as well as its connection the Mauryan king Aśok (268-231 BCE) who built
with Buddha and his times. The preserved temple a great Buddhist temple here and Nagarjuna (150
complex now consists of monuments linked with the CE), the famous Mahayana philosopher.
first seven weeks of his enlightenment ie, the giant Nālandā came into the limelight when the Gupta
Bodhi Tree [religiosa ficus], Vajrasana [Diamond King Kumargupta I, also known as Sakrāditya, (c.
Throne], Animeshlochan Chaitya [prayer hall], the 415-455 CE) selected this place as an "auspicious
Ratnachakrama [Jewelled Ambulator], Ratnaghar spot" for building a monastery. By the middle of
Chaitya [Jewelled Temple], a pillar marking the the 6th century CE, under the successive patronage
site of the Ajapala Nigrodh Tree, the Lotus Pond, of different Gupta rulers, it developed into a
and the Rajyatana Tree. Most recently in 2013, the Mahāvihāra (large academic institution) with a
vault of the temple was covered with 290 kg of gold huge campus. The majesty and grandeur of the
donated by the Thai Buddhist disciples. campus, particularly its tall and stately towers
(Kamal Sheel) soaring above the encompassing wall, caught and
ravished the eyes of all who saw it. Benefactions
Nalanda of Harshavardhana, the ruler of Kanauj (606-646
Located near Patna and Gaya in Bihar, Nālandā CE) and the Pāla rulers, Dharmapala (783-820 CE)
rose to be the most famous seat of education and and Devapala, (c. 810-850 CE) further sustained
learning in India after the destruction of Taxilā the activities of Mahāvihāra till the end of the 12th
by the Huńas in the 5th century CE. The name century CE.
Nālandā was perhaps derived from the word, Nālā Throughout its existence of about seven centuries,
meaning "lotus stalks". Situated near the ancient Mahāvihāra played a key role in promoting Sino-
cities of Pātalipūtra (now Patna) and Bodhgaya Indian cultural relations. It was host to hundreds of
(now Gaya) and within easy reach of trade scholar-monks not only from China but also from
routes between upper India and Magadha and other parts of Central and Southeast Asia as well
the Gangetic riverine traffic, Nālandā, according as from Japan and Korea. Detailed accounts of its
to legend, was "influential, prosperous and full superior academic environment by Faxian, Xuanzang
of folk". Lord Buddha is said to have visited this and Yijing indicate its global reach. Following either
the land route via Khotan in Central Asia or Tibet
and Nepal or by the sea-route via Tamralipti to India,
these monk-scholars aimed to earn spiritual merit by
pilgrimage to study Buddhism in its homeland and
collect authentic Buddhist texts. The most prominent
among them was Xuanzang who visited India from
630 to 642 CE and stayed in Nālandā for about
four to five years. He specialised in the Yogacara
School of Buddhism under the abled-guidance of
the chief abbot-rector, Íilabhadra. In 645 CE, he
returned to China carrying back some images of
Buddha and several hundred copied texts and notes.
His travelogue, Xiyuji and biography, Fa-shi-chuan,
inspired many new works on India and created an
unprecedented interest in Indian culture in China.
Another notable visitor to Nālandā was Yijing who
spent about 10 years in Nālandā. On his return home,
he translated no less than 56 works in 230 volumes
and introduced into China practically the whole texts
of Vinaya belonging to the Mulasarvāstivadin School.
The Chinese texts have also preserved biographies of
67 Chinese pilgrims who had been to India during
the second half of the 7th century CE. Among them
An image of Xuanzang preserved in the
are found some Koreans and Central Asian monks
Tokyo National Museum who were educated in China and went to Nālandā

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kingdoms of Southeast and East Asia.

In 12th century CE, Nālandā succumbed to the
onslaught of Muslim invaders. Tibetan sources
indicate several raids by the Turks. In about 1205
CE, the Mahavihara was destroyed and burnt by
Bakhtiyar Khilji. Subsequent raids totally destroyed
it by 1400 CE. It was during the British period that
the massive remains of Nalanda were unearthed by
archaeologists. With the Buddhist revival in India,
a new Mahavihara (Nalanda Nava Mahavihara)
was established in 1951 due to the efforts of
Ven. Bhikku Jagadish Kashyap. He also brought
Ruins of Nalandā, Bihar, India a portion of Xuanzang’s remains from China to
enshrine here. Now with promises of financial help
from China. The first noted scholar of Nālandā from the governments of China, India and many
to go to China in the Tang period in 627 CE was other countries, a massive Nalanda University is
Prabhakaramitra on the invitation of the Prince gradually coming up there. Nalanda is thus once
of Gaoping. Later, Subhākarasinha (716 CE) and again on the path to revival.
Buddhakirti (989 CE) also went to China. (RK Sinha & Kamal Sheel)
The Chinese accounts tell us that Nalanda
accommodated about 1,500 teachers and 10,000 Vikramasila Mahavihara
resident monk scholars during its heyday. The Founded by King Dharmapala (783-820 CE) and
process of admission to the Mahāvihāra was located near Bhagalpur in Bihar, Vikramaśīlā
elaborate and tough with only one or two out of 10 Mahāvihāra [university-monastery] was an
getting admitted. Once admitted, monks and scholars important centre of education and learning in
studied works related to Mahāyāna, Hīnayāna (18 eastern India for more than four centuries of the
sects), the Vedas and the five traditional areas of Pāla rule (750-1175 CE). In Tibetan accounts,
knowledge (pancvidyå), namely Hetuvada (logic), which are the main sources of information,
Śabdavidya (grammar and philosophy), Cikitsāvidya Vikramaśīlā Mahāvihāra holds the same position of
(medicine), Silpakarmavidya (fine arts) and pre-eminence as is accorded in Chinese accounts
Adhyātmavidya (metaphysics). to Nālandā. The Pāla patronage of the Buddhist
Buddhism entered a new phase during the Pāla mahāvihāras was a step towards reorganisation of
period (750-1175 CE) and came to be dominated Buddhist education in the emerging socio-economic
by Tantrik Buddhism. Tantric texts were conditions, with the specific purpose of reviving
introduced in China as early as the 8th century Buddhism in India and protecting their commercial
CE by Vajrabodhi (719 CE) who presented a interests in the Buddhist kingdoms of South East,
copy of Mahāprajňapārimitā Sutra to the Chinese North and North East Asia.
Emperor and Amoghavajra (724 CE). But it was Scholars differ when it comes to the meaning of
Tibet which emerged as the main centre of Tantric Vikramaśilā. Some argue that the name originated
Buddhism. Sino-Indian cultural relations continued from its location on the bluff rock hill, denoted
thereafter. During the Song period (960-1127 CE), in Sanskrit as Śilā. Others emphasise that the
two Nālandā scholars, Dharmadeva (973 CE) and name Vikramaśīlā conveys the sense of a strong
Buddhakirti (989 CE), visited China. This was moral conduct signified by the Sanskrit term, Śīla.
also probably due to the efforts of Pāla rulers to The word Vikrama, in Indian tradition signifies
protect their commercial interests in the Buddhist strong or powerful attributes. The location and
identification of the mahāvihāra defied a final
answer until archaeologists from Patna University
exposed a considerable monastic settlement at
village Antichak, about 47 km East of Bhagalpur
district in Bihar, during the period 1960-1969. The
location of the exposed settlement on a broad and
steep hill, south of the Ganges river, was similar to
that described in the Tibetan accounts and so the
remains were finally accepted to be those of the
Vikramaśilā Mahāvihāra.
The exposed monastic settlement is a quadrangle
Xuanzang Memorial Hall in Nalanda with a double terraced central caityā in a cruciform

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that certain features of tāntrism had their sources in

the trans-Himalayan region, particularly in North-
Eastern India or on its borders. By 7th century CE,
we have definite evidence of an active land route
connecting Assam in Eastern India with South West
China through the Patkai Hills and upper Myanmar.
A reflection of this close connection could be easily
found in the race for supremacy in Tibet among
the followers of Cĥan meditational school of China
and Indian Buddhism, dominated by miracles and
magic during the rule of Dharmarāja khri-srong-
Ide-btsan (755-797 CE). The race ended with the
declaration of the Indian School of Buddhism as
the state religion of Tibet by the Dharmarāja. This
declaration marked a significant turning point in
Painting depicting Venerable Atiśa preaching dharma, Tibet the dynamics of future cultural exchange between
India, Tibet and China. Vikramaśilā Mahāvihāra
shape, having four shrine chambers with pavilions. thus became the central place of India’s relationship
The central caityā, rising to a height of 16.25 with Tibet. It also became the centre for translating
metre, could be reached through a pathway. Buddhist texts into Tibetan. Many Buddhist scholar
Tibetan accounts mention about six entrance monks from Vikramaśīlā – namely – Sarvajňādeva
gates manned by eminent scholars who screened Jīnamitra, Dānaśīla, Dharmakāra, Tilopā, Nāropā
admission to the mahāvihāra. Thus, we have the and Atiśa went to Tibet. Among them Atiśa,
names of Ratnākaraśānti (East Gate), Vagīśvarakīrti also known as Dīpańkara Śrijňāna, was the most
(West Gate), Naropa (North Gate), Prajňākaramati prominent. During his stay in Tibet from 1041-1054
(South Gate), Ratnavajra (First Central Gate) and CE, he reformed Tibetan Buddhism and composed
Jnānaśrīmitra (Second Gate). The exposed monastic the famous texts Bodhi-patha-pradipa and Ekavira-
complex includes 208 cells with a verandah. Sādhana-nāmā. The most popular face of his reform
The outer wall has 20 projected circular cells was the worship of Goddess Tārā.
and 20 rectangular cells. A unique feature is the The galaxy of acāryās associated with the
underground cells which may have been used by mahāvihāra made the institution the last beacon
monks for meditation. Remains of a huge library of Buddhist philosophy marked by strong Tantric
building with a manuscript section have also been characteristics. The Siddhas [enlightened one],
excavated. According to Lama Taranath, during namely Saraha-pā, Naro-pā and Santi-pā were
the period of King Rampala (1076-1132 CE), when associated with the mahāvihāra. Both the acāryās
Abhyākara Guptā was its head, there were 108 and the siddhās contributed immensely towards
professors and 1,000 inmate student monks. The fostering the basic belief in tantric Buddhism that
number of monk scholars in the 12th century has the Universe is identical with Buddha and that all
been estimated to have been around 3,000. No its dimensions and qualities consist of Buddha.
definite evidence of land grants to the mahāvihāra Their works and efforts acted as a fulcrum between
exists. It appears to have met its expenditure though Vajrayāņa and Sahajayāna and laid the basis for the
the state’s assignment of the revenue collected from establishment of Lamaism in Tibet.
surrounding villages. Although only one mound out Hindu-Buddhist rivalry for acquiring space in
of the nine has been excavated, the establishment is the emerging religious thought streams gradually
shorn of urban relics which characterised the earlier affected the activities of the mahāvihāra which was
mahāvihāras like Nālandā. finally destroyed by ruthless Turkish onslaughts by
Under the patronage of the Pāla rulers, Vikramaśilā early 13th century CE.
Mahāvihāra rose as the major centre for studies on (R K Sinha & Kamal Sheel)
Tantric Buddhism and its offshoots – Vajrayāņa and
Sahajayāna. Tantric Buddhism originated in India in
between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE but it flourished Monasteries
largely in Tibet, China and Central Asian countries.
In Tibet, it was introduced by Indian scholar-monks Mount Wutai
like Śāntarakşita (700-770 CE), Padmasambhava Mount Wutai, also known as the Mount Qingliang,
(720-800 CE) and Kamalśila (720-790 CE). The close is one of the four Buddhist holy mountains, which
connection between Eastern India, Nepal, Tibet and is located on Northeastern Wutai County, Xinzhou,
China during this period has led scholars to believe Shanxi province.

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east, there is a Bodhisattva dwelling named as the

Mount Qingliang. In the past, Bodhisattvas always
chose this place to live and Manjusri was just one
of them who had 10,000 retinues. This also has
nothing to do with Mount Wutai. Therefore, Mount
Wutai is not famous during the eastern and western
Jin Dynasty and Northern and Southern dynasties.
In the 7th century, due to the decay of Buddhism
in India and prosperity in China and also due to
China’s geological position which is in the north
Buddhist Temple at Wutai Mountain, Shanxi, China east of India and Mount Wutai’s climatic features
of being icy cold in winter and snowing in summer,
Definition the Mount Wutai was called as Mount Qingliang so
Mount Wutai can be explained in the broad and that Dharani Sutra says: Buddha told Vajra Secret
narrow sense. From the perspective of the narrow –Traces Spirits that after he passed away, there was
sense, Mount Wutai just means five plateaus ie east a country named Dazhendan in the northeastern
plateau, west plateau, south plateau, north plateau Jambu-dvipa. A mountain named Wuding was
and middle plateau, each of which is flat on the top just located there which was also the dwelling of
thus being literally named as Mount Wutai (the Five Manjusri and a place for him to disseminate the
Plateau Mountain in Chinese). In terms of broad dharma”.
sense, Mount Wutai includes the five plateaus as well During Northern Wei and Northern Qi Dynasty,
as the areas around them and the central zone is the Mount Wutai was gaining attention from the emperor.
Taihuai town which is encircled by five plateaus. In Sui Dynasty, Yang Jian, the Emperor Wen of Sui
The east plateau, also referred to as Wanghai Peak (581-604) once ordered to establish a temple in each
(sea viewing in Chinese) measuring 2,795 m above plateau of the Mount Wutai to enshrine and worship
sea level, is a good place to view the sea in Autumn Manjusri but none of them is reserve up to now.
when the weather is fine. This is also why people Present-day Wanghai Temple in the east plateau,
give it this name. The south plateau is 2,458 m Falei Temple in the west plateau, Puji Temple in the
above sea level and during summer, there are lots south plateau, Lingying Temple in the north plateau
of wild flowers and fine grass everywhere at the top and Yanjiao Temple in the middle plateau were
just like its another name the Jinxiu Peak (prosperity all established after the Tang Dynasty and it was
and luxury in Chinese); the west plateau, which is just in this Dynasty that Mount Wutai was ushered
2,773 m above sea level, is called as Guayue Peak into its prime, especially after Buddhist tantra
(which means moon hanging above the mountain in was formed in China and Manjusri, as the God of
Chinese) because when the moon comes out in the tantra, was specially worshipped and respected. Not
west, it’s just like a bright mirror hanging above the merely did the Chinese Buddhism circle think of the
top of the peak; the north plateau, 3,061 m above Mount Wutai as the ashram of Manjusri, but foreign
sea level, is also named as Yedou Peak (since it rises Buddhists also had such kind of thoughts and paid
directly into the sky as if it were able to touch the a visit to this place. Through incessant exploration
stars); the middle plateau which measures 2,894 m and expansion of later generations, especially after
above sea level features huge rocks and green grass Tibetan Buddhism made this place a Buddhist holy
and tresses and therefore, is called as Cuiyan Peak land, Mount Wutai became even more famous with
(the prosperity of green plants in Chinese). a large number of grand Buddhist events launched

History
According to legend, Indian eminent monks
Kāśyapamātanga and Dharmaratna who are among
the first group of Indian monks coming to China,
once arrived at the Mount Wutai and believed it as
the residence of Manjusri and therefore, suggested
Emperor Ming of Han to build a temple here. There
are three kinds of views about the connection
between Manjusri and Wutai Mountain. The first
one is that Manjusri lived in Himalayas but later,
the snow-capped mountain was changed into the
Mount Qingliang just like what the Avatamsaka
Sutra · Bodhisattva Dwellings says: In the north- Xiantong Temple at Wutai Mountain, Shanxi, China

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 Cultural Contacts

survived and eventually accompanied him to Mount

Qingliang. Three of his disciples returned and the rest
all died. Sudhaśrī passed away in the Lingjiu Peak,
east plateau and his sarira was taken back to India
by his disciples. Master Sahajasri, another Indian
monk who arrived at the Mount Wutai in 1369 to pay
respect to this world renowned Buddhism holy land.
Later, he went to Nanjing to do missionary work and
returned to Mount Wutai again before death. Sha-kya
ye-shes, an Indian monk, descendant of Sakyamuni,
paid a pilgrimage visit to Manjusri at Mount Wutai in
Main hall of the Nan Chan Temple, Wutai Mountain, Shanxi, China
1414. He lived in Xiantong Temple and returned to
his own country in 1431. There were also thousands
here. Gradually, this mountain, along with the areas of unknown pilgrims who once visited the Mountain.
around it, developed into the greatest centre of
Buddhist culture in Northern China. Today, it has Major Temples
a total of 95 temples in various sizes, recognised as Currently, there are six State Protected Historic
the biggest Buddhism temple complex in China and Sites and 15 Shanxi Province Protected Historical
listed into the Directory of World Cultural Heritage Sites at Mount Wutai.
by the United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation in 2009. Xiantong Temple
Mount Wutai is not only a place collecting the According to legend, during Yongping Period of the
essence of Buddhism culture but a historical witness Later Han Dynasty (58-75 CE), Dafulingjiu Temple,
of culture exchange between China and India. There one of the earliest temples in China was built at
are a large number of names of places which have Mount Wutai whose name can be originated from
a close link with the Buddhist holy lands of India the Griddhraj Parvat of India since the west of the
and Buddhism celebrities such as Griddhraj Parvat, mountain was just like the Griddhraj Parvat. It is
Narayana, Guanyinping, Samantabhadra Pagoda, located in north of Taihuai town ie the original
Rahu Temple, Luohantai, Jingangku, Dishigong etc. foundation of present-day Xiantong Temple. In the
After Tang Dynasty, Mount Wutai cultivated a large Yuanhong period of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern
group of eminent monks thus making a significant Wei (471-499 CE), the Dafulingjiu Temple was
contribution to the prosperity of Buddhism culture expanded and renamed as the Garden Temple. Later,
in China. In addition, some Indian monks also came Emperor Taizong of Tang (627-649 CE) rebuilt the
to this place to worship Manjusri, disseminate the Xiantong Temple. During the period of Empress Wu
dharma and translate Buddhism scriptures such as Zetian (684-704), the Garden Temple was expanded
Buddhapala from Kawmira (present-day Kashmir) and as a result of the newly translated Avatamsaka
on northern India who, after hearing of Manjusri Sutra in which Mount Wutai was mentioned, the
living in Mount Wutai, crossed the desert, travelled temple was renamed as Avatamsaka Temple. From
thousands of miles and eventually arrived at Mount then on all the way to the Hongwu Period of the Ming
Wutai in 676 CE, it is said that he came to Mount Dynasty (1368-1398 CE), a large-scaled overhaul
Wutai with a tin staff (Khakkhara) in his hand, was conducted and the temple was renamed as
worshipping and weeping piously. Later, he came to Xiantong Temple. As the time rolled into the Qing
Changan (present-day Xi’an) to translate Buddhism Dynasty, the temple was repaired several times and
scriptures and it is said that he lived in seclusion gradually formed into the size we see today. It totals
at Jingangku of Mount Wutai in his later years. more than 400 rooms and occupies an area of more
Amoghavajra, an Esoteric Buddhism monk in Tang than 80,000 sq m thus well-known as the biggest
Dynasty who came from north India, was praised temple at Mount Wutai.
highly by the emperor since he admired Manjusri
very much and then sent to Mount Wutai in the Foguang Temple
summer of 770 CE to preside over a dharma event Foguang Temple is located at Mount Foguang, 25
and perform meritorious works for the emperor for km away from the north east of Wutai County. It was
three months. During the Southern Song Dynasty, originally built in the Yuanhong period of Emperor
Sudhaśrī, a monk of the Nalanda Monastery, highly Xiaowen of Northern Wei and then became very
admired the Avatamsaka Sutra and Mount Qingliang famous. In the temple, a hexagonal pagoda named
and he, at the age of 85, led seven of his disciples as Zushi Pagoda (Master Founding Pagoda) is a relic
to come to China by sea. During a journey full of of the Northern Wei Dynasty. The Maitreya Pavilion,
hardships and dangers, only one of his disciples rebuilt in the Tang Dynasty, seems huge, majestic

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and impressive. It was damaged in a fire during the original establishment is unclear. The temple is
Huichang fifth year (845 CE), and rebuilt until the rebuilt on the Jianzhong, third year of Emperor
Dazhong 11th year (875 CE). Now, the temple still Dezong of Tang (782 CE) and the Great Buddha’s
treasures some precious cultural relics and artworks Hall (Mahavira Hall) built at that time has
such as frescos, statues and stone Dhanari column of successfully survived from numerous natural and
Tang. What’s more, the Manjusri Hall built during manmade disasters and has been preserved up to
the Jin Dynasty is maintained and treasures six now as the only one wood structure architecture
statues including Manjusri’s statue which can be established during the Tang Dynasty, we can see
dated back to the Jin Dynasty. today. The statue of Sakyamuni, the founder of
Buddhism, along with the colourful statues of its
Rahu Temple disciples, Bodhisattvas and heavenly king are all the
Rahu Temple is located on the east of the Xiantong relics of the Tang Dynasty, a perfect embodiment of
Temple in Taihuai town which is named after Rahula, sculpture style of that time.
son of Sakyamuni. Manjusri is enshrined here. It (Xue Keqiao)
was originally built during the Tang Dynasty and
then became the monastery of Tibetan Buddhism. Mount Putuo
During the first stage of the Qing Dynasty, several Mount Putuo is among the four Buddhist holy
emperors once paid a pilgrimage visit to the temple mountains in China, located in the sea, east of
and granted funds to repair and expand the temple Zhejiang province, which is one of the islands of
so its scale was increasing gradually. Now there are the Zhoushan Islands measuring 12.7 sq km. It is
more than 500 halls and monk room. It was said that governed by the Putuo County and widely known
Rahula looked up to Manjusri so he celebrated the as the generic terms of Buddhism architectural
birthday of Manjusri on June 14 in lunar calendar complex in the island built to worship and enshrine
every year. Up to now, lamas in the temple also the Goddess of Mercy.
follow this custom. They dance in strange clothes
and masks on this day. Historical Background
Mount Putuo has a close link with the belief in
Jinge Temple Avalokitesvara (Guanyin). In a Buddhism scripture,
Jinge Temple is situated on the Northwest of The Sutra on the Completion of Brightness, translated
the south plateau, 15 km far away from Taihuai by Zhiyao, a foreign eminent monk in the Later
town. It was built in the Dali fifth year of the Han Dynasty, the name of Guanyin was mentioned.
Emperor Daizong of Tang (770 CE). At that time, The book was translated in the Zhongping second
Amoghavajra, an eminent monk from India, was year of Emperor Ling of Han (185 CE). After that,
ordered by the emperor to make merit and build in Infinite Life Sutra translated by Kang Sengkai
the temple at Mount Wutai. It was named as Jinge in 252 CE, Guanyin was the retinue of Amitabha.
Temple (Golden Pavillion in Chinese) because its In 406 CE, Kumarajiva successfully translated
tiles were made out of copper and painted with gold. Saddharmapundarika Sutra in which, not merely
Avalokitesvara, the Goddess of Mercy, is enshrined did Guanyin have magic power but was able to
as the main Buddha. In the temple, there are more change into 33 different shapes and save ordinary
than 2,000 statues of a variety of Buddhism figures. people out of disasters and suffering with different

Shuxiang Temple
Shuxiang Temple is built to pay respect to Manjusri.
There is a huge Manjusri statue in it which is why the
temple was named Shuxiang Temple. It was located
in the southwest of Yanglin Street, Taihuai town. It
was built during the Tang Dynasty and rebuilt in the
Yanyou period of Yuan Dynasty (1314-1320). Later,
it was completely damaged in the fire. In Chenghua
23rd year of Ming Dynasty (1487), the temple was
built again and in the Hongzhi ninth year (1496), a
gigantic statue of Manjusri riding on a lion, which is
nine metre high, was erected in the temple.

Nanzen-ji Temple
Nanzen-ji Temple is situated on the west of Lijia
town, southwest of Wutai County. The time of its Fayu Temple, Mount Putuo, Zhejiang, China

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identities. From then on, the influence of Guanyin Mount Putuo was appointed as the ashram of
was drastically enhanced. Around 420 CE, the Guanyin to mainly pay homage to Avalokitesvara
earliest clay sculptures of Guanyin were built in (Guanyin). According to the records of Buddhist
the 169 caves in the Bingling Temple of Gangsu scriptures, the island was also widely thought of as
province. In the meantime, people along the regions similar as Potalaka (Putuo in short), the residence
south of the Yangtze River also began to establish its of Avalokitesvara in south India. Then Potalaka
statues which showed the Chinese people had begun was divided into two parts: Mount Pota and Mount
to worship Guanyin. Among the mythical stories Laka. Mount Laka is also on this island.
created during the Northern and Southern Dynasties,
there were some stories about Guanyin helping Status quo
people in distress. In 663 CE, Master Heun Sang Mount Putuo owned more than 200 temples,
finished the translation of Mahā-prajñāpāramitā- Buddhist nunneries and thatched tents
sūtra which further propelled the Chinese people’s accommodating more than 4,000 monks during
belief in Guanyin. Since the mid-6th century CE, the era of Republic of China. Later due to major
under the influence of Esoteric Buddhism, the historical changes, there are now just more than
images and statues of Guanyin with multiple arms 20 temples and Buddhist nunneries with more
and heads showed up. During this period, Yaogupta than 20 sight spots. Puji Temple, Fayu Temple
translated the 11th-side Avalokitesvara Mantra Sutra and Huiji Temple are the three greatest temples
and Avalokiteshvara Amoghapasha Mantra. Later, on Mount Putuo. Puji Temple is located south of
from the Tang Dynasty to Song Dynasty, a large Baihuangding, Mount Putuo. Originally built in the
number of similar Buddhism classics were translated Yuanfeng third year of the Northern Song Dynasty
by Master Xuanzang, Vajrabodhi, Amoghavajra, (1080) and expanded in the Wanli 33rd year of the
Bodhiruci, Fatian, Tianximie and Dharmabhadra Ming Dynasty (1605), Puji Temple was destroyed
thus ushering the Chinese Esoteric Buddhism into by the armed forces of Netherlands on the fourth
its prime and endowing the image of Guanyin with year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi of Qing Dynasty
so many changes. (1665) and was rebuilt on the 38th year of the reign
of Kangxi (1699). At present, there are more than
Development 200 palace halls and rooms covering an area of
According to records, during the Dazhong period 11,400 sq m. The main palace hall was rebuilt on
of the Tang Dynasty (847-860 CE), an Indian the ninth year of the reign of emperor Yongzheng
monk came to an overseas island around Zhejiang (1731) and could accommodate more than 1,000
province, who burnt his 10 figures to express his people for religious services. The sitting statue
strong desire to see Avalokitesvara (Guanyin) and of Avaloktesvara and statue of Thousand-Hand
Guanyin eventually showed up. And therefore, this Guan-yin are both modern works. Fayu Temple
island was closely connected with Guanyin. In 858 is located east of Baihuangding at the foot of the
CE, Huie, a Japanese monk got a Guanyin statue Guangxi Peak. It was built in the eighth year of the
from Mount Wutai. On its way home, he stopped reign of Emperor Wanli, Ming Dynasty (1580) and
on the island to rest. However, he encountered a originally named as Haichao Nunnery and later
huge storm so he had to live on this island and renamed Huguo Zhenhai Temple. The temple was
later built the Not-willing-leave Guanyin Temple. once damaged by fire but in the 28th year of the
From then on, the belief of Guanyin began to reign of Emperor Kangxi, Qing Dynasty (1689), it
become very popular on the island. In the Jiading was rebuilt and renamed Fayu Temple on the 38th
seventh year of the Southern Song Dynasty (1214), year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, with an area
of about 8,800 sq m. In the Hall of Avalokitesvara
Buddhisatva, a huge statue of Avalokitesvara was
consecrated with the statues of 18 Arhats on both
sides. Huiji Temple is located at the top of Mount
Putuo. At first, there was just a stone pavillion with a
Buddhist statue for people to worship on its original
location but later it was built into Huiji Nunnery.
In the 58th year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong,
Qing Dynasty (1793), the Nunnery was rebuilt and
expanded into Huiji Temple. As they rolled into the
33rd year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu, Qing
Dynasty (1907), another large-scaled expansion for
the temple was completed.
Memorial Archway at Mount Putuo, Zhejiang, China (Xue Keqiao)

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Mount E'mei
Mount E'mei is among one of the four holiest
Buddhist mountains in China. It is located in
E'mei, Leshan City of Sichuan province. According
to legend, the mountain was the ashram for
Samantabhadra to make its presence and power
felt and disseminate dharma.

Introduction
Today, the scenic region of the Mount E'mei covers
154 sq km, including four great mountains, ie Da- The main hall of the Huazang Temple on Mount E'mei, Sichuan, China

E, Er-E, San-E and Si-E. Mount E'mei, generally

speaking, refers to Mount Da-E, also known as the enough. Originally, Daoism was very popular here
main peak of Mount E'mei. The top of the peak is and during the period of Eastern Jin Dynasty, there
called Wanfo Peak (Thousands of Buddha Peak were Daoists who came to Mount E'mei to practice
in Chinese) which is 3,099 m above sea level and Daoism. In Tang and Song Dynasty, Daoism and
wriggles more than 50 km from the top to bottom. As Buddhism began to co-exist in the mountain and
of now, there are about 26 temples in the mountain from then on, Buddhism began to prevail over
which mainly include Baoguo Temple, Fuhu Temple, Daoism and became well-accepted. During Ming
Qingyin Pavilion, Wannian Temple, Xianfeng Dynasty, Buddhism was ever-popular and Daoism
Temple, Huazang Temple etc. accommodating became gradually weaker and weaker and at this
around 300 monks and nuns. In 1982, Mount E'mei period, the number of Buddhists on Mount E'mei
was approved by the State Council to be in the first became more than 1,700 persons with nearly 100
category of national scenic areas. In 1996, it was temples of different sizes scattered all over from top
listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific to bottom. By the end of Qing Dynasty, the number
and Cultural Organization into the World Heritage of temples had increased to more than 150.
List. In 2007, Mount E'mei was officially approved The history of Mount E'mei as the ashram of
by the National Tourism Administration to be a five Samantabhadra can be traced back to the Eastern
star A Tourist Scenic Area. Jin Dynasty. According to legend, Puxian Temple
was already built at that time which was the
History predecessor of present-day Wannian Temple. The
According to legend, Buddhism was introduced temple was renamed Baishui Temple during Tang
into Mount E'mei during 1st century CE and at the Dynasty. People during the period of Northern Song
end of Han Dynasty, the Buddhists began to build Dynasty had already enacted a huge copper statue
temples here. But this does not appear to be reliable of Samantabhadra in Mount E'mei and this was the
reason for renaming the Baishui Temple as Baishui
Samantabhadra Temple and from then on, the belief
in Samantabhadra dramatically enhanced.

Major Temples
Baoguo Temple, sitting at the foot of Mount E'mei
was originally named Huizong Temple. It was
built during the reign of Emperor Wanli, Ming
Dynasty (1573-1620 CE), and rebuilt during
the reign of Emperor Kangxi (1662-1722 CE).
It treasures a huge number of cultural relics, the
most important of which include (1) the 14-floor
red copper Avatamsaka Sutra pagoda is 7 m high,
made in Ming Dynasty and carved with 4,700 small
Buddhism statues and entire Avatamsaka Sutra (2)
the Buddha statue was made out of colour ceramic
glaze and was built in the 13th year of the reign
of Emperor Yongle, Ming Dynasty (1415) which
is 2.47 m high with glittering and translucent
colour. The Wannian Temple, originally named
Puxian Temple, was built during the Eastern Jin
The hilltop of Mount E'mei, Sichuan, China Dynasty (4th century CE). It was renamed as

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Baishui Temple in the Tang Dynasty and as Baishui to learn Buddha Dharma during Kaiyuan period
Samantabhadra Temple in the Northern Song of Tang (713-741 CE) and lived in Mount Jiuhua
Dynasty. During the period of the reign of emperor to practice Buddhism. Some local rich men built
Wanli, Ming Dynasty, a palace hall made out of temple for him. In the Zhide second year of Tang
bricks was built there so emperor Wanli named Dynasty (757 CE), the temple was completed. From
it as Shengshou Wannian Temple and the name then on, Kim Gyo-gak began to accept disciples to
of Wannian Temple still exists. The brick palace promote Buddhism and gradually became more and
hall was also named Wuliang Hall which boasts of more famous. He even attracted many monks from
significant research value from the perspective of Silla to learn Buddhism from him. He lived at Mount
architecture. Inside the hall, there is a huge copper Jiuhua for more than 10 years and passed away in
statue of Samantabhadra riding a six-tooth white the Zhenguan 10th year of the Tang Dynasty (794
elephant measuring 7.35 m high and weighing 62 CE) at the age of 99. His body still seemed alive
tonnes. This was built in Taipingxingguo 5th year even after three years. People, in accordance with
of the reign of Emperor Taizong, northern Song so many magic events that took place before and
Dynasty. Until now, it has stood there for more after his death, believed he was the reincarnation of
than 1,000 years. Ksitigarbha and with reverence called him golden
(Xue Keqiao) Ksitigarbha. Therefore, Mount Jiuhua became the
ashram of Ksitigarbha. Later, with some major
Mount Jiuhua changes in the Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties,
Mount Jiuhua is one of the four Buddhist holy Mount Jiuhua Buddhism was greatly developed
mountains in China in Qingyang County, Chizhou until the early Ming Dynasty and reached its peak
of Anhui province. It was called Lingyang Mountain in the Qing Dynasty. At that time, there were
or Jiuzi Mountain in ancient China. During Tang around 300 temples accommodating more than
Dynasty, Li Bai, the famous poet, and his friends 4,000 monks in the mountain. Since 1978, a grand
made a trip to this mountain and noticed its nine Ksitigarbha Dharma assembly would be held by
peaks which look like a lotus and thus renamed it the Mount Jiuhua Buddhist Association each year
as Mount Jiuhua. to pray for world peace. In 2013, the consecration
Mount Jiuhua, as a nation-level scenic spot, ceremony for the 99 m high outdoor bronze statue
occupies an area of 334 sq km, whose highest peak of Ksitigarbha was grandly launched at the Dayuan
is the Shiwang Peak, 1,342 m above sea level. Cultural Park of Mount Jiuhua. The statue was made
Within 100 km around the mountain, there are 99 of more than 3,000 bronze plates which consumed
peaks, all boasting beautiful views. On a horizontal over 1,100 tonnes of bronze with three elevators
inscribed board, Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795) inside it to carry visitors to the top.
entitled Mount Jiuhua as The First Mountain in
southeast China. As one of the Buddhist holy lands Roushen Palace (Flesh Body Palace)
in China, Mount Jiuhua has 99 temples in total, Since Tang Dynasty till now, there have been many
nine of which are listed as nation-level key temples Buddhists following golden Ksitigarbha’s lead, thus
and 30 of which are province-level key temples. The establishing the tradition of flesh body Nirvana
famous temples include Ganlu Temple, Huacheng in Mount Jiuhua. There were 15 monks and nuns
Temple, Zhiyuan Temple, Zhantanlin Huiju Temple who underwent flesh body nirvana and now there
etc. At present, Mount Jiuhua has about 600 monks, are flesh bodies of five eminent monks available
treasures 6,300 Buddhism statues and more than for believers to worship. The Flesh Body Palace is
2,000 precious historical relics. where the body of golden Ksitigarbha is saved and
According to legend, Kim Gyo-gak (696-794 CE), there was a flesh body pagoda in the palace. During
an eminent monk from ancient Silla came to China the reign of Emperor Wanli, Ming Dynasty, the
government granted heavy funds to rebuild the flesh
body pagoda of golden Ksitigarbha and great hall
outside the pagoda. The palace was rebuilt again
in the 22nd year of the reign of emperor Kangxi,
Qing Dynasty (1683) and was later repeatedly
rebuilt in 1886, 1914, 1955 and 1981. Currently,
it covers an area of 705 sq m. Each year, on July
15th of the lunar calendar, when Ksitigarbha was
born and on July 30th of the lunar calendar when he
became immortal, his believers and followers surge
to Mount Jiuhua to burn incense, chant sutras and
Tiantai Temple at Mount Jiuhua Anhui, China even keep watch at night.

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witnessed several vicissitudes, repeated damages

due to wars and was rebuilt several times. Its size
was the highest during the rule of Wu Zetian in the
Tang Dynasty and it received a maximum of 3,000
monks at a time. In 1555 CE, when Huang Jin held
the position eunuch and the Governor, he renovated
the White Horse Temple. To a large extent, the
present scale and layout of the White Horse temple
is from that time. After the establishment of the
People’s Republic of China, the government has
rebuilt the temple several times - in 1952, 1954
and 1959. In 1961, the White Horse Temple was
declared as a national cultural relic protection unit
Statue of Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha at Mount
by the State Council.
Jiuhua Anhui, China

Huacheng Temple
Huacheng Temple is located in the middle of Jiuhua
Street, on a small town in the mountain 600 m above
sea level. It is the most time-honoured temple and
also the main temple in Mount Jiuhua, built on the
Longan fifth year of Eastern Jin Dynasty (401 CE)
and in which the golden Ksitigarbha once practised
Buddhism for a very long time. The temple was
officially named Huacheng Temple on the Jianzhong
first year of the reign of Emperor Dezong, Tang
dynasty (780 CE) and a year later, it was determined
as the ashram of Ksitigarbha. The temple reached its
peak in the Ming and Qing Dynasty.
The main gate of the White Horse Temple at Luoyang, Henan, China
Zhiyuan Temple
Zhiyuan Temple is well-known as the most majestic
temple in Mount Jiuhua which is named after
Jetavana, a holy land of Indian Buddhism. Originally
built during the reign of Emperor Jiajing, Ming
Dynasty (1522-1566), the temple gained great fame
since the Jiaqing period of Qing Dynasty (1796-
1820) when it was expanded.
(Xue Keqiao)

White Horse Temple

White Horse Temple is China’s first government-
run temple. It is located in Luoyang City, Henan Indian-style Buddhist Hall at the White Horse Temple,
Province which is known as the birthplace of Luoyang, Henan, China
"Chinese Buddhism".
According to historical records, in 67 CE, In 1997, the Religious Affairs Bureau of Luoyang
Emperor Han Mingdi dreamt of a golden person. made an overall planning for the White Horse
He then sent messengers towards the West in Temple. It was decided to build a “International
search. In 68 CE, Indian Monks, Kāśyapamātanga Buddhist Monastery Hall” in the western side
and Dharmaratnawas, on invitation arrived in of the temple building. In April 2005, Chinese
Luoyang on a white horseback carrying Buddhist Premier Wen Jiabao and Indian Prime Minister
scriptures and statues. The following year emperor Dr Manmohan Singh signed the memorandum of
Hanmingdi ordered the construction of a Buddhist “India’s Indian-style Buddhist Hall in the White
Monastery in the northern part of Royal Road, Horse Temple in Luoyang, China.” In April 26, 2006,
three miles outside the Xiyong Gate and named it - the groundbreaking ceremony of the construction
“White Horse Temple.” From the date of completion was held at the White Horse Temple. On May 29,
of construction, the White Horse Temple has 2010, the hall was officially inaugurated with the

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then President of India, Pratibha Patil, attending away from the capital city all the way down to
the inauguration ceremony. The hall is located in the Famen Temple and free food and drinks were
the western side facing the east, it is around 100 m available on the way for anyone who participated
long from east to west and stretches around 60 m in in the event. A guard of honour for the Buddha’s
width from north to south. It occupies a construction relics was performed under the guidance of imperial
area of ​​about 3,450 sq m, the main building is about palace guards with the escort of ministers, famous
30 m high, inside is enshrined a Buddha statue up to monks and other dignitaries. During the whole
4.5 m high. This resembles India’s World Heritage process, banners and flags covered the sky, great
Site of Sanchi Stupa in its design and construction. music filled the air and ordinary people lined on
The Indian Government sponsored a fund of Rs 50 both sides of the road for a good look at this grand
million for the completion of the Hall, it is the first ceremony. Decorated archways stood up on each
overseas Buddhist hall construction funded by the street in the capital city of Chang’an, Tang Dynasty.
Indian Government. The Emperor himself waited with reverence for
(Zhang Ran & Qiao Anquan) the arrival of the Buddha bones standing on the
city gate tower while the ministers and citizens
Famen Temple stood on both sides of the street. The relics, after
Famen Temple (Famen Vihar) is one of the most arrival, would be worshipped for three days in the
renowned Buddhist temples in China situated at imperial palace and then sent to various temples
Fufeng County, Baoji, Shaanxi Province. It is famous in the capital city for people to worship them. On
for treasuring the finger sarira (relics) of Sakyamuni. this occasion, ministers and rich people rushed to
Famen Temple was built during the late Eastern donate money, ordinary people from all over the
Han Dynasty (second half of the 2nd century CE) country took their sons and old parents to receive
and was originally referred to as Asoka Temple. blessings and some of the believers even indulged
At first, it was just a pagoda built over the relics in self sacrifice by breaking their arms or fingers or
of Buddha. Later a temple was constructed next to burning their hair or arms to display their loyalty
the pagoda. According to legend, after unifying the and devotion. In January next year, the bones were
India, Asoka the Great divided the Buddhist relics sent back to the Famen Temple, which called for
into 84,000 shares and sent spirits to deliver them another event of ostentation and extravagance. This
to various countries for the purpose of promoting was the last known public event to worship Buddha
Buddhism. Pagodas were built by people to worship relics according to the ritual in Buddhism. The finger
those relics. It’s said that these relics reached 19 sarira (relics) of Sakyamuni and thousands of rare
places in China and the Famen Temple, also known treasures would remain buried in the underground
as the Asoka Temple was just the fifth. In 494 CE and palace beneath the pagoda during the subsequent
602 CE, the pagoda was opened twice for believers period of 1,113 years. The underground palace
to worship the relics. In the Wude seventh year of
Tang Dynasty, the temple was officially renamed
as “Famen Temple” by the emperor and during
Zhenguan period of Tang Dynasty (627-649 CE), the
pagoda was opened three times. The pagoda was
originally named as Grave of Saints and then it was
turned into a four-level wooden building with a new
name as Huguo Zhenshen Pagoda (Buddha Pagoda
for the protection of country) in Tang Dynasty.
Inviting and welcoming the Buddha’s relics was
the grandest Buddhist event during Tang Dynasty,
which was launched every 30 years. There were
eight emperors of Tang inviting Buddha bones six
times into the imperial palace for worship and sent
them back twice to the Famen Temple to show
respect. Each time the event was marked by a grand
campaign with the involvement of a large majority
of people. The most impressive one took place in
the Xiantong 14th year (873 CE) with two years
of careful preparations before the official launch
of the event. When the relics were welcomed,
endless stream of horses and carriages was seen
day and night along the road more than 100 km Pagoda at the Famen Temple, Fufeng County, Baoji, Shaanxi, China

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exchanges between India and China. In the seventh

year of Kaihuang period Sui Dynasty (587 CE), a
Buddhist scriptures Translation Institute was built in
the temple and many famous translators of Buddhist
scriptures from India such as Narendrayasas,
Jnanagupta, Dharmagupta etc. resided and worked
there. In the third year of Zhenguan Period, Tang
Dynasty (629 CE), Master Prabhamitra from Nalanda
Monastery of India presided over this institution.
The Relic of the Buddha’s Finger at
Between the fourth and eighth year of the Kaiyuan
Famen Temple, Shaanxi, China period (716-720 CE), Esoteric Buddhist monks,
the so-called Three Great Beings in the Kaiyuan
continued to remain closed even at the time of period of Tang Dynasty, known as Subhakarasimha,
establishing the dagoba. Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra translated more than
However, in August 1981, the dagoba built during 500 historical classics of Esoteric Buddhism here.
the Ming Dynasty collapsed by half and then finally In the 15th year of the Tianbao period (756 CE),
in the spring of 1987, an archaeological team Tang Dynasty, Daxingshan Temple was presided
discovered and opened the underground palace over by Amoghavajra, an eminent monk who was
and thus uncovered the finger sarira (relics) of the royal preceptor for three emperors of Tang
Sakyamuni and a large number of other precious Dynasty, Xuanzong, Suzong and Daizong. He had
ancient cultural artifacts. once launched Esoteric Buddhism rites for the
(Xue Keqiao) dissemination of dharma. Moreover, there was the
Amoghavajra Tripitaka Stone Tablet in the temple
Jianchu Temple built during the first year of Jianzhong period of
Jianchu Temple (Jianchu Vihar) is one of the most Tang Dynasty (780 CE).
time-honoured temples in China. Dabao’en Temple 后世，大型善寺多次被毁，也多次被重建。1945
is just its predecessor. In 247 CE, Kangsenghui, a 年，太虚法师等于寺内创设世界佛学苑巴利学
monk from the Western Regions (a Han Dynasty 院。1955年，政府拨款全面大修。1983年被国务院
term for the area west of Yumenguan including 列为全国重点开放寺院之一。Famous Chan master
what is now Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia) Yi Xing also lived in the temple to study and research
came to Jianye (now Nanjing) to promote Buddhism in astronomy, mathematics and shastras (classics),
and disseminate dharma. He successfully convinced and made a tremendous contribution to the ancient
Sun Quan, the King of Wu kingdom of the Three astronomy of China. During his time, Daxingshan
Kingdoms period, to believe in Buddhism and then Temple was one of the three greatest translation
the King issued an order to establish a temple for institutes for Buddhist scriptures in Chang'an and
him. Since it was the first Buddhist temple built also the birthplace of Chinese Buddhist Tantrism.
in Jianye, it was originally called Jianchu Temple. In the later period, Daxingshan Temple was
The location of the temple is called Fotuoli where damaged and rebuilt several times. In 1945, some
Kangsenghui once lived. Later, Jianchu Temple was people led by Master Taixu established the World
renamed several times, changing from Changgan Buddhist Center for Pali Studies here. In 1955, the
Temple in the Southern Dynasty, Tianxi Temple in Chinese government allocated funds for a thorough
Song Dynasty to Dabao’en Temple in Ming Dynasty.
(Xue Keqiao)

Daxingshan Temple
Daxingshan Temple (Daxingshan Vihar) is a well-
known Chinese Buddhist temple located at Nan
Xiaozhai, Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province. It was built
between the Taishi and Taikang years of the reign of
Emperor Wu, Jin Dynasty (265-289 CE) and as one
of the oldest temples in Xi’an has lasted for more
than 1,700 years. The temple was originally named
Zunshan Temple and then renamed as Daxingshan
Temple during the Kaihuang period of the Sui
Dynasty (581-604 CE), when Xi’an was expanded.
Daxingshan Temple can be referred to as
a memorable place in the history of cultural The main hall of the Daxingshan Temple, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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reconstruction of the temple and listed it in 1983

into the category of the “National Important
Temples Opened for the Public”.
(Xue Keqiao)

Asoka Temple
Asoka Temple (Asoka Vihar) is one of the time-
honoured temples in the history of China, located
on Mount Asoka in Yínzhou district of Ningbo,
Zhejiang Province.
According to legend, during the period of King
Asoka (3rd century BCE), the legendary emperor
who created the Maurya Dynasty in India, held Archway at the Asoka Temple, Yinzhou, Zhejiang, China
the third Samgiti, also the greatest in size in the
history of Buddhism in Pataliputra (present-day bid to protect it and this was the origin of the Asoka
Patna) during which the Tipitaka was compiled and Temple. In later dynasties, the temple was rebuilt
organised. His children and some monks were sent and repaired repeatedly, thus forming into the size
to the different places in the world to disseminate we see today. In 1983, the temple was selected
and promote Buddhism. By the records of Buddhism by the State Council of the People’s Republic of
scriptures, King Asoka also took out Buddha Sarira China as the National Key Temples of Buddhism
from Limnophila Aquatica (Grand Pagoda) in Rajgir in Han Nationality Regions. Asoka Temple is very
and divided it into 84,000 parts. Then he ordered a famous since it is a remarkable dagoba. It covers
spirit which could fly to establish a total of 84,000 an area of more than 60,000 sq m with more than
pagodas all over the world in one night. It was 600 rooms and the area of structure is around
rumoured that he built 19 dagobas in China, one more than 30,000 sq m. In 1987, there were
of them located in Yin County, Zhejiang province. over 70 monks living there. The temple treasures
Now, the only history relic saved till today is the some very valuable historical relics such as the
dagoba of King Asoka. calligraphy by celebrities in various dynasties and
According to historical records, in the Taikang in the Depository of Buddhist Sutras, there are the
third year of the Western Jin Dynasty (282 CE), Qing Dynasty version of Longzang which totals
an eminent monk, Huida, looked for the dagoba 7,247 volumes and Qishaban Tibetan Tripitaka,
at the foot of Mount Mao and then built a cottage both of which are rare collections. In 2006, Asoka
room there to live and protect the dagoba. This is Temple was listed by the State Council into the
the original location of Asoka Temple. The temple Sixth Group of the National Key Cultural Relics
was originally built on the Yuanjia, second year Protection Units.
of the Southern Dynasties (425 CE) and expanded (Xue Keqiao)
twice in the Yuanjia 12th year (435 CE), thus
laying the solid foundation for the development Tanzhe Temple
of the Temple. In the Putong third year of the Tanzhe Temple (Tanzhe Vihar), known as the oldest
Liang Dynasty (522 CE), the emperor bestowed a temple in Beijing, is originally named as Jiafu
horizontal inscribed board with the words, Asoka Temple and later renamed Xiuyun Temple. There
Temple on it and then the name of the temple was was a dragon pond behind the temple and cudrania
officially established. Another saying goes like this tricuspidata in the mountain, therefore, it was
- in the Yixi first year of the Jin Dynasty (405 CE), named “Tanzhe” temple.
people established a pavilion on the dagoba in a It is located in Mentougou district, Beijing, 40
km away from downtown Beijing. The temple is
extremely huge. The inside area of the temple is 2.5
hectare with a total of 943 rooms among which 638
rooms belong to the ancient architecture, while the
outside area is 11.2 hectare. The temple remains
in the style of Ming and Qing Dynasty and is quiet
famous for being the biggest architectural complex
of ancient temples in Beijing.
Tanzhe Temple was originally built in the Yongjia
first year of Jin (307 CE) or the Jianxing fourth
year (316 CE). During Wansui Tongtian period of
Asoka Temple at Yinzhou, Zhejiang, China the reign of Queen Wu Zetian, Tang Dynasty (696-

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 Cultural Contacts

making it to be the biggest royal temple in Beijing.

Later, several emperors paid a visit to the temple or
granted funds to maintain it.
Tanzhe Temple is a witness for the cultural
exchange between India and China. In Ming
Dynasty, Diwadasi, an eminent monk from eastern
India once practiced Buddhism in the temple and
was buried there after he passed away.
(Xue Keqiao)

Lingyin Temple
Lingyin Temple (Lingyin Vihar) is one of the oldest
Tanzhe Temple, Beijing, China temples in China which stands at the foot of the
mountain on the west of the West Lake, Hangzhou.
697 CE), Tanzhe Temple was enlarged and became It was originally built in the Xianhe first year of
very popular. Many believers would come to burn Eastern Jin Dynasty (326 CE).
incense here, thus making it the most important According to legend, Master Huili, an eminent
temple in Youzhou. On the Huichang fifth year monk from west India, once roamed in Zhejiang
of Tang (845 CE), Li Yan, the Emperor Wuzong province. When he arrived at Wulin (present
of Tang (841-846 CE) disapproved of Buddhism Hangzhou), he saw a peak and said: “This is just like
and as a result Tanzhe Temple was abandoned. the small mountain ridge located on the Griddhraj
Later, the temple was restored again but suffered mountain of India. I have no idea when did it fly here?
with sluggish development. In the Jin Dynasty, When Buddha lived in this world, they preferred to
several Zen masters in Tanzhe temple gained wide live in seclusion as immortal spirits. Therefore, he
recognition from public and the temple restored built a temple in front of the mountain and called
reputation again. In the Huangtong first year of it, Lingyin Temple (Temple of Soul’s Retreat).
Jin Dynasty (1141), the emperor himself paid a When the temple was built, Buddha dharma had not
pilgrimage visit to Tanzhe Temple. He issued an been well recognised in China. During the reign of
order to repair and expand the temple. As the emperor Wudi of the Southern Liang Dynasty (502
time went into Yuan Dynasty, princess Miaoyan, to 548 CE), the temple was expanded and in the Dali
daughter of Kublai Khan, became a nun at Tanzhe sixth year of Tang (771 CE), a major restoration was
Temple and spent her entire life there. At the end of carried out. After that, the temple became more and
Yuan Dynasty, Emperor Shun (on the throne from more popular attracting thousands of people to burn
1333-1368), who was a firm believer of Buddhism, incense and long for the blessing of Bodhisattva.
paid a special attention to Tanzhe Temple. He once During the Huichang fifth of Tang (845 CE) the
invited Zen Master Xue Jian of Tanzhe Temple to temple, however, was damaged once again and
enjoy dinner cooked by his younger sister with him. the monks were dismissed. Another two projects
Such a special treatment is said to be unprecedented. for rebuilding and expansion of the temple were
Yao Guangxiao, an important minister during the launched during the Five Dynasties after which
early Ming Dynasty, was originally a monk with
Dao Yan as his dharma name, who once helped
Zhu Di (on the throne from 1403-1424) to usurp
the throne. Afterwards, he resigned and returned
to Tanzhe Temple to practice Buddhism and
Emperor Zhu Di visited him over and over again.
Most of the emperors of Ming Dynasty and their
wives were all firm believers of Buddhism and the
government granted funds repeatedly to overhaul
and expand Tanzhe Temple. In the 25th year of the
reign of Emperor Kangxi, Qing Dynasty (1686), the
Emperor came to the temple to pilgrimage Buddha
for several days and lavishly granted funds. In the
31st year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Emperor
granted 10,000 taels of silver to rebuild the Tanzhe
Temple. In the 36th year of the reign of Emperor
Kangxi, Qing Dynasty, the Emperor made a trip to
the Tanzhe Temple twice and gave it a namet, thus Lingyin Temple at Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

17 7
 Cultural Contacts

the temple regained its momentum and became translation work and was, therefore, known as the
very popular again, accommodating more than ancestral Chamber of the Three Treatise School.
3,000 monks. Hangzhou is the capital city of Song
Dynasty and during this period, several emperors Portrait of Kumarajiva
paid a pilgrimage visit to the temple thus allowing The dagoba of Tripitaka Dharma Master Kumarajiva
the Lingyin Temple to develop greatly. During in the Yaoqin period is the most valuable historical
the period of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, Qing relics in Caotang Temple. According to a legend,
Dynasty (1644-1661), Master Jude, abbot of the after Kumarajiva passed away and was cremated,
Lingyin Temple, collected money for the repair and his body was burned into ashes but his tongue was
maintenance of the temple and spent 18 years to not damaged. His disciple collected his Sarira and
bring a completely new outlook for the temple. In established a dagoba in memory of him. However,
the 28th year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Qing the current dagoba was not the original one but
Dynasty (1689), the Emperor made an inspection built during Tang Dynasty.
trip in the south, and personally inscribed four (Xue Keqiao)
words “Yun Lin Chan Temple” for Lingyin Temple.
In 1936, the temple was damaged in fire, but after Shaolin Temple
1949, several large-scale repair and maintenance Shaolin Temple (Shaolin Vihar) is a well-known
projects were carried out for the temple. Now, it has Buddhist temple in China, located in Mount Shaoshi,
become prosperous and popular again with many 13 km from the west-northern Dengfeng, Henan
people eager to burn incense and worship there. Province. It is one of the best embodiments of the
(Xue Keqiao) India-China cultural exchange.
Shaolin Temple was built in the ninth year of
Caotang Temple Taihe period, Northern Wei Dynasty (495 CE).
Caotang Temple (Caotang Vihar) is one of the On the east of Mount Songshan, is Mount Taishi
most time-honoured temples in China and also the while Mount Shaoshi is on the west. Shaolin
earliest Translation Institute Buddhist Scriptures in Temple gained its name because of its location
the history of Chinese Buddhism. It is situated about in the bamboo forest of Wuru Peak (Five Breast
15 km from the south of the Qin town, Hu County, Peak) in Mount Shaoshi. In the third year of
Shaanxi province. Xiaochang period, Northern Wei Dynasty (527 CE),
The temple was originally known as Da Temple. Bodhidharma, an Indian monk, came to Shaolin
In the Hongshi third year of the later Qin Dynasty Temple of Mount Songshan. Since then, Shaolin
(401 CE), Emperor Yaoxing invited Kumarajiva, Temple became well-known in the world.
an eminent monk from the Western Regions (Han According to historical records, Bodhidharma was
Dynasty term for the area west of Yumenguan the prince of a country in south India, who gave up
including what is now Xinjiang and parts of Central the throne for Buddhism and later came to China by
Asia) to Chang’an and arranged him to live in the sea. First he went to Jinling (present-day Nanjing) to
temple to translate Buddhist scriptures. From then meet Xiao Yan, Emperor Wudi of the Liang Dynasty
on, the temple was named Caotang Temple. Later, (on the throne from 502 to 547 CE) and then started
the temple experienced rise and fall with the change a journey northward, during which he passed by
of dynasties and its name was also changed several Luoyang and eventually settled at the foot of Mount
times. After 1949 CE, the Chinese government, along Songshan. In a rock cave of Shaolin Temple, he sat
with the Japanese Buddhist societies, frequently in meditation facing a wall for the entire nine years
granted funds to restore it thus allowing the temple
to gradually expand into the size it is seen today.
Caotang Temple had close ties with Kumarajiva, a
prominent Buddhist master in the history of Chinese
Buddhism and also an eminent and extraordinary
translator of Buddhist scriptures. He was skilled
in both Sanskrit and Chinese and translated 94
Buddhist scriptures in 425 volumes in his entire
life. Ji Zang, an eminent monk in the early stage
of Tang Dynasty, created the Three Treatise School
on the principle of three shastras - Madhyamaka
Shastra, Sata-shastra and Dvadashamukha Shastra, all
translated by Kumarajiva and honoured him as the
ancestor of Three Treatise School. Caotang Temple
was a place where Kumarajiva once conducted Pagodas at the Shaolin Temple, Dengfeng county, Henan, China

17 8
 Cultural Contacts

cleared Scripture. In this sense, Shaolin Kung Fu can

be traced back to Bodhidharma.
(Xue Keqiao)

Yongning Temple
Yongning Temple (Yongning Vihar) was the biggest
temple in Luoyang during Northern Wei Dynasty.
Today, only the historic site of the temple exists.
According to the Records of Qielan at Luoyang
Volume I, Yongning Temple was originally built
in the Xiping first year of the reign of Emperor
Xiaoming, Northern Wei Dynasty (516 CE) and
seemed very majestic and great with a huge nine-
floor wooden pagoda rising directly into the sky. It
could be seen even from a place 100 li away. On the
north side of pagoda, there was a majestic palace
hall, inside which a titanic golden Buddhism statue
stood measuring about 6 m high. Moreover, there
were also 10 golden statues as tall as an ordinary
person and three Buddhism statues with real pearls
dotted on it as well as five Buddhism statues knitted
with gold wire and two Buddhism statues made out
of jade, all boasting exquisite workmanship. Outside
the palace hall, there were more than 1,000 rooms
decorated with carved beams and painted rafters.
Entrance to Shaolin Temple All of Buddhism scriptures and statues introduced
from foreign countries were preserved in this temple
and began to accept students and disseminate the surrounded by tall walls and full of luxuriant. Well-
dharma. Today, Damo Cave in Shaolin Temple is spaced trees formed into an elegant and unforgettable
just the place of Bodhidharma sitting in meditation. landscape. On the top of the wall there was a jack
During Tang Dynasty, Zen Buddhism was officially rafter covered by tiles just as similar as the walls
established which recognised retroactively of the royal palace. The temple had four doors and
Bodhidharma as the Adiguru of Chinese Zen. Zen among them the south gate was the front gate with
is a product of Indian Buddhism in China and has a three-floor gate house. The gate houses for the
a certain relationship with Bodhidharma’s thought east and west were both of two-floor buildings and
and practice. Therefore, Shaolin Temple became the north gate had no gate house. Between these four
“ancestral Chamber” of Zen. gates stood four human statues embodying the men
During the early stage of Tang Dynasty when Li of unusual strength and statues of four lions. At that
Shimin, Emperor Taizong of Tang (599-649 CE)
was still the prince of Qin, he fought against the
local forces, during which he was greatly helped by
13 monks from Shaolin Temple. When he became
the emperor, he set up a monument in the temple
to commend the monks of Shaolin Temple who
were all skilled at Kung Fu. The monument can
still be found in Shaolin Temple today. With the
permission of the Emperor, the monks of Shaolin
Temple could practice martial arts, eat meats
and drink wine. From then on, Shaolin Kung Fu
gained more and more recognition around China.
According to a legend, Shaolin Kung Fu has a very
close link with Bodhidharma. It is said that Muscle-
Bone Strengthening Exercise, widely known as
the source of Shaolin Kung Fu, was created by
Bodhidharma. In an iron box left by Bodhidharma
Fragment of a sculpted face, from Yongning Temple
when he passed away, there were two books ie belonging to the period of Northern Wei Dynasty,
Muscle-Bone Strengthening Exercise and Marrow- preserved in the Luoyang Museum, Henan, China

17 9
 Cultural Contacts

time, Bodhidharma, an eminent monk from the

Western Regions, came to China and when he saw
the temple. He was deeply impressed by its majesty
and exquisiteness and believed it the only one in the
Jambu-dvipa. In February of Yongxi third year of
the Northern Wei Dynasty (534 CE) the pagoda was
damaged in the fire which lasted for three months.
The same year Northern Wei Dynasty was toppled.
In recent years, the Chinese archaeology world,
after conducting a survey and excavation job on the
Yongning Temple, discovered that the boundary
walls of the temple were rectangular. It measured
305 m from north to south and 260 m from east Jiming Temple, Nanjing, China
to west. The base of the pagoda was located right
in the middle of boundary walls which was square. Ming Dynasty (1387), when it was restored and
On the north of the pagoda, there was a large relic eventually renamed as the Jiming Temple. Later, it
of rammed earth, known as the base of the main was once again rebuilt during the Tongzhi period of
palace hall measuring more than 60 m from east to Qing Dynasty (1862-1874) and was scaled down in
west with a total area of over 1,300 sq m. The front size. In 1966, Jiming Temple was seriously damaged
gate, pagoda and main hall were all located on the and the Nanjing government finally granted funds in
verge of axle line and the pagoda was, of course, the 1982 to rebuild it. From then on, the temple became
most important building. The halls were behind the a famous scenic place for visitors and worshippers
pagoda which was a typical layout for a Buddhist in Nanjing.
temple construction during early ancient China. (Xue Keqiao)
There were a huge number of damaged Buddhist
statues made out of clay and building materials Xiangguo Temple
such as stone statues, tiles and eaves tiles unearthed Xiangguo Temple (Xiangguo Vihar), a Chinese
during the survey and excavation. ancient Buddhist temple also known as Daxiangguo
(Xue Keqiao) Temple, is located in the downtown of Kaifeng,
Henan Province.
Jiming Temple Xiangguo Temple was originally built in the
Jiming Temple (Jiming Vihar) is one of the oldest Tianbao sixth year of Northern Qi Dynasty (555 CE)
temples in Nanjing, located in Mount Jilong. and named as Jianguo Temple at that time. In the
It was originally built in the Datong first year of Tang Dynasty, the temple was rebuilt and renamed
Southern Liang Dynasty (527 CE) and was named as Daxiangguo Temple and became very famous
as Tongtai Temple. At that time, there was a seven- since its name was given by the emperor himself.
floor Buddha pavillion and a nine-floor pagoda It was a huge temple with luxurious buildings
in the temple, together with six large palaces and everywhere. The temple in Tang Dynasty treasured
more than 10 small halls and Buddhist prayer lots of renowned fresco created by some masters
rooms. Emperor Wu of Liang (502-548 CE) was such as Wu Tao-tzu. There are also many excellent
a famous Buddhist in Chinese history who made sculpture works of Yang Huizhi, a sculptor in Tang
great contribution to the development of Chinese Dynasty. In Song Dynasty, Xiangguo Temple was
Buddhism. According to historical records, he went like a Royal Temple, many famous monk in the
to Tongtai Temple as a servant several times and temple were granted title by the emperor. During the
then asked the imperial court to redeem him with period of the reign of Emperor Taizu, Song Dynasty
a large sum of money. The fund so received would
go directly and completely into Tongtai Temple. He
did this successfully for three times and the temple
therefore became extremely rich with luxurious
buildings everywhere. However the fourth time,
he encountered a rebellion and was besieged in
the temple until death. Tongtai Temple was also
destroyed in the rebellion. In later ages, the temple
was rebuilt many times but became much smaller.
It was renamed again and again as the Qianfo Yard,
Jingju Temple, Yuanji Temple, Fabao Temple etc
until the 20th year of the reign of Emperor Hongwu, Entrance to the Daxiangguo Temple in Kaifeng, Henan, China

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(960-976 CE), the temple became a place to receive and worship of Bu Dai monk - the incarnation of
honourable guests. For example, in the Kaibao fourth Maitreya. On both sides of it stands four Heavenly
year of Song Dynasty (971 CE), Manjushri, prince Kings. Mahavira Hall, for people to pay respect to
of central India came with Jiansheng, an eminent Sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, Manjusri and
monk who was just on his way home from a journey Samantabhadra; the Goddess of Mercy Pavillion
to the West for Buddhist scriptures to go to Kaifeng. which listed the historical relics of Fayuan Temple;
After they met the Emperor, they were arranged to Jingye Hall which accommodated the bronze statue
live in Xiangguo Temple and there were many other of Samantabhadra; and, the Dabei Shrine which is
Indian monks who once lived in Xiangguo Temple. now used as showroom to exhibit volumes of various
Hereafter, the temple suffered many misfortunes and versions of Buddhist scriptures in many languages
eventually in the 15th year of the reign of Emperor from Tang Dynasty onwards. Besides this, there is
Chongzhen, Ming Dynasty (1642), was flooded by Depository of Buddhist Sutras building which now
the Yellow River. It was rebuilt and repaired twice exhibits a dozen of Buddhist statues built from
in Qing Dynasty but in 1841 it was flooded again. Eastern Han Dynasty all the way down to Ming and
After 1949, Xiangguo Temple, after being repaired Qing Dynasties.
for several times, was officially restored and opened (Xue Keqiao)
for Buddhism activities in 1992.
(Xue Keqiao) Dacien Temple
Dacien Temple (Dacien Vihar), is a Chinese temple
Fayuan Temple rising straight up in the middle of Yanta District,
Fayuan Temple (Fayuan Vihar) is one of the most Xi’an. It is very famous because of its association
historically respected Buddhist temples located in with Master Xuanzang who translated and stored the
Xuanwu district, Beijing. Buddhist scriptures he received from an extremely
In Zhenguan 19th year of Tang Dynasty (645 CE), difficult pilgrimage journey to India.
the emperor issued an order to build a temple in the Before Dacien Temple, there was another temple
memory of the soldiers who sacrificed their lives known as Jingjue Temple built during Northern Wei
in war. The temple was completed in the Wansui Dynasty. Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty (581-
Tongtian first year of the reign of Queen Wu Zetian 604 CE) once ordered to establish Wulou Temple
(696 CE) and named as Minzhong Temple. In 1057 in the old site of Jingjue Temple but the temple
CE, the temple was destroyed in a huge earthquake. was abandoned later. During the 22nd year of the
Zhenguan period of Tang Dynasty (648 CE), Prince
Li Zhi (628-683 CE) was determined to rebuild
the temple. Once restored, he renamed it as the
Ci’en Temple in memory of his mother. Before
the official establishment, it was decided that the
site be designed following the style of Jetavana

Fayuan Temple, Beijing, China

In 1070, it was rebuilt and renamed in Zhengtong

second year of Ming Dynasty as Chongfu Temple.
Another restoration of the building and its renaming
was done during the reign period of Emperor
Yongzheng of Qing Dynasty (1723-1735 CE). After
1949, the government frequently granted funds to
repair and maintain the temple. In 1956, Buddhist
Academy of China was established in Fayuan Temple.
Later, Buddhist Books and Culture Relics Museum of
China was officially founded here in 1980.
The major architectures in Fayuan Temple include Dacien Temple (Giant Wild Goose Pagoda),
the Hall of Heavenly Kings for enshrinement Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

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 Cultural Contacts

described in some Buddhist scriptures. Accordingly,

13 yards with 1,897 rooms in total were supposed
to be built. After completion of work, another hall
would be added specially for translation of Buddhist
scriptures. At that time, a total of 50 eminent monks
together with 300 common monks were stationed in
the temple. Later Master Xuanzang was requested
to move to Dacien Temple as the abbot with the
responsibility to take up the translation work of
Buddhist scriptures.
During the third year of Yonghui (652 CE) of Tang
Dynasty, in order to better protect the Buddhist
scriptures from India, Master Xuanzang submitted
a written statement to Li Zhi, Emperor Gaozong of
Tang and suggested building of Dacien Pagoda in
front of Dacien Temple in the Indian architecture
style. His suggestion was eventually accepted by
the Emperor. During the course of its construction,
Master Xuanzang fully devoted himself to monitor it Gate of Xingjiao Temple
and even participated in the delivery of bricks and
stones. Soon, the pagoda was completed and named signboard for it. Another rebuilding work was done
Pagoda of Dacien Temple, present-day Giant Wild in 1939. After 1949, the Chinese Government granted
Goose Pagoda. funds twice for the repair and restoration of Xingjiao
Dacien Temple and Giant Wild Goose Pagoda have Temple, so it forms into the size that we see today. In
a close link with Master Xuanzang. It is a symbol of Mahavira Hall, there is a bronze Buddha built during
India-China cultural exchanges. On December 22, Ming Dynasty and a Maitreya Buddha made out of
1988, Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister of India visited white jade given by Burma as a gift. The Depository
the temple and was gifted two Buddhist scriptures of Buddhist Sutras is located on the east yard, a grand
translated by Master Xuanzang by the chief abbot of two-floor building, the first floor of which is used to
Dacien Temple. treasure the portrait of Master Xuanzang and some
(Xue Keqiao) calligraphies and paintings by historical celebrities,
together with valuable historical photos of some
Xingjiao Temple politicians like Chou En-Lai and Jawaharlal Nehru
Xingjiao Temple (Xingjiao Vihar) is one of the paying tribute to the graveyard of Master Xuanzang.
most famous Buddhist temples in China which is The second floor treasures thousands of Buddhist
located at Changan County in southern suburb of scriptures and relics of palm leaf manuscript in Pali.
Xi’an, Shaanxi Province. It was built in Zongzhang The west yard is also known as the Ci’en Ta yard ie
second year of Emperor Gaozong of Tang (669 CE) the location of dagobas for Master Xuanzang and his
to accommodate the relics of Master Xuanzang. two disciples Kui Ji and Yuan Ce.
In 664 CE, Buddhist Master Xuanzang passed (Xue Keqiao)
away at Yuhua Palace (in Tongchuan City, Shaanxi
Province) and his body was buried on the White Kaiyuan Temple
Deer Plain in the east suburb of Chang'an. Several Kaiyuan Temple (Kaiyuan Vihar), Buddhism temple
years later, a pagoda was built to keep his remains in Quanzhou, Fujian Province is located on the West
and then Xingjiao Temple was established. The Street of Quanzhou city. Kaiyuan Temple was first
most important building in the temple is dagobas established in Chuigong second year of Tang (686
built for Master Xuanzang and his disciples Kui Ji CE). It was originally named Lotus Temple but later
and Yuan Ce. renamed Xingjiao Temple and Longxing Temple. In
Xingjiao Temple, notwithstanding experiencing the the 26th year of Tang (738 CE), the emperor send
rise and fall in later ages, was always respected and out an imperial decree to establish a temple in each
loved by people who continuously burnt incense in region he reigned and named it as his reign title.
the temple longing for blessing of Buddha. However, Therefore, there are many other temples named as
as time rolled into the mid-19th century, Xingjiao Kaiyuan in China as of now and Quanzhou Kaiyuan
Temple was completely damaged by war and only Temple is just one of them. However, the Quanzhou
the dagobas of Master Xuanzang and his two disciples temple plays a special role in the history of cultural
survived. In 1922, a large-scaled reconstruction exchange between India and China. First, there is
was carried out and Kang You-wei even inscribed a another legend about the establishment of Kaiyuan

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Temple. When Empress Wu Zetian of Tang Dynasty that time. Mahavira Hall (Great Buddha’s Hall) in
(684-704 CE) first took the office, a monk named Kaiyuan Temple was also referred 'Baizhu Hall' (100
Kuanghu asked Huang Shougong, a local rich man, Pillars Hall in Chinese) and as time rolled by into the
to give him a small piece of land which just could end of Ming Dynasty, the pillars in the Mahavira Hall
be covered by a cassock so that he could build a were all changed into stone pillars with a variety of
temple on it. Huang agreed. Monk Kuanghu then incised patterns including 24 pieces of carved stones
threw his cassock into the sky and the cassock telling the story of Lord Vishnu changing into dark
suddenly changed into a mass of purple cloud sky and lion-man. According to textual researches,
covering the entire mulberry field of Huang. Later, these are all the relics of Hindu temples of Tang and
Kaiyuan Temple stood up in this vast piece of land. Song Dynasty. Third is Buddhist Tantrism. Since
Similar legends can also be found on the origin of its development in India, it was rapidly introduced
into China. Since Tang and Song Dynasty, Chinese
Buddhism was greatly influenced by it and in Song
Dynasty there were so many Esoteric Buddhism
monks who once arrived at Quanzhou or lived here
doing missionary work. This is why lots of elements
of Esoteric Buddhism can be found in Quanzhou
Kaiyuan Temple such as Five Dhyani Buddhas.
(Xue Keqiao)

gtsug lag khang

Jokhang Temple (gtsug lag khang) is located in
the centre of Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region.
It is the oldest Buddhist Temple in Tibet and the
holiest site of Tibetan Buddhism in China. It was
first constructed in the middle period of 7th century
CE by Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal, who was bride
Pagodas at the Kaiyuan Temple, Quanzhou, Fujian, China of King Songtsän Gampo, the 33rd ruler (King) of
Tibetan Empire. According to a legend, Buddha Hall
was built on the former site of a lake which was
filled and levelled up with soil carried by goats to
house the Shakyamuni Statue (Akshobya Vajra), a
life-size statue of the Buddha brought from Nepal
by Princess Bhrikuti. Therefore, Jokhang Temple is
named “ra sa vphrul snang” in Tibetan (“ra” means
goat and “sa” means earth) and also known as “jo
khang” meaning “House of Shakyamuni”.
The exterior architectural form of Jokhang Temple
features architectural styles and techniques from
India, Nepal and Tibet. According to the Biography
of Kings in Tibet, mandalas are carved and painted
on four gates to satisfy the wish of the Buddhist
Guru, vajry (rock) pestles are carved and painted on
pillars to meet the desire of sngags-mang, swastika
(Srivatsa) are carved and painted on four corners
Relief of a Hindu deity on the corridor pillar to meet aspirations of Bonismo believers and
of the Kaiyuan Temple, Quanzhou grillworks are painted to satisfy the hopes of people
in Tibet. At that time Jokhang Temple was a three-
other temples in China such as in Yunnan province, layer temple facing the west which represented that
and the source of such a story can be traced back the Princess missed her hometown, Nepal, west of
to a legend about Lord Vishnu, a major Hindu god, Lhasa city. On both sides of main shrine, there are
changing into a dwarf. Second, Quanzhou was a very side halls and such layout reflects the model of the
important port which played an essential role in the universe in Buddhism. Many statues of Buddhas
connection of India and China by sea in the history. and Bodhisattvas are enshrined and worshiped
During the Tang and Song Dynasty, a large number of inside the temple including Ekādaśa mukhānām
Indian businessmen were living and doing business Avalokiteśvara (likeness of King Songtsem Gampo),
here and several Hindu temples were established at statues of Akshobya Vajra, Maitreya dharma and

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the Potala Palace thus also becoming a part of the

world’s cultural heritage.
(Kalsang gyal)

Potala Palace
Potala Palace (po ta la) is one of the world famous
ancient buildings in Tibet, China and a unique
building combined with old palace with religious
temples and a representation of union of politics
and religion.
Buddha hall at Jokhang Temple Monastery, Lhasa, Tibet, China The palace is located on the summit of Red
Mountain in old city, Lhasa and the foot of mountain
Arya Tara brought by Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal. is at an altitude of 3,700 m. The palace facing the
Besides, there are statues made in Tibet by Nepal south was built on the mountain winding up to the
craftsmen such as King of Great Freedom, Wrath summit and is made of soil, wood and stone. Its
Tara, Arya Tara, Sarasvati, Auspicious Horse Head walls are built with triple materials with thickness
King, Dragon King, Demon, Yaksha, Krishna and of 3 m. The whole building consists of White Palace
Pelden Lhamo. On beams, pillars and walls in all and Red Palace. The former named after its colour
halls, Buddhist scriptures and figures of Buddha are is the main living quarter and office for generations
carved and painted as well as biography of kings of Dalai Lama and is comprised of halls of deyangfu,
of Tibet, other biographies, cryptology or prophesy deyangnu, cuoqin, ganzhulakang and langjizhacang
and ritual of Bonismo. The carvings and paintings all of which constitute the main cluster of buildings
fully reflect the concept of cultural coexistence of of Potala Palace. The latter named after its crimson
foreign Buddhist culture and local Bonismo which colour is located at the centre of the Potala Palace
has epoch-making significance in the history of and is the stupa for each generation of Dalai Lama
Tibetan Buddhism. and the place where important Buddhist activities
Jokhang Temple gradually formed a grand are held. Red Palace is built in the shape of a Buddhist
architectural complex after expansion and flower, Mandala, and made up of Sixipingcuo hall,
renovation several times since 7th century CE. The Xiaodenglakang Hall and Chongrelakang Hall, all
most sacred Buddha statue enshrined inside the of which constitute the most brilliant buildings of
temple has changed into a statue of Shakyamuni, Potala. For example, the stupa of the fifth Dalai Lama
a life-size statue of Buddha at age of 12 which was which is built in Xiaodenglakang Hall is not only
brought by Princess Wencheng in Tang Dynasty. In the earliest and largest one with the most brilliant
the 11th century CE, Pa Ba Xi Rao (vphaks-pa-shes- decoration among the stupas of all generations of
rab), a master from Ngari Sanai and Dui Qiong Kuo Dalai Lama but also a world-famous valuable and
Ben expanded Jokhang Temple, building a Buddha glorious pagoda. So it is called as the world’s top
Hall and moulding Buddha statues on the east. one solemnity of building and the world’s best
At the same time monk groups were established decoration of building. It is in the form of Bodhi
and Jokhang Temple formed the rudiment of pagoda with a square base and round body and
monastery. In Yuan Dynasty, several Khri Dpon wrapped in a coat of gold. Its total height is 14.85
(local officials responsible for the administration in m consisting of three parts ie base, bottle part and
Tibet) undertook maintenance and reconstruction spike on the crest. The body is engraved with all
work and built many Buddha statues. In the Ming kinds of Tibetan patterns and decorated with tens
Dynasty, Master Tsongkhapa requested Zha Ba of thousands of jades, pearls, diamonds and glazes.
Jiang Qu, the third Dharmaraja of Phagmodrupa The coloured light shines brilliant. The valuable
Dynasty, to renovate Jokhang Temple on a large pearls just used on it are up to 3,812 and the weight
scale. In 1409, Master Tsongkhapa decorated the of gold amounts to 119082.37 Liang (Chinese unit
Statue of Shakyamuni with five-dhyani Buddha of weight).
Crown. Since 1642, the fifth Dalai Lama and Sangye The main building of the Potala Palace has 13
Gyatso expanded and decorated the temple on a floors, 117 m high, 400 m long from east to west
larger scale which made the complex splendid and and 350 m wide north-south. The gross floor area is
magnificent with a completely new outlook. up to 1,38,052 sq m. The exterior façade is painted
In 1961, Jokhang Temple was listed as one of the red, white and yellow which represent, respectively,
first batch of important cultural relic sites under the solemnity, gentleness and completeness. Its
state-level protection by the State Council of China. colour and form is of obvious Tibetan Buddhism.
In November 2000, Jokhang Temple was included Seen from the plane the palace is joined by many
in UNESCO’s World Heritage List as an extension of rectangle chapels in a complicated structure, while

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in the vertical direction these chapels are at various government and the government of Nepal have also
levels between different distances. That is clear sent craftsmen to take part in the construction and
what is major and what minor. Within the palace, the number of constructors was more than 7,700
clusters of buildings erecting high, chapels standing people every day. The project totally cost about 2.13
towering and brilliance shining, all represent the million liang of silver.
uniqueness of Tibetan architectures. The imposing Later, Potala Palace has been expanded for
force and grand spectacular of the entire palace many times to reach the scale of present-day. Its
reflects great wisdom and creativity of the Tibetan appearance combines the characteristics of a palace
people. In the palace there are numerous paintings, and Buddhist temple and basically uses the layout
carvings, thangka, statues, china and scrolls which of Buddhist Mandala. In the expansion, the original
make it a treasure store of Tibetan culture and a St Guanyin Hall, Dharma Cave and other buildings
pearl in Chinese culture, also an important legacy in built in 7th century CE were incorporated in Red
human history. Palace. Only some buildings at both ends of White
Historical evolutions Potala The variant of Palace were removed and on the basis of original
Sanskrit pronunciation of Potalaka means Chizhou buildings, White Palace was extended in the direction
Mountain, the rite or land for Avalokiteśvara. of west, south and east. Dalai Lama’s resting places
Tibetan Buddhists believe that Red Mountain in are located on the top floor of Red Palace. Below
Lhasa is the second land of Avalokiteśvara. In these resting palaces are the Pharmacist Hall, Guru
7th century CE, the 33rd king of Tubo Srongtsen Hall, Mara Hall, Kalachakra Hall and other halls.
Gampo started the construction of the palace on Below that there are West Palace, Gradual Path Hall
Red Mountain and named it the Potala Palace. in the east, Vidyadhara Hall in the south, fifth Dalai
The building at that time was of a huge scale with Lama’s Stupa Hall in the west and Bunsen Biography
three layers of walls outside, 999 rooms inside and Hall in the north. After the expansion, Potala Palace
a chapel on the top floor with 1,000 rooms. Onto was more majestic and magnificent and both the
the crest a spike was penetrated and on it hanged external construction and internal decoration
a flag. Surrounded the palace were four gates showcased Tibetan people’s superb skills and rich
and arch. The peripheral walls cover the whole artistic creativity.
Red Mountain, Yaowang Mountain and Pamari In 1961, the State Council listed Potala Palace
Mountain. The king used to dwell on Red Mountain the first batch of key cultural relic units under
while the queen on Yaowang Mountain. There was national protection and appropriated funds for its
a bridge of silver and copper built between the two maintenance every year and especially in 1988,
mountains for walking. State Council decided to conduct a comprehensive
Potala Palace, due to natural and man-made repair of Potala Palace, the project started in 1989,
disasters, was severely damaged and failed to be lasted five years, completed in 1994 at a total cost
repaired immediately which gradually evolved into of RMB 53 million. In the same year, Potala Palace
the sacred place of Tibetan Buddhism where the was listed in the World Heritage List by UNESCO
eminent monks retreated and many palaces were and became one of the world's famous sacred places
transformed into temples for Tibetan Buddhism for domestic, foreign tourists and believers to visit
activities. At the beginning of the 11th century CE, and worship.
Kadam sent eminent monks to teach tsema here. Collection of Books and Records According
Later, Karma Kagyu despatched eminent monks and to preliminary statistics, the Tibetan Buddhist
the founder of Dge-lugs-pa - Tsongkhapa as well as literatures and classics that Potala Palace collected
his disciples to preach the view of Buddhism and
engage in religious activities.
In 17th century CE, the fifth Dalai Lama established
Chapter Kagyu Dan’s regime in Drepung Monastery
and began a large-scale renovation of Potala Palace
after he was in charge of Tibet’s political and
religious power. Since 1645, it took three years to
build the White Palace part of the Potala Palace.
In 1682, the fifth Dalai Lama died. In 1690, Desi
Sangye Gyats aroused tens of thousands of artisans
and workers to build the Red Palace part of Potala
Palace and spent four years to finish this project.
And so far Potala Palace’s overall architectural
pattern was basically formed. In order to build the
Red Palace in addition to local craftsmen, the Qing Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, China

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are more than 60,000 and are stored in each

Buddha Hall. Literatures and classics collected in
this way mostly serve as one of the three Buddhist
treasures, a magic weapon for people to worship
rather than as general ones of the modern sense for
public reading.
Vkhrungs Rabs Lha Khang namely the Guanyin
Hall is located on the north of West Hall of Red
Palace and in the north and west side of this Hall.
There are some bookshelves with more than 1,000
books and most of these books are rare ones and
related to religion, culture, technology, medicine,
language and other traditional ten subjects. These
books include the woodcut version of Tengyur
which is the first one to be carved in Tibetan
language and Beijing version of Tengyur that the
Emperor Yongzheng of Qing Dynasty in 1725 gave
as a present to the seventh Dalai Lama. These two
sets of Tengyur have high historical literature values
in the history of Tibetan Tripitaka.
The fifth Dalai Lama’s Stupa Hall is located on
the west of the West Hall of Red Palace. It has four
layers and only one hall and is one of the most
famous Buddha-halls of Potala Palace. In this Hall
in addition to gold Stupas of fifth, 10th and 12th
Dalai Lama and silver Sugata stupa seat, there is
also a large bookshelf with 11 interlayers arranged
in the west of this Hall providing more than 1,640
Tibetan literatures and books including Kangyur, A mural at the Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet
Tengyur, Mahaprajna-paramita-sutra, Paramita Sutra
and other precious Buddhist literature and books. Dus Vkhor Lha Khang, namely Kalacakra Hall,
Rig Vdzin Lha Khang, namely the Vidyadhara is located in the east of corridor on sixth floor of
Hall, means Tantric Smriti Hall and is located on Red Palace. The bookshelf set in this hall was
the south side of West Hall of Red Palace and there stocked with mint-marked and transcribed sutras in
are bookshelves in the east, west and north side of the period of fifth Dalai Lama including a Prajna
this Hall with a total of more than 2,500 books. This Paramita Putra (woodcut), Ronnie Set (woodcut),
include the six sets of Kangyur (totally 600 books) Mani Bao Xun Set (woodcut), Kalachakra Tantra
written with gold ink, silver ink, cinnabar and other (woodcut), Moksha (manuscript with gold ink) and
precious materials in the period of fifth Dalai Lama. so on which are very precious.
This edition was the earlier one in the history of Stupa Hall of the eighth Dalai Lama Jampal
book collection in Potala Palace. Gyatso is located in the north side of top floor
Thub Dbang Lha Khang, namely Sakya Buddhist of Red Palace and mainly used to enshrine and
Hall, is located in the southeast corner of the worship Stupa of the eighth Dalai Lama. The
corridor on sixth floor of Red Palace. It was bookshelf is set up around the Stupa on which
originally the resting hall of the seventh Dalai Lama there is a precious Kangyur manuscript (115
and was changed into a Buddha Hall in the period books) written in gold ink.
of eighth Dalai Lama. In the east of this Hall, there Stupa Hall of the ninth Dalai Lama Londo Gyatso
is a bookshelf on which there is a Tibetan Kangyur is located in the northeast side of top floor of Red
written with gold ink which is really a set of Palace and mainly used to enshrine and worship
exquisite precious rare book. According to relevant the Stupa of the ninth Dalai Lama. Some literature
information, it was transcribed in the middle of books, Buddhist relics and other precious cultural
17th century CE based on Lhasa woodblock, with relics are stored here. There is one Kangyur (114
a total of 115 books with gold ink writing. The volumes) on the bookshelf around the Stupa which
paper it used was the special black blue thick one is the precious hand-copied rare book.
which is generally called indigo paper. Every cover Bla MaLha Khang, namely the Guru Hall, is
of the book was embossed with words written in located in the west side of top floor of Red Palace
gold paste. and was originally the Stupa Hall of 10th Dalai

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Lama. Later, Stupa Hall was moved down to the and the binding is extremely luxurious. The
lower floor and used to enshrine and worship the bookshelf displayed a book, Tengyur (225 books),
statues of Tsongkhapa and of other gurus of Dge- written with a special ink made from eight treasures
lugs-pa and its name was changed into Lama Lacan. ie gold, silver, copper, iron, tophus, cinnabar, lapis
The bookshelf was set up in the west of this Hall and lazuli and sea snail its price is beyond estimation.
there is one set of Kangyur (111 books) written with It is written not only in old Natang version but
gold ink in the period of Desi Sangye Gyats on it. with a special material which is so rare in Tibetan
Sa Gsum Rnam Lha Khang, namely the Shusheng books so it is called "Eight-treasure Tengyur".
Triloka Hall, is located in the south side of top floor Apart from it, there are respectively the volumes
of Red Palace. The Kangyur written in cinnabar of fifth Dalai Lama and sixth Panchen Erdeni and
Manchu is put on bookshelf arranged in the north of master Tsongkhapa, the version or texture of which
Hall which was gifted to the eighth Dalai Lama by is similar to that of Tengyur and can be regarded
Emperor Qianlong. This is the only Manchu Kangyur valued edition or rare edition.
in Tibetan areas and has very high cultural relic and Gzum Chung Nyi Vod Shar, namely East Sunshine
literature value. Chapel, at the east of top floor of the palace, is
Blos bssslangs khang, ie Tancheng Hall, situated located in the north and faces the south. It used to
at the south of topper stories of Red Palace, is be the quarter of living up and dealing with political
originally one of the living rooms for seventh and religious matters for 13th Dalai Lama of late
Dalai Lama and was later changed to Tancheng years and 14th Dalai Lama of early years. Lying
Hall. There are three big “dkyil-vkhor” displayed. in the west of the chapel is the document room
Besides, a number of documents and records were for Dalai Lama to put away documents. There is
collected in the hall which were mainly works of an appropriately collection of 200 to 300, most of
the seventh Dalai Lama like Astrophytum Ornatum which is related to Prajna, Vinaya, Hetuvidya and
1,00,000 Songs (handwritten copy by gold ink, total Tibetan Medicine.
12), Astrophytum Ornatum 8,000 Songs (handwritten Lam Rim Lha khang, also Bodhi Chapel, is situated
copy by gold ink, one), Astrophytum ornatum in the west of Red palace, within which the statue of
20,000 Songs (handwritten copy by gold ink, 3) and master Tsongkhapa is enshrined and a few shelves
Tuoluoni (handwritten copy by gold ink, 1), Doom are arranged with Bodhi Doctrines and Vajrayana
Doctrines placed as well as Tripitaka Kangyur (partial,
60 books now) written in gold ink. This book is of
smaller dimension and can only be middle-classed
Tibetan edition, while it is rare and special among
ordinary editions.
The collection chapel of Potala was not built to
be a library in history but a few chapels where
temporarily books are stored. Until today, no actual
library for storing and deploying books comes into
being. Books are mainly and successively collected
and stored in Palace when they were confronted
with damage and would be lost at the times of
Democratic Revolution and Cultural Revolution.
The quantity of these books is large and the content
comprehensive. There are four collection chapels
A fresco from the western wall of the 2nd floor corridor of the Red in Palace, one of which holds a collection of 3,000
Palace in the Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet books of a comprehensive content, classified into
10 kinds by Tibetan Buddhist sects. The second has
(handwritten copy by gold ink, 1) all these were a collection of more than 7,000 books, mainly the
transcribed at the time of seventh Dalai Lama. complete volumes of generations of eminent monks.
Byams khang, that is Maitreya Hall, situated The third has a collection of more than 5,000
in the east of the highest floor in Red Palace, is books most of which are partly scattered volumes
originally the bedroom for eighth Dalai Lama and of generations of eminent monks. The fourth now
later is changed to Maitreya Hall named Byams holds a collection of 10,000 books totally Tripitaka
khang. Within the hall, apart from lots of statues and Kangyur and Tengyur of different editions, no valued
figures, there are a great amount of records of total edition or rare edition, and the remaining are
270 pieces, all of which are wrapped with yellow Gzungs and kinds of Prajnā, among which there are
silk the clamp-plates of which were made of top- many repetition editions. Just in Prajnā 8,000 Songs
classed wood and decorated with silver ornaments there are over 400 books. The collection of all these

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chapels reached to more than 25,000 books, the

quantity of which exceeds one third of the whole
collection of Potala Palace.
The biggest feature of Tibetan Buddhist books
lies in its complete classification and rich content
including the 10 subjects of Tibetan Buddhism from
philosophy, religion, doctrine, ritual, biography
and literature, astronomy, architecture to Tibetan
medicine. What is most worthy of speaking are
various eminent monks’ volumes which cover all
the classics of eminent monks from various Tibetan
Buddhist sects such as Gadang, Gelu, Ningma, Gaju,
Sajia, Juenang, Bulu, Pudong and Xijie. Especially
gsang ba rgya can, yang zab dag snang by the fifth
Dalai Lama and rgyud sde spyi rnam gzhag by
Budun Renqinzhu and rgyud sde bzhivi rnam gzhag
by Pudong Qiaoliunanjie are of great academic
values and practical meanings among the books of
Vajrayana. (Kal Sang Gyal)
Jokhang Temple (gtsug lag khang) Located
in the centre of Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region,
Jokhang Temple is the oldest Buddhist Temple in
Tibet and the holiest site of Tibetan Buddhism in
China. It was first constructed in the middle period
of 7th century CE by Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal
who was the bride of King Songtsän Gampo, 33rd
ruler (King) of Tibetan Empire. According to a An illustration of the fresco at the Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet
legend, Buddha Hall was built on the former site
of a lake which was filled and levelled up with soil of Akshobya Vajra, Maitreya dharma and Arya
carried by goats to house the Shakyamuni Statue Tara brought by Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal.
(Akshobya Vajra), a life-size statue of the Buddha Besides, there are statues made in Tibet by Nepal
at age of eight from Nepal brought by Princess craftsmen such as King of Great Freedom, Wrath
Bhrikuti. Therefore, Jokhang Temple is named “ra Tara, Arya Tara, Sarasvati, Auspicious Horsehead
sa vphrul snang” in Tibetan (“ra” means goat and King, Dragon King, Demon, Yaksha, Krishna and
“sa” means earth) to commemorate those goats Pelden Lhamo. On beams, pillars and walls in all
and also known as “jo khang”, meaning “House of Halls, Buddhist scriptures and figures of Buddha
Shakyamuni”. are carved and painted as well as Biography of
The exterior architectural form of Jokhang Kings in Tibet, all kinds of biography, cryptology
Temple features architectural styles and techniques or prophesy and ritual of Bonismo. The carvings
from India, Nepal and Tibet. According to the and paintings fully reflect the concept of cultural
Biography of Kings in Tibet, mandalas are carved coexistence of foreign Buddhist culture and local
and painted on four gates to satisfy the wish of the Bonismo, which has epoch-making significance in
Buddhist Guru, vajry pestles are carved and painted the history of Tibetan Buddhism.
on pillars to meet the desire of “sngags-mang”, Jokhang Temple gradually formed a grand
swastika (Srivatsa) are carved and painted on four architectural complex after expansion and
corners to meet aspirations of Bonismo believers renovation several times since 7th century CE. The
and grill works are painted to satisfy the hope most sacred Buddha statue enshrined inside the
of people in Tibet. At that time Jokhang Temple temple has changed into the statue of Shakyamuni,
was a three-layer temple facing the west which a life-size statue of the Buddha at age of 12,
represented that the Princess missed her hometown which was brought by Princess Wencheng in Tang
Nepal, west of Lhasa city. On both sides of the Dynasty. In the 11th century CE, Pa Ba Xi Rao
main shrine, there are side halls and such layout (vphaks-pa-shes-rab), a master from Ngari Sanai
reflects the model of the universe in Buddhism. and Dui Qiong Kuo Ben, expanded Jokhang Temple
Many statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are building a Buddha Hall and moulding Buddha
enshrined and worshiped inside the Temple, statues on the east. At the same time, monk groups
including “Ekādaśa mukhānām Avalokiteśvara” were established and Jokhang Temple formed the
(likeness of King Songtsem Gampo), Statues rudiment of monastery. In Yuan Dynasty, several

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khri dpon (local officials responsible for the and investment of a large number of manpower
administration in Tibet) made maintenance and and material the construction was completed in 778
reconstruction and built many Buddha statues. In CE. Santaraksita and Padmasambhava held a grand
Ming Dynasty, Master Tsongkhapa requested Zha consecration ceremony for the monastery.
Ba Jiang Qu, the third Dharmaraja of Phagmodrupa Designed by Santaraksita and Padmasambhava,
Dynasty to renovate Jokhang Temple on large scale. Samye Monastery is a grand monastery with
In 1409, Master Tsongkhapa decorated the Statue of complete construction and unique style. There are
Sakyamuni with five-dhyani Buddha Crown. Since three versions about the reference model based on
1642, fifth Dalai Lama and Sangye Gyatso expanded Ou Danda Pu Li Temple in Magadha built by King
and decorated the temple on a larger scale which Gopala of ancient Indian Pala Dynasty, consulting
made the complex splendid and magnificent with a the world prospect described in Abhidharma-kosa
completely new outlook. and imitating the Mandala in the Esoteric Buddhism.
In 1961, Jokhang Temple was listed as one of the In fact, the construction of Samye Monastery
first batches of important cultural relic sites under combines different features of the mentioned three.
state-level protection by the State Council of China. For example, the main temple in centre is a grand
In November 2000, Jokhang Temple was included three-storey building and represents Mt Meru, the
in UNESCO’s World Heritage List as part of Potala Buddhist universe centre. The four continents (Purva
Palace, thus becoming the world’s cultural heritage. Videha, Jambudvipa, Apara Godaniya and Vttara
(Kalsang gyal) Kuru) in the ocean around Mt Meru are represented
by four temples at the cardinal points, each flanked
bsam yas dgon by two smaller temples to symbolise eight islands in
Samye Monastery (bsam yas dgon) was built in the ocean. The Sun and Moon chapels stand in two
the 8th century CE. It is an old temple of Tibetan flanks of the main temple. In the four corners of the
Buddhism in China and the first standard Buddhist main temple lie four Pagodas with different colour
monastery in the history of Tibetan Buddhism. It is representing different meanings. For example, the
located in the north bank of Yarlung Tsangpo River White one is Bodhi pagoda, Red for Dharma pagoda,
within Zhanang County, Shannan Prefecture, Tibet Black for Dagoba and Green for Heaven pagoda.
Autonomous Region. All these Pagodas symbol the Buddhism idea of
In 8th century CE, Trisong Detsen (reigned 742- conquering all demons and curbing all disasters.
798 CE), the 38th ruler (King) of Tibetan Empire The whole complex of Samye Monastery is
invited eminent Indian Buddhist master Santaraksita surrounded by a circular wall symbolising the
to Tibet for the second time to build standard periphery of the world in Buddhism. The gates at
Buddhist monastery, conduct the tonsure for monks the four cardinal points and the eastern gate leads
and nuns and spread the Dharma and ritual. Without to the front entrance of the hall. All of the layers
extensive mass base of Buddhism believers, it was of the three-storey main temple follow different
not easy to build a Buddhist monastery in Tibet architectural styles, the bottom Tibetan, the middle
at that time. Under such circumstances, Trisong Han and the top Indian. Statues of Buddhas and
Detsen took all kinds of measures and eventually Bodhisattvas in three layers reflect different cultural
Buddhism was accepted by Tibetan people. Under features in three regions. For example, statues in the
the direction of Santaraksita and Padmasambhava, first layer imitates the image of Tibetan, the second
the ground-breaking ceremony was held in 774 CE layer Han people of Tang Dynasty and in the third
and the construction of the monastery began. After layer, Indian. It is actually a grand multi-cultural
five years of concerted efforts of Tibetan people Buddhist monastery.
Today, Samye Monastery has developed into a
comprehensive monastery of Tibetan Buddhism
integrating Nyingma, Sakya and Gelug. In 1996,
Samye Monastery was listed as one of the fourth
batch of important cultural relic sites under state-
level protection by the State Council of China. In
2005, Samye Monastery was rated as one of national
4A-level scenic spots in China.
(Kalsang gyal)

mtho ldings dgon

Tuolinsi (Tholing Monastery) is a monastery of
The main entrance of the Samye Monastery, Shannan
Tibetan Buddhism located in in the territory of Zada
Prefecture, Tibet, China County, Ngari Prefecture of the present-day Tibet.

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From the 10th-11th centuries CE, the great

lotsawa, Rinchen Zangpo (lo chen rin chen bzang
po) (958 ~ 1055 CE), Atisha (Aa ti sha) (982 ~
1054 CE) and other eminent monks and bhadant
monks ever lived in Tholing Monastery where they
have translated and preached sutras, written books
and left a profound influence on us. In 1076, King
Guger, Zander, held a huge Tibetan Dharma-cakra
Assembly in Tholing Monastery and up to 1,00,000
number of eminent monks, bhadants and Buddhist
believers attended this Assembly from everywhere.
The success of this Assembly has been recorded
into the history and is historically called “Bing
Chen Dharma Assembly” or “The Dragon-year
Dharma Assembly”.
(Kalsang gyal)

Miaoying Temple
Miaoying Temple (Miaoying Vihar) is located on the
Fuchengmen Inner Street of Xicheng district, Beijing,
and is also called as Baita Temple (White Pagoda
Temple) as a result of a white pagoda established in
The fresco “Birth” at Tholing Monastery, A Li region, Tibet, China Yuan Dynasty.
There was once a pagoda on the original location
In 996 CE, the King Guger of Ngari built Tuoding of Miaoying Temple built in Changshou second year
Beijilakang (mtho ldings dpal gyi lha khang) in of Liao (1096) which was damaged by war. Kublai
Ngari Prefecture modelling on Samye Monastery in Khan, on the Zhiyuan eighth year of Yuan Dynasty
Shannan Prefecture of Tibet which later was called (1271) issued an order to rebuild a pagoda on the
Tholing Monastery and became the first monastery basis of old one. The work was presided over by
built for Tibetan Buddhism renaissance. Thanks for Anika, a Nepalese architect, and went through the
the vigorous support of the imperial court of King entire period of eight years and eventually in 1279,
Guger, the monastery has become the centre of a white pagoda in Indian style was constructed.
Buddhism in Ngari Prefecture. In the same year, Kublai Khan gave another order
The layout of Tholing Monastery looks like a to build a temple centering on the white pagoda
strip and it has such three parts as the hall, monks’ and covering an area of 160,000 sq m and named
domicile and tower cluster. The main building is it Dasheng Shouwanan Temple. This temple was
the Gaza Hall which is divided into inner and outer finished in the Zhiyuan 25th year of Yuan (1288)
parts. The inner part comprises a central hall and and became a royal temple and also a place where
four small halls. The square central hall is used officials learnt rituals and translated Sanskrit and
to consecrate the body Mandala and the statue of Mongolian Buddhist scriptures. A national Dharma
Buddha. The central hall is surrounded by corridors assembly held in the Yuanzhen first year of Yuan
that links with the four small halls. The outer part (1295) presided over by the emperor attracted the
comprises 16 halls and the circumambulation is attention of more than 70,000 persons. This was the
in the middle hall. There are four 13 m-high red- period when the glory of White Pagoda Temple was
brick towers in the four corners of the outer part. at its peak. However, the temple was completely
The White Hall is located on the northeast of Rally ruined by a fire caused by lightning in Yuanzheng
Hall and the walls of White Hall are painted many 28th year (1368). As a result all of its palaces were
beautiful paintings. In addition, there are also Arhat destroyed except the White Pagoda. In the eighth
Hall, Maitreya Hall, Dharmapala Hall, Atisha Hall, year of the reign of Emperor Xuande, Ming Dynasty
Rinchen Zangpo Lotsawa Hall and so on and the (1433), he ordered to rebuild the White Pagoda and
figures and animal on the murals of these halls are in the Tianshun first year of Ming (1457), the temple
true to life. Tower cluster is divided into two groups, was rebuilt and renamed as “Miaoying Temple” with
each group has three long towers. Each long tower its area reduced to 13,000 sq m. The temple was
consists of dozens or hundreds of the same connected repaired several times during the Ming and Qing
small towers which looks very spectacular. The Dynasty and in the era of the People's Republic of
style of tower cluster’s construction and mural are China. In 1900, when the Eight-Power Allied Forces
obviously influenced by the art of Nepal and India. attacked and occupied Beijing, Miaoying Temple

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was looted. During the later Qing Dynasty, monks Institute (mtshan nyid grwa tshang) beginning
rented the side halls and open spaces and from then the systematical spread of five regions in Exoteric
on, the temple was gradually turned into a temple Buddhism. The monastery became a famous one
fair. Miaoying Temple was destroyed in 1966 again systematically preaching Exoteric Buddhism in
and rebuilt and opened to the public in 1998. Amdo area. Later, the preaching was interrupted
The white pagoda at the Miaoying Temple can be due to some reason and did not continue again.
divided into three parts: stylobate, body and spire. In 1747 (12th year of Emperor Qianlong of Qing
The stylobate is 9 m high, the pagoda measures 50.9 Dynasty), under the encourage of Ganden Tripa,
m in height while the base covers an area of 1422 sq Sngags rams pa ngag dbang bkra shes, Buddha
m. The shape and structure can be traced back to the master of Esoteric Buddhism in Lhasa began to
prepare for the construction of the Tantra Institute
(sngags pa grwa tshang). The Institute was officially
built and put into operation. In the second year,
it systematically spread Tantric four chapters and
dharma and rites. In 1775 (20th year of Emperor
Qianlong of Qing Dynasty), the Tantra Institute
expanded to a larger scale.
In 1772 (37th year of Emperor Qianlong of
Qing Dynasty), the third ChuzangAwang Tu Dan
WanCho (1725~1796) acted as the 39th abbot of
the monastery. He expanded the Sutra Hall with
huge sum of money (adding 128 columns) and
built Chuzang Buddha Palace. Later on, all Chuzang
Buddha became the head of the monastery. Although
there are stories about the Xiaqiong Monastery as the
affiliated temple of Guo Long temple, these stories
The white pagoda at the Miaoying Temple,
have not been generally accepted. In 1788 (53th year
Beijing, China of Emperor Qianlong of Qing Dynasty), Emperor
Qianlong in person conferred Xiaqiong Monastery
stupa of ancient India and the design and process are an inscribed board with “Fajing Si” written in Han,
both the wise results of Anika, a Nepalese architect. In Tibetan, Mongolian and Man Language.
1978, in the course of consolidating the White Pagoda, In 1797 (second year of Emperor Jiaqing of Qing
some precious historical relics such as Tripitaka, the Dynasty), the third living Buddha of Ta’er Lamasery
wooden statue of the goddess of mercy, Five-Buddha Zi na tshul khrims dar rgyas (1734～1802) acted as
crown, Prajna Paramita Sutra transcribed by Emperor the 46th abbot of Xiaqiong Monastery. He created
Qianlong of Qing Dynasty, Usnisa Vijaya Dharani Medicine Institute (sman ba grwa tshang) which
Sutra and gold-and bronze-made Buddhism statues had subjects like astronomy and medicine. In 1802
stored at the top of the pagoda in the 18th year of the (seventh year of Emperor Jiaqing of Qing Dynasty),
reign of Emperor Qianlong were discovered. Rka phug blo bzang don grub acted as the abbot of
(Xue Keqiao) the Medicine Institute and he adopted the advice of
Ngag dbang bspn nams, Guru of Esoteric Buddhism
bya khyung dgon and changed the Medicine Institute to Kalachakra
Xiaqiong Monastery (bya khyung dgon) is a famous
monastery of the Gelug sect of Tibetan Buddhism
and its full name is “dpal ldan bya khyung theg chen
yon tan dar rgyas gling”. Located at Chafu Town,
Hualong Hui Nationality Autonomous County,
Qinghai Province, it was first constructed in 1349.
At first it belonged to Kadam and later was converted
into Gelug. Because Master Tsongkhapa became a
monk in Xiaqiong Monastery during his early years,
acknowledging Chos rje don grub rin chen as his
master, Xiaqiong Monastery got a reputation as ‘the
ancestor temple’ of the Gelug sect.
In 1623 (third year of Emperor Tianqi of Ming
Dynasty), the ninth abbot of Xiaqiong Monastery
Chos rje bstan pa rin chen set up the Tantra Xia Qiong Temple, Hualong county, Qinghai

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Institute (dus vkhor grwa tshang) in which

Kalachakra method was mainly learned as well as
Panca-vidya (rig gnas lnga) subjects like astronomy,
but contents like medicine was retained.
Until the last phase of Qing Dynasty, Xiaqiong
Monastery had become a monastery with over 1,000
monks owning the Tantra Institute, Kalachakra
Institute and 25 Buddha palaces and 25 affiliated
temples. Abiding by the disciplines of Lhasa Esoteric
Buddhism and the lessons of Chogyi Gyamtsen,
eminent monk of Sera Monastery, the monks mainly
learning Esoteric Buddhism as the principal thing,
and Exoteric Buddhism as a supplementary.
Xiaqiong Monastery is famous for long history,
precise discipline and eminent monks such as
54th Ganden Tripa ngag dbang mchog ldan
(1677～1752), 58th Ganden Tripa ngag dbang
chos grags (1707～1778), 66th Ganden Tripa
ngag dbang snyan grags (1746～1824), all of A Complete Picture of the Gilded Pagoda
them had high reputation. With the same fame of the Dabaoen Temple, preserved at the
Nanjing City Archives
with Guolong Temple (Youning Temple), Saike
Temple (Guanghui Temple) and Chuzang Temple
(Guangjiao Temple), the monastery is one of the Temple was rebuilt and renamed as Tianxi Temple.
north big four temples in Ando (now Tibetan areas The name remained unchanged until the Zhiyuan
in Qinghai and Gansu). 25th year of Yuan Dynasty (1288) when the temple
(Kalsang gyal) was renamed again by the emperor as the Yuanxing
Ci’en Jingzhongjiao Temple and the pagoda was
Dabaoen Temple referred to as Ci’en Pagoda. In the early years of
Dabaoen Temple (Dabao’en Vihar) is one of the Ming Dynasty, the temple was damaged in a fire
most important ancient Buddhist temples in but it was restored during the period of the reign
China. Its predecessor is Jianchu Temple located of Emperor Yongle, Ming Dynasty (1403-1424) and
outside Zhonghua Gate in Nanjing. During Jin and named as the Dabaoen Temple.
Southern Dynasties, it was called Chang’an Temple. The coloured glaze pagoda of the Dabaoen
In Duangong first year of the Northern Song Temple was built by Emperor Yongle in memory of
Dynasty (988 CE), monk Kezheng got the parietal his mother. This was 80 m in height and nearly 100
bone sarira (relics) of Master Xuanzang and built m in perimeter with nine floors and eight sides. The
a pagoda in Chang’an Temple to store it. As time cost of the entire work was 2.485 million taels of
rolled into Tianxi first year (1071), the Chang'an silver in 20 years with 1,00,000 workers involved
in it. From the beginning of Ming Dynasty all the
way down to the early Qing Dynasty, the coloured
glaze pagoda of Dabao’en Temple, in westerner’s
minds, was the most unique landmark in Nanjing
and called it the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing.
Unfortunately in 1856, the temple was bombed
out by Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and laid in ruins
until 2004 when the Nanjing government began to
make preparations for the restoration of the temple.
In 2007, the preliminary work of the Dabaoen
Temple Relics Park officially kicked off and around
2008, a long-term archaeological excavation job
was carried out by some departments including the
Nanjing Museum, during which, a stone box made
in Song Dynasty was discovered which had a record
of Dānapāla (an Indian translator of Buddhist
A picture of the gilded pagoda of the Dabaoen Temple Sutras) handing out Buddha relics, together with an
(also known as the Nanjing porcelain pagoda), Nanjing,
China, painted by Dutchman John Nieuhoff during the
iron box containing the gilded Asokan pillar made
mid-17th century CE of seven treasures (precious metals). In 2010, this

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precious Asokan pillar was opened, thus bringing

the Buddha’s parietal (usnisa) sarira to light again.
(Xue Keqiao)

vbras spungs dgon

vbras spungs dgon, a well-known temple of dge lugs
pa of Tibetan Buddhism, one of three major temples
in Lhasa. The full name “dpal ldan vbras spungs
dgon” is derived from a place name in south India
where a pagoda of dpal ldan vbras spungs stood and
Buddha preached dus vkhor there. It is actually a
Buddhist shrine.
In 1416, vjam dbyangs chos rgyal (1379-1449),
disciple of Tsong kha pa, built a large temple “vbras
sungs dgon” at suburb of Lhasa (present-day western Drepung Monastery, Tibet, China
suburb of Lhasa, Tibet) and served as abbot until he
passed away. At vbras spungs dgon, he preached the well-known branch temples such as sku vbum, dgon
doctrine of the compatibility of Tantric Buddhism lung, chu bzang, gser khog, bla brang bkra shes
and Exoteric Buddhism advocated by Tsong kha vkhyil and la mo bde chen were built.
pa and attached much importance to studying and In history, vbras sungs dgon was renowned as the
practicing the teaching of Exoterric Buddhism. largest and the highest-ranking temple, housing the
Vbras sungs dgon founded seven grwa tshangs most monks (quota: 7,700 monks. actual number:
(academy) namely blo gsal gling grwa tshang, sgo over 10,000 monks) and top ranked among three
mang grwa tshang, bde yangs grwa tshang, sngags major temples in Lhasa and among temples of dge
pa grwa tshangm, shag skor grwa tshang, rgyas pa lugs pa. After the second Dalai Lama was designated
grwa tshang and vdul ba grwa tshang. Subsequently, as the living Buddha of vbras sungs dgon, the
shag skor grwa tshang and rgyas pa grwa tshang second, third, fourth and fifth Dalai Lamas all came
merged with blo gsal gling grwa tshang and vdul from vbras sungs dgon. Meanwhile, Tibetan Karma
ba grwa tshang integrated into sgo mang grwa Phodrang regime was set up at vbras sungs dgon in
tshang, forming an academy layout of four grwa the Qing Dynasty and vbras sungs dgon enjoyed a
tshangs (academy). Except that monks from sngags high status in the history of Tibetan theocracy.
pa grwa tshang specialised in practicing Tantra and Vbras sungs dgon trained a good number of
performing Tantric ritual, other grwa tshangs were Buddhist scholars and translators who are well
renowned as the Exoteric Academies for study into versed in Tibetan and Sanskrit and houses an array
gzhung-po-ti lnga. of Buddhist sutras and few Sanskrit Pattra sutras,
The majority of erudite monks of dge lugs pa came becoming a cultural centre for India-China cultural
from sgo mang grwa tshang and blo gsal gling grwa exchange. In modern times, dge lugs pa spread to
tshang and the teaching and ritual of vbras sungs India and built many large temples. For instance,
dgon spread across mdo khams and thereby many vbras sungs dgon in south India (present-day Mango
region of Karnataka) which houses over 4,500
monks now.
(Kalsang gyal)

se ra theg dgon
Se Ra Theg Dgon is a well-known temple of dge lugs
pa of Tibetan Buddhism, and one of three major
temples in Lhasa.
In 1418, byams chen chos rgyal (1354-1435), a
disciple of Tsong kha pa, built se ra theg chen gling
(se ra theg dgon for short) in the suburb of Lhasa
(present-day northern suburb of Lhasa, Tibetan
Autonomous Region).
Se ra theg dgon founded four grwa tshangs namely
rgya grwa tshang, vbrom steng grwa tshang, tod pa
grwa tshang and smad pa grwa tshang.
In 1466, gnyal ston dpal vbyor lhun grub (1427-
Catalogue of the book collection at the Drepung Monastery, Tibet, China 1514), a disciple of eminent monk kun mkhyen blo

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 Cultural Contacts

a disciple of Master Tsongkhapa. And it was fully

constructed by 1459, with numbers of large and
small halls including Vajrayana Temple, Sutra Hall,
Gyeni Chanting Hall and three Dratsang (college)
like Ngang College. There were about 1,600 monks
in the monastery from Tsang, Ngari Sanai, Nepal
and Kashmir. As the abbot of the monastery for
38 years, Dge vdun grub pa promoted the canon
that Buddhist learners must abide by Lam Rim
and emphasised the practice of the Three Precepts.
He demanded the monks to abide by the religious
discipline. Tashilhunpo monastery later became the
central Monastery of the Gelug sect in Tsang region
Sera Monastery, Lhasa, Tibet, China of Tibet.
In 1601, the Fourth Panchen Lama Blo bzang
gros rin chen seng ge from vbras sungs dgon founded chos kyi rgyal mtshan (1567～1662) was invited
an academy of byes grwa tshang and established to hold the post of the 16th abbot of Tashilhunpo
high reputation among monks. Hence, monks from Monastery. He introduced the Winsa ear preach
rgya grwa tshang and vbrom steng grwa tshang Tantric method of Gelug into the monastery from
were attracted to study and practice at byes grwa Winsa chakra in Tsang (dben sa sgrub gnas) or dben
tshang and promote its development. Till 1705, se dgon and firstly established Ngang College (sngags
ra theg dgon formed the temple layout consisting of pa grwa tshang) which had complete educational
three academies namely smad pa, yes and stod pa.
In 1712, Langzang Khan (1671～1717) founded
sngags pa grwa tshang (Tantric Academy) at se
theg dgon and imposed religious ritual practices in
accordance with the canons of Gyudmed in Lhasa,
making it a large temple renowned for compatibility
of Tantric Buddhism and Exoteric Buddhism.
In the middle and late Qing Dynasty, the monk
quota of se ra theg dgon was set as 5,500 monks
and the number of monks increased to over 10,000
in the heyday, making se ra theg dgon one of
three major temples in Lhasa and one of six well-
known temples of dge lugs pa. In particular, byes
grwa tshang, smad pa grwa tshang and sngags pa
grwa tshang made a great contribution to train heir
monks and promote Buddhist dharma lineage and Tashilhunpo Monastery, Shigatse, Tibet, China
they built many branch temples in remote areas
such as Amdo and mDo Khams. system compatible to both Exoteric and Esoteric
The debate sutra of se theg dgon is a kind of Buddhism. The convention of monks going to Lhasa
debate method for thinking training that applies Esoteric Buddhism Temple (lha sa rgyud stod smad
Hetuvidya mathematical formulaes devised by grwa tshang) for further study was cancelled. All
phyogs gling (480-540 CE) and chos grags (630-700 Panchen Lama acted as the abbot of the monastery
CE). In modern times, dge lugs pa spread to India after the Fourth Panchen Lama and the monastery
and built a large temple named “se ra theg dgon” became the preaching place of Living Buddha of
in south India. Panchen Lama. Historically, with the quota of 4,400
(Kalsang gyal) monks, the monastery was the largest one in Tsang
Region and took the same important place as the
bkra shis lhun po dgon three major temples in Lhasa. Today, the monastery
Tashilhunpo Monastery (bkra shis lhun po dgon), is still magnificent and splendid with a number of
located at the western suburb of Shigatse city, Tibet palaces. With the largest copper statue of Maitreya
Autonomous Region, is a renowned monastery of in the world and coffin towers of past Panchen Lama,
Tibetan Buddhism in China and one of the Big Six the monastery is actually a large-scale monastery
Monasteries of the Gelug sect of Buddhism. It was of Tibetan Buddhism in Shigatse region, Tibet and
first constructed in 1447 in the Shigatse Region by even the whole Tibetan area.
Dge vdun grub pa (dge vdun grub pa,1391～1474), (Kalsang gyal)

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sku vbum dgon

sku vbum dgon, a well-known temple of dge lugs pa
of Tibetan Buddhism and one of six major temples
of dge lugs pa. sku vbum dgon is located in present-
day Huangzhong County, Qinghai Province and was
built during Ming Dynasty and entered a period
of prosperity in Qing Dynasty. At first, believers
built a pagoda in the birthplace of Tsong kha pa to
commemorate the founder of dge lugs pa. In 1560,
a local eminent monk rin chen brston vgrus rgyan
mtshan built a mediation abode. In 1577, he built a
Maitreya Hall, sku vbum dgon taking shape.
In 1612, vod zer rgya mtsho founded mtshan nyi Eight Pagodas at the Kumbum Monastery, Qinghai, China
grwa tshang under the order of the fourth Dalai
Lama and served as an abbot. By embracing the paintings (mural) with exquisite craftsmanship are
canon of vbras sungs dgon, he taught gzhung-po-ti hailed as three artistic treasures and win great fame
lnga of Extoretic Buddhism and named the temple, at home and abroad.
skv vbum byams pa gling with the meaning of In the heyday, sku vbum dgon housed 3,600
Maitreya Island. Sku vbum dgon is derived from monks with 1,000 monks from mtshan nyid grwa
original temple name. tshang and consisted of five academies namely
In 1649, zi na legs pa rgyamtsho founded sngags mtshan nyid grwa tshang, sngags pa grwa tshang,
pa grwa tshang and emulated the teachings and dus vkhor grwa tshang, sman pa grwa tshang and
ritual practices of Gyudmed in Lhasa. In 1711, chu vcham pa. By adopting the courses offered by sgo
bzang blo bzang bstan pavi rgyan mtshan founded mang grwa tshang of vbras sungs dgon and designed
sman pa grwa tshang. In 1718, rgya mkhan po blo by rje btsun chos kyi rgyal mtshan (1459-1544)
bzang don grub founded vcham pa under the order from se ra theg dgon, monks there studied gzhung-
of the Seventh Dalai Lama. In 1757, chu bzang ngag po-ti lnga of Exoteric Buddhism and 300 monks
dbang thub bstan dbang phyug extended sman pa studied at mtshan nyid grwa tshang who practiced
grwa tshang. In 1817, che shos blo bzang bstan Kriya Tantra, Carya Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Maha-
pavi nyi ma (1787-1859) founded dus vkhor grwa anuttara Yoga Tantra including gsang vdus kyi
tshang. Till then, sku vbum dgon has developed into bskyed rdzongs and used to go to sgo mang grwa
a large temple that consisted of Tantric Buddhism tshang of vbras sungs dgon to further study the
and Exoretic Buddhism and Panca-vidya. doctrine of Buddhism.
In 1776, under the auspices of sangs rgyas hlun There were nearly 80 living Buddha mansions in
grub, head of Lake Village, Xinachuan (present-day sku vbum dgon including Aa kywa, gser khri, bla
Huangzhong County, Qinghai), tuvu bkwan blo kho, chu bzang, gser tog, shing bzav, zi na and che
bzang chos kyi nyi ma and Aa kywa blo bzang vjam shos who were conferred the title of Hutuketu or
dbyangs rgya mtsho presided over the construction rwa-sgreng. Among them, Aa kywa, gser khri and bla
of bde gshigs mchod rten rnam brgyad as landmark kho were Hutuketu in Beijing and served as pe-cin-
building of Sku vbum dgon according to the legend gyi-tham-ka-bla-ma of Lama Temple in Beijing and
of pad-spungs-mchod-rten. It is worth mentioning Wutai Mountain in Shanxi and Aa kywa served as
that the butter scripture, barbola (embroidery) and the chief abbot of sku vbum dgon from generations
to generations.
In history, Ming and Qing emperors valued and
supported sku vbum dgon and eminent monks
and living Buddha such as the third, fourth, fifth,
seventh and 13th Dalai Lama and the sixth and
ninth Panchen Lama made pilgrimage, stayed and
taught at sku vbum dgon, building up its reputation,
status, influence and scale and making it one of six
major temples of dge lugs pa in Qing Dynasty. Sku
vbum dgon had a profound religion influence on
Tibet and Mongolia.
Sku vbum dgon played a vital role in India-China
Buddhist cultural exchange history. Bde gshigs
mchod rten rnam brgyad was built to commemorate
The public square at the Kumbum Monastery, Qinghai, China eight achievements of Buddha Sakyamuni.

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 Cultural Contacts

Specifically speaking, Bde gshegs was built to

commemorate the birth of Buddha Sakyamuni in
Lumbini; Byang Chub was built to commemorate
Buddha Sakyamuni attaining enlightenment and
Buddhahood under the Bodhi tree; hos vkhor was
built to commemorate Buddha Sakyamuni turning
the wheel of dharma at Sarnath; Cho Vphrul was
built to commemorate Buddha Sakyamuni using
magic power to subdue tirthika; Lha Babs was built to
commemorate Buddha Sakyamuni ascending to the
heaven to preach Buddhist doctrines and descending
The Main Assembly Hall at the Guolong Temple, Qinghai, China
to the earth; Dbyed zlum was built to commemorate
Buddha Sakyamuni appeasing internal strife
between monk groups; Rnam Rgyal was built to Buddha including five large nang chen (lcang sky,
commemorate Buddha Sakyamuni breaking through thuvu bkwan, sum pa, chu bzang and rgyal sras) and
the shackle of birth and death; Myang Vdas was built nine small nang chen and had 49 branch temples
to commemorate Buddha Sakyamuni moving into across Qinghai (Huzhu, Datong and Ledou) and
the realm of nirvana in Kushinagar. Gansu (Tianzhu, Sunan and Zhangye) as well as some
Sku vbum dgon performed four Monlams every branch temples in Xinjiang and northeast China.
year. Specifically speaking, Monlam in January was Many celebrated Buddhist historians came from
performed to commemorate Buddha Sakyamuni; dgon lung dgon and gave a historical portrayal
Monlam in April was performed to commemorate of Brahmanism and Buddhism in India. The third
Buddha Sakyamuni birth, converting to Buddhism and Songba Buddha sum pa ye shes dpal vbyor (1704-
attaining enlightenment and Buddhahood; Monlam 1788) compiled chos vbyung dpag bsam ljon bsang
in June was performed to commemorate Buddha which elaborated the evolution of Indian Buddhism.
Sakyamuni turning wheel of dharma and Monlam in The third Tuguan Buddha thuvu bkwan blo bzang
September was performed to commemorate Buddha chos kyi nyi ma (1737-1802) wrote grub mthav
Sakyamuni descending to the earth (lha babs). thams cad kyi vbyung khungs dang vdod tshul ston
(Kalsang gyal) pa legs bshad shel gyi me lung, also known as thuvu
bkwangrub mthav, which classified the philosophical
dgon lung dgon schools of different religions (including Brahmanism
dgon lung dgon is a well-known temple of dge lugs pa in India) and expound on the evolution and doctrines
of Tibetan Buddhism and one of four major temples of different Buddhist sects in a concise way.
of Huangbei, Qinghai. Dgon lung dgon is located in (Kalsang gyal)
present-day Wushi Village, Huzhu County, Qinghai
Province and it is named as dgon lung byams pa gling chu bzang dgon
in full. Qing Emperor renamed it “Youning Temple”. chu bzang dgon is a well-known temple of dge
In 1604, the fourth Dalai Lama Yoindain Gyaco lugs pa of Tibetan Buddhism and one of four major
despatched rgyal sras don yod chos kyi rgya mtsho temples of Huangbei, Qinghai. chu bzang dgon sits in
(birth and death unknown) to build dgon lung dgon present-day Huzhu County, Qinghai Province, and it
in Amdo and serve as an abbot. He taught gzhung- is named as dgav ldan mi vgyur gling in full and Chu
po-ti lnga to monks and preached the teachings and bzang dgon in short.
ritual practices of Vbras spungs dgon across Amdo. In 1469, eminent monk chu bzang rnam rgyal dpal
In 1710, the second Akiyoshi Buddha lcang vbyor (1578-1651) from vbras spungs dgon built dgav
skya ngag dbang blo bzang chos ldan (1642-1714) ldan mi vgyur gling in vbum lung bkra shes thang,
invited the first Vjam-dbyngs-bzhad-pa vjam where monks studied the courses offered by sgo
dbyang sngag dbang brtson vgrus (1648-1721) to mang grwa tshang of vbras spungs dgon and founded
found sngags pa grwa tshang and impose religious chu bzang dgon Buddhist dharma lineage. Before
ritual practices in accordance with the canons of long, chu bzang rnam rgyal dpal vbyor passed away
Gyudmed in Lhasa, making dgon lung dgon a large and his heir disciple searched for his reincarnation,
temple renowned for the compatibility of Tantric founding the chu bzang Buddha lineage.
Buddhism and Exoteric Buddhism. In 1724, Chu bzang dgon was burnt down by
In the heyday, dgon lung dgon housed 7,700 Manchu troops. In 1733, Qing Emperor issued an
monks, outnumbering Sku vbum dgon. It founded edict of rebuilding the temple and naming it as
tshan nyid grwa tshang, rgyud pa grwa tshang, dus Guangji Temple. In 1765, Qing government bestowed
vkhor grwa tshangand sman pa grwa tshang, built it with a plaque with the words of “Guangjiao
over 20 mansions for eminent monks and living Temple” and allowed it to build a nine dragon wall in

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 Cultural Contacts

as an abbot and founded mtshan nyid grwa tshang,

attaching importance to temple education and monk
precepts.
In 1724, Nian Gengyao troop destroyed gsar khog
dgon into ruin and monks fled everywhere. In 1729,
Qing court bestowed the second Smin Grol Buddha
with a large amount of silver and gold and ordered
him to rebuild gsar khog dgon. Meanwhile, Emperor
Yongzheng awarded the temple a plaque with the
words of “Guanghui Temple”. Gsar khog dgon was
restored to its former glory.
Monks studied the course offered by sgo mang grwa
tshang of vbras spungs dgon and gzhung-po-ti lnga
Quezang Temple, Qinghai, China of Exoteric Buddhism. Besides, they studied rig gnas
bcu and achieved accomplishments in humanism and
it. Subsequently, Qing court awarded a plaque with science fields. In particular, they specialised in study
words of “Permanent Protection”. of ancient Indian medicine and developed unique
In 1866, Chu bzang dgon was burnt down by troops Indian-Tibetan medicine.
again. In 1887, chu bzang blo bzang thub bstan zhabs (Kalsang gyal)
sgrub nyi ma (1859-1913) raised funds to rebuild chu
bzang dgon and founded mtshan nyid grwa tshang dpal yul dgon
and dua vkhor grwa tshang, resuming lineage. In its Dpal Yul Dgon is a well-known temple of rnying ma
heyday, it housed more than 300 monks. Chu bzang pa of Tibetan Buddhism and is located in present
dgon made a great contribution to study into Indian day Baiyu County in Ganzi Tibetan Autonomous
astronomy and calendar. Prefecture, Sichuan Province.
(Kalsang gyal) In 1675, chieftain Dege built a Buddhist monastery
to house local monks at his territory of dpal yul rnam
gsar khog dgon rgyal rtse. This was named as Bai yu nan jie chiang
gsar khog dgon is a well-known temple of dge lugs pa qu lin shi (dpal yul rnam rtyal byang chub gling)
of Tibetan Buddhism and one of four major temples and was also known as dpal yul byang chub gling
of Huangbei, Qinghai. gsar khog dgon, located in or dpal yul dog in short. After the monastery began
present-day Datong County, Qinghai, is named as to take shape, a quota of about 500 monks was fixed
dgav ldan dam chos gling in full, gsar khog dgon for for it. Further, rig vzin kun bzang shes rab (1636-
short and also known as bstan po dgon, sgo mang 1698 CE) was engaged as the chief abbot to improve
dgon and Guanghui Temple. teaching of complete precepts from getsul to gelong,
In 1650, btsan po don grub rgya mtsho (1613- and impose canon of abstaining from meat and drink.
1665) resigned from the grwa-tshang-khri-ba of dgon The Buddhist lineage originated from Kah thog
lung dgon and built dgav ldan dam chos gling in gser and converted to mkhav vgro yang tig afterwards.
khog under the auspices of se chen hung thvi ji and Meanwhile, it learned from the teaching of
Aerti nit vi ching where he served as an abbot and dusgsummkhyen-pa chos-kyi grags-pa and founded
taught the course offered by sgo mang grwa tshang its own teaching and ritual practices and became
of vbras spungs dgon. renowned as two Buddhist lineage of Kah thog in
After bstan po don grub rgya mtsho passed away, Kham and dpal yul dog. Additionally, rig vdzin mi
smin grol vphrin las lhun grub (1622-1699) succeeded vgyur rdo rje attained enlightenment as to gnam
chos thugs kyi gter kha of zab mo dag snang gi
brgyud pa lineage during meditation. Founding a
Buddhist dharma lineage inherited and preached by
dpal yul dog, he taught thereafter. Therefore, dpal
yul dog had an influence on numerous temples of
rnying ma pa. In the heyday, it housed 3,000 monks
and had hundreds of branch temples across Kham,
Amdo and dBus.
Dpal yul dog worships pad ma vbyung gnas as
patriarch and yi dam of Tantra in Tantric teachings
and ritual practice field and erected a large pad ma
vbyung gnas statue in each hall. Additionally, monks
The exterior of the Saike Temple, Qinghai, China are committed to preaching and practising rdzogs pa

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 Cultural Contacts

doctrines and precepts. After they completed study,

they were assigned to administer religious affairs
in Beijing or went to Tibet or Mongolia to attend to
local religious affairs.
Dgav ldan byin chgs gling established quota of 500
monks, ranking topmost among Tibetan Buddhist
temples in the mainland. In old days, in addition
to studying and practicing teaching and ritual
practices, monks were required to take on religious
tasks assigned by court and other palaces as well as
undertake religious activities in need when emperor
did tour of inspection outside Beijing. Qing court
The exterior of the main hall of the Baiyu Monastery at Ganzi viewed dgav ldan byin chgs gling as imperial ancestral
(Garze/Kandze), Qinghai, China
temple and designated imperial clan members and
princes to administer religious affairs. Additionally, it
chen po, showing dpal yul dog forging a close-knit set up the Lama office to administer Tibetan Buddhist
link with Indian Buddhist culture. temples in capital, Eastern Mausoleum, Western
(Kalsang gyal) Masoleum, Rehe and Wutai Mountain.
The rituals followed the canon of major temples of
Yonghegong Temple dge lugs pa of Tibetan Buddhism and dgav ldan byin
dgav ldan byin chgs gling is a well-known temple of chgs gling served a temple for common monks to
dge lugs pa of Tibetan Buddhism, the first imperial convert to Buddhism and practice dharma as well as
temple in Beijing, located in present-day Dongcheng an important religious site favored by Qing emperors.
District, Beijing. In 1780, the sixth Panchen Lama preached dharma
Reputed as the first imperial temple of Tibetan
Buddhism, Dgav Ldan Byin Chgs Gling enjoys a high
religious status and has a profound influence on
politics, economy and culture in Tibet and Mongolia.
In 1744, Qing Emperor Qianlong issued an edict of
rebuilding dgav ldan byin chgs gling into a Buddhism
Temple and named it as dgav ldan byin chgs gling
with the meaning of magnificent island. The tablets
bearing his inscription were put up in west and east
pavilions in front of the Hall of Heavenly Kings, with
the tablet carrying Manchu and Chinese erected in
east pavillion and the tablet carrying Mongolian and
Tibetan stood in the west pavillion.
dgav ldan byin chgs gling founded mtshan nyid Yonghegong Temple, Beijing, China
grwa tshang, sngags pa grwa tshang, sman pa grwa
tshang and dus vkhor grwa tshang and eminent and precepts for Emperor Qianlong in a hall at dgav
Tibetan monks served as mkhan po. From the entire ldan byin chgs gling and posterity named the hall as
layout of the temple, dgav ldan byin chgs gling “Ordained Platform” which was opened to the public
placed emphasis on Tantra. Apart from mtshan nyid for admiration and worship.
grwa tshang, other grwa tshangs all closely linked Dgav ldan byin chgs gling played a vital role in
to Tantra. Specifically speaking, sngags pa grwa India-China Buddhist cultural exchange and it is
tshang specialised in studying into Tantric doctrine, renowned as a unique temple that integrates Chinese
teaching tantric initiation and ritual practices and palace architectural layout with Indian Buddhist
enlightening virtuous disciples; sman pa grwa tshang, cultural elements.
Tantric lineage, studied into astronomy and calendar (Kalsang gyal)
and preached Kalachakra lineage; dus vkhor grwa
tshang studied into rgyud-bzhi and Somaratsa and Eight Temples of Chengde
performed Tantric rituals. Eight Outer Temples is an imperial temple group
Monks were selected from young intelligent people of Qing Dynasty and also the collective name of
from 49 Mongolian banners, seven Khalkha clans eight temples to the northeast of Chengde Mountain
and Chinese and Tibetan Regions and edified into Resort. Because Chengde sits outside Beijing and the
eminent monks who respected for national policies, Great Wall, the temples are collectively called Eight
behaved in good manner and excelled in Buddhist Outer Temples.

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 Cultural Contacts

Dashidawa Tribe. It alluded to stabilising afar and

consolidating frontier.
In 1766, Qing Court built Pule Temple to mark the
surrender of Torgut, Kazakh, Bulut and other tribes
with the meaning of intimate unity of all ethnic
groups and universal rejoicment and offer a place to
aristocracy of all ethnic groups in northwest China
(Kazakh, Uygur and Kirgiz) who had audience with
Qing emperors for worshipping Buddha.
In 1767, Qing Court issued an edict of emulating
Putuo Zongcheng Temple, Chengde, Hebei, China Potala Palace to build Putuozongcheng Temple,
commonly known as the Mini-Potala Palace. In 1771,
In the reign of Emperor Kangxi and Emperor the construction was completed and magnificent
Qianlong in Qing Dynasty, 12 Tibetan Buddhist Putuo Zongcheng Temple was ranked at the top in
temples namely Furen Temple, Fushan Temple, size in Rehe. In the same year, Emperor Qianlong
Puning Temple, Puyou Temple, Anyuan Temple, met with Ubashi, head of Torghut in the Hall of
Pule Temple, Putuozongcheng Temple, Guang’an Unification of All Dharma, and held grand religious
Temple, Suxiang Temple, The Hall of Arhan, Xumi activities for preaching sutra and celebrating birthday
Fushou Temple and Guangyuan Temple, were built. at Putuozongcheng Temple.
In 1713, Mongolian princes sought permission for In 1774, Qing Court issued an edict of emulating
building Furen Temple and Fushan Temple in Rehe Shuxiang Temple on Wutai Mountain to build
to celebrate the 60th birthday of Emperor Kangxi. another Shuxiang Temple in Rehe (Chengde) as an
In 1755, Qing Court quelled Dzungar Dawats imperial temple. Manchu monk served as an abbot
separatist force. Following the teachings of a temple and it established the quota of 50 lamas who were
outstripping 1,00,000 soldiers and governing Oirat selected from Manchu monks from Miaoying Temple
by virtue of Tibetan Buddhism taught by forefathers, in the capital and specialised in study into sutras in
Emperor Qianlong issued an edict of emulating Manchu. As Emperor Qianlong pointed out, sutras
bSam yas gtsug lag khang to build Puning Temple in in Sanskrit sourced from India and were translated
Rehe (Chengde) and personally inscribed on Puning into Tangut language, Chinese and then Mongolian
Temple Tablet, Gedeng Mountain Battle Tablet and during the reign of Emperor Kangxi and Qianlong.
Quelling Dzungar Leming Yili Tablet in Chinese, In the heyday, Qing Court should not have no sutras
Manchu, Mongolian and Tibetan to commemorate in Manchu and thus set up a sutra academy to do
quelling Oirat Dzungar Tribe and express the good translation. In 1772, Qing Court set up the sutra
wishes of living and working in peace for ever. academy in the capital and it took nearly 20 years to
Puning Temple served as a political and religious complete the compilation and translation of Tripitaka
link between Tibet, Mongolia and Qing central in Manchu. There were a total of 12 sets of block-
government and developed into topmost Tibetan printed Tripitaka in Manchu and one set was stored
Buddhist Temple in Rehe. in Shuxiang Temple for Manchu monks there to recite
In 1760, the birthday of Emperor Qianlong and and practice.
Empress Dowager happened to coincide with the In 1780, the sixth Panchen Lama went to Rehe
quelling of Northwest Frontier Rebellion by Manchu (Chengde) to celebrate Emperor Qianlong’s 70th
troops and thus Emperor Qianlong issued an edict birthday and Emperor Qianlong deemed that it
of building Puyou Temple beside Puning Temple to showed the symbol of the golden era of the Qing
have celebration. Puyou Temple was renowned as
sutra academy for studying Buddhism and cultural
knowledge and it founded mtshan nyid grwa tshang,
sngags pa grwa tshang, dus vkhor grwa tshang, and
sman pa grwa tshang. Monks participated in statutory
Buddhist activities and they studied and practiced
the doctrines of Tantra, Exoteric Buddhism and rig
gnas che chung bcu including Tibetan medicine,
astronomy and calendar.
In 1764, Qing Court emulated Gu’erzha Temple, a
Tibetan Buddhist centre by the Yili River in Xinjiang
Province, to build Anyuan Temple, commonly
known as “Yili Temple” as the place for believers
to worship Buddha to appease surrendered Oirat Gilded archway of the Putuo Zongcheng Temple, Chengde, Hebei, China

19 9
 Cultural Contacts

Dynasty. Therefore, he issued an edict of emulating CE, archaeologists excavated a stone pot with
Tsang Tashilhunpo Monastery to build Xumi osseous remains. On the pot was engraved Brahmi
Fushou Temple as the palace for the sixth Panchen which was popular for several centuries before
Lama in Rehe. The luxurious and magnificent Christ and meaning that Buddhist relics worshipped
temple built Jixiangfaxi Hall as bedroom and by the Sakya clan. Besides, carved stones which
Miaogaozhuangyan Hall for preaching sutras. were built when Asoka made an inspection tour
Before the sixth Panchen Lama had audience, were discovered in Kapilavastu. These discoveries
Emperor Qianlong studied Tibetan in advance. verified its probable geographical location, where
When Emperor Qianlong met him, they greeted the Nepal government has continuously carried out
each other warmly in Tibetan and the Emperor archaeological excavation afterwards.
listened to the sixth Panche Lama preaching The father of Sakyamuni was the king of Kapilavastu
Longetivity Sutra in the Miaogaozhuangyan Hall. with the name of Śuddhodana (śuddhodana), (King
The rest of temples such as Guang’an Temple, Suddhodana in Chinese translation). The mother of
The Hall of Arhan and Guangyuan Temple were all Sakyamuni was named Maha Maya（Mahàmàyà),
built for Mongolian and Tibetan aristocrats to have the eldest daughter of Suprabuddh, the castellan
audience with the emperor in Rehe. of Devadaha which was just across the river from
Out of 12 Tibetan Buddhist temples, the Hall of Kapilavastu. As was the Shakya tradition when
Arhan, Guang’an Temple and Pule Temple were his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left
administered by Imperial Clan Court and other nine Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth.
temples (Puyou Temple affiliated to Puning Temple) However, her son was said to have been born on the
set up eight administrative agencies and Qing Court way at Lumbini Park which is now the Luo Meide
sent monks. Tulergi golo be dasara jurgan was monastery in a village in south Nepal.
responsible for paying salary every month and a There was no specific record on the year of birth
Lama office was set up to administer these monks. of Sakyamuni from ancient books and records
The Eight Outer Temples is a representative Buddhist in ancient India and the legends of countries and
temple complex as a fusion of India-China culture research of scholars generally tried to prove from
and architectural arts which should be learned from historical records of Buddhism and calculation from
each other by India and China.
(Kalsang gyal)

Personalities
Indian Personalities
Sakyamuni
Sakyamuni (Śàkyamuni) is the founder of Buddhism.
Buddha's own name is Siddhartha (Siddhàrtha),
meaning "righteousness achiever". His surname
is Gautama. Since his father was a member of
the Sakya clan, after he got enlightened, he was
respectfully referred to as Sakyamuni, meaning
the sage of the Shakya clan. Siddhartha was also
known as the Buddha (Enlightened) or Bhagawan
(Bhagavàna) and so on.

Early life
By tradition, he is said to be the prince of Kapilavastu,
a descendant of Iksvaku, famous imperial kinsmen of
the Vedic Period in ancient India. And he belonged Śākyamuṇī Buddha
to the Kshatriya caste. Annexed to the Kingdom
of Kosala (Koṣala), Kapilavastu was a small town the year of death. So there have been as much as 60
with settlements of the Sakya clan in the Himalayan different versions. And there is a difference of several
foothills, now the vicinity of Tilauakot in the south of hundreds of years between the earliest version and
Nepal, adjacent to India. When Faxian visited India the latest one. In Theravada Buddhism countries as
in 4th century CE, Kapilavastu was declining with Sri Lanka, India, Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Laos,
each processing day. At the end of the 19th century Cambodia and so on, it is generally acknowledged

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Sakyamuni was born in 624 BCE and died in 544

BCE, the anniversary of nirvana of Sakyamuni.
Unlikely, Western scholars have different theories
on the death year which varies from 489 BCE, 487
BCE, 486 BCE, 484 BCE, 483 BCE, 482 BCE, 478 BCE
to 477 BCE. According to Samantapa translated by
Sanghabhadra, a translator in Chinese Southern Qi
Dynasty (479-502 CE), Upali collected Vinaya rules
at the same year of Parinirvana and marked a point
on the back of the book on July 15 that year and
from that year on, a point was added each year. And Ruins of Lumbini, Nepal
there were 975 points altogether until the seventh
year of Yongming in Southern Qi Dynasty (489 CE). not bring him the way of spiritual liberation, so he
Scholars of modern China concluded that Sakyamuni finally gave up the throne and left home to practice.
was born in 565 BCE and died in 486 BCE, almost After becoming a monk, he initially went to
the same as Confucius, his contemporary in the Uruvela of Bhaàrgava where he met many other
spring-autumn and Warring States Period of China practitioners who tormented their bodies through
but died seven years earlier. This theory has also ascetic practices to ensure spiritual liberation.
been accepted by Buddhist scholars in Japan, India Unsatisfied by such kinds of behaviours Sakyamuni
and so on. left after staying just one night. His father was very
Buddha's mother, Queen Maya, died seven days sad on the news of his becoming a monk and since it
later after his birth. In his childhood, Siddhartha was in vain to persuade him to give up, he sent five
was brought up by his mother's younger sister, people from the same clan to accompany him.
Maha Pajapati（Mahàprajàpatã）. He learned all Sakyamuni went to the south and crossed over the
knowledge and skills (ie five branches of knowledge) Ganges River to Rajgir, capital of Magadha, where
that should be equipped by imperial kinsmen at King Bimbisara (Bimbisàra) met him. Later, he
that time. When he reached the age of 16 (other visited two Samkhya embracers recluse in wooded
versions mention 17 or 18), he married his cousin mountains near Rajgir and learned meditation from
named Yaśodharā (Yaṣodharā) and had a son named them. However, from Sakyamuni’s opinion, their
Rahula (Rāhula). doctrine was still not the truth to real freedom of
life. So he came to the riverside of Nairanjana to
Ascetic Life take meditation thinking and asceticism. Six years
Buddha's noble life was very affluent and later, he did not attain his goals and decided to
comfortable. Volume 29 in Madh Yamagama-sutra abandon apastia and austerity and seated under
recorded his memories about royal life. He owned a Pippinga where he sat with lotus position, for
three palaces for comfortable living in different tranquil contemplation and meditation until he
seasons, one for cold winter, one for hot summer finally found the truth at the age of 35.
and one for humid rainy season. With expensive
clothes and delicious food, he appreciated singing Travels and Teaching
and dancing in the court and enjoyed the joy of After attaining Enlightenment, Sakyamuni formed
all. His father, King Suddhodana, also placed great his unique ideas on observation and analysis. He
hopes on him. He hoped his son inherit the throne began to travel and teach for 45 years in order
and become Chakravartin unifying the entire to make his thoughts understood and accepted.
country. However, Sakyamuni left home to practice He travelled to the Deer Park near Benares (now
at the age of 29 (19 in another version). The causes Varanasi) where he set in motion what Buddhists
included both social and personal factors. call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first
On the era of Buddha, countries of Ancient India sermon including Four Noble Truths, 12 Nidanas,
sent armed forces to suppress and annex each other, bodhipakṣa dharma, five accumulations, four
and there were very sharp class and ethnic tensions. meditations and triple brightness and so on to the
His Shakya clan was threatened by neighbouring five companions, all of whom become the first batch
countries and at a precarious situation. He forecast of disciples of Buddha called arahants. At the same
the country would end up in destruction, so he time, he persuaded Yasa, son of Banares superior
believed the world was “changeable”. In addition, he and his relatives and friends to practice religion as
witnessed people grew old, sick and dead after one’s well as Sariputta and Maudgalyayana. Hereafter,
birth, and thought he could not get away from the he persuaded many of his relatives like his younger
same fate. Therefore, he was vexed by hard suffering. male cousin, Devadatta, his son, Rahula and so on
The thoughts and acts of Brahman at the time could to turn to Buddhism.

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The main area of Sakyamuni’s teaching was Formation of the Sangha

Majjhimdesa in the Ganges River basin, covering During his teaching, Buddha established a Buddhist
approximately Kapilavastu to the north, Rajgir to the organisation -- sangha (Samgha). It is generally
south, Campà to the east and Kosambi to the west. believed that Sangha begins from his first sermon
The influenced areas of his direct disciples included at Deer Park and five arahants turned to Buddhism.
downstream regions of the Ganges River basin to This Samgha expanded gradually in the process
the east, the Godavari riverside to the south, the of preaching. At the beginning, the Samgha only
Arabian Sea coastwise to the west and Takxila to the recruited male disciples (Buddhist monk), later
northwest (now Takxila is in Pakistan). The places after the recruitment of his mother's younger sister,
where the Buddha stayed longest were Sravasti in Pajapati, female disciples (Buddhist nuns) were
Kosala and Rajgir in Magadha. In Sravasti, there also adopted.
was Jetavana (also named as Jetavana Vihara) At an early stage, there was no strict system in
donated by a rich merchant Sudatta and Prince Jeta. Samgha. Everyone, noble or cheap, whatever his
While in Rajgir, there was Kalandaka Venuvana, caste was, he could join Samgha as long as with
an important place for Sakyamuni to deliver his beliefs in the ideas of Buddha. And they led equal
life inside Samgha. Later on, in order to prevent the
Samgha in disorder and avoid discording with the
legal orders and moral principles of secular society
and promote a better implementation of activities in
Samgha, specific rules were made to restrict slaves,
debtors, murderers, robbers (except penitential
ones), disabled, patients and people under 20 years
old to join the Samgha.
At first, Sangha travelled to beg for food, without
settled dwelling. Later, Buddhist temples began
to be built at places where monks locate to adapt
living and assembly needs in rainy season. During
monks’ group living, detailed rules and regulations
were formulated on dressing, diet, utensils, rites,
residence and medicine, serving as common
commandment abided by all members of Sangha.
At the same time of establishing Sangha, Buddha
granted corresponding status to believers at home.
Any layman abided by the five commandments
A sculpture depicting the birth of the prince, Lumbini including ahimsa could become a disciple of Buddha
and reach the same nirvana through practice. By
sermon. It was also said he once stayed in Vrji, tradition, Yasa’s father and mother were the earliest
Anga, Malla, Kàṣã and other countries. Buddhism followers - Upasaka and Upasika. Later
Sakyamuni delivered his sermon to all castes on, the number of believers grew constantly, and
and stratums at that time including Brahman, became a side-by-side social power advocating
Sramana (holy man), kings, ministers, merchants, Buddhism with Sangha.
handicraftsman, fishermen and even prostitutes and
robbers and so on. Many persons of royal lineage Nirvana
and rich and powerful people offered strong political Sakyamuni resided in Rajgir in his old age. It was
and economic supports. said that he once convened monks there for many
Sakyamuni delivered his sermon in different ways, times. He told them about principles of keeping
not to stick to one pattern. On different occasions, Sangha unfading, and required them to “act in
he utilised various forms like gatha, prose, tales, accordance with dharma, not anything else”. Then he
metaphors, statements, questions and answers and left Rajgir for the north, beginning his last travelling
so on... to deliver different contents to different and teaching. He led his disciples travelling across
objects. He taught monks about understanding life Nalanda and Patna, crossing the Ganges River and
and death to attain supreme enlightenment while arriving at Vaishali where he got consecrated by
he discussed with layman about morality and doing Amrapali, a local rich prostitute. Later they got to
good works. He allowed his disciples to deliver Venuvana, neighbouring Vaishali. It was the rainy
sermon with local dialects instead of normalised season and Sakyamuni decided to settle down there,
Sanskrit. All these made his thoughts widely spread only with Ananda accompanying him and other
in the society. disciples dispersed to live in other places. During

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and Mulasarvastivada Vinaya miscellaneous and so

on recorded his life in the old age.

Afterwards
With the development of Buddhism in the Indian
subcontinent, the unified Buddhism was divided into
many factions. At the same time, with influences
from idolatry in Hinduism and Jainism and from
Greek cultures, in sectarian Buddhism, there
appeared worships to Sakyamuni, describing the
Buddha to have far-reaching supernatural powers
and formidable forces and own great wisdom with
physical characteristics of the Buddha and 80 kinds
Statue depicting nirvāna of Śākyamuṇī of good virtues such as arms over knees, cheeks
like full moon, sound far-reaching and chests with
the rainy season, he got serious disease. After that, swastika etc. As a result, special scriptures went
he continued his journey to northwest to deliver his to earth to record the life of Sakyamun, Buddha’s
sermon. In the mango park of whitesmith Cunda life, enlightenment and deeds such as Cāryānidāna
in a village in South Malla, Sakyamuni ate food (also named Life of Buddha, Cause and Effect in
consecrated by him and got poisoned and diarrhoea Past and Now, Deeds of Buddha) and Lalitavistara
and in turn, his state of illness became serious. When sutra and so on. Their characteristics are to integrate
he reached the Hain Salavana nearby Kushinagara, materials scattered in collections of Sutras and
he lied at the right side and got nirvana between Vinaya, join together all deeds to form into the
two itsuki sara. Before nirvana, he warned his biography of Buddha. However, in content, they
disciples to perform diligent practice and delivered are merely rendering the deification of Buddha,
his sermon to Subhaadra, a Brahman who begged making him an idealised worship sage. The longest
for an audience, making him his last disciple. He one simply describes the first few years’ life of the
died at the age of 80. Buddha after his enlightenment. Later, Ma Ming
After his death, his remains were cremated. His wrote Buddhacarita, the first complete biography
osseous remains (Buddhist relics) were divided based on legends and materials, describing all life
up by eight kings including Ajatshatru who built experience of Buddha.
dagoba to enshrine so. That is the legendary of
“eight kings dividing Buddhist relics”.

Historical Materials
There is no specialised record in Agama and Tripitaka,
both of which are early Buddhist classics about the
deeds in the entire life of Sakyamuni. The collector of
Tripitaka mainly recorded the words of Sakyamuni.
But in the words in collections of Sutras and Vinaya,
every teaching and the reason to formulate the
first commandment were recorded and narrated in
detail. Although these records are fragments, they
contained memories of people directly contacted by
the Buddha on his thoughts and acts (it is impossible
to verify its reliability). In addition, the collections
of Sutras and Vinaya, recorded his experience in
early life through Shakyamuni’s own voice. Among
early collections of Sutras and Vinaya, Dirghagama-
sutra recorded the family of Sakyamuni and how
he became a monk; Dhammacakkappavattana Sutra
and others in Samyuktagama-sutra, recorded the first
turning of the Wheel of the Dharma; Mahasangha-
vinaya, dharmagupta-vinava, Rule of fifth and
sutras in Agama recorded some teaching activities;
Travelling Sutra (also named as Sacred Books of the A Thangka painting depicting the Jātaka stories from the life of
East, Mahaparinirvana-sutra) in Dirghagama-sutra Śākyamuṇī Buddha

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Many monks in ancient China wrote biography of Sutra, Maudgalyāyana’s mother went to hell due to
Sakyamuni, like Buddha, composing of five volumes sins and he was very sad and determined to save
by Sengyou in Liang Dynastry and Pedigree of his mother. Afterwards with the help of Buddha, his
Buddha, composing of one volume by DaoXuan in mother was saved. The Sutra was popular in China
Liang Dynastry. In addition, there was Hierarch for over 1,500 years and the story was deduced into
Biographic Sketches of Sakyamuni Buddha in various novels and plays scripts and became popular
annalistic style in The Chronicle of the Buddha by in the folk with large influence. Maudgalyāyana has
Zhipan in Song Dynasty in ancient China. also been regarded as the model of Chinese filial
Historical materials about Buddha's life include piety and got respect and praise.
not only classic records in Buddhist scriptures but (Xue Keqiao)
also cultural relics. In modern times, archaeologists
and Buddhist masters from India and other Asoka
countries have excavated in succession a batch Asoka (2731-232 BCE), as one of the early empire
historical sites and cultural relics at Buddha’s builders of pre-Christian ancient India who made
birthplace and places of Enlightenment, the Wheel himself well-known simultaneously as a great
of Dharma, nirvana and so on, according to records conqueror, a builder, an administrator, a statesman
in Travelling Around India by Faxian and Records of and a patron of Buddhism with unparallel devotion
the Western Regions of the Great Tang by Xuanzang and dedication. Historical documents reveal that he
and incomplete historical materials conserved in was exceedingly violent and cruel in the early phase
India and on this account proved that Buddha was of his life while being engaged in power struggle
a real person in history. with his brothers in a bid to occupy the throne. But
(Bian Bu) later on embraced Buddhism by renouncing violence
and hatred altogether. A careful study of this ancient
Mahamaudgalyayana emperor, therefore, may be divided into two phases
Muqianlian (Maudgalyayana or based on the turning point in his life brought about
Mahāmaudgalyāyana) was one of the 10 closest by the devastating effect of the Kalinga War that he
disciples of Gautam Buddha. His full name was waged in the ninth year of his formal coronation.
Mahāmaudgalyāyana but in translation is also The empire that he built with Pataliputra as its
referred to as Maudgalyayana. The abbreviation capital was wide indeed, being comprised of the vast
name of Maudgalyayana is, however, popular among areas extending from the Himalayas in the north to
the Chinese folks. According to “Fobenxingjijing”, Karnataka in the south and from Bengal and Kalinga
Maudgalyayana was born in a Brahman family in in the east to Afghanistan in the west.
the suburbs of Rajgir, Magadha (near Nalanda, A wealth of information about Asoka’s life and
Bihar). He led the followers to convert to Buddhism exploits is available from literary traditions, foreign
together with his townsman, Sāriputta. According accounts as well as his own sayings engraved on rocks
to legends, he had obtained supernatural power so and stone pillars. The Gujarra, Nittur, Udegolam
he can ascend to the heaven or descend to earth and and the Maski versions of the Minor Rock Edict 1
was known as “the one with largest magical power” are the only four inscriptions which refer to him by
among the 10 disciples. According to Ullambana the name “Ashok” which implies the meaning of
“painless or without sorrow” in Sanskrit. Elsewhere
in other inscriptions he is generally mentioned as
Devanampriya (beloved of the gods), Priayadarshi
(one who glances graciously upon all2) Raja. Most
probably Asoka adopted such titles only after his
initiation into Buddhism.
Asoka was the third in the line of succession among
the Maurya emperors after his great grandfather
Chandragupta, the founder of the dynasty and his
father, Bindusara. According to tradition, Asoka was
solemnly enthroned at Pataliputra in 273 BCE and
died after a glorious reign of about 36 or 37 years,
in or about 232 BCE.
The Kalinga war marks a watershed in the life of
Asoka; it was the harbinger of the second phase of
his career, by changing him into a Dharma-soka (the
pious Asoka) from the earlier alleged title of Chanda-
Mahāmaudgalyāyana Asoka (the fierce Asoka). What brought about the

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The notable features of Asoka’s reign are marked

by three-fold characteristics mentioned below.
First, he represented the theology of peace and
brotherhood after he became a Buddhist, adopted
a policy of tolerance towards all other religious
sects and thus espoused the cause of secularism
as the core value of his overall religious and
spiritual administration. In recognition of his great
contribution towards building a secular state by
the government of modern India, the emblem of
Republic of India, is marked with the Lion Capital of
Asoka. Secondly, he was the first emperor in India
to record his own ideas and activities (the first time
in written language known as Brahmi script) in the
annals of Indian history. Thirdly, Asoka sought to
convert Buddhism into a world religion. To attain
this objective, he despatched many emissaries to
foreign lands for the propagation of the Buddhist
Lion Capital from the Ashokan Pillar at
Sarnath, India
faith. He sent his son, Mahendra and daughter,
Sanghamitra to spread it in Sri Lanka and many
change in him may be enumerated here? The first other famous Buddhist monks (Bhikshus) to other
cause is that the sight of misery and bloodshed countries like Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand,
caused by the war he fought struck the emperor’s Vietnam, Iran, Egypt and Turkey. It is through such
conscience and awakened a sense of sincere feelings emissaries that Asoka wanted to impress upon the
of repentance and sorrow. Secondly, Buddhism that turbulent tribesmen and hostile neighbours that
strongly focussed on non-violence and toleration in the true mission of life lies in the “conquest of men
all forms of human thought, conduct and behaviour by morality” rather than the “conquest by force
served as a spiritual resort for the great emperor to of arms”. “The reverberation of laws (Dhamma-
preach and propagate the values of humanitarianism ghosha) should be accepted as superior to “the
to win human hearts and maintain durable peace reverberation of war-drums” (Bheri-ghosha). It
and prosperity in the society.
Asoka, having come in contact with the Sangha
(Order of the Buddhist Monks), made a deep study of
the Buddhist scriptures and undertook many “tours
of morality” (Dhamma yatra) instead of the “pleasure
tours” (Vihar yatra) of his ancestors. Thereafter,
Asoka totally abjured coercion and violence
even in matters of the political administration of
his state but he assumed the role of a moral and
ethical administrator of society and people so that a
harmonious society could be built up based on the
virtues of truth, non-violence and toleration to give a
lingering life to his empire. In pursuit of this goal, he
established a department of religious affairs which
was conducted by a class of special officers called
Dhamma Mahamatras who had to set out on tours of
inspection in all the parts of the empire at least once
in five years to supervise the cultural works being
carried out by the local officers. Wherever Asoka
went on Dhamma yatra (tour of Dhamma or Dharma),
he used to enjoin that all his instructions were to be
engraved on rocks and stone pillars so that the pious
messages that he wanted to convey could be read by
all concerned and put into practice in their practical
life in all possible ways and manners. Large numbers
of “Pillars of morality” (Dharma-stambha) were thus
constructed throughout his empire. Asokan Stone Pillar at Lingshan Shengjing at Wuxi, Jiangsu, China

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is claimed that Asoka’s policy of Dhamma-vijaya directly refer to the Four Noble Truths, he does use
(Dharma-vijaya) met with phenomenal success in the word majhan (middle) in the Separate Rock
Western Asia but it was not favourably accepted by Edict I. The Samgha or Buddhist monastic order,
the Greeks. However, it is alleged that his policy is mentioned in Minor Rock Edict I, Bairāt Edict,
of pacifism later on proved to be disastrous for the Pillar Edict VII and Schism Edict. On the actual
survival and continuity of the Murya empire and extent of his patronage to Buddhism, the edicts are
as the historical evidences show, the Greek forces silent, but Buddhist traditions both of the Thervāda
poured into the Kabul Valley, Punjab and even and Mahāyāna greatly appreciate his patronage.
the Gangetic region, bringing about the gradual Dīpavamsa and the Aśokavādana both assert that
disintegration and collapse of the great empire of Aśoka after his conversion to Buddhism, built
the Maurya kings. 84,000 Buddhist stūpas. He repaired or enlarged the
Asoka became well-known to the enlightened stūpa of Buddha Konākamma in the Nepalese Terai
Chinese society and the people as A-Yu-Wang and visited Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha
(阿育王) in Chinese through the translation of (Rummindei Pillar edict). It was during Aśoka’s
Buddhist text “Divyavadana” which gives, besides reign that Buddhist Samgha underwent further re-
many religious tales, a graphic account of him as a organisation with the meeting of the Third Buddhist
great patron of Buddhism, a philanthropist, a saint, Council at Patliputra in 250 CE. This re-organisation
a religious and a social reformer of superb ability initiated the process of schism in Buddhism and
and talent. Asoka’s reputation as the brightest is reflected in the Schism Edict. In this, Aśoka
luminary in the political firmament of India remains expressed his anxiety to maintain the unity of the
undiminished till this day. Samgha and to secure the expulsion from it of all
1 The formal coronation of Asoka seems to have such monks and nuns if indulged in schism.
occurred in 269 BCE. The decision to send missionaries to various parts
2 The term also means "one who looks after the of the subcontinent and even further, and to make
welfare of all and one who is handsome". Buddhism an actively proselytising religion, appears
(Arttatrana Nayak) to have been taken at the Third Buddhist Council,
leading eventually to the propagation of Buddhism
Asokan Inscriptions all over Asia by the turn of the Common Era. Aśoka
The edicts of Aśoka, the great Mauryan king (268- mentions various contemporaries in the world to the
231 CE), are found as inscriptions in various parts west with whom he exchanged diplomatic missions,
of his empire and speak of his concerns both such as Antiochus II of Syria (260-246 BCE), Ptolmey
as a king and as a Buddhist and above all, as a II Philadelphus of Egypt (285-247 BCE) and others
human being. The inscriptions are written in three in Major RE XIII. He also informs us about Mauryan
different languages — Prakrit, Indo-Aramaic and relations with Sri Lanka (Tambapamnī).
Greek and in four scripts viz Brahmi, Kharosthi, The ideology of Buddhism guided Aśoka’s state
Aramaic and Greek. Ever since the inscriptions policy at home and abroad. His obligation as a king
were fully deciphered by James Princep in 1839 and statesman, however, insisted that all religions
CE, they have added significantly to the legends of must be respected. Divergent forces such as multiple
Aśoka and introduced many new perspectives in cultural and social systems, rapid urbanisation
early Indian history. and complexities of a vast empire further added
Aśoka made a distinction between his personal to the situation. All these played a role in Aśoka’s
belief and support for Buddhism and his obligation formulation of his Dhamma, the universal law or
as a king and a statesman. His edicts are, therefore,
of two kinds. The smaller group consists of
declaration of Aśoka addressed to the Buddhist
Samgha as a lay Buddhist. Far more important is the
larger group of inscriptions on rock surfaces known
as the Major and Minor Rock Edicts and the Pillar
Edicts. All these edicts are located in places where
people were likely to gather and accept these as
exhortations. These exhortations primarily relate to
administration, public welfare and the formulation
of Dhamma.
Aśoka, in his edicts, provides enough evidence of
his belief in Buddhism. He repeats the established
Buddhist formula of faith in the Buddha, Dhamma Stone inscription of Ashoka (replica), preserved at the National
and Samgha (Bairāt Rock Edict) and if he does not Museum, New Delhi, India

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righteousness which was based on the principles

of tolerance, non-violence and welfare of people.
By tolerance, Aśoka meant tolerance towards
people and towards their belief and ideas (Major
RE XII). The principle of non-violence included
the renunciation of war and conquest by Dhamma
(Major RE XIII), as well as a restraint on the killing
of animals (Major RE XI). Under the policy of public
welfare, banyan trees were planted on highways,
wells dug, rest-houses built and arrangements made
for medical treatment for human beings and cattle
(PE VII; Major RE II). To implement the policy of
Dhamma and publicise it, Aśoka instituted a special
category of officers — the dhamma-mahāmattas Kāśyapa Mātaṅga
(Major RE V; PE VII).
The principle of Dhamma thus set a very high named Zhaoti Temple but then renamed White Horse
ideal not only for the people but also for the king. Temple. Kāśyapamātanga died in the 16th Yongping
Aśoka’s theory of paternal kingship clearly reflects year (73 CE) and was buried in the temple.
this high ideal. It is, therefore, not surprising when The Sutra of 42 Chapters briefly explained the
we find that in Buddhist tradition he is depicted as basic doctrines of Theravada Buddhism. It was
‘Chakkavatti’ — the universal monarch who ensures extracted and compiled with its key points from
that the turning of the wheel of law is the essence Āgama, rather than an independent classic. Whether
of his rule. it was translated by Kāśyapamātanga has always
(R K Sinha & Kamal Sheel) been controversial. Someone proved that it was
a pseudo graph by later generations based on the
Kasyapamatanga fact that the Comprehensive Catalogue of Scriptures
Kāśyapamātanga [Shemoteng] (Chinese: 摄摩腾; by Dao’an, an eminent monk in Eastern Jin (314-
pinyin: Shemoteng, 1st century CE), was also known 385 CE) did not record this sutra. And as for the
as Kasyapa Matanga and in short as Matanga. name of Kāśyapamātanga, it did not appear until as
According to legends, he was the first Indian late as South Qi (479-502 CE) in the Miracles in the
Buddhist monk to translate the Sutra and introduce Ghostdom by Wang Yan so the real existence of this
Buddhism in China. person is in doubt. There are various opinions about
According to the Biographies of Eminent Monks, this and the truth still needs to be checked.
Kāśyapamātanga originally resided in Majjhimdesa (Guo Tong)
(central India) and later went to various places for
travel and teaching, explaining the Mahayana and Dharamaratna
Theravada classics he was expert in. In Yongping According to a legend, Dharamaratna or
period of Han Dynasty (58-75 CE), Emperor Dharamarakṣa [Zhufalan] (c. 1st century CE) was
Ming had a dream one night that a golden man one of the first Indian Buddhist monks to translate
flew in front of the palace. An official, Fu Yi, the Sutra and introduce Buddhism in China.
practiced divination for him and said it should be According to the Biographies of Eminent Monks,
the Buddha. Emperor Ming then sent Qin Jing et Dharamarakṣa originally lived in Majjhimdesa
al to India to look for the Buddhist doctrine. The (central India) and he claimed that he could
people met Kāśyapamātanga and Dharamarakùa chant tens of thousands of sutras and tutored over
(or Dharamaratna) at Greater Yuezhi (ie Indo- a thousand apprentices. He travelled and taught
Scyths) and invited them to return to the central together with Kāśyapamātanga at Greater Yuezhi
mainland, accompanied by white horses carrying and was willing to accept the invitation of Qin Jing
the sutra scrolls. In 10th Yongping year (67 CE), and other envoys of Emperor Ming of Han to go
they returned to Luoyang. Emperor Ming showed together with them to the central mainland for the
them high respects especially built fine houses for spread of Buddhism. However, he was hindered by
their residence outside the west gate of Luoyang the local king and his apprentices and had to wait
(another saying is that they were settled at Honglu for a chance to leave stealthily. Soon after he arrived
Temple) which made them the earliest of Shramana at Luoyang, he learned Chinese, translated the Sutra
on the Han land. Later, the two people took great of 42 Chapters together with Kāśyapamātanga. After
endeavours to translate and write and came out Kāśyapamātanga died, he alone translated Sutra
with Sutra of 42 Chapters. The fine house they lived of Terminating Knots in the Ten Holy Terras, Jàtaka,
in was called White Horse Temple or was originally Buddhacarita and Sutra of Dharmic-Sea Repertory etc.

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and geography, prophetic remarks and mysterious

divinations as well as a variety of religious methods
and ways. Thus, when he was a teenager, he was
well-known among many countries for his broad
and profound knowledge. The self-reliance on his
rare smartness, however, had made him entrapped
in absurdity. He learned stealth with several bosom
friends and sneaked into the palace to encroach on
the palace maids. Although he nearly died for this,
he came to realise the principle that “desire is the
base of suffering, the root of all evils; the fall of
moral and the misleading of life both result from
it”. Thus, he swore to follow Śramana and became a
monk to learn the doctrines. Later, he went deep into
Dharmaratna the mountains and found a temple. He was initiated
into monkhood there and learnt Theravada first. He
which were lost in disasters of later generations. finished reciting Tripitaka within 90 days. Then he
A legend says that during the Emperor Wu of Han went further to the snow mountain in the north and
period (156-87 BCE) the Kunming Pool was repaired got the chance to read the Mahayana classics given
and dug to bottom and black ashes were found. by an old monk as a gift. Though he understood the
People asked Dongfang Shuo but he answered that fundamental principles and felt quite enlightened,
he did not know what it was, and the people from the he still felt he could not be thoroughly acquainted
Western Regions could be consulted. Dharamarakṣa, with everything and travelled to many countries to
after arriving at the central plains, was asked about seek more classics and at the same time, he had
it and answered that when the world approached debates with the believers of external religions
the end of each kalpa, it would be burned by kalpa and Theravada, and was invincible for a time.
fire and black ashes were the result of the burning. Seeing that the dissidents “were all subdued” and
There have always been different opinions about the Buddhist doctrines he had learned failed to be
the real existence of Dharamarakṣa and the classics perfect, he wanted to expand and carry forward
he translated. (for details also refer to the entry on the doctrines himself to enlighten future studies.
Kāśyapamātanga). And thus he felt proud in heart and initiated the
(Ge Weijun) idea of establishing a sect. He intended to set up
the admonitions, design monk robes and enlist the
Nagarjuna apostles. Myth has it that a Bodhisattva named
Nàgàrjuna (about 2-3 CE) was the founder of Dalong (“big dragon”) was quite regretful for this
Madhyamaka School of ancient Indian Mahayana and invited him to the palace under the sea, showing
Buddhism. He carried forward Mahayana Buddhism him with more esoteric classics. After reading and
and delivered a broad range of teaching, his doctrines studying for 90 days, his former problems were
were later inherited by a number of sectarians of generally solved. After leaving Dragon Palace, he
Buddhism in China. He was hailed as “Father of returned to Dakshinapatha. There, he established
Eight Sectarians”. His name was also translated the doctrines and preached and waged a struggle
as Longmeng or Longsheng or transliterated as against the Brahmins with strong power. There
Najiayulashuna. were some fairytales that told how he visited all
the imperial courts to persuade the royal to give up
Life of Nāgārjuna external religions to believe in Buddhism. As for the
According to Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva biography, end of Nāgārjuna, there are different stories, but
Nāgārjuna was born into a Brahmin family in quite a few suggest that he committed suicide. One
Dakshinapatha. Even in his infancy, he had showed legend goes like this: a Theravada master was very
his extraordinary gift. Legend has it that he could jealous of him. Before Nāgārjuna died, he asked the
follow and recite the four Vedic classics that master whether he would like him to stay long in the
adults read aloud only by hearing them and could world. The master admitted, “I really would not.”
understand its meaning. He had an outstanding Then he withdrew into an idle house, and remained
memory and everything needed to be told to him inside for many days. Later the disciple broke in
only once. Due to his extraordinary talent and to watch, and he left like a cicada sloughing off its
quick comprehension, he could not only understand skin. Another legend comes from Xuanzang. It says
Brahminical classics but knew everything of the that Nāgārjuna was good at making the medicine of
world’s knowledge and skills such as astronomy immortality. Emperor Satavahana of South Kosala

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got his miraculous medicine and lived a life for a Sutra (Buddhavatausakamahavaipulyasatra). It even
few hundred years. The prince could not inherit touched upon the thoughts of Hindu Vaishesika. It is
the throne, so he was very anxious and resorted nothing short of the then encyclopaedia of Buddhism
to his mother. His mother said that Nāgārjuna was and provides important information for present-day
compassionate and had nothing that could not be study on Mahayana Buddhism and ancient Indian
handed out so he might as well beg him for his head culture. The treatise is long. Considering the fact
to cut off the source of his father king’s medicine. that the Chinese language advocated concision,
The prince went to the temple where Nāgārjuna Kumārajīva cut the length and made it brief and did
lived and told some Jakata stories about the not translate all of the originals. But according to a
Buddha who gave up his life first. And then he said recent study, the Chinese translation contains most
he needed a head which could not be recruited and of the content of the original sutra.
nor be obtained by killing the innocent. Therefore, Daśabhūmika-vibhāṣā-śāstra, also known as
he came to beg. Nāgārjuna cut his throat with dry Ten Abidings Sutra, 17 volumes, was recited by
grass leaves and presented his head. After hearing Buddhayasas in late Qin Buddha and translated by
the news, the king died as expected. The two Kumārajīva. The sutra was the annotation of The
stories both showed that Nāgārjuna died of suicide Ten Grounds of Avatamsaka Sutra (Kumārajīva called
and Dakshinapatha at that time was in the era of “ten grounds” as “ten abidings’), but did not give
very intense religious and political struggles. After the explanatory note on the whole article, but only
Nāgārjuna died, countries in Dakshinapatha built on the first ground (“joy ground”) and half of the
temples for him and worshipped him as a Buddha. second ground (“immaculate ground”). It’s said that
the rest of text was left out as it was not recited
Important works and his Chinese by Buddhayasas. The structure of the book was
translations chequered with verse and prose, briefly introducing
By the active carrying forward of the Svabhāva ūnya the scripture meaning first, and extended and
theory of Mahayana Prajna, Nāgārjuna became commented on it later. The content of this sutra is
a landmark character in the history of thought of of some importance in understanding the thoughts
Mahayana Buddhism. He had plentiful work, and was of Nāgārjuna.
nicknamed “Lord of Thousand Theories”. About 20 Bodhi Sambhara Treatise (Pu Ti Zi Liang Lun,
books of these works have been retained in Chinese six volumes) was translated by Dharmagupta in
translations, and 118 in Tibetan translations. The Sui Dynasty. The book was originally written by
most important Chinese translations are as follows: Nāgārjuna in verse with his own notes. But the
100 volumes of Great Treatise on the Perfection of notes have been lost and now there are only brief
Wisdom (Mahāprajnāpāramitāśāstra), translated by notes written by monk Ishvara. Sambhara means
Kumārajīva, was written for the interpretation of qualifications, or in particular, the qualifications
Mahàpraj¤àparamitàsåtra, the classic with the greatest required for believers to achieve Bodhi. Nāgārjuna
length at that time and had a great influence on the took Prajnaparamita as the initial qualification,
later development of Mahayana Buddhism, so it is followed in order by Sila, Ksanti, Virya, Dhyana,
called the “Treatise of the Treatises”. The treatise is Upaya, Vow, Bala, Prajna, as well as Metta, Karuna,
widely involved in doctrines, canons, cases, history, Joy and Renunciation etc. The book is very helpful
geography and legends and refers to numerous in studying Bodhicitta and Bodhi Sambhara.
classical sutras, such as the classics and treatises of Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, also known as The
primitive Buddhism and Sectarian Buddhism, among Treatise on the Middle Way, 4 volumes and 27
which there were Saddharmapuõóarãkasåtra of sections, were translated by Kumàrajãva. The
early Mahayana Buddhism classics and Avatamsaka translated version included the Nāgārjuna’s 446
original verses and the brief notes by Aoki. This
is a work on debate, aimed to refute Theravada
Buddhism and other schools and to propose
his own assertion. The thoughts expressed in
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā had great influence on
the later Mahayana Buddhism. It was old that
after the Treatise was published more than 70
people wrote brief notes about it which showed
the heat of the study then. Among these people
the more renowned were Bhavavivek, author of
Praj¤àpradãpa÷àstrakarika, 15 volumes (translated
by Prabhāmitra in Tang Dynasty); Sthiramati, author
Nāgārjuna of Måla-madhyamaka-sandhi-nirmocana-vyàkhyà, 18

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and the corresponding refutation by Nāgārjuna.

In the process of disproving the other’s point of
view, Nāgārjuna illustrated the basis on which
the aforementioned theory was established and
effectively promoted and spread the Mahayana
viewpoints. Nyāya was an expert in epistemology
and logic and the analysing and enquiring methods
used by Nāgārjuna here to refute the opponent in
the debate also provided valuable information for
the study of the primitive logic study in India. This
book also has the Tibetan translation.
Ratnāvalī, one volume and five sections, was
translated into Chinese by Paramàrtha in Chen
Dynasty. This book focussed on the sermon for
the rulers which can be seen as a political writing.
The book described the Buddhist world view,
emphasised on the theory of samsāra and karma
Mādyamika Śāstra and the doctrine of pratītya-samutpāda and listed
good and evil deeds to advice the good and give
volumes (translated by Wei Jing and Dharmarksa commandment to the evil. It pointed out that the
in Song Dynasty); Asaïga, author of Shun Zhong Lun king wanted to create a great career with his own
(translated by Prajnaruci in North Wei Dynasty), good deeds and at the same time he built temple
etc. After the inheritance of several generations of towers and Buddha statues to contribute to society.
the Middle Way philosophy, a sectarian of Buddhism The book has a detailed explanation on the king’s
was formed in India - Madhyamika. The theory also way and the path of dharma practice. Most of
had far-reaching influence in China. Sengzhao, a the aforementioned Chinese translations have no
disciple of Kumārajīva, wrote Bu Zhen Kong Lun and Sanskrit versions any more.
other thesis. After that, Ji Zang wrote Zhong Guan
Lun Shu to further extend the theory and on the Religious Philosophy and Theory
basis of the works of Śataśāstra and Dvādashanikāya- Nāgārjuna believed that the ultimate reality of
śāstra, established the Sanlun school. The theory is the universe was śūnyatā (“emptiness”), ie “not
also popular in the Tibetan region. Gen Ben Zhong being, not non-being, not being and non-being, not
Lun Zhu written by Buddhapālita has a Tibetan no being or non-being”. Everything in the world,
translated version. Tsongkhapa also wrote Zhong including the Buddha, was in a kind of a relative,
Lun Guang Shi and systematically elaborated the interdependent relationship ie hetupratyaya. The
fundamental insights of the Middle Way philosophy. seeming existence was but a borrowed concept,
Dvādashanikāya-śāstra with a total of 26 ie praj¤apti. It had no independent entity in
verses in the book was translated into Chinese itself, ie anātman (“no-self”). He summed up this
by Kumārajīva. The book provided an outline thought in the 18th verse of the 24th section
for Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, setting up 12 doors catvāri āryasatyāni of Mūlamadhyamaka-kārikā: yaþ
to explain the fundamental truth of it, refuted pratãtyasamutpàdaþ ÷ånyatàü tàü pracakùmahe,
Theravada prejudices and expressed the Mahayana sà praj¤aptirupàdàya pratipatsaiva madhyamà. For
emptiness theory which can be regarded as an this verse, Kumārajīva translated it: “For all the
introductory book to Mūlamadhyamakakārikā.
The important comments written by Han monks
for it were Notes for Dvādashanikāya-śāstra, three
volumes (or six volumes), by Ji Zang of Sui Dynasty,
keynotes of and comments on Dvādashanikāya-
śāstra, two volumes, by Fa Zang in Tang
Dynasty, etc.
Vigraha-vyàvartanã, one volume and 72 verses
with the author’s notes were translated into Chinese
by Vimokùasena and Praj¤ànaruci in the Late Wei
Dynasty. The book on the debate aimed to criticise
Hindu Nyāya theory. The content comprises two
parts: the questioning by Nyāya of the Mahayana
doctrine of “everything is empty and non-self” Mahāprajnāpāramitā Śāstra

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hetupratyaya, I say it is empty (or non-existent);

it is also praj¤apti and it is middle way.” This
is the famous “three is verse”. It suggests that
the key to understand “dependent origination”
(pratityasamutpada), the fundamental principle of
Buddhism, is to know the empty nature and false
existence at the same time in order to get rid of
the “side opinion” (antaparigrahadçùñi)persisting
to the either side. This is the so-called “middle way
philosophy”. To illustrate the theory of śūnyatā
(“emptiness”), he proposed the two-truths doctrine
and believed that there were two levels of truth
Deva
or reality in Buddhist teaching for people with
different foundations: to teach the conventional
or common reality (saüvçtisatya) for ignorant Life Story
ordinary people, saying “everything (including the According to the biography of Bodhisattva
world and the living beings, etc.) exists”; to teach Deva, Deva was born in a Brahmin family in
the ultimate or real reality (paramàrthasatya) for Dakshinapatha. However, Xuanzang’s Great Tang
the saints who could understand the truth, saying Records on the Western Regions claimed that Deva
“everything doesn’t exist”. This is a “common was from Simhala (present-day Sri Lanka). Legend
existence” and “ultimate non-existence”. In order has it that he was knowledgeable, eloquent and
to discuss the non-authenticity of the world, he put often regretted that people in the world were not
forward the theory of “eight no’s”, ie the no birth able to believe and make use of his words. As for
and no vanishing in terms of entity; no continuity his loss of an eye, the story says that he once took
and no interruption in terms of time; no uniformity out the glass eyeball of a Siva statue in a temple
and no difference in terms of space; and no coming because he thought that the Siva God was flashing
and no going in terms of movement. He thought his glass eyes to confuse people. However, one
that by denying the eight categories, he could day when he prepared exquisite dishes and went
prove the relative reality of the objective world to the temple to worship, the statue demanded
and subjective understanding, which showed him to make his own eye as an offering instead.
the truth of the absolute reality or emptiness. Deva immediately plucked out the left eyeball and
As in the meaning of “emptiness”, the wide gap as a reward Siva promised to make all his words
between the real world and the world on the other came true and that he was to be worshiped by
side no longer existed, the world and nirvana people. As expected, his wishes were fulfilled. He
has no difference in between. Thus, as long as met Nāgārjuna, became a monk and then traveled
people eliminated ignorance, and denied the just around various places to publicise the doctrine of
relatively existing world, people entered nirvana. Madhyamaka. According to Xuanzang’s record,
This nirvana concept is clearly different from the Hinduism was prosperous then in Pātliputra of
nirvana signaled by vanishing and death in early Uttarapatha (present-day Patna, Bihar) while
Buddhism. In terms of inheritance, Nāgārjuna Buddhism was in the decline and the Buddhist
was the second generation disciple of Aśvaghośa monks would be defeated whenever there was a
(Maming), the ancient Indian Mahayana Buddhism debate, resulting in a ruling to their insult that for
theorist and poet. Among his own disciples, Deva 12 years Buddhists were not allowed to knock the
was the most famous. The writings of Nāgārjuna ghanțā (the likes of bell, inverted bell) to convene
and Deva, after being introduced and translated by the followers. After hearing this, Deva voluntarily
Kumārajīva in the 5th century, had a great influence went to restore the reputation. Worried about
on Chinese Buddhism and were commonly praised his lack of scholastic ability, Nāgārjuna himself
and worshipped by Sanlun, Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, acted as a heretic monk and debated with Deva
and other schools. who exhausted Nāgārjuna’s arguments seven days
(Ge Weijun) later and thus was able to go. He disguised himself
and sneaked into the city, spent the night near
Deva the ghaõñà stage. He slammed the ghaņțā the next
Deva [Tipo] (c. 3 CE) was a disciple of Nāgārjuna. morning and carried on a heated debate with the
Also known as Āryadeva, he was an important heretics in front of the King. He finally won with
representative of Mahayana Madhyamika.  He was his eloquence. Xuanzang saw the stupas set up
also named Kàõadeva (meaning one-eyed devas) due for the commemoration of this debate when his
to his loss of an eye. visited the city.

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Deva later went to Dakshinapatha  to preach, regard to the form as well as to the content”. After
alleging that Buddha was the holist in all the saints, the Chinese translation came out, there have been
Buddhism in all dharmas and Buddhist monk in all much exegesis done by Chinese monks and the most
saviours. Deva also established  an altar  to debate well-known is Notes on Śata-śāstra by Jizang.
with  heretics from all over. It is said that among Catuþ÷ataka÷àstrakàrikà contained 400 odes,
the Brahmans who came to debate with him, those divided into 16 sections. There is a complete Tibetan
who were shallow would be defeated by one word translation of it while Chinese language version
of him and those who were intelligent would also be Guang Bai Lun Ben is of 200 odes of the last eight
defeated in two days at the most. As a result, they sections, translated by Xuanzang. The book was also
converted to Buddhism one after another and there aimed at denouncing the doctrine of heretics. There
were so many of them that the 10 cars of mantle are claims that it was roughly based on Śataśāstra (to
and alms bowl sent by the royal house were not the contrary to  that Śataśāstra is the synopsis of the
enough. However, a heretic  disciple  was ashamed book).
of the  defeat  and vowed  to kill Deva. One day Originally, the first eight sections were statements
when Deva was taking a walk after his meditation, which were the major theory of Mahayana
the heretic disciple came to him and said, “You have Madhyamika, asserting the necessity of withdrawing
broken my master with your mouth, now I will break from the earthly delusion of Nitya-Sukha-Atma-
your belly with a knife!” Deva was fearless while Subha; the other eight sections were the thesis,
facing the assassin and even instructed the latter aiming at denouncing the heretics theories and
to escape before his own death. He told the  grief- promoting Mahayana Nāgārjuna “emptiness” of all
stricken followers that what the assailant killed was phenomena and “self-less”. As for the atthakatha of
not his flesh but his sin. the book, there is Dharmapāla’s Interpretation of
Guang Bai Lun Shi Lun, which contains 10 volumes
Important works and their Chinese and was translated by Xuanzang. In the early 20th
translations century, the Sanskrit fragments of the Catuþ÷ataka
Deva inherited Nāgārjuna’s Mahayana view and had were unearthed and various researches and scholars
written a lot of books but only very few of them from different countries have been publishing their
have been handed down. They are: researches since. 
Śata÷àstra was of two volumes. There have Akùara÷ataka was short, containing only one
been two translations both of which were translated volume. It was translated by Bodhiruci of Northern
by Kumarajiva, firstly in 402 CE and prefaced by Wei Dynasty. The book consisted of long verses
Monk Rui. At that time, Kumarajiva had not been in and gatha, with the latter as the thesis and the
China for long and did not know Chinese very well, former as the comments. Again, it was to refute the
so the translation was far from fair. Two years later, Hinduist  philosophical theories such as Sāmkhya
he re-retranslated it and Monk Zhao  prefaced it. and Vaiśeśika. It first presented the heretics’ views
Originally, the book had 20 sections and each section and then put forward its own views to refute the
contained five gathas but the translator considered former’s ideas and stated such doctrines as not-
the last 10 sections not practical locally and left the-same and not-the-different, not-being and
them untranslated. The translated version includes not-no-being and emptiness of all phenomena. In
Vasubandhu’s notes and used sūtra to indicate the the Chinese translation, “Sengqu” and “Pishe” are
original scripture. The meaning of the very brief respectively the transliteration of Sāmkhya and
scripture must depend on the notes. Monk Zhao Vaiśeśika. Akṣaraśataka might be a brief book,
claimed that “heretics was flourishing and messing yet it touched upon all the important theories of
up the right way” at that time of India. Therefore the Mahayana Madhyamika and thus can be used as
purpose of the book was to denounce the then so- an introduction to the theory. The book also has a
called heretics, Hindu philosophy such as the ideas Tibetan translation.
of Sāņkhya and Vaiśeśika, so as to  maintain the  (Ge Weijun)
religious status of Buddhism. Deva’s argumentation
was based on Nāgārjuna's  theory of “empitiness” Dharmakala
and “self-less”. He first presented the heretics’ views Dharmakāla [Tankejialuo] (Tanmojialuo in Chinese
and then put forward his own views to refute the or Fashi in free translation) (c. 3rd century) was a
former’s ideas. In the preface, Monk Zhao  highly Buddhist monk and translator who came to China
praised the book, claiming that “It makes access during Three Kingdoms Period.
to sacred heart and inspires paramatha” and According to Biographies of Eminent Monks,
it had played an important role in the development Dharmakāla was born in a rich family in Central
of Buddhism in India. Kumarajiva’s translation was India. He was extremely bright since his childhood
evaluated as “refined  and accurate, paying due and was nimble savvy. He could understand the

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general meaning of a passage only after reading it

once. He once devoted himself to studying four Vedas,
aiming at obtaining the wisdom of Brahmanism. In
addition, he was proficient in astrology, prophecy
and other Taoist magic arts. He once said he had
filled himself with all the knowledge of the world.
When he was 25, he saw the Abhidharmahçdaya-
ֈstra written by Dharmottara in a Buddhist
temple by chance, only to find that he could not
understand it at all after browsing. After thinking A mural depicting the disciples of the Buddha at the
repeatedly, he got more confused. With the help of Kizil Grottoes, Baicheng County, Xianjiang, China

a Buddhist monk, he got to know that Buddhism is

more profound than he thought so he determined arrival date. The King of Kucha went out the
to abandon the wealth in the world and become suburbs to welcome him personally, invited him to
a monk to learn Buddhism. He recited Mahayana the palace and graciously supported him. However,
and Hinayana scriptures, as well as all kinds of Dharmamitra did not have lots of demands for
vinayapitaka. During the year of Jiaping (249- treatment. A few years later, Dharmamitra thought
253), he travelled to Luoyang and discovered that of leaving and the king and his monarchs tried to
Buddhism was popular there but without strict rules persuade him to stay but could not change his mind.
and pure atmosphere. In the second year of Jiaping Then he travelled through the desert and reached
(250), he was invited by other monks to translate Dunhuang. There, he established the monastery in
the disciplines. He thought that the dharma and the open area, planted 1,000 of malus spectabilis,
the Vinaya was very complicated, which cannot be reclaimed 100 acres of garden, the house, attic and
applied where Buddhism is not mature. Therefore, pond which were clean and tidy. Soon, he moved
he only translated an abstract edition, “Wariness of further to east and arrived in Liang Zhou (present-
Monks”, at White Horse Temple which is extracted day the area west of the Yellow River in Gansu, the
from the general disciplines for general use. What’s local government was located in Guzang, ie present-
more, he also called in some Indian Buddhists to day Wuwei) where he repaired the old temples and
tonsure for Chinese Buddhists. Afterwards, the preached Chan. In the first year of Yuanjia (424
Buddhist disciplines were brought to China. CE) of Song Dynasty, he tumbled and moved into
(Ge Weijun) Sichuan and then got out from the three gorges and
arrived in Jingzhou, lived in Changsha Temple. It
Dharmamitra was said that he got the Buddha relic in this temple.
Dharmamitra [Tanmomiduo] (356 ~ 442 CE), He then continued to travel along the Yangtze River
paraphrased as Elegant Buddhist Doctrine, was a down to the East and reached the capital city of
Buddhist translator and came to China during the Jiankang (present-day Nanjing). At first he lived
Northern and Southern Dynasty. in Zhongxing Temple, later moved to Zhi Huan
According to Biographies of Eminent Monks and Temple. Both the Queen and the Prince followed
other records, Dharmamitra was born in Kashmir him and requested for “disciplines” (vinaya).
and had shown a religious tendency even in his The monk and the public often greeted with each
childhood. Whenever there were ceremonies, he other. In the temple, Dharmamitra taught the deep
would be exulted. His parents felt it unusual and meditation, many learners came to listen after
sent him to be a monk when he was seven years travelling long distances. People called him "Great
old. In Kashmir, there were many sages and masters. Chan Master." He translated one volume of each of
Under the guidance of Bhadanta, the famous monk, Five Temptation Methods, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva
Dharmamitra extensively read all scriptures but his Behavior Sutra, Observing Ākāśagarbha Sutra, etc.
mastery was in Chan. After gaining adulthood, he Meng Yi, the prefecture chief of Kuaiji (present-day
appeared to be more profound, calm and strictly Shaoxing, Zhejiang) deeply believed in Dharma and
kept precepts. Because of his two eyebrows joined invited him to travel south to Mao County (belonged
together, he was also called "Jointed eye-brown Chan to Kuaiji). Since his arrival the local sorcery reduced
master”. He naturally preferred to travel from place and Buddhist followers increased. Dharmamitra
to place and took to spreading Buddha dharma as returned to Jiankang in the 10th year of Yuanjia,
his mission. After travelling to several of countries, lived in the Zhongshan Dinglin Lower Temple. In
he arrived in Kucha (now Kuqa in Xinjiang). There the 12th year, he chose a place in the location of
was a legend saying that the King of Kucha had a lofty mountains and built another temple, named
prophetic dream that there would be a blessed Dinglin Upper Temple. The scholars and common
and virtuous man coming, then on Dharmamitra’s people near or far generously donated for this

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temple building. After completing the temple there classmate Sangha Daduo. The Chinese monk Zhi
were flocks of people coming to pay respect. In July Yan was then also in Kasmira, extensively soliciting
of the 19th year (442 CE) of Yuanjia, Dharmamitra those having the ability to preach in the east. The
died at the age of 87 in the monastery. He was locals unanimously recommended Buddhabhadra to
buried in front of Songxi Temple in Zhong Shan. him. Buddhabhadra generously accepted Zhi Yan’s
His entire life was devoted to promoting Buddhism earnest invitation. They first travelled by land and
meditation and had many disciples. The scriptures then continued by sea to finally arrive onshore in
he translated also include one volume of each of Donglai District of Qingzhou (present-day Laizhou,
Ākāśagarbha-bodhisattva-sūtra, Changing the Female Shandong) after a three-year trip. At that time,
Body Sutra, Buddha Elephant Auxiliary Sutra, Buddha Kumārajīva was in Chang'an. They immediately
Dharma Brave King Sutra, etc. According to statistics, went off on a journey to pay him a visit. Reaching
there were a total of 12 books and 17 volumes. there in the 10th year (408 CE) of Hongshi of the
(Ge Weijun) later Qin Dynasty, he lived in Zhugong Temple
(also called Qi Gong Temple). The prince Yao Hong
Buddhabhadra invited him to give a public speech on dharma in
Monk Buddhabhadra (359-429 CE) came to his palace. He also frequently visited Kumārajīva
China during the East Jin Dynasty. He was a to discuss the doctrines of formless, vain etc. If
famous Buddhist translator. His name was also Kumārajīva had any doubts, he also consulted with
transliterated as Fotuobatuoluo and in short was him to resolve them. But their happy meetings did
called Fotuobatuo which could be paraphrased as not not last for very long. Due to their different
Virtue Consciousness or Buddha Consciousness. study styles and learning from different teachers,
According to Biographies of Eminent Monks, estrangement gradually developed between them.
Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures Published in Buddhabhadra was a person without desire and
Successive Dynasties and other documents, enjoyed quiet surroundings. He abhorred pompous
Buddhabhadra was the descendant of Amçtodana and prosperous show. When he preached the Chan
of øàkya in Kapilavastu (in Nepal) in Uttarapatha. philosophy in Chang’an, many people came to
His grandfather Fatian was engaged in business in listen him after getting the news. But the crowd
northern India and the whole family moved out of listeners did not behave according to what had
along with him. He lost his father at the age of three been taught. Buddhabhadra also failed to check
carefully, resulting in damages to his reputation by
sly people who spread rumours about an impending
disaster. The audience then scattered like stars in
the sky. Buddabhadra himself did not mind it but
in the 13th year of Hongshi, there were still monks
like Dao Heng, etc. who following Kumārajīva
argued that Buddhabhadra had made predictions
which broke the rule of precept and drove him
out of Chang'an. Buddhabhadra then claimed that
"body is like the floating duckweed, it is easy to
stay or leave." The only regret was that he did not
finish his preaching. When Buddhabhadra with a
calm mind and quiet demeanor left with his 40 or
so disciples, more than a thousand monks came to
see off. Finding this, Yao Xing, the King of Later
Buddhabhadra Qin Dynasty, issued an emergency writ and sent
messengers to persuade him to stay. Buddhabhadra
and mother at five. He was then brought up by his had, however, firmly decided to leave and moved
grandmother. Buddhabhadra’s grandfather was directly to the Lushan Mountain.
aware of his loneliness and intelligence so he brought Huiyuan, the eminent monk residing in Lushan
him back and trained him to become a monk. By Mountain, had admired Buddhabhadra for a long
the time he was 17-years-old, Buddhabhadra had time. He entertained Buddhabhadra hospitably
become focussed on studies. He could finish it in and regarded him as an old friend. He also sent
one day what his classmates learned in one month. a letter to Yao Xing and monks in Chang’an
After receiving commandments, Buddhabhadra defending Buddhabhadra and explaining the
worked harder and soon he had a deep knowledge misunderstandings. Here, Buddhabhadra translated
of a variety of classics especially in meditation and two volumes of Dharmatara-dhyàna-såtra which
precepts. He often travelled to Kashmir with his were the monograph for meditation for Hui Yuan

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which greatly helped his practice. Buddhabhadra (some say 15) and 113 volumes in all. He died at
had ambition of travelling to preach without seeking the age of 71 years in the sixth year of Yuanjia of
any kind of protection. After staying in Lushan Song Dynasty.
Mountains nearly for a year he went to Jiangling. The (Ge Weijun)
local scholars and common people welcomed him
out of the city, and competed to offer him precious Gunavarman
gifts. He however, did not accept anything, but only Guņavarman [Qiunabamo] (367-431 CE)
walked along the street holding the alms-bowl and paraphrased as merit armour was a Buddhist
receiving alms from everyone whether wealthy translator who came to China during the Southern
or poor. Everywhere, he ate the food received by and Northern Dynasty.
begging. The supreme government official, Liu Yu, According to records in Biographies of Eminent
respected him much. The following year, under the Monks, Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures Published
invitation of Liu Yu, he went to Jingdu (present-day in Successive Dynasties and other documents,
Nanjing) lived in Daochang Temple and continued Guņavarman was born in Kashmir in Kshatriya caste
to preach mediation practices. With a simple, whose previous generations were all kings. But his
elegant bearing and manner, he won the admiration grandfather lost the position due to his inflexible
from the local people. During the same year, Faxian personality and his father lived in seclusion inside
also returned with Buddhist Scriptures in Sanskrit the mountains. When Guņavarman was only
after his pilgrimage in India. He cooperated with 14-years-old, he had already demonstrated the
Buddhabhadra in translation work from the 12th tendency of admiring virtues and loving all beings.
year till 14th year (416-418 CE) of Yixi of Eastern His behaviour was clever and resourceful, also with
Jin Dynasty. There, they successively published six profound insight. He once advised his mother not to
volumes of Mahàparinirvàõa-såtra and 40 volumes kill. Guņavarman became a monk at the age of 20,
of Mahàsaïgha-vinaya, one volume of Mahàsaïgha- he soon came to have a clear knowledge about nine
vinaya Precepts for Monks, one volume of Mahàsaïgha- Buddhist Scriptures and four âgama and in addition
vinaya Precepts for Nuns and one volume of Buddha’s to being able to chant more than a million words
Miscellaneous Sutras and so on. Before that, Śramana of scriptures, he also had a profound understanding
Zhi Faling had also found out in Khotan (present-day of the discipline and deep meditation, people
Hotan) the remaining 36,000 verses of Avatamsaka at that time called him Tripitaka Master. When
Sutra in Sanskrit version. In the 14th year of Yixi Guņavarman was 30, the King of Kasmira died
(418 CE) on the request of Meng Yi, the history with nobody to succeed to the throne. The nation
officer of internal Wu District and Chu Shudu, the unanimously expressed their expectation for inviting
right sub-general, Śramana Buddhabhadra with the Guņavarman, the man with virtue and talents to
assistance of Fa Ye, Hui Yan and about hundred resume a secular life and be throned. However
people undertook the task of translation of the despite the ministers urging him again and again,
Sanskrit version. He opened a translation centre Guņavarman refused firmly. Instead, he travelled to
in the Daochang Temple and spent three years wild areas and mountains, lived in the forest, drank
in completing the translation of this scripture. from rivers and withdrew from society. Later, he
That is now the 60 volumes of Buddhàvataüsaka- went to Siühala present-day Sri Lanka, travelled
mahàvaipulya-såtra inside of which there is a and preached Buddhist scriptures. It was said that
translation of "Ten Grounds Goodness" and other all those who had seen Guņavarman respected him
translations completely followed the translation of
Da÷a abhåmika-såtra of Kumārajīva. This scripture
played a vital role in the later development of
Buddhism in China. Later generations praised the
translation of this scripture as "Ingeniously Grasping
the Soul Meaning of the Scripture”. The place
where the translation was done was also changed
with a name as "Huayan Temple" to commemorate
it. The other existing translation works done by
Buddhabhadra also include 10 volumes of Buddha-
dhyāna-samādhisāgara-såtra one volume of Manjusri
Vow Scripture, one volume of Tathàgatagarbha-
såtra, and two volumes of Dharmatara-dhyàna-såtra,
one volume of Anantamukhasādhakadhāraṇī(sūtra),
and so on. According to statistics, during his entire
life Buddhabhadra translated 12 Buddhist scriptures Entrance of the Donglin Temple, Mount Lu, Jiangxi, China

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deeply and their faith grew inside their hearts. frequently came to consult him. Soon, he preached
Later, he arrived in Java Country (present-day in the temple of the Saddharmapuõóarãkasåtra
Java Island of Indonesia), the queen mother of and Da÷abhåmika-såtra. On the first day of the
the country followed him and was ordained with lecture, monks and the public came from all over.
the Five Precepts, and she requested the king to The temple was over-crowded. Later as invited by
be ordained as well. Later, when the neighbouring Hui Yi, Guņavarman organised a translation field,
country invaded, the king feared injuring creatures and translated 28 items of Bodhisattva Kusala Sila
and also feared his country would be destroyed Sutra; later his disciples added for him another two
and then the king came to consult Guņavarman. items, with 30 items in total. In the third year of
Guņavarman suggested if the country was invaded Yuanjia, the provincial governor Wang Zhongde of
and humiliated by a violent enemy, it should raise Xuzhou once had asked Sramana Isvara from the
an army to defend itself, but compassion must Western Regions to translate Saüyuktàbhidharma-
be kept in mind. When the neighbouring enemy hçdaya-s àstra, but the translation was stopped at
retreated, Guņavarman gained national respect and the 10th item of "Choice" for some reason. Later,
admiration, and Buddhism became popular among he invited Guņavarman to translate the remainder
the nationals. The neighbouring country also heard and revise accordingly, and there were 13 volumes
of Guņavarman’s fame and sent messengers many translated. Unfortunately, the book was later lost.
times to invite him. Bhadanta Hui Guang, Hui Currently there are 11 volumes existing translated
Cong and others in the capital of the Southern by Saïghavarman and others in the 12th year of
Song Dynasty also heard of his name, in the Yuanjia. In the afternoon of September 28th of the
first year (424 CE) of Yuanjia of Song Dynasty, eighth year of Yuanjia, Guņavarman returned to
they interviewed Emperor Wen for inviting and his residence before he finished lunch. His disciples
welcoming Guņavarman. Then Emperor Wen arrived later but found him already dead with a
issued an imperial order to the provincial governor calm expression on his face. It seemed he fell into
of Jiaozhou (present-day Guangdong, Guangxi and a state of tranquility in meditation. He was 65
northern Vietnam) to invite him by ship. Hui Guan when he died. Later, he was cremated in front of
also sent Sramana Fa Zhang and Dao Chong to Nanlin monks' altar in accordance with the rules of
beseech him. However, before that, Guņavarman Buddhism and was buried in the White Tower built
had left Java and went to a small country along with on the spot. His translated scriptures also include
a merchant ship. Unexpectedly, the force of winds one volume of each of Longshu pusa wei chan tuo
changed and they arrived in Guangzhou. Emperor jia wang shuo fa yao ji (The Bodhisattava Nāgārjuna
Wen got to know of this and issued an imperial Preaches to King Chandaka), Dharmagupta
order requiring all the states and counties to offer Bhiksuni Karman, Upali Enquires the Buddhist
funds for a smooth trip for Guņavarman to the Scriptures, The Dignity of a Novice, Buddhas Five
capital (Jiankang, now Nanjing). On the way to the Precepts for Upasaka, Sutra on the Internal Rules
north, Guņavarman stayed in Shixing (present-day of a Bodhisattava, Sutra on the Dignity of the Five
Shaoguan, Guangdong) about one year. There was Rules of a Devotee and so on. There are statistics
Hushi Mountain with a towering and isolated peak. that show that there were 10 works and 18 volumes
According to the mountain’s shape, Guņavarman translated by Guņavarman in all.
renamed it Lingjiu Mountain imitating the Indian (Ge Weijun)
Buddhist shrine places’ name. Since then the former
dangers caused by tigers immediately disappeared, Dharmaraksa
the safety of transportation and travelling was Dharmarakùa or Dharmakùama [Tanwuchen] (385
guaranteed. In the first lunar month of the eighth ~ 433 CE), Buddhist translator, came to China from
year (431 CE) of Yuanjia, Guņavarman reached the India during the Northern Liang period and his name
capital, Emperor Wen greeted him with open arms was also translated to Tanmochan, Tanwuchan,
and consulted him about becoming a vegetarian, Tanwuluochen and so on.
precept against killing and other issues. About According to the record of Biographies of Eminent
this topic, Guņavarman told the truth that "The Monks, Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures Published
principle is in mind not in something, following in Successive Dynasties and other documents,
the principle is decided by one’s self not by the Dharmaraksa was born in Majjhimdesa and was a
other people”. He also pointed out that if the king Brahmin by caste. When he was six years old, his
could governance so that the people could live in father died. He followed his mother and woven cloth
peace and work happily, which was also vegetarian with her to make a living. His mother saw Śramana
and not killing rather than save a meal or set Bodhidharma Yasa was venerated. She then let her
free captive creatures. Guņavarman lived in Zhi son join him as his disciples. Dharmaraksa was smart
Huan Temple and then the dukes and marquises and studious; he could read the scripture by the age of

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 Cultural Contacts

embellishment and gorgeous, strict wording. He

also translated 30 volumes Mahàvaipulyasaünipàta-
såtra, 10 volumes of Karuõàpuõóarãka-såtra, four
volumes of Suvarõaprabhàsottama-såtra, seven
volumes of Upàsaka ÷ãla-såtra, 10 volumes of
Bodhisattvabhåmi-såtra and Ocean Dragon King Sutra
(now missing) and so on. As the Mahaparinirvana
Sutra was insufficient, Dharmaraksa went back to
look for remaining scriptures. Unexpectedly, his
mother died during this time so he stayed in his
hometown for one year. Dharmaraksa found the
middle part of the scripture in Khotan (present-
day Hotan in Xinjiang) and continued translation
after returning to Guzang. There were 40 volumes
Mahāparinirvāna-sūtra
of translated scriptures. Tuobatao, the monarch
of Northern Wei after knowing Dharmaraksa as an
10 and chant 10,000 words daily. At first, he studied expert of the scriptures, sent messengers to ask for
Hīnayāna, at the same time he also read pañcavidyâ. him. There was some threatening in the message that
Dharmaraksa could speak eloquently and almost if Dharmaraksa would not be sent to him, they would
no one could win over him until later when he was start a war. Mengxun refused, Tuobaotao again
confronted with the white hair meditation master sent a higher official, named Li Shun, to persuade.
and finally lost. Then from the meditation master Mengxun expressed Dharmaraksa was an indoor
he gained the Nibbāna Sutra which was written on teacher and could not be forsaken. He would live
the bark. He was really scared of enlightenment and or die together with Dharmaraksa. The stalemate
converted to believe in Mahayana. When he was continued till the March of the third year (433 CE)
20, he had been able to recite two million words of Yihe in Northern Liang, Dharmaraksa proposed
of the classics of Māhayāna and Hīnayāna. He was to look for Mahaparinirvana Sutra again and wished
also specialised in spells, nine out of 10 times it to go to west. Mengxun was very dissatisfied, then
was efficacious. He once served the king with this sent assassins to kill Dharmaraksa on the way. That
talent and was known as the Curse Master. Later the year he was 49 years old. In April same year, Juqu
treatment from the king was gradually reduced, he Mengxun died of illness. After Mahaparinirvana
resigned and went to Kashmir and carried a number Sutra was translated there were Dao Lang, Zhi Song
of Buddhist scriptures such as 10 volumes (some and others in Liangzhou who added intellectual
said 12 volumes) of first half of Mahàparinirvàõa- commentaries and taught. When the scriptures
såtra and Bodhisattva Precepts ie Bodhisattvabhåmi- were passed down to the south there were Hui Yan,
såtra, Bodhisattva-÷ãla-såtra and so on. However in Hui Guan, Xie Lingyun, etc making revisions and
Kashmir, most people were learning Hīnayāna and spreading. Nibbāna doctrine thus was spread and
did not believe the Mahàparinirvàõa-såtra, then he exerted a significant impact on Chinese Buddhism.
had to go further east and reached Kucha (now Kuqa The people at that time asked Dharmaraksa to be
in Xinjiang ). Later he travelled to Dunhuang (some cautious before translating and asked him to be
said Guzang, that is present-day Wuwei in Gansu), beware of any hidden meaning and also instructed
where he stayed for several years and translated him to do detailed research of the original
one volume of Bodhisattva Precepts. Around the scriptures to keep the soul of the scriptures intact.”
10th year (421 CE) of Xuanshi in Northern Liang, His translated scriptures according to nowadays
Juqu Mengxun, the Hexi King welcomed him into statistics include 11 works and 112 volumes.
Guzang and treated him very well, and asked him (Ge Weijun)
to translate Buddhist scriptures. He did not promise
immediately because he was unfamiliar with the Gunabhadra
local language and also there was no interpreter. Gunabhadra [Qiunabatuoluo] (394-468 CE) was
Three years later when he got familiar with the a monk who came to China in the Southern and
language with the assistance of famous monks Northern Dynasty from India. He was a famous
of Hui Song and Dao Lang, he started translating sutra translator whose name meant the Worthy One
the first part of Mahaparinirvana Sutra. Inside the of Merit and Virtue, and was also called Mahāyāna.
translation field, there were hundreds of monks According to the records of Biographies of Eminent
and common people. Dharmaraksa translated and Monks and A Dictionary of Buddhist Technical Terms
taught at the same time. Descendants evaluated and Their Meaning, etc Gunabhadra grew up in
the translation as to be with wealthy decorative Majjhimdesa (central India) and belonged to the

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Brahmin caste. He learned Panchavidya (five sciences translated two volumes of the Sutra of the Great
of ancient India ie Buddhism, logic, linguistic, Dharma Drum (Mahàbherã-hàraka-parivarta), one
handicrafts and medicine) and was proficient in volume of Saüdhinirmocana-såtra and one volume
astronomy, calendar, medical science, conjuring of Sandhinir Mokchana Sutra in Dong’an Temple.
and so on. He admired Saüyuktàbhidharma-hçdaya- In the 13th year of Yuanjia, He Shangzhi, officer in
ֈstra and after reading it he converted to Buddhism. Danyang Prefecture, became his benefactor and he
Because his family believed in Brahminism for translated ørãmàlà-såtra, which was interpreted by
generations and did not keep contact with Śramana, Bao Yun and written by Hui Guan. In the 23rd year
he had to leave his family and seek his masters and of Yuanjia, he was invited to go with King Nanqiao
friends afar. After receiving complete ordination, he Liu Yixuan who was the governor of Jingzhou and
cultivated himself and quickly became proficient he lived in Xin Temple. He translated one volume
in Tripitaka and became more straightforward of the Sutra of the Epithets of the Eight Buddhas of the
and kinder. Hereafter, he gave up Hinayana and Eastern Quarters (Samghapala was mistaken as the
converted to Mahayana, recited and explained translator of the present text), four volumes of Sutra
sutras and was good at eloquence; meanwhile, he of Past and Present Cause and Effect and four volumes
wandered and propagated principles of Buddhism of Angulimalya Sutra (Aïgulimàlika), etc there. After
and came to the Orient by ship after he arrived in Emperor Xiaowu succeeded to the throne, Yixuan
Simhala (present-day Sri Lanka). In the 12th year of rebelled in the first year of Xiaojian (454 CE), and
Yuanjia of Song of the Southern Dynasty (435 CE), Gunabhadra was involved in the rebellion. The rebel
he arrived in Guangzhou and Emperor Wen of Song was defeated on Liang Mountain consequently, and
assigned envoys to meet him after the local governor the winning governor Wang Xuanmo observed the
previous instruction of Emperor Xiaowu, respected
Gunabhadra as before, and guarded him to return
to the capital in time. It is proved later that he
was irreverent to the rebellion through his letters
between him and Yixuan, so Emperor Xiaowu gave
more special treatment to him. He was respected till
Emperor Ming of Song (reigned from 466-472 CE).
In the first lunar month of the fourth year of Taishi
of Song (468 CE), he felt discomfort, bid farewell
to Emperor Ming, dukes and ministers, and died at
the age of 75. Gunabhadra made great contributions
to internal and external affairs for four dynasties
since Emperor Wen. He received ordination strictly,
ate vegetables for life, and fed birds with leftover
meal in his palms every day. According to the
statistics of Kaiyuan Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures,
he had translated 134 volumes of 52 scriptures,
and there exist about 30 scriptures at present. His
translation style was rigorous and his words were
straightforward and hit original points. Collected
Records Concerning the Tripitaka and Preface to
ørãmàlà-såtra, therefore, aptly mentioned that he
Samyuktagama-sutra, translated by Gunabhadra liked “to translate rigorously after investigating
tones and meanings in detail” and presented “subtle
reported his arrival. When he came to the capital and profound truth in simple words and sentences”.
Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) Emperor Biographies of Eminent Monks claimed that his
Wen of Song ordered the eminent monks including translation “achieved the real meaning through
Hui Yan and Hui Guan to meet him in the New repeated analysis” and he was highly appreciated
Pavillion. They pleasantly talked with one another on the whole.
like old friends with the help of translators. After he (Ge Weijun)
lived in Zhihuan Temple, Emperor Wen met him,
and the erudite scholars, dukes and ministers such as Punyatara
Yan Yanzhi, Liu Yikang and Liu Yixuan etc came to Puõyatàra [Foruoduoluo] (Foruoduoluo or
visit him and respected him as master. Being invited Buruoduoluo in Chinese or Gongdehua in free
by monks, he translated 50 volumes of Miscellaneous translation; unknown-404 CE) was an Indian
Agama (Saņyuktāgama) in Zhihuan Temple and Buddhist monk and a famous translator of Buddhist

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scriptures who came to China during the Southern

and Northern Dynasty (420-589 CE).
According to the Biographies of Eminent Monks,
Puõyatàra was a civilian of Kashmira. He became a
monk when he was very young. He was famous for
his abstinence and strictness. He mastered Tripitaka,
especially Da÷a-bhàõavàra-vinaya and was one of
its founding master patriarchs. The people of that
time all thought that he had reached the spiritual
state of an immortal. During Hong Shi period (399- Saṇghadeva
415 CE) of later Qin Dynasty, he came to central
Shaanxi and Yao Xing treated him as a distinguished (365～384 CE), he came to Chang’an to spread
guest. Kumārajīva admired his strict abidance to the Buddhist doctrine. He taught people patiently
vinaya and respected him very much. Because and tirelessly. In Jianyuan 15th year (379 CE), the
vinaya was unpopular in the territory of Han before, eminent monk Dao An came to Chang’an and was
the people had much expectations from Puõyatàra. much respected by Fujian. He lived in the Wuchong
In October of the sixth year of Hong Shi, Puõyatàra Temple to disseminate the dharma and gathered
accepted the invitation and recited the Sanskrit many monks who came to China like Sengjiatipo,
Da÷a-bhàõavàra-vinaya in Chang’an Central Saïghabåhti, Dharmapriya, Dharmanandi and so on
Temple in the presence of hundreds of Buddhist to translate the Buddhist Scriptures. In Jianyuan
monks from all around and Kumārajīva translated it 19th year (383 CE), Saïghabåhti and Dharmanandi
into Chinese. However, when translated just about translated Abhidharma-mahàvibhàùà-÷àstra and
two-third of the vinaya, Puõyatàra was down with then Sengjiatipo helped them translate Set Theory
an illness and died later. Everybody felt sad and of Shiva Vasumitra Buddha and other Buddhist
regretful. Later, Dharmaruci, who mastered vinaya, Scriptures. But soon after, the rebellion of Murong
came to Chang’an with the Sanskrit version in the Chong erupted and the world was in a mess.
seventh year of Hong Shi (405 CE) and finished the Therefore, the translations are not scrutinised in
translation with Kumārajīva. However, before the detail. Afterwards, when the society was slightly
vinaya was revised and finalised, Kumārajīva died. tranquil, he came to Luoyang with the monk,
In the eighth year of Hong Shi, Vimalàkùa came to Fahe. Over the four or five years, he became more
central Shannxi of China. After Kumārajīva died, proficient in Chinese. He lectured and studied the
he supplemented the translation of Vinaya with a former classics repeatedly and found that there
Foreword in Shijian Temple of Shouchun (present- were many mistakes and losses in the previous
day Shouxian County, Anhui Province) and attached translations. Following the suggestions of Fahe, he
it to the former translation which became the again corrected the scriptures like Abhidharma and
complete Daśa-bhàõavàra-vinaya that we see now. so on. Then, Yaoxing of Qin Dynasty held the power,
(Ge Weijun) and Buddhism became more and more prosperous. At
that time, the eminent monk Huiyuan was collecting
Sanghadeva Buddhist classics in Mount Lu. Accidentally, he met
Sanghadeva [Sengjiatipo] (dates of birth and with Tipo who travelled south and invited him to go
death not known) was a famous Indian monk and to the mountain. In the platform of highest wisdom,
translator who came to China in the Eastern Jin he “held Sanskrit in his hand, announced in Jin
Dynasty. He is also known as Ti He which can be Chinese, got rid of the splendid materials and saved
freely translated into Zhong Tian. the truth and shouldered the righteousness”. In the
According to the Biographies of Eminent Monks, the 16th year of Taiyuan in the Eastern Jin Dynasty
surname of Sengjiatipo was Gautama. He was from (391 CE), he translated Abhidharmahçdaya-÷àstra,
Kashmir, with an open and clear mind and modest Tridharmika-ֈstra and other scriptures. In the first
and courteous behaviours. He was intelligent and year of Long’an in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (379
clever and could see clearly the human feelings and CE), Ti Po came to Jiankang, capital of Jin Dynasty
affairs of human life. He became a monk in his early (present-day Nanjing of Jiangsu Province) and all
years and went afar to a famous teacher to thoroughly the nobilities and celebrities in the court came to
learn the Buddhist Canon. He had proficiency in and listen to his lecture. Wang Xun, Dongting Marquis
deeper comprehension of Abhidharmahrdaya-sastra. firmly believed in the Buddhist doctrines. In his
He also learnt and recited Tridharmika-ֈstra vihara, he broadly recruits students and lectures
frequently, which is considered as a necessary on Abhidharmahçdaya-÷àstra. At that time, all
reading material for understanding Taoism. During famous monks came there to listen to his lectures.
the Fujian Jianyuan years of former Qin Dynasty He was popular among the monks and the following

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students because of his skilled decrees and clear moment. They had the same goal and determined to
interpretations. At that winter, Wang Xun gathered translate øàriputràbhidharma-÷àstra together, just
40 free school Sramanas, with Hui Chi as its head to like old friends. The translation work started from
translate 60 volumes of Madhyamàgama again and the ninth year of Hongshi (407 CE) and ended in the
correct 51 volumes of Ekottaràgama. According to 16th year and the version is still existing. Soon he
the statistics of the descendants, he had translated travelled south to Kangnung, and there he lived in
six scriptures, altogether 148 volumes and Xinsi temple and promoted Buddhism. Both officials
more than million characters. Chu Fo-Nien also and common people, whether they have religious
participated in his translation business. The Zhong, belief or not, would be pleased to listen to him with
Zeng I and two agamas translated and revised by him admiration and respect. He not only communicated
are the complete versions of Hinayana which was with God but was also able to get along well with
introduced into China for the first time, playing an people, so it is generally accepted that he got holy
important role in the history of Buddhist scriptures retribution. However, people never heard of him
translation. Sengjiatipo stayed in China for many after he left China for the Western Regions during
years and had a deep understanding of the Chinese the year of Yuanjia in Southern Dynasties (424
customs. Sengjiatipo was calm, sharp-witted and a ～453 CE).
good orator. He was very famous at that time in the (Ge Weijun)
south region of Yangtze River.
(Ge Weijun) Vimalaksa
Vimalàkùa [Beimoluocha (4th~5th century CE)]
Dharmayasas was a Buddhist who came to China in the Southern
Dharmayasa [Tanmoyeshe] (4th - 5th century CE） and Northern Dynasties (420 – 589 CE). A famous
was a Buddhist monk and translator who came to translator of Buddhist scriptures and a representative
China during the period of East Jin Dynasty. His of vinaya translators in early China, he was also
other names were Faming and Facheng according called as Wugouyan in free translation as well as the
to free translation. “blue eye vinaya master” because of his blue eyes.
According to the Biographies of Eminent Monks, According to the Biographies of Eminent Monks and
Dharmayasa was born in Kashmir. He was intelligent Record Set of Tripitaka, Vimalàkṣa was a Śramana
and fond of studying from a young age and became from Kashmira. He had a calm personality and
more earnest when he grew up. At the age of 14, firm mind. He became a monk, cultivated himself
he formally accepted Puõyatàra as his master. After according to religious doctrines and was famous
gaining adulthood, he became more elegant, with for strict adherence to moral integrity. He once
a superior savvy temperament. Apart from reading widely spread vinaya in Qiuci (present-day Kuqa
Vinaya-sutra extensively, he always thought deeply of Xinjiang). Scholars, including Kumārajīva, all
and conducted self-examination by himself and
he was often alone on his way without fearing
danger. However, in spite of his long-term showing
repentance, he failed to reach the spiritual state
of an immortal when he was 30 which made him
extremely distressed. It is said that at this moment,
the guidance of Bocha King made him understand
that he should not be content with some small skills,
but should travel around to gain “knowledge”, and
the Tao shall be attained by benefitting mankind
and being kind to everyone. Afterwards, he travelled
to various countries for knowledge, and reached
Guangzhou at the age of 85, during the period of
Long’an in East Jin Dynasty (397～401 CE). Since
he was good at reciting Vibhàùà, local people called Sarvastivada-vinaya
him as “Great Vibhàùà”. There, he explained the
origin of Buddhism and translated øamàsåtra for around competed to be his students. Later, a riot
Zhang Puming, a female believer. At the beginning occurred in Qiuci, so he escaped to another area.
of the year of Yixi in East Jin Dynasty (405～418 Kumārajīva was invited to China by Yao Xing in
CE), he came to Chang’an. At that time, Yao Xing the third year of Hong Shi (401 CE). He actively
of later Qin Dynasty adored Buddhism very much carried forward Buddhism and translated numerous
and showed great respect for him. Indian Buddhist Buddhist scriptures. Knowing this, Vimalākṣa also
Tanmojueduo was also in central Shaanxi at that crossed a broad area of quicksand in order to spread

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vinaya in the eastern country, and arrived in central wasting any time, he became a diligent reader,
Shaanxi of China in the eighth year of Hong Shi focussing on reciting and contemplating deeply
(406 CE). Kumārajīva treated him as a master with about religious doctrine. Later, when he travelled
respect. After Kumārajīva died, Vimalākṣa moved to Schaller (present-day Kashgar), he was asked
to Shijian Temple of Shouchun County (present- by the prince to live in his palace and was offered
day Shou County in Anhui Province) and preached good treatment. Soon Kumārajīva passed by with
vinaya. Puņyatārā and Dharmaruci once successively his mother and learned the Abhidharma Theory
cooperated with Kumārajīva to translate Da÷a- and Da÷a-bhàõavàra-vinaya from him for a year.
bhàõavàra-vinaya. Vimalàkùa brought the scripture Several years later after Kumārajīva returned to
to Shouchun and supplemented the translation of his birthplace in Qiuci (present Kuqa in Xinjiang),
Vinaya by adding a Foreword. Annexing it to all he became famous in the Western Regions and
the former translations, a complete version of the Fu Jian, the Monarch of former Qin Dynasty also
Daśa-bhāņavāra-vinaya was completed. Later, he
went to Xinsi Temple in Jiangling and preached
vinaya, so vinaya became popular. The monk Hui
Yuan requested him to summarise the main ideas
of vinaya and compile them, so two volumes of
Miscellaneous Vinaya were completed. The book
was sent to the capital Jiankang (now Nanjing of
Jiangsu Province) and was widely held in esteem.
Monks and nuns competed to make private copies,
which made paper very expensive for a period of
time. Vimalākṣa died in Shijian Temple of Shouchun
County in the ninth year of Yixi (413 CE) during the
Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420 CE). He was 77. Buddhayaśas preaching Dharma
(Ge Weijun)
had the desire to invite him. In February of the
Buddhayasas 17th year of Jianyuan of former Qin (381 CE), the
Buddhayasas (also known as Fotuoyeshe or Jueming king of Shanshan and Qianbu requested Fu Jian
in free translation) (4th–5th century CE) was an to conduct a western war. Fu Jian then sent Lu
Indian Buddhist monk and translator who came Guang, General of Valiant Cavalry to fight with
to China during Southern and Northern Dynasties. 70,000 soldiers in western countries, including
He is famous as one of the early representative Qiuci and Yanqi in the next September, and invited
translators of Vinayapitaka . Kumārajīva to China before the war. In the 20th
According to books like volume II of Biographies year of Jianyuan (384 CE), Lu Guang controlled
of Eminent Monks and Volume XIV of Compilation of Qiuci and got Kumārajīva. However, it was 20
Notes on the Translation of Tripitaka, Buddhayasas years after staying outside since Kumārajīva was
was born in Kashmir. He was a Brahmin and his welcomed to Chang’an by Yao Xing, the Monarch
family followed Brahmanism for generations. of Later Qin. Yao Xing thought highly of him and
According to a legend, his father suffered from treated him like a national hero. He also devoted
spasms in his hands and feet when he ordered his himself to the translation of Buddhist scriptures.
servant to hit a Buddhist śramana, but recovered When Kumārajīva entered China for the first time,
soon after whole-heartedly apologising to him. he also invited Buddhayasas to be in the Central
Thereupon, his father converted to Buddhism, Plains in Gu Zang (now Wuwei of Gansu Province)
and had Buddhayasas turned into a monk as his to be together. At that time, Buddhayasas was in
disciple. Since Buddhayasas was smarter than Qiuci. Asked to stay by the local people, he was
others, he could recite Mahayana and Hinayana able to leave with his disciples in disguise only after
scriptures at the age of 19. He was however proud a year, but when he reached Gu Zang, Kumārajīva
and insolent with self-approbation, and considered had already been to Chang’an. Kumārajīva then
no one competent enough to match as his master. persuaded Yao Xing to invite Buddhayasas. He
No monk therefore showed respect to him and said while he could recite Buddhist text without
he remained a trainee or novice monk for many knowing its meaning, Buddhayasas could ensure
years. Later, he mastered the Panchvidya which the translation of scriptures without mistakes and
included Śabda-vidyā, Śilpasthāna-vidyā, Cikitsā- omissions, and only such scriptures could enjoy
vidyā, Hetuvidyā and Ādhyatma-vidyā and other the trust of people for thousand years. Then,
magic arts following his uncle, and accepted the Yao Xing sent an ambassador to earnestly invite
Bhiksuni at the age of 27. Afterwards, without Buddhayasas, and when he reached (408 CE),

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Yao Xing personally extended greetings to him. monks followed him to receive ordination, and the
An arrangement was made for his stay in the way of Buddha became popular. Several hundred
courtyard specially built in the Leisurely Garden. monks and nuns followed him successively. From
Before that time, Kumārajīva was planning to the 10th year to 19th year of Yuanjia, he translated
translate Da÷abhåmika-såtra, but after thinking 11 volumes of Saüyuktàbhidharma-hçdaya-sàstra,
carefully, he did not dare start despite having the one volume of ârya-nàgàrjuna-bodhisattva-suhçllekha,
original manuscript in hand, because there was still one volume of Sutra of Differentiating Consequences
difficulty in the translation. After Buddhayasas’ of Evil and Good and 10 volumes of Sarvastivada
participation in the translation work, the translated Vinayamatrka and so on. According to the statistics,
texts were written down only after gaining a he translated 24 volumes of five Buddhist scriptures.
perspicuous principle by repeated discussions, Sanghavarman liked wandering and didn’t want to
and every monk in the translation workshop dwell in a place so he insisted in returning to his
praised their precision and appropriateness. country after the completion of scripture translation
Buddhayasas could recite Dharmagupta-vinaya, although his followers urged him to stay. He
which he was asked to translate. But Yao Xing was returned to his country with merchants from the
worried that he could make mistakes, so he asked Western Regions by ship in the 19th year of Yuanjia.
Buddhayasas to memorise a medical prescription His later whereabouts are unknown.
text of approximately 50,000 words. Two days (Ge Weijun)
later, his excellent memory was recognised
when he recited the text without any mistake. Asanga
During the period from the 12th to 15th year of Asanga [Wuzhu] (c. 4th - 5th century CE) was one
Hong Shi of Later Qin Dynasty (410-413 CE), he of the founders of Indian Mahayana Yogacara
translated the Dharmagupta-vinaya, Buddhist Monk school. The Chinese transliteration for the name is
Pratimoksa of Dharmagupta-vinaya and Dãrghàgama A sengqie.
etc which are translated from Chu Fo-nien into
Chinese, embodying the Buddhism in writing. Life Story
Soon Buddhayasas returned to his own country According to the Biography of Vasubandhu, Wuzhu
and entrusted merchant-travellers to take a volume was born into Brahmin caste in Purusapura of
of Akà÷agarbha-bodhisattva-såtra to the Central northwest India (present-day Peshawar in Pakistan).
Plains after he got it. Buddhayasas was good at His father, Kausika, who had three sons, was then
interpreting Vibhàùà, which is why he was called the state preceptor. Asanga’s brother Vasubandhu
"the Master of Vibhàùà. Since he was the master of was also an important Mahayana Buddhist.
Kumārajīva, he got another title of “Great Master
of Vibhàùà”.
(Ge Weijun)

Sanghavarman
Sanghavarman [Sengjiabamo] (c. 4th or 5th century
CE) was an Indian monk and translator who came to
China in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. His
name meant massive armour and monastic armour.
According to the records of Collected Records
Concerning the Tripitaka and Biographies of Eminent
Monks etc. Samghavarman was an Indian who
became a monk when he was a teenager. He was
simple and received ordination strictly and was
proficient in Tripitaka. He had a good knowledge of
Saüyuktàbhidharma-hçdaya-sàstra. In the 10th year Asaṅga
of Yuanjia of Song Dynasty (433 CE), he crossed
Liusha and arrived in Jiankang (Nanjing, Jiangsu at Asanga was, at first, a Theravada Buddhism
present). Jianye had Pinglu Temple which was built Sarvāstivādin monk and once almost committed
by Xu Sang, who was the officer of Pinglu and offered suicide because he wanted to fathom the meaning of
his houses. The Chinese monk Hui Guan thought emptiness but could not. Later, from the east Videha
that Sanghavarman had pure cultivation and was came an eminent monk Bindusāra who explained
broad-minded and invited him to live in the temple. Theravada concept of emptiness to him. He was
Sanghavarman recited sutras all day and night and enlightened to some extent but was still not satiāfied
was honoured as Tripitaka Master. More and more for he believed that truth was more than that. So he

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went to Tuśita with his extra-sensory ability to learn

about the Mahayana concept of emptiness from
Maitreya Bodhisattva there. Later, he returned and
understood the theory finally after he thoroughly
pondered on it. Some scholars thought Maitreya
Bodhisattva was a real person while others thought
he was probably a Yogācārya before Asanga’s times.
It was said that he had been to consult
Maitreya several times and brought back
Yogàcàrabhåmi ÷àstra, Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra-
kārikā, Madhyàntavibhàgañãkà, etc. with which he
preached and spread the Mahayana yoga method Mahāyāna-samgraha-śāstra
widely. Compared to Madhyamaka worshipped by
Nāgārjuna and Tipo, the school founded by him is Tang Dynasty (three volumes called She Da Cheng
named Dharmalaksana. Lun Ben). Among the above, the last two versions
His brother Vasubandhu, a man of wide learning are popular. The book was to explain the Indian
and a retentive memory, was also a Theravada Abhidharma Mahayana Sutra (had been lost and did
Sarvàstivàdin monk. He knew the doctrines of 18 not spread to China) but Xuanzang believed that it
schools of the Theravada well and was very good at explained Mahàyàna-saüparigraha-varga of the Sutra.
explaining them. He denounced Mahayana as non- It focussed on the theory of Yogacara, discussed
Buddhism and did not believe in it. in detail the validation of vij¤àptimàtratà, the tri-
Knowing Vasubandhu’s wisdom and that this svabhava (parikalpita-svabhàva, paratantra-svabhàva
brother had thorough understanding of both and pariniùpanna-svabhàva), àlayavij¤àna and other
Buddhism and heretics, Asanga feared that he might issues, all of which laid the theoretical foundation of
write books to damage Mahayana so he called his Mahayana Yogacara school.
brother back to Puruśapura from Ayodhya, citing his Just after the coming into being of the book,
own sickness. When Vasubandhu returned, Wuzhu there appeared many notations, such as Mahàyàna-
warned his brother the retribution of slandering the saüparigraha-÷àstra-bhàùya of Vasubandhu and
Mahayana and explained to him the substance of Asvabhāva, developing the original thoughts.
Mahayana. It resulted in Vasubandhu’s giving up Vasubandhu’s work had been translated by
on Theravada and began to learn about Mahayana Paramārtha of Chen Dynasty, Jiduo and Hangju
instead. He regretted for his sin so much that he of Sui Dynasty, and Xuanzang of Tang Dynasty.
even intended to cut his own tongue to show his Asvabhāva’s work was translated only by Xuanzang.
repentance for which Wuzhu responded that a better There were also many notations of the Chinese
repentance would be to use his tongue to propagate version of Essential Theory done by Chinese monks,
Mahayana. Vasubandhu listened to his brother and such as Paramārtha and Huikai’s Notes on Essential
began to preach on Mahayana. Theory, Dao Ji’s Exegesis on Essential Theory, Tan
During his later years, Asanga travelled through Qian’s Explaining the Essential Theory and Kuei-chi’s
Kauśāmbī in Majjhimdesa (present-day northern On the Essential Theory to name just a few. The book
Kosal, Uttar Pradesh) until he died at the age of over was very popular in the Southern and Northern
100 (some say 75). After Asanga died, Vasubandhu Dynasties, becoming the fundamental texts of the
actively continued his brother’s teaching, making She Lun School.
his theory widespread. Prakaraõàryavàcà-÷àstra, also known as
Āryavācāprakaraṇa-śāstra was of 20 volumes,
Important works and Chinese translated by Xuanzang. It was one of the major
translations scriptures of Yogacara, dedicated to explain and
Wuzhu’s writings were many and those that were promote Yogācāra-bhūmi-śāstra. The book employed
translated into Chinese and Tibetan are about 30. the various creeds of Mahayana and Hinayana to
Chinese versions are mainly as follows: illustrate the basic doctrine of vij¤apti-mātratā and
Mahàyàna-saüparigraha-÷àstra: It was also known had always been regarded as an important reference
as Essential Theory because it included the essence book of Yogacara. Since Xuanzang combined the
of all the Mahayana Buddhism. eulogy of this book into one and named it Ode to
The Sanskrit original has been lost and all Prakaraõàryavàcà-÷àstra, the academic world was
together there had been three Chinese translations not sure that the two books were of the same author.
of it, translated respectively by Buddhasanta of One theory was that the Ode was written by Asanga
Northern Wei Dynasty (two volumes), Paramàrtha and the author of Prakaraõàryavàcà-÷àstra was
of Chen Dynasty (three volumes) and Xuanzang of Vasubandhu. It was said that Kuei-chit, Shen-tai of

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Tang Dynasty and Jingxin of Xin Luo (present-day

in Korea Peninsula) had made commentaries on the
book, but all had been lost.
Shun-chung-lun, abbreviation of Primary
Varga of Mahāpraj¤āpāramitā-sūtra of
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, two volumes was an early
work of Asanga and was translated into Chinese
by Gautamapraj¤āruci, who was of Majjhimdesa
origin. The purpose of the book was to elaborate
the “eight negations” (namely no cessation, no
arising, no annihilation, no permanence, not the
same, not the different, no coming and no going)
and the idea of prapanca put forward by Nāgārjuna Vasubandha
in Madhyamikaśāstra and to criticise the mistaken
attachment to vainness and the extremities, so as to first in Nålandå. To acquire deeper knowledge of
persuade people to hold to the “middle way”. Abhidharma he went to Kaßmira, and under the
Mahāyānābhidharma-samuccaya, seven volumes, supervision of Saghabhadra studied VibhåΣå,
translated by Xuanzang, was one of the two books the treatises of 18 schools and six philosophies
that Asanga had written based on Abhidharma-kośa, (›aa∂darßana) of the other philosophers of India.
the other was Mahāyāna-samparigraha-śāstra. This Xuanzang records Manoratha as teacher.
was the only book that was purely of Abhidharma According to Paramartha, Canrdagupta
Mahayana. It contained altogether 1,500 odes and Vikramåditya, a Íå∫khya follower, patronised
was divided into five sets. The contents are divided Vasubandhu. Influenced by him, Candragupta,
into two parts, namely Itivrtaka and final translation his wife, and son Bålåditya, became his disciples.
part, with four chapters, respectively. The Later, when Bålåditya ascended the throne, he
significance of the book was that one can have an invited Vasubandhu to live in Ayodhyå. Residing
overview of the Abhidharma-kośa from the content there, Vasubandhu wrote his most famous treatise
of it. Although Mahāyānābhidharma-samuccaya was Abhidharmakoßa. On the request of VaibhåΣika of
an important book on which Yogacara was based, Kaßm¥ra, he subsequently wrote its commentary
the original and the translation have all been lost. entitled, AbhidharmakoßabhåΣya. The commentary
(Ge Weijun) however turned out to be critical of VaibhåΣikas
as against Sautråntikas. Unhappy by criticism,
Vasubandhu VaibhåΣika teacher Sa∫ghabhadra wrote treatises
Vasubandhu (Shìqin 世親 5th century CE) was a Satyånusåraßåstra (Nyåyånusåraßåstra) and
prominent Buddhist scholar monk who together with Abhidharma-samaya-prd¥pika ßåstra to refute
his brother, Asaga, developed Yogåcåra philosophy the AbhidharmakoßabhåΣya. Sa∫ghabhadra also
in India. His biography was written by Paramårtha, challenged Vasubandhu for a debate but the latter
the eminent Indian scholar and translator. Available refused to take up the challenge.
now only in Chinese, this is entitled Po-sou-pan-dou According to Xuanzang, the original name of
fashijuan (biography of dharma master Vasubandhu). the treatise refuting AbhidharmakoßabhåΣya was
It mentions that he was born at Puruapura (present- koßakarakå ßåstra (Hail the Abhidharmakoßa;
day Peshawar in Pakistan) in a Bråhma family disgracing the name of Abhidharma, koßakarikåßåstra
of the Kausika gotra. He was the middle one of as (Abhidharma)koßakarakåßåstra. After the death
three brothers with Asaga being the elder one and of Sa'ghabhadra, Vasubandhu changed its name to
Virincivatsa being the younger. Tibetan Historian Satyånusåraßåstra (Nyåyånusåraßåstra).
Bu-tson, however, considers Asaga to be the half- Paramårtha also informed that, influenced by
brother of Vasubandhu. his elder brother Asa∫ga, Vasubandhu in his old
Vasubandhu was the disciple of Buddhamitra. It age converted to Mahåyåna Buddhism, in spite,
is noted that once during his absence, a Sånkhya of being a strong critic of that school. But after
teacher, Vindhyavåsi, defeated his teacher in a his conversion, he felt so guilty that he wanted
debate. That angered him so much that he himself to cut his tongue. Asa∫ga advised him to expound
wanted to have a debate with Vindhyavåsi. But, the Mahåyåna instead. Following him, he wrote
meanwhile, Vindhyavasi died. To refute him, he many texts and commentaries on the sutras and
finally composed a treatise name ‘Parmårthasaptati’. texts of Mahåyåna. Lama Taranatha also refers to
According to Tibetan historians Bu-tson and this incident.
Lama Taranath, Vasubandhu was the disciple of Vasubandhu’s convincing victory over Vasuråta, an
Vaibhasika teacher Saghabhadra and was ordained eminent grammarian, in an ideological debate is also

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recorded. He died at the age of 80 in Ayodhya. He is Buddhajiva

known for his progressive thought which is reflected Buddhajīva [Fotuoshi] (5th century) was an Indian
in his works which ranged from Sarvåstivådin to monk and translator who came to China during
Yogåcåra (Mahåyåna) texts. As a Sarvastivadin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. He was also
he wrote a masterpieces like Abhidharmakoßa known as Fotuoshi and Fodashi which is paraphrased
and its commentary (AbhidharmakoßabhåΣya). as life consciousness.
As a Yogåcårin, he produced significant According to Collected Records Concerning the
texts like Viµśatikāvijñaptimātratāsiddhi (20 Tripitaka, and Biographies of Eminent Monks, etc
verses on consciousness only) and Triṃśikā- Buddhajīva was born in Kashmir and became a monk
vijñaptimātratāsiddhi (30 verses on consciousness in Mahīśāsaka when he was young. He specialised in
only). So significant were these texts that after their vinay classics and also had deep studies on Chan. In
translation in Chinese, two separate schools namely July of the first year (423 CE) of Jingping of Song
Koßa School and Vijñaptimātra or DharmalakΣaˆa of Southern Dynasty, he travelled to the east and
(or Dharmåkåra) School developed in China. These arrived in Yangzhou (others believe it was Jiankang)
texts were also translated into Japanese and Tibetan. (present-day Nanjing of Jiangsu Province). Faxian, a
Several of Vasubandhu’s independent texts monk of Jin Dynasty had brought back from Simhala
and commentaries are also noted by Pramarth. (present-day Sri Lanka) the Mahi ֈsaka discipline
in Sanskrit version, but died before he could
translate. Many Buddhist monks in the capital city,
Jiankang of Song Dynasty learned that Buddhajīva
was an expert in this discipline and hoped he could
translate it. In November, as requested by Wang
Lian of Langya, Dao Sheng and other monks, he
set up a translation centre in Longguang Temple
in Jiankang city. He translated the Sanskrit version
held by him which was interpreted by Khotanese
Śramana Zhisheng and written down by the monk
Dao Sheng of Longguang Temple and Huiyan and
other monks of Dong’an temple. The translation
was completed in April of the next year. There were
34 volumes, known as Vinaya of the Five Categories
(only 30 volumes are available at present, known
as Mahīsasakavinaya). In addition, he had also
translated a volume of Mahiīśāsaka Five Precepts
and so on. These books however disappeared later
without any trace.
(Ge Weijun)

Abhidharmakosa-sastra Gunavriddhi
Guņavriddhi [Qiunapidi] (unknown-502 CE) was
Their original Sanskrit versions are extinct an Indian monk and translator who came to China
and only Chinese and Tibetan translations are in the Southern and Northern Dynasty. His name
available now. Among them, two texts namely, meant virtue progress and peace progress.
Pañcaskandhaprakaraˆa and Karmasiddhiprakaraˆa According to the records of Biographies of Eminent
are famous because they not only act as a Monks and Kaiyuan Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures,
bridge between the AbhidharmakoßabhåΣya, etc. Guņavriddhi grew up in Majjhimdesa (central
a Sarvåstivåda text and Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi India). He adopted monastic life in his childhood and
(Vimśatikāvijñaptimātratāsiddhi and Triṃśikā- his teacher was the Mahayana master Sanghasena.
vijñaptimātratāsiddhi), a Vijñånavåda text He was clever, wise, good at memorising, studious
but also demonstrate Vasubandhu’s leanings in sutra recitation, and proficient in nearly 2,00,000
towards Mahåyåna. His other writings include words of Mahayana and Hinayana sutras. He also
Trisvabhåvanirdeßa, Vyåkhyåyukti (logic text), learned Brahminist scriptures. Moreover, he had a
Paddhati¤ika (commentary on Abhisamayalankara), good knowledge of Yin-yang divination and most
Våda-vidhi (logic text: ‘A Method for Argumentation’), of his divinations would true. In the first year of
GåthåsaµgrahabhåΣya, Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥ka- Jianyuan of Emperor Gao of Qi in the Southern
s¨tropadeßa, Madhyåntavibhåga - ßåstrabhåΣya. Dynasty (479-482 CE) he came to the capital Jiankang
(Lalji & Kamal Sheel) (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) and lived in Vaishali

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According to Volume X of Records of the Western

Regions of the Great Tang, Volume IV of Biography of
Tripitaka Dharma Master from Da Ci'en Temple of Tang
Dynasty and other records, Qingbian was born in the
royal family of Malyara in south India. He had been
to central India to learn and practice Saïgharakùita,
which was also called Sangharakshita and learned
Mahayana sutras and Nāgārjuna’s doctrines. Then
he returned to south India and presided over more
than 50 temples in the south. Qingbian inherited
the publicity of Nāgārjuna’s doctrines as his own
responsibility. He adopted critical attitudes toward
the other factions out of Buddhism and even the
other various factions of Mahayana and Hinayana.
Explanation of the Hundred His work of Prajñàpradãpa-måla-madhyamaka-vçtti
Parables Sutra (also called Mūla-madhyamakasandhi-nirmocana-
vyākhyā, 15 volumes, translated into Chinese
Temple, where many disciples often followed him by Prabhākara-mitra in Tang Dynasty) for the
when he stopped and wandered. He looked dignified
and mighty and dukes and influential officials
competed for offering him. Guņavriddhi collected
100 significant metaphor stories from sutras into a
book and instructed beginners. The contents were
related to good and evil retribution and other
profound parables, and he introduced life lessons
and Buddhist doctrines from them. Guņavriddhi
knew the purpose of the sutra well, so he translated
these stories in the autumn of the 10th year of
Yongming of Qi (492 CE) and called them as four Bhavaviveka
volumes of Sutra of 100 Parables (98 parables exist
at present). In the second year of Jianwu of Emperor annotation of Nāgārjuna’s Madhyamikaśāstra had
Ming of Qi (495 CE), he translated one volume of added annotations to each chapter of the original
Sudatta Sutra (which exists at present) and Sutra of sutra and strictly followed the inheritance of
the 12 Nidanas respectively. After the Daming era the Madhyamika Mula scholars since Nāgārjuna
of Song of the Southern Dynasty (457-464 CE), the and criticised the doctrines of Buddhapàlita, who
sutra translation course had decayed, monks and was also an important master of madhyamaka.
Buddhist disciples were, therefore, pleased at the His criticisms were also very severe towards
beginning of new activities for the translation of the doctrines proposed by Dharmapāla of Three
sutras. Guņavriddhi was generous and kind. Many Natures (parikalpitah-svabhava, paratantra-svabhava,
believers came from afar to devote themselves to parinispanna-svabhava), the main idea of Yogacara.
him and merchants offered funds actively to operate Another of his book Madhyamakahçdayakàrikà
Buddhist affairs. He made use of donated funds and generally argued about Madhyamika Mula thoughts,
materials to build magnificent Zhengguan Temple advocated Mahayana and criticised Hinayana with
beside Qinhui River and took disciples to propagate his standpoints. The main purpose was to illuminate
Buddhism constantly and it was very popular. He twi-satyas, sunyata, anutpàda and other doctrines
died in the temple in the winter of the second year of Madhyamika Mula. This book also introduced
of Zhongxin of Emperor He of Qi (502 CE) and his the philosophy of Sàükhya, vai÷eùika, Vedānta,
age at the time of death was unknown. Mīmā¤sā and other factions, which belonged
(Ge Weijun) to Tirthika, thus it could help in understanding
the Hindu philosophical development. His book
Bhavaviveka Karatala-ratna (that is Karatalaratna, two volumes,
Bhāvaviveka [Qingbian], (490-570 CE) was the with a version translated by Xuanzang) mainly
master of Mahayana Madhyamaka in south India argued about the doctrines of Madhyamika of
of the 6th century CE. He was one of the actual Mahayana and proposed the belief that all is vanity
founders of Madhyamaka, also known as Bhavya, and getting rid of the ideas of heretics, Hinayana
Mingbian, Fenbieming and the transliteration and Yogacara of Mahayana.
was Bhavaviveka. (Ge Weijun)

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Narendrayasas Naliantiliyeshe arrived in the capital city of Yedu

Narendrayaśas [Naliantiliyeshe], (490-589 CE), was (now in the east of Ye Town of Linzhang county of
an Indian monk and translator who came to China Hubei). Emperor Wenxuan welcomed him with a
in the late  Northern  and  Southern  Dynasty. He heartfelt and courteous reception and arranged for
was also known as Narendrayasas or simply Yeshe him to live in the Tianping temple. Later, he took
paraphrasing as Respectful Name. more than 1,000 Buddhist sutras in Sanskrit, from
According to volume II of Continuation of the the Tripitaka palace and entrusted him to translate.
Biographies of Eminent Monks, Volume IX of Three At the same time, Emperor Wenxuan made an
Treasures of Previous Dynasties, Volume VI of imperial instruction to śramaṇa Fashang, the great
Catalogues of Kai Yuan Buddhist Books and other master (commander-in-chief) of Zhaoxuan (the
records, Naliantiliyeshe was the man of  Uddiyana government office-in-charge of Buddhism affairs),
(now in Pakistan Swat Valley) in north India. He was and others, together more than 20 officers to monitor
of the same clan as Buddha, his surname was also and master the translation affairs. He appointed
Buddha and belonged to the Kshatriya caste. When the eldest son, Dharmajñàna, (paraphrasing as
he was 17-years-old, Naliantiliyeshe was already wisdom of Buddha dharma) of Gautamaprajñàruci,
determined to be a monk. Due to the teaching and the commander of Zhaoxuan (little lower in grade)
guidance of a famous teacher, he was proficient and Buddhist Wan Tianyi as messengers. Here, he
in Mahayana, Hinayana and the three doctrines of translated 10 volumes of Samàdhiràja-såtra, five
śãla, dhyàna and prajñà. When he was 21-years-old, volumes of Mahà-karuõà-puõóarãka, one volume
Naliantiliyeshe took complete precepts and wished of Buddha's Utterance of the Sutras of the Merit and
to pay visit and show respect to all the places where Virtues for Offering Lights and other works, totalling
there were holy traces of Buddha. Later, he toured five classics and 49 volumes.
far and traversed through many countries from Besides the preaching and translation,
the Snowy Mountains (Himalayas and Hindu Kush Naliantiliyeshe also used magic to help people
mountains) to the north and Simhaladvipa (present- out of various difficult issues. His supplies and
day Sri Lanka) to the south among other places. salaries were all used for helping the hungry and
During his tour period, he once lived 10 years in the poor, providing food for animals, digging
Venuvan vihāra. An honourable master got to learn wells and adopting diseased persons and for
that Naliantiliyeshe preferred far tours and pointed other philanthropies. Soon he was appointed as
out to him that travelling all around would not commander of Zhaoxuan, this was followed by
enable him to make any achievements. It would a quick promotion to be commander-in-chief of
be only through quietude that he could accomplish Zhaoxuan (the rank was higher). In Jiande sixth
something. He accepted the master’s advice and year (577 CE), Northern Zhou Dynasty conquered
returned to his motherland. Later, the temple where Northern Qi Dynasty. Emperor Wu of Northern
Naliantiliyeshe lived was on fire and burned down, Zhou exerted policies of abolishing Buddhism. He
he left for the north across Congling (now Pamirs) instructed to burn down the images of Buddha and
and went towards the east to Ruirui States (the ordered śramana to resume  a secular  life. Yeshe
name for Rouran used in the historical records of wore common clothes on the outside and cloister
Southern Dynasty), after passing through many cloth inside and hid himself away from being seen
places in Tianbao seventh year (556 CE) under the everywhere. He had been homeless and wandered
reign of Emperor Wenxuan in Northern Qi Dynasty. from place to place for several years, while at the
same time, he continued to help and support the
diseased and the poor with his limited abilities.
After the establishment of Sui Dynasty (581 CE),
Buddhism revived. In July of Kaihuang second
year (582 CE) under the reign of Emperor Wen in
Sui dynasty, being accompanied by his disciples
of Daomi and others, Yeshe went to the capital
city of Chang’an under the invitation and lived in
Daikouzenji Temple. He translated sutras since the
winter, and Emperor Wen gave imperial instructions
that Śramana Tanyan, the commander-in-chief of
Zhaoxuan and more than 30 other officers should
participate in the translation project. Later, Yeshe
moved to Guangji Temper and continued with the
translation work. At this moment, Yeshe had aged
Dazhuangyan famen jing but yet he worked ardently. One day in August of

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Kaihuang ninth year, he said to his disciples that of remarkable presence, travelled many countries,
he was already old with limited energy and would visited famous masters, and was proficient in
soon die. He warned his disciples, "It’s difficult to four vedas of Brahminism and Tripitaka scriptures
take any shortcut to be enlightened by Buddha of Buddhism and had particularly a profound
dharma, the only way is to diligently practice knowledge of Mahayana theories. He aimed at
and study on it; it’s difficult to gain the lifetime, propagating Buddhist principles without fear of
be cautious of it and don’t waste it in emptiness”. dangers, and came to Funan (south of Cambodia,
After finishing these words, he lay down on the Laos and Vietnam at present) by ship. During the
pillow and passed away. The sutras translated by Datong Reign of Liang of the Southern Dynasty
Yeshe also included 12 volumes of Candragarbha- (535 CE～545 CE), Emperor Wu took the chance
såtra, one volume of Buddha's Utterance of the Sutras that Zhihou (an official post) Zhang Fan escorted
of Hundreds of Buddha's Doctrines, two volumes of returning Funan envoys and ordered him to visit
Buddha's Utterance of the Sutras of Merit’s Protection famous monks and great masters and seek Mahayana
for the Elder, one volume of Buddha's Utterance of The classics. Although Paramārtha was in his 50s at
Sutras of Firm Girl, three volumes of Samādhi Sutra that time, he was pleased to come to China. In the
of Solemn Strength, two volumes of Solemn Grand first year of Zhongdatong (546 CE), he carried 240
Entrance of Buddha Dharma Sutra, six volumes of Sanskrit scriptures and arrived in Nanhai Prefecture
Abhidharma Heart sutra and so on. It was said Yeshe’s (Guangzhou present-day). He went to the north and
translation works were totalling 13 books and more stopped in several places, and arrived in the capital
than 70 volumes while it was also said that there Jiankang (Nanjing, Jiangsu at present) in August of
were 15 books and more than 80 volumes. Among the second year of Taiqing of Liang (548 CE). Emperor
these translated works, Candragarbha-såtra (today’s Wu bowed him in worship, arranged him to live in
Mahavaipulya-mahasanni-pata-sutra Candragarbha Baoyun Palace and made offerings to him sincerely.
part) had exerted great influences on the future When he translated sutras, the country suffered from
generations, Jizang, Xinxing, Daochuo, etc, had Houjing Riot, he had to go to the east with his tin-
narrated the thoughts about degeneration of dharma made-staff and arrived in Fuchun (Fuyang, Zhejiang
according to Yeshe’s translation work. present-day) in the fourth year of Taiqing. The
(Ge Weijun) county magistrate Lu Yuanzhe respected him very
much, cleaned his private house for him, invited
Paramartha over 20 erudite monks, arranged a translation site
Paramārtha [Zhendi] (499～569) was also named and invited him to handle translation affairs. He
Guņarata or Guņaratha and was a monk coming to translated the sutras such as Treatise on the Stages of
China in the Southern and Northern Dynasties. He the Yogachara (Yogācārabhūmiśāstra) and Memorial
was also a famous sutra translator. Verses on the Middle Teaching (Madhyamikaśāstra),
etc. In the third year of Dabao of Liang (552 CE),
he accepted the invitation of Houjing and returned
to Jiankang and lived in Taicheng. Houjing soldiers
were defeated and escaped and Emperor Yuan
of Liang succeeded the throne and changed the
reign title into Yuan Chengsheng and moved to
Zhengguan Temple and translated Sutra of Golden
Light (Suvarņaprabhāsottama-śāstra) with over 20
former meditation masters. In the third year of
Chengsheng of Emperor Yuan (554 CE), he went
to Yuzhang (present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi)
and lived in Baotian Temple. He lived in Meiye
Temple of Xinwu (Fengxin, Jiangxi present-day),
Paramārtha Jianxing Temple of Shixing (present-day Qujiang,
Guangdong) and Nankang etc, till the third year
According to the records of Catalogue of Buddhist of Shaotai of Emperor Jing (557 CE). He came to
Scriptures published in successive dynasties Yuzhang and lived in Xiyin Temple till the second
and Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks etc, year of Yongding of Emperor Wu of Chen (558 CE).
Paramārtha was from Ujjayinī (ie Ujayana or Ujjain, Then he passed through Linchuan (present-day
Madhya Pradesh, India) of Aparanta. His original Fuzhou, Jiangxi) and Jin’an (present-day Jinjiang,
family name was Bharata and belonged to a Brahmin Fujian). He wandered place to place in this period.
family. He was clever and had good memory since He kept translating and instructing. In the second
his childhood, was eloquent and elegant, was a man year of Tianjia of Emperor Wen of Chen (561

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CE), he arrived in Liang’an Prefecture (present- Biographies of Eminent Monks and claimed that there
day Huiyang, Guangdong) from Jin’an by boat were 278 volumes of 64 sutras, Catalogue of Buddhist
and built a temple to translate and instruct sutras. Scriptures published in successive dynasties recorded
After the completion of translation, he wanted to that there were 232 volumes of 48 sutras and Kaiyuan
return to his country by ship. His students and Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures confirmed that he
disciples urged him to stay after knowing the news translated 118 volumes of 38 sutras. There exist 32
that prefecture chief, Wang Fangshe, invited him sutras at present mainly including 22 volumes of
sincerely. So he had to stay temporarily. He went Treasure Chamber of the Abhidharma, one volume of
to the West finally by sea in September next year. 20 verses on the Mind-Only Doctrine, three volumes
Unexpectedly, wind direction changed and the of Compendium of the Mahayana, 15 volumes of
ship floated back to Guangzhou in December. The Commentary on Compendium of the Mahayana
prefectural governor, Ouyang Wei, invited him to be (Mahàyàna-saïgraha-bhàùya), two volumes of
the Bodhisattva master and live in Zhizhi Temple. Treatise on Discrimination between the Middle and
Being invited by Hui Kai, Seng Ren and Ouyang Wei, Extremes (Madhyàntavibhàgañãkà), four volumes
he translated and instructed the sutras including of Chatur Satya Shastra (Catuþsatya-nirde÷a), one
20 verses on the Mind-Only Doctrine (Viü÷atikàvij volume of Treatise on the Awakening of Faith in the
¤aptimàtratàsiddh), Compendium of the Mahayana Mahayana (Mahàyàna-÷raddhotpàda-÷àstra),
(Mahàyàna-saüparigraha-÷àstra), Ahbidharma- one volume of Samayabhedo-parachana-chakra and
kasha-Shastra(Abhidharmako÷a-÷àstra), Treatise three volumes of Hiraõyasaptati and so on. Most of
on Revelation from the fourth year of Tianjia (563 them are important scriptures for Buddhist studies.
CE) to the second year of Guangda (568 CE). During Compendium of the Mahayana and Commentary
the reign of Guangda, his chief disciple, Hui Kai, on Compendium of the Mahayana are the chief
can replace him to instruct Ahbidharma-kasha- theoretical bases for Mahayana-samparigraha-śāstra
Shastra to his other disciples. Paramārtha began to school of the Southern Dynasty and Paramārtha was
be weary of the world. In June of the second year honoured as the founder of Mahayana-samparigraha-
of Guangda, he came to North Mountain of South śāstra school. Hiraņyasaptati was the important
Sea and wanted to commit suicide. After hearing the scripture to study Samkhya of Hinduism. Paramārtha
news, Hui Kai ran with monks and laymen to seek propagated doctrines of Yogachara school of
for him and urged him to live and the prefectural Asanga and Vasubandhu. His translation differed
governor, Ouyang Wei, bowed to invite him. He from previous one by Bodhiruci as well as later
promised to come back three days later and lived one of Xuanzang. Many of his translation versions
in Wangyuan Temple. In August the same year, Hui were often re-translated by Xuanzang. Xuanzang’s
Kai died of an illness after instructing less than a disciples often criticised his translation too harshly,
half of Ahbidharma-kośa-śāstra. Paramārtha was and even there was competition between new and
very sad because he feared that no one can instruct old translated works. The differences between the
Ahbidharma-kośa-śāstra and Compendium of the two translators originated from their doctrines
Mahayana. He convened 12 disciples including Dao mainly. In terms of Paramārtha’s translation most
Ni and Zhi Jiao and encouraged them to propagate works were real contents of original scriptures,
the two sutras without discontinuity. He continued although his words were obscure or mixed with his
to instruct Ahbidharma-kośa-śāstra but he was ill personal interpretation and it was proper in terms
when he instructed Chapter V, so he had to stop of inheritance. His translation often matched with
his instruction. In the first lunar month of the first explanations. It can be seen that he was an excellent
year of Taijian of Emperor Xuan of Chen (569 CE), translator as well as erudite praj¤ā master.
Paramārtha died at the age of 71. His remains (Ge Weijun)
were moved to Chao Pavilion and burnt and a
pagoda was built for him according to the Indian Buddhabhadra
conventions. Paramārtha propagated Buddhism all Buddhabhadra [Fotuobatuo] (5th century CE) was
his life and took life seriously and thriftily. Under an Indian monk who came to China in Northern
his influence, his disciples were simple and worked Wei Dynasty to preach Buddha dharma. He was also
hard. After his death, they returned to different known as Bhadra.
places, propagated what they learned and formed According to Volume XVI of Continuation of The
Mahayana-samparigraha-śāstra school gradually. Biographies of Eminent Monks and Pei Cui’s Shaolin
Paramārtha had lived in China for 23 years. Temple Monument in the Volume CCLXXIX of
He insisted in translating and instructing sutras Complete Prose Works of Tang Dynasty, Fotuobatuo
in dwelling places although he lived in troubled was an Indian with great intelligence since
times and was busy and his diligence was rare. childhood. He worked very hard on learning and
He translated a huge number of sutras, Continued acquired great insights in Buddhism and had an

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excellent reputation as its practitioner. He always

had the ambition to travel for preaching. Some
friends who practised Buddha dharma together
with Fotuobatuo advised him to preach the dharma
in China and enlighten disciples there. Then after
travelling several countries, Fotuobatuo arrived in
the capital city of Pingcheng (present-day Datong
in the northeast of Shanxi) during the Taihe years
(477-499 CE) of the Northern Wei Dynasty. Emperor
Xiaowen of Wei Dynasty welcomed him with a
warm-hearted courteous reception and specially set
up a Buddhist Temple with carved stone shrine as
a residence for him. Later, a well-off family in the
city constructed a special house for him. In Taihe A Brief Explanation of Pramāṇa
17th year (493 CE), Emperor Xiaowen moved the samuccaya, Master Fazun
capital to Luoyang and Fotuobatuo went along. As
he preferred a quiet habitat in the forest and valleys, Hinayana and became a believer of Vatsiputriya.
he had gone to Songshan Mountain repeatedly Finally, he became a student of Vasubandhu who
for solitude; Emperor Xiaowen then gave imperial was the founder of Yogàcàra and learnt Mahayana.
instructions to set up a temple in Shaoshi Mountain He was also once a student of an acharya and
for him to rest and live peacefully. The temple was learnt mantras. He also went to Oóra (referring
located in the forests of Shaoshi Mountain, therefore, to present north Odisha region) for dhyāna. Many
called as Shaolin. That was how Shaolin Temple Tirthika vadins (followers) were impressed by his
was named. People within the country heard of this eloquence. He particularly gained fame after his
and came for advice in an endless stream. Later in successful debate with Nyāya, a Tirthika good
this temple, he enlightened the two Śramanas, Hui at logical reasoning. Activities in Nàlanda where
Guang and Sen Chou, and enabled them to pursue he once stayed primarily focussed on preaching
Buddhist teachings. Abhidharmakośa-śāstra, Vij¤aptimàtratà and
(Ge Weijun) Hetuvidyā. His contributions to Buddhism during
travels in south India mostly relates to the subduing
Dignaga Tirthika vadin and recovering so far uncultivated
Dignāga (Chenna or Yulong in Chinese) (about 440- Buddhist Bodhimanda. Dignāga/Chenna deeply
520 CE) was an ancient Indian Buddhist logician- believed in morality and always followed dvàda÷a-
scholar. He was one of the founders of Buddhist dhåta-guõa such as only wearing tattered clothes,
Hetuvidya school of philosophy. having a mean obtained from begging per day,
Dignāga or Chenna was born in Andhra of living under the tree or near to abandoned graves
South India or Simhavakta near Kānchi (currently etc. He finally passed away in a forest cave in Oḍra.
known as Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu). Belonging Dignāga/Chenna belonged to Vij¤ānavada
to Brahmin caste, he originally learnt Tirthika (namely Yogacāra) school. He was, however,
(the doctrine of Brahminism) but later turned to different from Nanda (about 450-530 CE) who
advocated the consciousness-only philosophy
without selflessness, and maintained the
consciousness-only philosophy with selflessness.
The former established two concepts representing
significance of different consciousness – division of
seeing and division of characteristics. He believed
that human beings’ consciousness would change
under contemplation and show the division of
seeing of cognitive subjects and the division of
characteristics of the cognitive objects. The so-
called cognition referred to learning from the latter
by the former. The “division of seeing” related to
conscious activities and was the real existence
while the “division of characteristics” existed on
the basis of cognition of the image of former. Thus,
it was unreal. Dignāga/Chenna held the “division
Dignaga of seeing” was the AkAra with the “division of

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characteristics”. It was real. He also proposed the Ratnamati

“self-witnessing aspect” to affirm the result due Ratnamati [Lenamoti] (between 5th and 6th centuries
to interactions between the above two. Thus, his CE) was an Indian Buddhist monk and translator
theory was referred to as the consciousness-only who came to China in Northern Wei Dynasty. He
philosophy with selflessness. This has been one of was also known as Baoyi in free translation.
important theoretical sources of Chinese Dharma According to volume I of Sequel to Biography of
character school. Eminent Monks, volume VI of The Kai-yuan Record
The greatest contribution of Dignāga/Chenna of Buddhist Books and volume IX of Records of
lies in Hetuvidyā. He was the founder of a new Three Treasures in the Past Dynasties, we know
hetuvidya school of philosophy and changed that Lenamoti was a native of Central India. He
the original five-part syllogism into the three- was knowledgeable, skilled in dhyana, various
part syllogism. The three-part syllogism, also theories and dealing with daily routines. It is said
known as moods of the syllogism, includes that he could recite 100 million gatha scriptures.
pratij¤à (proposition), hetu (reason or premise) He came to Luoyang in the fifth year of Zhengshi
and udàhaaraõa (example). He classified upanaya of Emperor Xuanwu in the Northern Wei Dynasty
(application) and nigamana (conclusion) of (508 CE) and was ordered to translate 12
the five-part syllogism in ancient Hetuvidya volumes of Daśabhūmika-sūtra-śāstra together with
into udàhaaraõa and pratij¤à, respectively thus Bodhiruci, with Buddhasanta orally repeating the
transforming the inductive reasoning of the five- translation and the emperor dictating it into the
part syllogism into the deductive reasoning of the target language personally. He also translated one
three-part syllogism. This characterised a forward volume of Lotus Sutra Upatissa together with Monk
leap in the history of logic in ancient India. The Seng Lang, and four volumes of Ratnagotra-vibhàgo
transformation not only deeply influenced the Mahàyànottaratantra-÷àstra in Zhaoxin residence.
way of reasoning in each Buddhist school but After he translated the Daśabhūmika-sūtra-śāstra
also transcended the earlier limit that was used together with Bodhiruci, they became alienated
for discussion (explain means and principles with with each other due to some disagreement. Later,
repeated questions) and was further applied to the disciple of Buddhasanta Huiguang promoted
acknowledge and demonstrate truth. Thus it became this theory in southern Xiangzhou (present-day
a Buddhist epistemology, namely “Pramana”. His Yedu, Anyang, Henan), forming southern Xiangzhou
theory about pramana was dispersively embodied School, while the disciple of Bodhiruci, Daochong
in his representative books on Hetuvidya Theory, promoted this theory in northern Xiangzhou,
while the Pramàõasamuccaya was able to reflect forming northern Xiangzhou school. According
the system more completely. This book, in form of to the record of volume nine of Records of Three
gāthā text and with the addition of his annotations Treasures in the Past Dynasties, Lenamoti’s total
was written with scattered theories he collected in translations are six books totalling 24 volumes.
his late years. The original manuscript of the book There is a myth about his death namely when he
is non-existent. In the second year of Jingyun (711 was delivering Avatamsaka Sutra, a man like a great
CE), Tang Yijing translated it. However, it was lost lord arrived, holding a sceptre, saying that he was
after a short time and there are now two translated ordered by the Emperor of Heaven to invite him to
versions in Tibetan. preach the scriptures. Lenamoti told him that he
There are also other existing works of would obey the order after finishing the preaching
Dignāga/Chenna translated into Chinese, such then he bid farewell to everyone with a smile and
as Deconvolution Theory (the same version suddenly died, together with his four aides who
with Hastavàlaprakaraõa translated by Tang were speaker, incense burner, caretaker and Sanskrit
Yijing) translated by Paramàrtha, the Theory interpreter.
of No Lovesickness (the same version with (Ge Weijun)
âlaübanaparãkùàvçtti translated by Xuanzang), the
Nyàya-dvàra-tarka-÷àstra (the same version with Bodhiruci
the title Nyayamukha translated by Tang Yijing) Bodhiruci [Putiliuzhi] (unknown~277) was an
translated by Xuanzang, Upadayaprajnaptiprakarana eminent monk and translator from India during the
and Samanyapariksa translated by Tang Yijing, Tang Dynasty. His name transliterated according to
and Prajñāpāramitāpiṇḍārthaḥ translated by Song pronunciation was Jue’ai and paraphrased as Faxi.
Shihu etc. His original name was Dhammaruci (Damoliuzhi).
øaïkara-svàmin and Dharmapàla inherited the But after he came to China, Empress Wu Zetian of the
Hetuvidya philosophy and the Consciousness-only Tang Dynasty changed it to Putiliuzhi (Bodhiruci).
Philosophy of Dignāga/Chenna respectively. According to volume III of Biographies of Eminent
(Ge Weijun) Monks in Song Dynasty, Volume IX of Directory for

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 Cultural Contacts

one volume of Mahayana Dorje Bun Bodhisattva’s

Buddhism Practice and one volume of Mahayana
Gaya Mountain Top Sutra during his stay in East
Temple of Dazhou Period. And then, he translated
one volume of Sutra of Life Protection Mantra, one
volume of Sutra of Six Words Mantra, one volume of
Amoghapà÷akalpa-hçdaya-dhàraõã, three volumes
of Secret Dharani Sutra by Shanzhu in Guangdabao
Mansion etc. in Foshouji Temple. In 706 CE, the
second year of Shenlong Period during the reign of
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang Dynasty, he lived in
Chongfu Temple in Chang’an and was commanded to
translate the Maha Ratnakana Sutra. Later, he moved
Bodhiruci to the Northern Pavilion of the White Lotus Pond
to continue his translation. This was an important
Buddhism in Kaiyuan Period, the preface of Maha sutra which Xuanzang regretted for not being able
Ratnakana Satra and others, Putiliuzhi was an to translate owing to the lack of energy. Putiliuzhii
Indian whose last name was Kasyapa. Belonging to a worked on its translation for seven years. In 713, the
Brahmin family, he was more brilliant and charming second year of Xiantian Period during the reign of
than others from an early age. He became a monk Emperor Ruizong of Tang Dynasty, he finished the
and practiced Tirthika when he was 12. Taught by translation which included 120 volumes in total. He
Parasara, Putiliuzhi developed a good command over took the advantage of special types of collection in
words, rhyme, grammar and samkhya philosophy sutra, and tried his best to add into the old version.
very soon. He was also a master of Yin and Yang, Only when the old version or the meaning lacked,
calendar, geography, astronomy, conjuring, medical did he translate by himself. As a result, near half of
prescription etc. When he was 60, he was defeated the whole sutra was added into the old version and
by Mahayana Master Xuanzang in an argument. a considerable part of the new translation was made
Putiliuzhi then learned the contradiction of Tirthika according to the old version. In this translation
and the complexity of Buddhism. After that he work, Śramana Sizhong and the First Leader of
secluded himself into mountains, walked through east India, Yisheluo, and other people translated
the forests, begged for food and learned all kinds of the Sanskrit, Śramana Borequduo from south India
scriptures and treatises from Yeshequsha. Five years and Bodhidharma from north India reviewed the
later, he had studied almost all Buddhism scriptures Sanskrit meaning, Śramana Lufang, Zongyi, Huijue
and travelled across India and listened to the wrote translation down, Shengzhuang, Fazang,
sutra chants of masters. Emperor Gaozong of Tang Shenliang, Wuzhu, Huaidi and other people
Dynasty. He had heard of his good reputation and reviewed the translation, Xujian (mayor of Donghai
sent envoys to invite him to China in 683 CE, the Prefecture), Sujin (Secretary), Cuiqu (Supervisor),
second year of Yongchun Period. In the second year Guo Yuanzhen (minister), Zhangyue (head of the
of Changshou Period (693 CE) during the reign of secretariat), He Zhizhang (Doctor of Chamberlain
Empress Wu Zetian, Putiliuzhi arrived in Chang’an, for Ceremonials) and other people embellished the
the capital of Tang Dynasty (Xi’an in present article and Lu Xiangxian (deputy officials of Central
Shaan’xi). Through an Imperial order, Empress Wu Secretariat), Wei Zhigu (privy counsellor) and other
Zetian arranged for him to stay in the Fuxian Temple people were the supervisors. Almost all the people
in Luoyang, the East Capital of Tang Dynasty. In
the same year, at Foshouji Temple, Putiliuzhi
translated two volumes of Sutra of No Thinking and
No Talking of Buddhism preached by Manjushri, 10
volumes of Sutra of Treasure and Rain Preached by
Buddha, the Sanskrit versions of which were read
by the envoy of the Indian King and Śramana
Damoxuan, translated by Śramana Zhantuo and
other people and reviewed by Huizhi and written
down by Chuyi and others, composed into an essay
by Sixian and others, reviewed by Yuance, Shenying
and others and supervised by the prime minister of
the Sibin Temple, Sunbi. Putiliuzhii also translated
one volume of Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra, Daśabhūmi-vyākhyāna

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involved into this translation progress were great translation of Yogacara classic. He is also known as
masters of morality and all kinds of knowledge, Gautamaprajñāruci or Zhixi in free translation.
and they were the best scholars of Buddhism and According to volume I of Sequel to Biography of
Confucianism. Upon finishing the translation of all Eminent Monks and volume VI of The Kai-yuan Record
of sutra, they completed the article and delivered of Buddhist Books, we know that he was a native of
it to the imperial ruler, the retired Emperor Banares (present-day Varanasi), India, belonging to
Ruizong who had abdicated his throne, written the Brahmin caste. During his boyhood, he had begun to
preface and the title page of the sutra. Besides this, learn Buddhist doctrines, with a deep understanding
Putiliuzhi was also involved in the translation of of the essence. He also had a great comprehension
Buddhavatamsaka Mahavaipulya Sutra of Shicha’s of various dialects. He came to Luoyang in the first
at Dabiankong Temple in the imperial palace in year of Xiping reign (516 CE) of Emperor Xiaoming
695, the first year of Zhengsheng Period. In this in the Northern Wei Dynasty and then moved
progress, he read the Sanskrit version with Śramana to Yecheng (now it is in southwest of Linzhang
Yijing. The translation was completed at Foshouji County, Hebei province) along with resettling of
Temple in the October of 699 CE, the second year capital by the Eastern Wei Dynasty. From the first
of Shengli Period. The translation version was in a year of Yüan Hsiang reign (538 CE) to the first year
total of 80 volumes. After finishing the translation of Wu-ting reign (543 CE) of Emperor Xiaojing in
of Maha Ratnakana Satra, Putiliuzhi quit the the Eastern Wei Dynasty, he finished the translation
translation work, relaxed himself by practicing of 70 volumes of Sutra of Stability in Contemplation
Zen and Alchemy, and read the sutras and took a of the True Law（Saddharma-smçty-upasthàna-
walk from dawn to dust. In 724 CE, the 12th year såtra）, one volume of Nagarjuna’s The Ekashloka
of Kaiyuan Period, he moved to Luoyang following Shastra, one volume of Discourse on the Perfection of
the order of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty. Consciousness-only （vijñaptimàtratàsiddhi-śàstra）
He lived in Changshou Temple. In September of the and two volumes of Madhyamaka--karika in Chin-hua
15th year of Kaiyuan Period, he said that his life Monastery, Ch'ang-ting Monastery and other places,
was close to the end, his body was weaker day by and translated one volume of Vigrahavyavartani
day and he would be gone eventually so there was together with Vimokṣaprajñā-ṛṣi. In addition, he also
no need of delay. Since then he stopped feeding translated one volume of Golden King Doctrine, one
and medicine, but he still looked same for the next volume of Amala Women Doctrine, two volumes of
50 days. On the third day of November, he bathed Vyasa Pariprccha and one volume of Amala Upasika
in perfumed water all by himself and changed into Paripraccha. The Sanskrit translators are Tan Lin,
new clothes; on fourth day, he put Sanskrit sutras on Seng Fang, Li Xiyi and others. According to volume
the top of his head, admired them one by one; on six of The Kai-yuan Record of Buddhist Books, he
fifth day, he dismissed all his disciples and stayed had translated 18 books totalling 92 volumes
in the clean room alone, lay on his right hand side successively but part of them were lost. Because
and stopped his breathing. It’s said that he was 156 there were other contemporary Buddhist scriptures
years old when he died. The Emperor was grieved translators who shared the name “Ruci” such as
for his death so much that he honoured him by Bodhiruci, and when marking the translator, the
the grant of title, “Great Man of Honglu” and the abbreviated form 'Ruci' was often used. Therefore,
posthumous title of “Know-all Sanzang of Kaiyuan when Tang Daoxuan wrote the Sequel to Biography of
Period”. The funeral did not follow the custom in Eminent Monks, the name was confusing.
Western Regions but adopted the honour guards, (Ge Weijun)
streamers and canopies. The visitors were so many
that the road was blocked. Everybody was in Bodhidharma
the deepest sorrow. A pagoda was built over his Bodhidharma [Putidamo] (unknown-528 or 536
tomb in the North-west of Longmen, Luoyang in CE) was a monk coming to China from India. He was
December, and commemorated by inscriptions on traditionally credited as the transmitter of Chinese
the rocks. According to Directory for Buddhism in Chan and was called as Damo in short which
Kaiyuan Period, Putiliuzhii had translated 53 books means dharma.
and 111 volumes. According to Continued Biographies of Eminent
(Ge Weijun) Monks and Ching-te Records of the Transmission
of the Lamp etc. Bodhidharma was a south Indian
Gautamaruci and belonged to Brahmin caste (Persian Hu people
Gautamaruci [Qutanliuzhi] (between 5th and 6th according to History of Buddhist Monasteries
centuries CE) was an Indian Buddhist monk and in Luoyang). He was clever and wise since his
translator who came to China in the Northern Wei childhood and his understanding was deep. He
Dynasty and one of the principal figures in the believed in Mahayana Buddhism and had a profound

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the Chan monks in the Tang Dynasty. Damo’s way of

Chan adopted the symbol of “a special transmission
outside the scriptures and no dependence upon
words and letters” and targetted at understanding
the mind of Buddha as the ultimate objective of
meditation. General Preface to the Collection of
Discourses on Chan Tradition written by Zong Mi
in the Tang Dynasty wrote: “Damo taught people
to hold peaceful mind by wall-gazing, understating
outside world stopped and internal world was
peaceful, and mind can get the Way like a wall…” It
can be seen that “wall-gazing” was the unique way
of Chan instructed by Damo.
(Ge Weijun)

A rubbing of an image of
Jnanagupta
Bodhidharma Jñànagupta [Shenajueduo] (523~600 CE or 527
~604 CE) was an Indian monk and translator who
knowledge of Chan. He came to Guangzhou by sea came to China in the late Northern and Southern
from India in the late Song of the Southern Dynasty Dynasty. His name was paraphrased as Dezhi.
(420-479 CE). Then he travelled to the north and According to the volume II of Continuation of
crossed the border of the Northern Wei Dynasty. the Biographies of Eminent Monks, the volume VII
He disseminated the way of Chan in places where of Catalogues of Kai Yuan Buddhist Books and other
he wandered. It is said that he admired resplendent records, Shenajueduo was a man of Gandhara
and magnificent buildings of Yongning Temple in (present-day Peshawar and Rawalpindi area of
Luoyang and claimed that he had never seen such Pakistan) in north India and belonged to Kshatriya
a magnificent temple although he had travelled to caste. His father was the prime minister of the country
many countries till the age of 150. Within a few days, and had brought up five sons, Shenajueduo was the
he put his palms together and started continuously youngest one. He had interest in Buddhism from
chanting “Namo”. He cultivated deep meditation an early age. His parents saw the unusual bearings
for nine years in Shaolin Temple on Songshan on their son and allowed him to become a monk.
Mountain and was called as “wall-gazing Brahmin”. Shenajueduo went to Dalin Temple in his country
Local people knew little about the way of Chan, and followed Jñānayaśas who specially practiced
slandered it inevitably but the two monks including Dhyana, J¤ānabhadra who was proficient in Vinaya
Dao Yu and Hui Ke worshipped and served him and other eminent monks as his guiders. At the age
carefully for four or five years. Damo was touched of 27, Shenajueduo was  initiated into monkhood.
by their sincerity, imparted the true way and passed Later he followed with his teachers in tours for
A Lankāvatara Sūtra to Hui Ke and claimed that it developing and expanding Buddha Dharma. First
was suitable for the Chinese and people could go out they arrived in Kàpiśã which was located about 62
of the world if they followed the sutra. The stories
about his old age were different. It is said that he
was poisoned to death and was buried on Xionger
Mountain (present-day Yiyang, He’nan). There was
another saying that Song Yun, the Buddhist envoy
of the Northern Wei Dynasty saw Damo on Cong
Ridge when he returned to the Western Regions.
Damo walked lonely with a shoe in his hand and
the story of Return to the West Carrying One Shoe was
passed down.
The Chan School of Chinese Buddhism worships
Damo as the founder. With the development of Chan
School, Damo has gradually become a legendary
character. His inheritance cannot be investigated.
There was a saying in later generations that his
teacher was Gunabhadra. The initial six generations
of inheritance in China were Damo, Hui Ke, Seng Mahāyāna Sūtra of Three Gatherings of
Can, Dao Xin, Hong Ren and Hui Neng, according to Repentance, Jnanagupta

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 Cultural Contacts

km to north of Kabul in present-day Afghanistan,

then climbed over the Snowy Mountains (Hindu
Kush mountains) and arrived in Yandan Country
(established by Hephthalites, presently Faizabad
in northern Afghanistan), Yutian Country (now
Xinjiang Hotan), Tuguhun Country (now in the
area of southern part of Gansu and Qinghai) then
reached Shanzhou (district  government was in
Ledu of presents Qinghai). More than half of 10
monks who went together with Shenajueduo died,
only four were left. In Wucheng years (559-560 CE)
under the reign of Emperor Ming in Northern Zhou Fragments of fourth roll of Aggañña Sutta, translated by
dynasty, Shenajueduo arrived in Chang'an and Jñānagupta, Sui period
lived in Caotang Temple. Emperor Ming welcomed
him with special courteous reception and often Shenajueduo back. When Shenajueduo returned to
invited several monks to the palace backyard for Luoyang with envoys he was met by Emperor Wen
discussing about Buddha Dharma together. He also and welcomed with courteous reception. After he
built Shitennoji Temple for the convenient living arrived in Chang’an he lived in Daikouzenji Temple
of the monks and translating sutras there. Here and translated sutras there. The royal family
Shenajueduo and others translated Avalokiteśvara- attached great importance to the translation work
ekādaśamukha-dhāraņī-sūtra and Golden rishi’s and sent two Buddhist brothers, Gao Tiannu and
questions of Buddha Dharma etc. Soon Jiao Emperor Gao Heren, to interpret Sanskrit together, appointed
Yu Wenjian went to Sichuan to take charge there, 10 Bhadanta Sramanas including Sengxiu, Facan,
Shenajueduo went together under invitation. He Fajing and Huiyuan to select and determine the
lived in Longyuan Temple there and presided over principles, monitor and manage the translation
the temples in Yizhou for three years. During this work and arranged śramanas Mingmu, Yanzong
period, he completed the translation of Guanyin’s etc. to recheck the Sanskrit version, review the
Ode of Buddha's Words Sutra. In Jiande years(572 translation work and organise the literary contents.
～577 CE）under the reign of Emperor Wu of At this moment, Shenajueduo was already skilled in
Northern Zhou Dynasty, the emperor carried out both Sanskirt and Chinese, his work of translating
the policies of abolishing Buddhism and destroyed and writing the sutras down, was relatively easier.
the sutras and Buddha statues, forced  Śramanas After Narendrayaśas passed away (589 CE),
to resume  secular  life and also made imperial Shenajueduo became the sole authority. At that time,
instruction to summon Shenajueduo back to Dharmagupta, a Brahman monk, also participated
the capital, lured him with important title and in the translation work. Dharmagupta was well-
high salaries, forced him to salute according to learned, modest  and  gentle. He would suppress
Confucian ceremony. himself and praise others whenever there was
Shenajueduo refused to abide by and dared to face anything. Shenajueduo’s reputation was higher than
death for disobeying. Emperor Wu was moved by his Dharmagupta. However, whenever Shenajueduo
firm faith and let him go. Then Shenajueduo went to was uncertain about the subtle meaning of the sutra,
the north, by passing Ganzhou (district government he would still modestly consult Dharmagupta. In
was in Zhangye of present Gansu) he arrived in the end of Renshou period（601～604 CE）reigned
the Turkish territory. His two teachers who went by Emperor Wen of Sui dynasty, Shenajueduo was
together with him passed away in  succession, in busy with worldly affairs and could not stay in the
loneliness, he met the 10 monks like Baoxian, capital city, he had to go east-bound for Oumin.
Daosui and others who had found and gained 260 There he continued to preach Buddha Dharma with
sutras of Sanskrit version from the Western Regions, sincerity and brought much benefits to the local.
then they studied Dhyana and translated these sutras Gentries  and  commoners, believers and ordinary
together. After the establishment of Sui Dynasty, non-believers all respected and admired him. Later
Buddhism revived. Baoxian and the other monks Shenajueduo died in Oumin at the age of 78. It
returned to China first and reached the capital city was also said that he died in Kaihuang 20th year
of Chang'an in winter of Kaihuang first year (581 (600 CE) of Emperor Wen. The later generations
CE), they lived in Daikouzenji Temple. In Kaihuang had very high evaluation on him and praised him
fifth year, Tanyan and others, totally more than 30 “with pure and profound Buddha spirit, upright
Śramanas in Daikouzenji Temple faced difficulties consciousness, boundless love for merits and virtues
in translating sutras. They reported to Emperor and never stopped pursuit for Buddha Dharma. As
Wen of Sui Dynasty and requested to summon Shenajueduo could develop and expand Buddha

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Dharma himself as an admired model thus he Theravada scriptures. As a scholar with thorough
was deeply respected by the people. The sutras understanding of Buddhism and thoughts outside
translated by Shenajueduo also includes seven Buddhism, mastering Mahayana and Theravada,
volumes of Saddharmapuõóarãkasåtra (translated Prabhàkaramitra’s contribution in teaching Buddha
together with Dharmagupta), 60 volumes of dharma was held in high esteem by his fellows and
Abhiniùkramaõasåtra, 10 volumes of Agganna Sutta, he was also given special treatment by kings and
20 volumes of Dharmolkadhàraõã-såtra, two volumes ministers of various countries. When he heard that
of Buddha’s Precious Enlightenment in Buddha's Merit barbarians in the north were foolhardy and had no
Wisdom Incredible Heights Sutra, five volumes of etiquette, he and another 10 common people went
Mahavaipulya-mahasannipata-sutra Virtue Protection northbound to Koka, receiving a warm welcome
Division, one volume of Amoghapà÷adhàraõã-såtra, from the local Khan and Yabghu. In the ninth year
20 volumes of Mahàbala-dhàraõã-såtra, two volumes of Wude of Emperor Tang Gaozu (626 CE), the king
of Realization of Pure Mind Sutra, one volume of of Gaoping was sent there to meet him, who then
Entrance of dharmadhatu Body and Nature Sutra reported about the meeting to the emperor. Later,
and so on. It was said there were a total number Emperor Tang Gaozu gave the order to invite him.
of 37 books and 176 volumes. Some say that his In December the same year, he followed the king
translation in total were 39 books and 192 volumes.. of Gaoping to the capital Chang’an, and lived in Da
The later generations praised his translation works Xing-shan Temple. Many talented persons came to
providing “complete comprehension of doctrines visit him, and sought answers for the non- or mis-
and teachings with fluent text and meaning”.   comprehension of Buddhism. For unclear sentences
(Ge Weijun) and meanings, he traced back their clues, described
their similarities and differences, made a careful
Prabhakarmitra and detailed analysis and gave a clear explanation,
Prabhàkaramitra [Bopo] (565-633 CE) is an Indian making it very clear for the people. Later, Emperor
Buddhist and translator who came to China in the Taizong of Tang heard of him and called him to talk
Tang Dynasty. His other names in transliteration about the theory of law. Prabhàkaramitra answered
were Boluopojia Luomiduoluo and in free translation correctly and the emperor presented him with more
Mingyou, Mingzhishi etc. rewards. In March the third year of Zhenguan period
in Tang Dynasty (629 CE), Emperor Taizong of Tang
issued an imperial edict to ask him to translate
scriptures in the translation workshop in Da Xing-
shan Temple and ordered relevant governments
to seek 19 knowledgeable and noble people who
mastered three religions. Among them, Huicheng,
Xuanmo, Huize, Huijing, Huiming and Falin held
the position of checking whether Sanskrit Buddhist
scriptures had made mistakes in translating into the
target language and arranging sentence patterns,
respectively. Minister Fang Xuanling and Du
Zhenglun were responsible for checking the content
and Xiao Jing for the over all monitoring. There are
all kinds of scriptures. Prabhàkaramitra translated
Prabhākaramitra 10 volumes of Ratnaketu-dharani-sutra, then he
moved to Shengguang Temple and translated 15
According to volume III of Continuation Biography volumes of Praj¤àpradãpa÷àstrakarika and 13
of Eminent Monks, Prabhàkaramitra was from central volumes of Mahàyàna-såtràlaükàra. After repeated
India, belonging to Kshatriya caste. When he was consultation, copying and reading, he finished
10-years-old, he became a Buddhist and learned the translation in the winter of the sixth year of
Buddhism from teachers. Before long, he would Zhenguan period in Tang Dynasty, and reported
recite 1,00,000 gatha of Mahayana scriptures. After to the imperial court. Emperor Taizong of Tang
receiving full ordination, he learned Vinaya Pitaka ordered to write 10 copies of each new translation
and Viniscita-karman and often took delight in to circulate them at home and abroad. Because of
meditation. Twelve years later, he went to Nalanda Prabhàkaramitra’s high reputation, many people
Monastery in Magadha to listen to the preachings were jealous of him. Although there were sensible
of Yogacārabhūmi-śastra by Śilabhadra who was persons such as Śramana Lingjia defending him
the abbot of the monastery. Since the theory successfully yet his translation was still blocked by
contained Theravada, he recited 1,00,000 gatha of rumors. In the seventh year (633 CE) of Zhenguan

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period in Tang Dynasty, he fell ill. He knew that he namely existence, emptiness and the middle path
could not be cured and with his scattered clothes, and concluded that the Dharmalaksana of Mahayana
he sat up to watch the Buddha. He died at the age was the true nãtàrtha. This had completely clarified
of 69 in April in Shengguang Temple. His body the Buddhist doctrines. Besides, he also proposed
was sent among the mountains for cremation. the “Five Distinctive Nature Theory” which divided
Śramana Xuanmo cleared up his skeleton and the roots of all living beings into five categories.
held the funeral in Shengguang Temple. Over When Xuanzang toured the west, Jiexian was
the mountains, crossing the rivers, with many already 106-years-old who was the Maha thera of
hardships, Prabhàkaramitra came to China to Nalanda and was regarded by the people as Treasure of
promote Buddhism. However, the translation of the Whole Dhamma. Although Jiexian no longer gave
all Sanskrit scriptures he brought was not finished, lectures or taught disciples then, he specially lectured
bringing much regret to later generations. for Xuanzang regardless of his age on Abhidharma-
(Ge Weijun) nyàyànusàra-÷àstra, Āryavācāprakaraṇa-śāstra,
Prakaraõàryavàcà-÷àstra, Abhidharma-kosa (that is
Silbhadra Mahàyànàbhidharma-samuccaya-vyàkhya), Pramàõa-
Śilbhadra [Jiexian] (6th and 7th centuries CE) was a samuccaya, Madhyamikaàstra, øata÷àstra and other
master of Yogacara school of Mahayana. His name sutras. Yogācāra-bhūmi-śāstra was taught three
in Chinese transliteration was Śilabhadra. times in all and lasted for nine months. Jiexian was
According to volume VIII of Records of the Western the successor of Dharmalaksana in Vasubandhu
Regions of the Great Tang, Volume III of Biography of faction. His inspiration and influence in the
Tripitaka Dharma Master from Da Ci'en Temple and Buddhist ideology toward Xuanzang was extremely
other records, Jiexian was from the royal family of deep. After Xuanzang returned to China in Yonghui
Samataña in eastern India and was a Brahmin by third year (652 CE) under the reign of Emperor
caste. He was studious since childhood and behaved Gaozong, he received a letter from Jñānaprabhā and
and conducted himself excellently. He travelled Prajñānadeva and got to learn that Jiexian had passed
around to find and follow a great teacher. Only away. In his reply, Xuanzang expressed his deep
when he arrived at Nàlanda and met Dharmapàla, condolences and praised Jiexian’s contributions in
he came to believe and understand Buddha Dharma. inheritance of Buddhist doctrines, and expressed his
He accepted his guidance and became a monk. heartfelt gratitude for his teachings and guidance
Under the guidance of Dharmapàla, he deeply once given to him.
studied doctrines of Yogācāra Vijñānavāda. (Ge Weijun)
At the same time, he also devotedly studied
Hetuvidya,  śabdavidya and other doctrines and Gunaprabha
gradually became popular. Later, a heretic master Gunaprabha [Gongdeguang], vinaya preacher of
in south India with profound knowledge who could Indian Buddhism, one of two saints of Indian Two
thoroughly understand and see clearly through deep Saints and Six Solemn Men.
and subtle points became jealous of Dharmapàla for He was born in a Brahman family in Mosouluo
his good reputation. He took great trouble to come in India, and learnt Buddhism doctrine when he
and challenge him for a debate by beating drums. was young. Taking complete precepts, he became
When Dharmapàla was about to go for the debate, a monk. He learnt Triptaka from Vasubandhu (4th
Jiexian asked to go on his behalf and Dharmapàla century CE). He mastered 18 sutras and could recite
consented. People undervalued him for his young the whole of Vinaya scriptures. Holding Vinaya
age. However, Dharmapàla was confident about Hundred Thousand Songs as the reciting lessons, he
him. On the day of the debate, the young and the diligently practiced Bodhi’s moral order based on
old from all places gathered to watch. The heretic hearing, thinking and cultivating. He could hold
master vigorously illustrated his intelligent views thousands of Dharanis, and won honours for the
with all deep and subtle points, while Jiexian excellent achievements in eloquence, theurgy and
followed his arguments and refuted one by one. As a Samadhi. He was a top master of law of goodness
result the heretic master could not find any words to and was ordained as a Great Priest Achary and
respond and retreated in humiliation. The king then he was honoured as one of two saints. His great
rewarded the winner with land grants. Jiexian could reputation spread all over the land.
not decline and built Sangharama there. Later, he After Gunaprabha returned to his hometown, he
succeeded Dharmapàla and became the head monk built temples and recruited 5,000 students, kept the
of Nalanda. Then he developed and expanded law, protected the doctrine and cleaned the monks.
Cittamatra doctrines. According to Saüdhinirmocana- He had many works such as Vinaya Miscellaneous
sūtra, Yogācāra-bhūmi-śāstra and other sutras, Jiexian (ie Law Basic Scripture of Law or Scripture
determined that Dharma consisted of three periods of Law), Uposatha Scripture, Law Collections

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of Bhumi, Etiquette of Three Sacraments and had then the idea of observing Chinese culture
Scripture of Law’s Self-annotation. These works and spreading Buddhism there. Therefore he came
are translated into Tibetan and are in Tripitaka. over the snow mountain (Hindu Kush mountain)
His representative work Basic Scripture of Law and went through places of Schaller (present-day
has become the basic sutra for Tibetan Buddhism’s Xinjiang Shule), Kucha (present-day Xinjiang Kuqa),
precepts keeping and devotion. Wuqi (ie Yanqi), Gaochang (present-day Turpan
(Deji zhuoma) in Xinjiang), Yiwu (present-day Xinjiang Hami
area) and so on. All the way Damojiduo preached,
Dharmagupta he sometimes stayed in one place and then started
Dharmagupta [Damojiduo] (unknown-619 CE) the journey again. After many years of travelling,
was an Indian monk and translator who came to he finally arrived in Guazhou (near present-day
China in Sui Dynasty. His name paraphrased in Dunhuang). Some of the monks who accompanied
Chinese meant “the Secret of Buddha Dharma” and him returned to where they came from, some died,
“Treasure of Buddha Dharma”. only Damojiduo himself arrived in Chinese territory.
According to volume II of Continuation of the Shortly, Damojiduo was invited by Emperor Wen
Biographies of Eminent Monks, volume VI of Catalogue of Sui Dynasty. He arrived in the capital city
of Buddhist Works in the Great Tang Dynasty and of Chang’an in October (Chinese calendar) of
Kaihuang 10th year (590 CE) and lived in a famous
temple with abundant supplies. Later, he moved
to live in Daikouzenji Temple and participated in
the translation work of Buddha sutras. Most of the
classics he chanted were important ones and his
interpretation of the subtle points about the sutras
often could eliminate the believers’ doubts which
had puzzled them for many years. As Damojiduo
strictly adhered to the precepts and principles,
lived sedately with limited desires, was kind and
charitable and treated everyone with the same
amiable manner no matter noble or of lower grade,
therefore, he was deeply respected and admired by
Daxingshan Temple, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China. It was one of the three people. Most of the sutras translated by him could
major translation centres of Buddhist scriptures at Chang’an.
start from the original meanings of the words, thus
could be deeply studied for gaining their subtle
volume VII of Catalogue of Kaiyuan Buddhist meaning. And the translated Chinese versions were
Books, Damojiduo was a man of Luoluo Country in usually with proper and accurate philosophical
south India and belonged to Kshatriya caste. His connotations, keeping in context commonsense and
original surname was Vyàghra, meaning his last fluency. In Renshou fourth year of Sui Emperor Wen
name was tiger. When Damojiduo was young, he (604 CE) Emperor Yang succeeded the throne. The
was already away from the worldly life and loved following year, he moved the capital to Luoyang
Buddha dharma. Though prevented by his parents, and in Daye second year (606 CE), Emperor Yang
he shaved his head and became a monk at the age gave the imperial instructions to set up a sutra
of 23 in a temple named Kumuda in Karņakubja translation  pavillion inside Shanglin Garden on
(paraphrasing as Erchu) in central India and was the south bank of Luoshui. Damojiduo and another
renamed as Secret of Buddha Dharma. At the age of translator, Jñānagupta, were invited to participate
25, Damojiduo took complete precepts and followed in the translation work in the pavilion. Damojiduo’s
guidance of Buddhagupta, Na daduo, Puzhao and sutra translating career started from the middle of
other masters to learn Dhyana and sutras of Mahayana Kaihuang term of Emperor Wen (581-600 CE) until
and Hinayana. He had travelled far and wide to the end of Daye (605-617 CE) under the reign of
many places in various countries. He once met some Emperor Yang, a total of 28 years. He died in Wude
merchants who dealt with business in north India second year of Tang Emperor Gaozu (619 CE). His
and was told there was a big country named China translation sutras included 10 volumes of Agganna
in the east. At the beginning, Damojiduo did not pay Sutta, one volume of Medicine Buddha Sutra, 10
much attention to it. Later when he toured Kapiśā, volumes of Mahāyāna-samparigraha-śāstra-bhāṣya
a business and tourist centre (more than 60 km to (translated together with Xingju), one volume
north of Kabul in Afghanistan and neighbouring of Vajracchedikāprajñapramità-såtra, 10 volumes
Hindu Kush mountains in north), the rumours of Mahāvaipulya-mahāsamipāta-sūtra Bodhisattva
about China became more common. Damojiduo chanting Samadhi, three volumes of Vajracchedik

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āprajñāpāramitopadeśa, one volume of Nidānas- and got the dharma name, Chandrakirti. He took
sutra and six volumes of Increasing Merits of the complete precepts when he was old enough and
Enlightened Bodhi Practices etc. totalling nine books learned doctrine of Sutrayana and Tantrism widely
and 46 volumes. to win excellent achievement. Chandrakirti was a
(Ge Weijun) lazy and idle man according to others which made
the other monks complain. They forced him to leave
Dharmakirti the temple. But only the Great Teacher Lzabagonpo
Dharmakirti [Facheng] (600-660 CE) was the theory Archarya realised that he was not an average monk
teacher of Yogacara school of Indian Mahayana and would get great achievement so he sent Nyima
Buddhism and a scholar of Tibetan Buddhist Grags Pa to accompany Chandrakirti to graze cows in
Hetuvidya. the forest near the temple. Once Chandrakirti drew
According to Taranatha’s The History of India a cow and milked it on a stone tablet, demonstrated
Buddhism (rgya ar chos vbyung), he was born in that he had the power of miracles and performed
Tri Ma La Ya in south India. When he was young, a legend of Draw a Cow and Milk. He also subdued
he learned all kinds of Brahaminical knowledge a heathen, Guoma Rixia, and converted him to
as well as instructions in Dharma. He then he Buddhism. He prevailed against an Indian Turkey
went to Nalanda Monastery (chos skyong) and army and protected Temple Nalanda etc.
became a monk there and studied the Buddhist Chandrakirti then was invited by Lzabagonpo
“Consciousness-only” theory. Afterwards, he Archarya to serve as the First Lama in Temple
followed Dignaga’s disciple, Dbang Phyug Sde, Nalanda, interpreted and preached the scriptures
to specially learn Pramanasamuccaya and became for the disciples to develop and expand doctrines
an expert in it. He made commentaries on of Prasangika madhyamaka. He argued with the
Pramanasamuccaya and wrote tshad ma sde bdun Great Pandita Candragomin about Rangtong and
(The Seven Theories of Hetuvidya), including gtan Shentong Yogacara for seven years and gained great
tshigs thigs pa (Hetubindu), Vbrel Ba Rtags Pa, Rtyud reputation. He revealed the outcome of esoteric
Gzhan Grub Pa, rtsod pvi rig pa (Arguing Dialectical ideas of Nagarjuna, chose the second round Prajna
Theory), tshad ma rnam vgrel (Pramanavarttika), methodology, understood the most profound
rang vgrel (Self-interpretation), and tshad ma rnam doctrine, Madhyamapratipad in No phase dharma,
nges (Pramanaviniscaya). These have further and wrote Annotation about Madhyamapratipad,
contributed to the development of Dignaga’s tsema. Illustrious Theory, Annotation about Guhyasamaja,
Dharmakirti and his works are therefore highly Lamp Theory etc. His representative works
praised and respected in Tibetan Buddhism. Madhyamakavatara and Madhyamakavatara
(Kalsang gyal) Self-annotation had great influence on the later
generations and became one of the five important
Candrakirti classics of temple education in Tibetan Buddhism.
Chandrakirti [Yuecheng] (600-670 CE) was a master Madhyamapratipad 400 Interpretations, 60 Orthodox
of Prasangika madhyamaka, Indian Buddhism, main Interpretations, Madhyamapratipad Five Skandhas
representative of Mahayana. Theories and other eight books were translated into
With Tibetan name of Lzabagragspa, he was Tibetan by great Tibetan translators, Patshal and
born in a Brahman family in Samandala, India, and Gos Gorba Lha Tse and became proverbial among
learned the paganism doctrine when he was young. Tibetan Buddhists. Preacher Chandrakirti had built
He was initiated into a acolyte by Lzabagonpo temples in southern India and promoted Buddhism.
Archarya in Temple Nalanda and became a monk Finally he died in Mt. Manubhamga.
(Deji zhuoma)

Divakara
Divākara (Dipoheluo, 613-687 CE) was an Indian
Buddhist monk who came to China in the Tang
Dynasty. He was a translator whose name was
paraphrased as Rizhao.
According to the records such as volume II of
Biographies of Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty,
volume IX of Directory for Buddhism in Kaiyuan
Period and volume I of Maha-Vaipulya-Buddha-
Avatamsaka-Sutra, Dipoheluo/Divākara was from
central India and belonged to a Brahmin family. He
Candrakīrti became a monk during his childhood and lived in

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Mahabodhi and Nalanda Temples. He was not only Sutra, Buddhist Sermon on Bodhisattva Practice for
gentle but also handsome. He observed peaceful Four-dhamma Sutra, Mahayana Sutra of Universal
and quiet precepts and was good in studies. He Brightness, Mahayana Sutra of Universal Brightness
had an excellent command over eight kinds of Wordless Dharma-mukha, Sutra of Simhanada, Usnisa
canons inclusive of sutras, rules, discussions and Vijaya Dharani Sutra, Usnisa Vijaya Dharani Sutra
incantations as well as a wide grasp of the five fields on Purifying Karma, Dharani of Buddhist Sermon on
of knowledge inclusive of declaration, bzo-rig-pa, Seven Boundless Buddhas and Three Sorcery Sutra.
medicine, Indian classical logic and dharma. He (Ge Weijun)
was, however, specially good at incantations.
Dipoheluo/ Divākara came to Chang’an during Cunda
the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty Cunda [Chuntuo] (about 621-767 CE) was an
(649-683 CE). He was requested to translate the Indian monk who was at Nalanda Monastery before
scriptures brought by him in the May of the fourth coming to China in about 760 or 761 CE in his
year of Fengyi Period (679 CE). According to the 80s. He conducted activities in Chang’an, assisted
routine for Xuanzang, Emperor Gaozong of Tang in building Jinge Temple on Wutai Mountain and
Dynasty sent out the imperial decree in which lived in Zhengguo Temple of Chang’an hereafter.
Dipoheluo/ Divākara was arranged to sit in the He “looked as a child”, “talked loudly and behaved
side yard of a grand temple and engaged in the strongly” and was praised by people at that time.
translation in East Taiyuan Temple (in Loyang, Li Yu, Emperor Daizong (reigned from 762-779
later known as Dafuxian Temple), West Taiyuan CE), respectfully summoned him and asked him
Temple (located in Chang’an, later known as West about longevity and beatifying. He proposed the
Chongfu Temple) and the Guangfu Temple in Xijing. preservation of calmness and simplicity for health.
Many respectable intellectuals were also invited and observed “tranquil mind led to longevity and
to take part in the translation. Scriptures such as desirelessness made body healthy”. He was greatly
two volumes of Mahayana Sutra, one volume of honoured by Emperor Daizong, which could be
Treatise on the Five Aggregates of Mahayana and evidenced in entries in volume 29 of the Song-
one volume of Mahavaipulya Buddhavatamsaka Dynasty Collection of Biographies of Eminent Monks
Sutra in Dharmadhatu were translated until the late and volume 21 of Records of Morality and Justice.
Chuigong Period under the reign of Empress Wu (Xue Keqiao)
Zetian in Tang Dynasty (685-688 CE). Śramana
Zhantuo, Prajna Deva translated the original text, Subhakarasimha
Huizhi reviewed Sanskrit, Daocheng, Bochen, Śubhākarasimha [Shanwuwei] (637-735 CE) was an
Jiashang, Yuance, Lingbian, Mingxun and Huaidu Indian Buddhist monk and translator who came to
reviewed the meanings and Sixuan and Fuli wrote China in Tang Dynasty. He was one of the founders
down the dictated translation. Empress Wu Zetian of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism. Together with
wrote the preface and titled the scriptures initially. Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, he was known as one
After completion of the work, Dipoheluo/ Divākara of the “Three Major Buddhists of Kaiyuan”. His name
requested to resign in order to return home which in another Chinese translation was Jingshizi and in
was finally approved. Just before departure, he transliteration Shupojieluosenghe or Shubojialuo.
declared his death to his disciple and passed away According to volume II of Buddhist Biography in
without any illness on December 27th of the third Song Dynasty, volume nine of The Kai-yuan Record
year of Chuigong Period (687 CE) at the age of 75.
Empress Wu Zetian mourned his death. According
to imperial order, he was buried in the south side
of Longmen Mountain in Luoyang, near Yishui
River. Shortly after that a temple was established
at the request of Prince Liang and named the
Xiangshan Temple. Besides the above mentioned
translated classical scriptures, there were some
other classical scriptures which were translated by
him. These included 12 volumes of Lalitavistara,
two volumes of Covenant Mahayana Sutra, three
volumes of Ghana-vyūaha-sūtra, two volumes of
Indestructible Hypothesis of Vajracchedikā-prājñā-
pāramitā Sutra, one volume each of Mahayana 100
Auspicious Marks Sutra, the Buddhist Sermon on
Merits of Building Tower, Mahayana Four-dhamma Subhakarasimha

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of Buddhist Books and Shanwuwei Biography Recorded

in Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Shanwuwei was
the descendant of Amitodana who was the uncle
of Sakyamuni, belonging to Kshatriya caste. His
ancestors had moved to India, then to Oóra (now
in the north of Orissa) dur to a natural calamity.
Because of his supernatural temperament, good
virtues and skills, at the age of 10, his father asked
him to command armies. At the age of 13, his
father died and he succeeded the throne under the
posthumous edict. His brothers refused to accept so
fought a battle for getting the throne. After putting Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
down the riot, he became world-weary so gave way
to the elder brother and determined to become a Sanskrit scriptures he brought in the imperial
monk. He first came to South India to learn Lotus Sutra palace. Previously, Śramana Wuxing had come to
Samadhi and then travelled around various countries India for the scriptures, but unfortunately, he died
by merchant ships, cultivating himself in meditation in northern India. Palm-leaf scriptures he obtained
and chanting sutras. Because he was very clever, he were brought back by his fellow travellers and were
soon mastered five yana (Manusya-yana, Deva-yana, stored in Huayan Temple of the capital. Shanwuwei
Shravaka-yana, Pratyeka-buddha-yana, Bodhisattva- and Chan master Yixing headed for the temple
yana) and three studies (sila, samadhi, prajna). He and chose many important scriptures without
could make a thorough inquiry into the meditation translation. In the 12th year of Kaiyuan Period, he
and dharani. In addition, he was also good at artistic followed Emperor Xuanzong of Tang to Luoyang
creation and well-versed in utensil-making. He and was ordered to translate Vairocana Sutra in
came to Nalanda Monastery to learn from Samadhi Fuxian Temple with Sramana Baoyue interpreting,
master, Dharmagupta. His master taught him Yixing writing, simplifying and sorting. Because the
Dharani Yoga Three Tantra, presided over Abhisheka scriptures had 100,000 gatha, only the important
for him and gave him the title of Tripitaka Dharma points were translated, getting seven volumes of
Master. During the period of living in Nalanda Mahavairocana-abhisambodhi-vikurvita adhisthana-
Monastery, he also travelled around to seek for the vaipulya-sutra. Later generations gave the evaluation
holy relic such as Kukkuñapàdagiri, Gçdhrakåña etc. of 'literary grace and essence account for a half,
Dharmagupta said he had predestined relationship harmonic and interesting'. Then he translated three
with China, so he was ordered by his master to go volumes of Suvàhu-paripçcchà and three volumes
to China for disseminating dharma. He first passed of usiddhikara-mahàtantrasàdhanopàyika-pañala. In
Kashmira, Udyana (Swat basin now in northern addition to the translation of Buddhist scriptures,
Pakistan) to arrive in the territory of Western he also wrote one volume of Tripitaka Abstract of
Turks. Under the request of khan, he preached Shanwuwei - records of discussing Buddha dhamma
Mahavairocana-abhisambodhi-vikurvita adhisthana- between him and Dadejingxian master from
vaipulya-sutra. Then he continued to travel to the Huishan Temple in Songshan Mountain which told
east with camels carrying Buddhist sutras, reached about the precepts, repentance and tantra. And he
Luxizhou (governance seat is located in Gaochang wrote 20 volumes of Vairocana Abhisambuddha Sutra
now. Gaochang is an ancient city in the southeast Commentaries. It was the records of explanation for
of Turpan) and Yumen, at that time, Tang envoy Mahavairocana-abhisambodhi-vikurvita adhisthana-
awaited the arrival of him. In the fourth year of vaipulya-sutra made by Shanwuwei under people’s
Kaiyuan Period in Tang Dynasty (716 CE), he requests and written by Yixing with a wide range
arrived in Chang’an, received the courtesy and of content, fluent writing style and complete
respect of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. He was explanation of original scriptures. Shanwuwei liked
ordered to live in the south courtyard of Xingfu quietness and contemplation. He would advise and
Temple and later moved to Ximing Temple. In encourage beginners patiently. His disciples said
the fourth year of Kaiyuan Period, he was ordered that his figure was like a lotus flower and his words
to translate the scriptures in Bodhi courtyard of were like dew. In 20th year of Kaiyuan Period (732
Ximing Temple. Shanwuwei invited the monks CE), he wanted to return home but the Emperor
to participate in translation. He first translated Xuanzong of Tang gave him awards and urged him
Akasagarbha Asking for Promoting Buddhadharma to stay. On October 7 in 23rd year, he died at the age
with Śramana Xida interpreting, Asanga writing of 99 with feet together and lying on the right side.
and organising sentences. The emperor spoke It was said that his body would not decay due to
highly of the translation and then ordered to put the nurture of samadhi and prajna. In October of the

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28th year of Kaiyuan Period, he was buried inside Natural Law of Virtues so it was incorporated into
Guanghua Temple in Xishan Mountain of Longmen. Volume X of Sutra of Assembly of Dharani without
In the first year of Qianyuan Period of Emperor other versions.
Suzong of Tang (758 CE), the monument was built (Ge Weijun)
for him beside the temple with his disciple, Li Hua,
compiling the Inscription Preface of Shanwuwei, Jnanaprabha
with Sramana Jiecheng lettering, and Hengxiu Jñānaprabhā [Zhiguang] (c. 7th century CE), was
writing the inscription. LI Hua also complied one an eminent monk in central India who once studied
volume of Shanwuwei Biography Recorded in together with Xuanzang in Nalanda. There was also
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. exchange of letters between the two.
(Ge Weijun) According to the volume VII of Biography of
Tripitaka Dharma Master from Da Ci'en Temple of
Atigupta Tang Dynasty and other records, Zhiguang was a
Atigupta [Wujigao] (c. 7th century) was an Indian man from Magadha in central India. He was  very
Buddhist monk and translator who came to learned and well-informed and had comprehensive
China in Tang Dynasty. His transliterated name training and knowledge of Mahayana, Hinayana,
was Adiquduo. Four Vedas and pañcavidyā. He was deeply
According to volume VIII of The Kai-yuan Record respected and admired by scholars across India.
of Buddhist Books, volume two of Buddhist Biography When Xuanzang toured in India, Zhiguang was in
in Song Dynasty, and Dharani Sutra Translation Nàlanda. They became close friends as classmates.
Prologue, Wujigao was from Central India, with At that time Zhiguang was the most important
unknown family background. When he was young, disciple of Śīlabhadra, head monk of the temple.
being super intelligent, he yearned for Buddhism. After Xuanzang returned to China, Zhiguang and
He had travelled across India to seek masters and Master Prajñānadeva of the same temple could
was willing to take advice from them. In learning, not forget their deep old friendship. Later, when
he made a thorough investigation into Mahayana Master Fazhang planned to visit China in Yonghui
and in behaviour, he reached the highest state in third year under the reign of Emperor Gaozong,
practicing Buddhism. He also knew five classes of they took this opportunity to write a letter together
knowledge (science of language, science of logic, and entrusted it to Master Fazhang to deliver to
science of medicine, science of fine arts and crafts Xuanzang. They also sent two duans (the unit used
and science of spirituality), and best understood in Tang Dynasty, one duan equalled to around 1,800
Tripitaka (Sutras, Vinaya and Abhidharma). He cm) of fine cloth as gift. In the letter they saluted
devoted himself to promoting Buddhism and Xuanzang as Mokṣācārya (meaning the master of
extricating all living creatures and he travelled relief/ liberation) with all admiring and praising
around, without returning to homeland. In January words, expressed deep heartfelt feelings and wished
of the third year of Yonghui of Emperor Gaozong of Xuanzang great health and peace with their best
Tang (652 CE), he came to Chang’an from Western regards. At the same time, they also promised to
India carrying Buddhist scriptures and the emperor send through monks any original sutras required by
granted to live in Ci'en Temple. In March, 16 Xuanzang. When master Fazhang took his leave for
Śramana including Dachengcong and 12 government returning to India, Xuanzang replied Zhiguang and
dignitaries including Duke Li Shiji and Duke Yuchi Prajñānadeva in separate letters and reported to the
Jingde invited him to build Dharani preaching altar emperor by copying the contents of the letters. In
in Buddha courtyard of Huiri Temple. It was said his letter of reply to Zhiguang, besides expressing
that there were strange events happening repeatedly his deep thoughts toward their friends after a
on the day of finishing the building of altar which long separation, Xuanzang also expressed deep
surprised everyone. Under the request of Śramana condolences on the death of Master Śīlabhadra. He
Xuankai to translate the scriptures, in March of the fully praised Śīlabhadra’s significant contribution for
fourth year of Yonghui, he began to translate the the inheritance of the profound principles of Buddha-
important contents in Dorje Bodhimanda Sutra with dharma and expressed his heartfelt gratitude for his
Xuankai writing. The translation was finished in teaching and guiding. Xuanzang knew Zhiguang
April of the fifth year of Yonghui, with one category had been the successor of head monk in Nàlanda
of 12 volumes, named Sutra of the Great Assembly so he also raised expectations for his friend and
of Dharani. Because Wujigao was often called into hoped Zhiguang would continue to carry forward
the palace for conducting dharma events, being Śīlabhadra’s Buddhist enterprise. In addition, he
very busy, the translation was not rechecked. At also reported in details about the progress of his
that time, masters Ananda-mokkha and Kasyapa own translation of Buddhist scriptures and praised
from Mahabodhi Temple in Central India translated the present emperor’s merit was like Dharmaāja

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who supported with prefaces to the newly translated scriptures were lost in Indus when he returned
Buddhist scriptures. The translated scriptures could, home, he attached the name of the scriptures in the
therefore, not only be spread within the country but letter and hoped that he could regain them someday
also be followed and learned by the neighboring to perfect the translation.
countries. Xuanzang also added several sutras’ (Ge Weijun)
names as suggested by Zhiguang and Prajñànadeva.
These Sanskrit classics had lost when he crossed the Bhagavaddharma
Xindu River (now Indian River) on the way back to Bhagavaddharma [Zunfa] (c. 7th century CE) was an
China. He hoped to get these classics one day in the Indian Buddhist monk and translator who came to
future so as to perfect his translation enterprise. China in Tang Dynasty. His name in transliteration
(Ge Weijun) was Qiefandamo.
According to volume II of Buddhist Biography in
Prajnanadeva Song Dynasty, Zunfa was from west India. His wish
Prajñànadeva [Huitian] (7th century) was an Indian was to preach Buddhism to all living creatures
Buddhist monk from Central India. He had studied during his life. So he travelled a long distance to
together with Tang Xuanzang in Nalanda Monastery China and devoted himself to the translation of
and exchanged letters later. Buddhist scriptures. During Yonghui Period of the
According to the seventh volume of Datang Da Emperor Gaozong of Tang, 650-655, he translated
Ci'en Temple Tripitaka Master Biography, Huitian is one volume of Thousand-hand and Thousand-eye
Buddhist from Mahabodhi Temple in Central India. Guan-yin Bodhisattva Maha Karuna Dharani Mantra
When Xuanzang visited India, he stayed at Nalanda and Contemplative Secret Dharani. But the title of
Monastery and was one of the most important the sutra was only “translated by Indian Śramana
disciples of monastery abbot, Śilabhadra. Huitian Zunfa in Tang Dynasty” without mentioning any
has a good knowledge of various theories of 18 specific time of production. It is speculated that the
schools of Theravada Buddhism and was good at translation might be finished during Yonghui period
teaching and education which was favoured by and Xianqing period (656-660 CE). Since then, there
people at that time. Xuanzang often exchanged notes was not any record about Zunfa. It is said that by
with him. But because of his failure to carefully read reciting a mantra could gain 15 kinds of wholesome
vaipulya, or Mahayana Scriptures, he was criticised birth and avoid suffering 15 kinds of wicked death.
for his prejudice. In Kanyakubja Buddhist Assembly (Ge Weijun)
called by Śilāditya, he also lost to Xuanzang in
the argument. Feeling ashamed, he showed his Nati
admiration to Xuanzang. After Xuanzang returned Nati Sanzang [Punaudaya](c. 7th century CE) was
home, he and Jñànaprabhà in the same monastery an Indian Buddhist and translator who came to
could not forget their old friendship. Later, when China in Tang Dynasty and whose full name was
Fachang Buddhist visited China in the third year Puõyodaya in free translation rendered as Fusheng.
of Yonghui of Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty According to volume IV of Continuation Biography
(652), they jointly wrote a letter and entrusted him of Eminent Monks, volume IX of The Kai-yuan Record
to deliver it to Xuanzang, together with fine cloth of of Buddhist Books etc. Nati was from central India
12 Zhang. They praised Xuanzang as Mokshacarya (northern India in other records). When he was
(meaning Moksha master) and conveyed their full young, he received guidance from a famous teacher
admiration and compliments. The letter showed and became enlightened and, hence he was engaged
their heartfelt feelings and wishes for the health in the promotion of Buddhism with great zeal. He
of Xuanzang. The letter also said that if Xuanzang was curious in nature, had extensive interests and
needed any original scriptures, he could tell them the travelled around many countries to increase his
name and they would copy and send the scriptures knowledge. He once went to the Lanka Mountain
to him. In the fifth year of Yonghui, when Fachang in southeast area of Simhaladvipa (present-day
Buddhist left for home, Xuanzang replied a letter to Sri Lanka). Because he had a good knowledge of
them. He also copied the contents of the letter and phonology, morphology and exegetics, he did not
presented it to the emperor. In the reply, he gave his face a language barrier anywhere. He begged for
sincere greetings, praised Huitian for his profound alms and promoted the doctrine. Also, he was once
knowledge and strong will showed his admiration summoned by Bactria (Tukhara in general, now in
and the feeling of missing them and sincerely northern Afghanistan, local government is located
wished them good health. He also advised them for in Balkh, the west of Mazer-e-Sharif) to serve as
his preference for Theravada instead of Mahayana a scribe, working in the imperial library. Later,
and hoped that he could find the right view so as to he knew that Mahayana scriptures prevailed over
avoid regret on his deathbed. Because some Sanskrit China hence, he carried more than 500 palm-leaf

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scriptures of Mahayana, Theravada and Tripitaka, for Buddhism in Kaiyuan Period, and volume XXXIX
with more than 1,500 works in total and went of General Record of Buddhas etc, Buddhatrata was
east. He arrived in the capital, Chang’an, in the born in Kashmir, Uttarapatha, and came a long
sixth year of Yonghui of Emperor Gaozong of way to China with pattra [palm] leaves scriptures
Tang (655 CE) and lived in Da Ci'en Temple. At for his aspiration to spread Buddhism in China.
that time, Xuanzang, who was highly reputed, He lived in Baima Temple and engaged himself
was responsible for the translation of Buddhist in translation. He once translated one volume
scriptures who was highly reputed, so Nati was of Mahāvaipulya pūrṇabuddhasūtra prassanārtha
only in an auxiliary role and his ability could not sūtra. No date of translation was mentioned. But,
be put to good use. Later, Emperor Gaozong of according to General Record of Buddhas, this sutra
Tang fell ill in the first year of Xianqing (656 CE) was translated in 655 CE, the sixth year of Yonghui
and because Nati knew different medicines, he was Period during the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang
ordered to search for them in Kunlun countries Dynasty. The later generations commented that the
(presnt-day Con Dao Islands in South China Sea). annotation of time was not necessarily a must, it
The kings in South China Sea worshipped him, was enough to sincerely respect the Buddha, work
built a temple for him and invited him to preach to spread Buddhism and indoctrinate people with its
with an offer for widespread promotion. In the main principles, strictly distinguishing between true
third year of Longshuo (663 CE), he returned and false and pass the essence of scriptures. No one
to Chang'an and wanted to study and translate has yet any knowledge of other traces and places
the Sanskrit scriptures he brought, but they had of his destinations. The sutra he translated was a
been taken by Xuanzang. Without them, he only common classic of Chan/ Zen Buddhism with a large
translated one volume of Shizi Zhuang yan Wang amount of exegesis by later generations such as
pusa qing wen jing, one volume of Vimalabhūmi the four volumes of Brief Exegesis for Mahāvaipulya
Sumedha Buddhadharma Sutra, and one volume pūrṇabuddhasūtra prassanārtha sūtra complied by
of Azhanazhi Mantra Sutra, with interpretation by Zongmi, Chan/ Zen master in Caotang Temple
Śramana Huize from Chanlin Temple, sentence during Dahe Period (827-835 CE) under the reign of
patterns arrangement and preface writing by Emperor Wenzong of Tang Dynasty.
Śramana Daoxuan from Fengde Temple. In the (Ge Weijun)
same year, Chenla (present-day Cambodia) that
had once accepted his enlightenment hoped that Vajrabodhi
he could come to his country and then sent the Vajrabodhi [Jingangzhi] (671–741 CE) was an Indian
domestic masters to Chang’an. They lied that they Buddhist monk and translator who came to China in
found good medicine in their country and Nati Tang Dynasty. He was one of the founders of Chinese
who was the only one who knew about medicines Esoteric Buddhism together with Subhakarasimha
had to go there personally. So the imperial court and Amoghavajra and all were called “Three Major
let him go and he never returned. There were Buddhists of Kaiyuan”. His name in transliteration
people coming to China from Balkh with words was Bariluoputi and is regarded as Dorje Tripitaka.
what Nati learned was from Nagarjuna School According to volume I of Buddhist Biography in Song
which was different from Xuanzang’s theory. Nati Dynasty, volume nine of The Kai-yuan Record of
mastered the five categories of codes of Theravada Buddhist Books, volume XIV of New Buddhism List
and veda and had written more than 40 volumes of in Zhenyuan Period and volume seven of Immortal
Mahayana Moral Behaviour Theory, but for lack of Buddhist Biography, Jingangzhi was from Ma-la-ya
time, they could not be translated, and have now in southern India and was Brahmin by caste (in
been lost. The description of Nati’s life and career some other records, he is referred to as the prince
recorded in Buddhist biography has always been from central India belonging to Kshatriya caste).
controversial. His original name is Puõyodaya but His father was proficient in panca-vidya and was
what is known to us is Nati which is one example. the state Buddhist monk of Kanci (present-day
But the arguments made them more doubtful and Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu). When Jingangzhi
more information are need to correct his profile. was very young, he could recite 10,000 sentences
(Ge Weijun) every day and he would never forget what he saw
and said. When he was 10, he became a monk of
Buddhatrata Nàlanda Monastery (in other record: when he
Buddhatrata [Fotuoduoluo] was an Indian monk and was 16, he was enlightened with Buddhism and
translator who came to China in Tang Dynasty. His followed the teacher to Nàlanda Monastery in
name, Buddhatrata, was paraphrased as “Juejiu”. central India). He was engaged in the statement
According to volume II of Biographies of Eminent theory of meditation and wisdom study. At the age
Monks in Song Dynasty and volume IX of Directory of 20, he received full ordination. He had even gone

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troubles or prayed for rain and warded off various

calamities for local people. He built Maha Mandala
Abhisheka Altar in the temple where he lived
and accepted the four-fold assembly conversion.
Buddhists Dazhi, Dahui, Amoghavajra and Śramana
Yixing became his disciples. In the 11th year of
Kaiyuan, he started the translation of scriptures.
In Zisheng Temple, he translated four volumes of
Essentials of Vajrasekhara Yoga Sutra, one volume
of Buddha Speaks the Sutra of Maha Cundi Dharani,
The Heart of the Mother of Seven Koti Buddhas, with
Yisheluo, a Brahmin from East India, interpreting
Vajrabodhi and Śramana Wengu from Songshan writing. In the
18th year of Kaiyuan, he translated one volume
to west India to learn Dharmakãrti’s Hetuvidya of Vajrasekhara Sutra Manjushri Bodhisattva Five-
theory (in other record: Theravada theory, yoga of Syllable Dharani, and one volume of Avalokitesvara
body, mouth and heart, Dharani). Later, he returned Nyo-i-rin Bodhisattva Yoga Method at Jianfu Temple,
to Nalanda Monastery and learned Mahayana, with Śramana Zhizang interpreting and Yixing
Theravada law as well as Prajñāpradīpaśāstrakarika, writing. In the 19th year, he translated Vajrasekhara
Śataśāstra, Dvādaśamukhaśāstra and others. Yoga Asevana Vairocana Samadhi Sutra, Thousand-
At the age of 28, he went to Kapilavastu hand and Thousand-eye Guan-yin Bodhisattva Body
(present-day south border of Nepal) to learn Mantra, Thousand-hand and Thousand-eye Guan-
Yogācārabhūmiśāstra, Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi-śàstra yin Bodhisattva Maha Karuna Dharani Mantra and
and Madhyāntavibhāgañīkā from talented masters. Contemplator Dharani Secret Sutra, each having one
At the age of 31, he came to southern India again volume, with Śramana Zhizang (Amoghavajra)
and learned Dorje Yoga Sutra, Vairocana Dharani writing. In his later years, Jingangzhi intended
means and Mahayana sutras, Panca-vidya theory, to return home, and in July of the 29th year of
and accepted abhisheka of five regions. Finally seven Kaiyuan (741 CE), Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
years later, he mastered the knowledge of all kinds gave his consent. In August, Jingangzhi arrived at
of Esoteric Buddhism. According to one legend, Guangfu Temple in Luoyang and said that he would
he followed Guanyin Bodhisattva’s instructions to be gone during the full moon. Exactly on the 15th
lead his eight common disciples to Simhaladvipa day of the month, he died at the age of 71. He was
(present-day Sri Lanka). He went to the Fearless buried to the right of Yichuan of southern Longmen
King Temple to make obeisance to Buddha's in November. The emperor conferred on him the
tooth. And half-a-year later, he went to the Lankā title of “Abhisheka Buddhist” and built a pagoda in
Mountain in the southeast of the country to worship Xigang of Fengxian Temple in Longmen in February
Buddha relics. Soon after returning to Ma-la-ya in of the second year of Tianbao of Emperor Xuanzong
southern India, he planned to promote Buddhism of Tang (743 CE) in his memory. In the first year
in China. The king asked him to bring the local of Yongtai of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (765 CE),
products, treasures and a large number of pattra- under the submission of Amoghavajra, the emperor
leaf scriptures of Mahāprajñāpāramitāsūtra. He first gave Jingangzhi another title of “Kaifu Yitong Sansi
came to Simhaldvipa and stayed there for a month Sanzang”. And in the third year of Dali (768 CE),
at the request of King Shilishiluo. He then followed Emperor Daizong of Tang personally wrote the
Persian merchants to sail across the sea and reached inscription for the pagoda plaque on the request
Śrīvijaya (presnt-day Sumatra) within one month. of Amoghavajra. Most translations of Jingangzhi
But due to wind direction, which was unfavourable were related to Esoteric Buddhist scriptures and
for travel, he stayed there for five months. The sadhana with existing translations spanning up to
subsequent travel was also more dangerous. He 23 categories and 29 volumes in total.
finally reached Guangzhou in about three years. In (Ge Weijun)
the eighth year of Kaiyuan of Emperor Xuanzong of
Tang Dynasty (720 CE), he came to Luoyang, got a Buddhapala
reception from the emperor and was ordered to live Buddhapāla [Fotuoboli] (7th century CE) was an
in Da Ci'en Temple in Chang’an. He soon moved to Indian Buddhist monk and translator who came
Zisheng Temple (in other record: Jianfu Temple). to China during Tang Dynasty. His name in free
From then on, he often followed the emperor to translation was Juehu.
Luoyang and Chang’an. Wherever he arrived, he According to volume II of Buddhist Biography in
conducted a Abhisheka to help people remove their Song Dynasty, volume II of Guangqingliang-Zhuan,

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volume IX of The Kai-yuan Record of Buddhist Books, Jinamitra (transliteration is Pishishamiduoluo)

Fotuoboli was from Kashmir in Central India. He and Jinaputra (transliteration is Chennafoduoluo)
devoted himself to Buddhism and travelled all are the three major disciples of Dharmapala
over India to seek holy relics. When he heard that Bodhisattva who is the abbot of Nalanda Monastery.
Manjusri Bodhisattva lived in Qingliang Mountain, Dharmapala is the major master of consciousness-
(ie Wutai Mountain in Shanxi Province), he only school. Jnanacandra has high reputation and
travelled long distance to visit him. He reached is famous for his “elegant manner, transcendental
Wutai Mountain in the first year of Yifeng of knowledge, extraordinary wisdom and agile style”.
Emperor Gaozong of Tang (676 CE). It is said that He has even written comments for Vasubandhu’s
he reached the top of Siyang Mountain and looked Vijñànamàtrasiddhi-triüati-÷śàstra-kàrikà which
at the magnificent scenery and made obeisance to unfortunately is extinct now.
the mountain. An old man then suddenly turned up (Ge Weijun)
and greeted him in an Indian language. Knowing
that Fotuoboli had come here to learn rituals, the Simharashmi
old man told him that all living creatures here Simharaśmi [Shiziguang] (c. 7th century CE), a
were grievously sinful, even homeless people scholar monk at Nālandā in central India, once
violated the commandments, and they all needed debated with Xuanzang on Buddhist doctrines.
Shurangama Mantra to help them remove their sins. According to the fourth volume of Continuation
Only making a journey to the west for the scriptures of the Biographies of Eminent Monks, the fourth
and handing it down to generations could benefit volume of Biography of Tripitaka Dharma Master
all living creatures. So Fotuoboli followed the from Da Ci'en Temple of Tang Dynasty and other
old man’s direction and returned to India for the records, after Xuanzang arrived at Nàlanda, he
scriptures. He then returned to Chang’an in the first offered lectures on Mahàyàna-saüparigraha-sàstra
year of Hongdao (683 CE) and related his intention and On Consciousness-only Choice on the orders
to Emperor Gaozong of Tang. So the emperor of Master Śilabhadra. At that time, eminent
ordered the official, Du Xingyi, and Indian monk monk, Shiziguang, had already offered lectures
Divakara to translate the scriptures. Fotuoboli was on Mādhyamikaśāstra of Nāgārjuna and Śataśāstra
awarded 3,000 rolls of silk after the translation of Deva and refuted Yogācāra theory with the
was finished and the scriptures were stored in the viewpoints of Mādhyamika Mula of Nāgārjuna.
palace. Fotuoboli expressed that he brought the Xuanzang was proficient with the two theories of
scriptures from a long distance to circulate it and Madhāyamikaśāstra and Śataśāstra, and knew very
help people. Regardless of treasures and fame, he well about Yogācāra theory as well. He believed
made a request to the emperor to circulate the that the ancient saints set up doctrines at their own
scriptures among the people. The emperor was will. Thus, different theories would not violate and
moved by his sincerity and gave the scriptures hinder each other. If the descendents could not
back to him. Then he translated the Sanskrit again digest the meaning, it was because of the existence
with monk Shunzhen (in Ximing Temple) who of errors in the process of inheritance, other than
was familiar with Sanskrit. The translation was problems with the theories themselves. Believing
called Usnisa Vijaya Dharani Sutra. After his wish Simharaśmi’s viewpoints were biased, Xuanzang
came true, he carried the original Sanskrit version went to discuss and debate with him for several
to Wutai Mountain again and was not heard of times. Most of the time, the latter could not answer.
after that. The sutra was practised by believers in The result was Simharśmi’s disciples gradually left
Tantrism from morning to night and people could him and turned to follow Xuanzang. To illustrate
pass their virtues to the dead by reciting it, which the two theories were originally not violating and
was efficacious. The scriptures were translated hindering each other; Xuanzang compiled 3,000
nine times but the translation of Fotuoboli was the odes in the book of On Combination of Doctrines and
most popular. offered these books to Silabhadra and the public,
(Ge Weijun) which won good reputation. From then on, this
book became a teaching material for the learners
Jnanacandra inside the temple. Simharaśmi felt ashamed and
J¤ānacandra [Zhiyue] (c. 7th century CE) is one left for Bodhi Temple as a refuge. To revenge for
of the 10 masters of consciousness-only school of the former’s humiliation, he sent a classmate from
ancient India. His name in Chinese transliteration eastern India to debate with Xuanzang. However
is Ruonazhandaluo. when the classmate arrived, he was scared and did
According to volume IX of Xuanzang’s Great not launch any debate. Thus, Xuanzang’s prestige
Tang Records on the Western Regions, and volume was further improved.
one of Kuiji’s Records of Cittamatra, J¤ānacandra, (Ge Weijun)

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Manicinta shape of a temple in India and named it Tianzhu

Maņicinta [Baosiwei] (c. 7 -8 century CE) was an
th th
Temple where he and his disciples lived together.
Indian Buddhist and translator who came to China In the ninth year of Kaiyuan of the Tang Emperor
in Tang Dynasty. His name in Chinese transliteration Xuanzong (721 CE), he died in this temple, at the
was Anizhenna. age of more than a 100 years. In addition to three
According to volume III of Buddhist Biography in volumes of the above Sutra of Realising People’s
Song Dynasty, volume IX of The Kai-yuan Record Wishes with Bodhisattva’s Benevolence, his presently
of Buddhist Books, Maņicinta was from Kashmir in existing translations include: Buddha Speaks the
northern India, belonging to Kshatriya caste. He Sutra on the Merits of Bathing the Buddha, Buddha
became a monk when he was a child and became Speaks the Sutra on the Merits of Prayer Beads, The
Sutra of the Great One Syllable Dharani in Dharma
Ending Age, Avalokiteshvara Aniruddha Mani
Dharani Sutra, Avalokiteshvara Aniruddha Mani
Wheel Dharani Chanting Methods, Buddha Speaks
Dharani Incantation of the Protectress Who Grants
Great Freedom, Manjusri’'s Fundamental One-Syllable
Dharani from the Mahāvaipulya-bodhisattvapitaka and
Fighting between Narayana and Asurindaka, with each
having one volume.
(Ge Weijun)

Pramiti
Pramiti [Jiliang] (7th-8th century CE), was an Indian
monk and translator of Buddhist sutras who came
to China in Tang Dynasty. His name in Chinese was
Manicinta transliterated as Banlamidi as it is pronounced.
According to volume II of Biographies of Eminent
engaged in meditation and chanting sutras, and Monks in Song Dynasty and volume XIV of New
specialised in precepts of Buddhist scriptures Directory for Buddhism in Zhenyuan Period, Jiliang
after receiving full ordination. He had remarkable was a native of central India and had good
comprehension ability. He not only learned two
truths doctrine of true meaning and common
meaning but was also good at astrology, mantra etc.
He took up moralising all living creatures as his own
duty, without attachment to his homeland. In the
second year of Changshou of Wuzhou period (693
CE), he came to Luoyang and lived in Tiangong
Temple under the order of Empress Wu Zetian.
At first, he translated the scriptures at Foshouji
Temple, Tiangong Temple and Fuxian Temple and
by the second year of Shenlong of the Emperor
Zhongzong of Tang (706 CE), he successively
finished the translation of seven scriptures including
Sutra of Realizing People’s Wishes with Bodhisattva’s
Benevolence. In April of the first year of Taiji of the
Tang Emperor Ruizong (712 CE), Zhang Qixian, the
attendant of the prince presented the finished copy
of the translation to the imperial court.
In June the same year, the Emperor ordered
Minister of Rituals Duke Jinguo, Xue Ji and Right
Attendant Seigneur Gaoping, Xu Yanbo to make
detailed examination and then incorporate it into
the scriptures list. Since then, Maņicinta was no
longer engaged in translation but devoted himself
to the worship of Buddha and sutras chanting and
did more good deeds by giving all his belongings
to others. Later, he built a temple imitating the Shurangama Sutra, translated by Pramiti

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knowledge of Buddhism. His lifelong dream was to 15. [in another record: in the sixth year of Kaiyuan
travel and beg for alms, follow destiny and help all of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (718 CE), he became
living creatures. Later, he headed to Guangzhou and a Buddhist monk and travelled to Yavadvipa, ie
lived in Zhizhi Bodhimanda. In May 705 CE, the first Java and Sumatra in Indonesia or only the Java
year of Shenlong reign of Tang Emperor Zhongzong, island, learned from Vajrabodhi then followed him
he recited from the abhiseka classic sutras a volume to Luoyang]. Due to his great intelligence, he could
named Shurangama Sutra of Samantabhadra Revising master the Sanskrit Siddham and statement theory
the Behaviours of All Bodhisattva which was translated in not more than 10 days. Vajrabodhi was surprised
into 10 volumes. and made him learn Bodhisattva Precepts. In the 12th
Śramana Mijiashuoqu from Udyana (Swat River year of Kaiyuan (724 CE) he received full ordination
basin in the north of present-day Pakistan), was the in Guangfu Temple in Luoyang, learning precepts,
interpreter, the disciple of Bodhisattva precepts, many Sanskrit and Chinese scriptures. Finally,
Fangrong was the translator and Śramana Huaidi he attended his teacher and often accompanied
from Nanlou Temple in Luofu Mountain (present- him to the emperor to Chang’an and Luoyang.
day Huizhou) reviewed it. The king of his country Because he could understand all scriptures and was
got angry because of his distribution of sutras familiar with foreign languages, Vajrabodhi often
without authorisation and sent envoys to catch him. involved him in translation. He requested to learn
As a result, Jiliang went back by boat. five sutras of Esoteric Buddhism (Mahavairocana-
(Ge Weijun) sutra, Vajrasekhara Sutra, Susiddhikara-mahātantra-
sādhanopāyika-patala, Vajraśekhara-vimāna-sarva-
Amoghavajra yogayogi-śāstra and Sutra abridged for Recitation or
Amoghavajra [Bukongjingang] (705-774 CE), was Budhi Sutra) and three guhya (kàya-guhya, vàg-guhya
an Indian Buddhist monk and famous translator and mano-guhya). Three years later, Vajrabodhi still
who came to China in Tang Dynasty. He was also did not teach him so he intended to return to India
one of the founders of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism. to study them. Reportedly, Vajrabodhi dreamed
that Buddharupa in Buddhist temple travelled to the
east, so he talked to Bukongjingang, and knew that
he wanted to return to India for Buddhist learning
which was related to what he dreamed. Finally,
Vajrabodhi passed on both five sutras and three guhya
to him. In Vajrabodhi’s later years, he intended to
return home and in July of the 29th year of Kaiyuan
(741 CE) with the consent of Emperor Xuanzong of
Tang, Bukongjingang followed Vajrabodhi to home.
In August, Vajrabodhi died of a disease in Guangfu
Temple of Luoyang. After the burial of his teacher,
he left for Guangzhou. With 37 monks including
his disciples, Hanguang and Huibian, attending
upon, Bukongjingang carried the state credentials to
continue his return trip by sea. In less than a year,
he reached Simhaldvipa where the king greeted
Amoghavajra him with courtesy and during the seven days of
Bukongjingang’s living in the palace, the king served
He was called 'Three Major Kaiyuan Buddhists' him with fragrant water in golden pot for his bath.
together with Subhakarasimha and Vajrabodhi. He Later, Bukongjingang moved to Asgiri Mahanayake
was called Amogha for short with transliteration of and learned the 18 Acquisition Vajrasekhara Yoga
name as Amuqubazheluo. Sutra and Vairocana Great Mercy Garbha means
According to volume I of Buddhist Biography from Samantabhadra and Acharya (mentor), and
in Song Dynasty, volume 40 and 41 of Buddhism made Hanguang and Huibian accept the abhiseca of
Historiography, volume eight of New Buddhism List five sutras. Since then, Bukongjingang had no fixed
in Zhenyuan Period and Biography of Bukongjingang teachers and widely sought for the treasures and
Sanzang, Bukongjingang was from northern Indian various scriptures and theories, with more than 500
[in other record: from Simhaldvipa, present-day categories. After travelling across India, he returned
Sri Lanka), belonging to Brahmin caste. When he to Chang’an in the fifth year of Tianbao of Emperor
was young, he yearned to adopt Buddhism. After Xuanzong of Tang (746 CE). He gave the abhiseca rite
his father died, he followed his uncle to Luoyang for Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, and lived in Jingying
and became a disciple of Vajrabodhi at the age of Temple to be engaged in the translation. Because his

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 Cultural Contacts

later years, he also sent his disciple, Hanguang, to

build Jinge Temple and Yuhua Temple in Wutai
Mountain and made the request to arrange 21
monks in every temple for five temples including
Jinge Temple. He made them the centre of focus
for development of Esoteric Buddhism in future.
In June of the ninth year of Dali, Bukongjingang
fell ill. He knew he would die soon so he wrote
a statement to the Emperor for departure.
Emperor Daizong of Tang gave the medicine as his
condolence and added the title of Kaifeng Yitong
Kaiyuan Temple, Quanzhou, Fujian, China Sansi named Duke of Suguo. On 15th, he bathed
with fragrant water, sat quietly for meditation and
praying for the rain and stopping the wind by magic soon died, at the age of 70 years. On July 6th, he
were efficacious, the emperor conferred him the was cremated and hundreds of Sarira [relics] were
title of J¤ānagarbha. In the eighth year of Tianbao, collected. They were put in Da Xing-shan Temple.
he returned home again but stopped in Namhae According to another legend, his parietal bone
because of his illness. Before long, Hexi-Khrom Ge was non-ignitable with sarira in it. The imperial
Shuhan submitted statement to the emperor for court conferred him the honour of Sikong, and
asking him to go to Helong (Hexi and Longyou) and posthumous title of Da Bian Zheng Guang Zhi (in
received permission. Bukongjingang was ordered by other record: Da Bian Guang Zheng Zhi) Sanzang.
the emperor to head for Wuwei. He reached there In the second year of Jianzhong (781 CE), Emperor
in the 13th year of Tianbao and lived in Kaiyuan Dezong of Tang allowed Huilang, the disciple of
Temple for the translation of scriptures. Ge Shuhan Bukongjingang, to set up a monument in Da Xing-
and his subordinates all accepted abhiseca. In the shan Temple for him.
15th year of Tianbao (756 CE), he was ordered to Bukongjingang’s translations were in wide ranges,
return to the capital, living in Da Xing-shan Temple. covering both Ordinary and Esoteric Buddhism such
He built the altar and conducted the abhiseca. Soon as three volumes of Manjusri Bodhisattva Buddha
Anshi's rebellion took place; Bukongjingang was Land’s Solemn Merits And Virtues Sutra, one volume
trapped in Chang’an but still secretly sent people to of Maitreya Saying Mahayana pratītya-samutpanna,
greet the new successor, Emperor Suzong of Tang, one volume of Tathagatagarbha-sutra, one volume of
in exile to show his allegiance. After recovering Buddha Telling Law and Political Comment to Youtian
Chang’an and Luoyang, Emperor Suzong of Tang King and three volumes of Sarva-Tathagata-Tattva-
returned to the capital. During Qianyuan Period Samgraha-Sutra. The total number of his translations
(758-759 CE), Bukongjingang was called into was different in different literatures such as 77
the palace. He built Bodhimanda and conducted categories and 101 volumes, 77 categories and
homa (Agnicayana) and called the emperor as 120 volumes, 77 categories and 130 volumes, 110
Cakravartiraja. After Emperor Daizong of Tang categories and 143 volumes etc. During 17 years
succeeded the throne, Bukongjingang received after the return of Tang Emperor Suzongg to the
better treatment and translated three volumes of capital, Bukongjingang received the worship of
Mahayana Secret Sublime Sutra, one volume of The all. He widely translated the Buddhist scriptures,
Sutra of Praj¤ā-pārmitā for the Benevolent King Spoken disseminated dharma and conducted moralisation.
by Dharani with preface written personally by the According to Zhao Qian’s Biography of Amoghavajra
Emperor. In November of the first year of Yongtai Sanzang, during more than 40 years of abhisheka,
of Tang Emperor Zhongzong (765 CE), the emperor Bukongjingang made tens of thousands of people
conferred him another title of 'Master of Tripitaka'. become Buddhist believers and about 2,000 people
As early as Tianbao Period of the Tang Emperor were ordained to bhikshu precepts. So he was a
Xuanzong (742-756 CE), Bukongjingang requested precept master of a generation. In Chinese Esoteric
the emperor to widely search for Sanskrit scriptures Buddhism, Bukongjingang is the second progenitor
saved in ancient times to conduct the amendment, after the original progenitor, Vajrabodhi, and the
bookbinding and collation and to translate still third progenitor was Huilang.
untranslated scriptures. Up to the sixth year of Dali (Ge Weijun)
of Tang Emperor Daizong (771 CE), he collected 77
categories and 120 volumes above. By the time of Santiraksita
the Emperor’s birthday in October, he offered them Śāntirakśita [Jihu](about 725~788 CE)
to the Emperor and received congratulations. The He was a great Buddhist monk of ancient India and
Emperor ordered to list them all. In Bukongjingang’s the founder of discipline transmission and inheritance

249
 Cultural Contacts

Madhyamika and secured a place in the history

Indian Buddhism.
Khri srong ldevu btsan (742～797 CE), the king
of Tubo, invited Śāntirakśita to spread dharma
and hold ordination ceremony, establish monk
organisations and promote Mahayana thoughts in
Madhyamika Buddhism in the 8th century CE. At
first, Śāntirakśita preached fundamental doctrines
including 10 virtues, 18 realms and 12 nidanas,
persuaded Tubo people to believe in Buddhism
with the doctrine proving “impermanence” of life
and “non-self” of all dharmas, but he didn’t obtain
expected effects and even was resisted by many Tubo
people strongly. He left Tubo and returned to the
country four months later. When he came to Tubo
the second time, he drew lessons from the failure of
preaching dharma at the first time, he didn’t preach
Buddhist doctrines but established Bsam yas dgon
with Master Padmasambhava, cut off hair of seven
Tubo people and received them as monks who were
called as “the seven enlightened monks” and set up
Tubo monk organisation.
“The seven enlightened monks” were fully-
ordained monk who received their ordination
Śantirakṣita according to Sarvastivada doctrines of Indian
Buddhism and monk delegation which was
of Tibetan Buddhism and Mādhyamika thoughts. He composed of 20 Sarvastivada monks were invited
was also named Zhi ba vtsho and Bodhisattva. from India to present the ordination ceremony
Śāntirakśita was born in Bengal region, was the and the specification and process conformed to
son of the local famous King Trisong Deutsen, requirements of orthodox Buddhist rules.
received excellent education in his childhood, Śāntirakśita attached importance to translation
was largely interested in Buddhism in his youth works of Buddhist Vinayak such as Mula
and entrusted himself to Master Jnanagarbha -sarvastivada-vinaya, Vinaya-vibhanga, Part One
in Nalanda after adopting monastic life. Soon of Vinaya, Events from the Mula-Sar-vastivada-
he became an enlightened Buddhist monk. He Vinaya, Four Vinayas, Part One of Four Vinayas, the
pursued Madhyamika thoughts in Mahayana Fundamentals of Pravrajana, Fundamental Vinaya
Buddhism, became an abhidhammika of Svatantrika of Vinaya Sutra, Four Vinayas, the Fundamentals of
Madhyamika through instruction of great masters Fast Affairs, Vinayas for Monks and Nuns etc. He
and his hard work and won great reputation in the personally convened translators to translate main
Indian Buddhism circle at that time. Tibetan Buddhist codes in person.
He was an abbot of Nalanda, made great Śāntirakśita paid great attention to translation
achievements in Madhyamika thoughts, and was of exoteric cults and dogmas of entire Buddhism,
honoured as “three oriental Madhyamika masters” and 10,000 Gathas, Maitreya Sutra, Sada Prarudita
with Ye shes snying po and Kamalasila. They wrote Sutra, Lankavatara Sutra, Treasure Source Sutra,
books on Madhyamika thoughts, for example, Ye Flower Adornment Sutra and Parinirvana Sutra were
shes snying po’s Differentiation of the Two Truths, translated under his leadership.
Śāntirakśita’s Adornment of the Middle Way and He organised Sutra Translation Institution of Bsam
Kamalasila’s Madhyamaka-aaloka. Śāntirakśita’s yas dgon to translate sutras, instructed pratimoksa
Buddhist Thoughts inherited from Bhavaviveka, was vows in Rnam Dag Khrima Khang Gling and
based on Svabhavata thought of the ultimate reality, Bodhisattva vows in Vow Institution of Tushita and
adopted some concepts of Yogacara school and preached his work named Adornment of the Middle
established a school named Yogacara Madhyamika. Way (dbu mavi rgyan) and Kamalasila’s Madhyamaka-
Its methodology of Madhyamika and interpretation aaloka and established the authority of Madhyamika
on two truths differ from Chandrakirti and it is thoughts in exotoric Buddhism in Tubo. Hereafter,
similar to the thoughts of Bhavaviveka and is Svatantrika Madhyamika in Mahayana Buddhism of
subject to Svatantrika rather than Prasangika. In Master and his disciple Abhidhammika Kamalasila,
fact, Śāntirakśita was the founder of Yogachara were promoted mainly in Tubo’s Buddhism.

250
 Cultural Contacts

Śāntirakśita was the founder of discipline logic, medical science etc. After that, he toured
transmission and inheritance of Tibetan Buddhism holy lands like “two groves and eight pagodas” for
and Madhyamika thoughts and was honoured as about 18 years, before he came to the Wuchuang (or
“three Buddhas” with King Trisong Deutsen and Wutuwang) Temple in south India to learn yoga from
Master Padmasambhava in Tubo and secured a Dharmakirti and accept the five mantras on top of the
high position in Tibetan Buddhism, especially in abhisheka altar. Later, on his way to China by sea in
Ningmapa sect. hope of spreading Buddhism, just when Guangzhou
(Kalsang gyal) was in sight, his ship was blown back by fierce
wind to the state of Shizi (present-day Sri Lanka).
Prajna He had to set out again after arranging for finances
Ban Ruo or Prajnā (Bore, 734~?) was an Indian and food and repairing the ship. Upon approaching
monk and sutra translator who came to China during China, the ship was, however, caught up in a storm
Tang Dynasty. The name, Ban Ruo, can otherwise another time, leading to the loss of materials carried
be called Ban Le Ruo which is a transliteration of and Sanskrit sutras. It is said that the lost sutras were
praj¤ā, meaning wisdom. found magically in the bamboo tubes buried under
According to volume III of Song Gao seng zhuan the white sand after landing in Guangzhou half-a-
(Biographies of Eminent Song Monks), volume I of month later. In 782 CE, the third year of Jianzhong
Da Tang zhen yuan xu kai yi jiao lu (Continued Book Period during the reign of Emperor Dezong of
in Zhenyuan Period of Tang Dynasty for Buddhism Tang (782 CE), they arrived in Chang’an. In 786
Directory in Kaiyuan Period), volume XVII of Zhen CE, the second year of Zhenyuan Period during the
yuan xin ding yi jiao mu lu (New Directory for Buddhism reign of Emperor Dezong, Ban Ruo completed the
in Zhenyuan Period), and the preface of Dacheng li translation of seven volumes of Dacheng li qu liu bo
qu liu pi luo mi duo jing (The Mahāyāna Sutra on the luo mi duo jing (The Mahāyāna Sutra on the Way to Six
Way to Six Pāramitās) etc, Ban Ruo (Praj¤ā) was Pāramitās) together with Jingjing, a Persian monk in
born in Kapiśa (pressent-day Begram, 60 km north Daqin (in Roman Empire) Temple. While Ban Ruo
of Kabul, Afghanistan or in present-day Kashmir) was not adept in Chinese language and Jingjing
in Uttarapatha and named Gautama. Clever and did not have a good understanding of Sanskrit
bright since childhood, he became a Buddhist at the and principles of Buddhism, there were therefore
age of seven and an adherent of the Great Virtuous many errors in the translated text. The translated
Master Tiao Fuzun. He was able to soon memorise version was finally not circulated. In the fourth year
four 100,000 Nikaya sutras and 20,000 Abhidhamma of Zhenyuan Period, an official, Wang Xiqian, was
sutras. At the age of 14, he went to Kashmir with requested to retranslate the sutra with expert monks
his master to study Ju She Lun (Sarvastivādan) and in Ximing Temple. During the process, Ban Ruo read
A pi da mo da pi po sha lun (Abhidharmakosa Sastra Sanskrit text, Śramaņa Liyan of Guangzhai Temple
and Abhidhamma Mahavibhasa) for seven years and translated from Sanskrit, Śramaņa Yuanzhao of
completed study of all the percepts by the age of Ximing Temple wrote the translated text, Śramaņa
20. Then he came to Nalanda Monastery in Central Daoye of Zisheng Temple and Śramaņa Liangxiu
India at the age of 23. Becoming a disciple of the in Ximing Temple embellished the translated text,
three great masters - namely Zhihu, Jinyou and and Śramaņa Yingzhen of Cien Temple, Śramaņa
Zhiyou - he studied Mahayana texts, Cheng wei zhi Chaowu of Liquan Temple, Śramaņa Daoan of
lun (Cittamatra), pu jia shi di lun (Discourse on the Guangzhai Temple and Śramaņa Biankong of Ximing
Stages of Yogic Practice (Yogācārabhumi Śastra), Bian Temple reviewed the meaning. The translation of 10
Zhong bian lun (Treatise on Discriminating the Middle volumes was completed in mid-October of the year
and the Extremes (Madhyantavibhaga Bhasya) and and submitted after correction in November. The
Jin Gang jin (Diamond Sutra) as well as linguistics, emperor repeatedly expressed his appreciation for
their work and rewarded them with 100 rolls of silk
and winter clothes. In February of the fifth year of
Zhenyuan Period, Da hua yan zhang zhe wen fo na
luo yan li jing (Hua-yen Senior Asking Buddha Nryana
on Power Sutra) was translated. In July of the sixth
year, Ban Ruo was awarded by Emperor Dezong
the title of “Tripitaka Ban Ruo” as well as a purple
cassock at the age of 57; later at the request of Great
Master Zhirou of the Qianfu Temple, he translated
one volume of Ban ruo bo luo mi duo xin jing (Prajna
Paramita Heart Sutra). He was sent as an envoy to
Xi Ming Temple at Mount Wutai, Shanxi, China Kashmira by an imperial order before a detailed

251
 Cultural Contacts

review of the translation. In April of the eighth year, (now it is in the southwest of Linzhang County,
he returned to Chang’an and went on a pilgrimage Hebei province) along with the resettling of the
to Mount Wutai in the 10th year of Zhenyuan. In capital by Eastern Wei Dynasty. In nearly 30 years
June of the 12th year, he was requested to interpret from the first year of Yongping (538 CE) to Tianping
Da fang kuang fo hua yan jing (Buddhavatamsaka Period of Emperor Xiaojing reign (534-537 CE) in
Mahavaipulya Sutra) in Chongfu Temple and Eastern Wei Dynasty, he translated one volume of
completed 40 volumes of translated sutra ie the so- Vajracchedikàpraj¤àpàramità-såtra, 10 volumes of
called Forty Avatamsaka Sutra, in February of the Bodhisattva-gocaropàya-viùaya-vikurvaõa-nirde÷a,
14th year. Later, eight volumes of Da cheng ben sheng 12 volumes of Study of Buddha’ss Name Preached by
xin di guan jing (Mahayana Sutra of Mind Ground Buddha Sutra, 10 volumes of Laïkàvatàra-såtra, five
Contemplation), three volumes of Zhu fo jing jie she volumes of Saüdhinirmocana-såtra, six volumes of
zhen shi jing (Sutra on the Fact of Buddha Realm) and Dharmasaïgiti-såtra, three volumes of Vajracchedikā
one volume of Fo shuo zao ta yan ming gong de jing praj¤āpāramitopadeśa, 12 volumes of Daśabhūmikā-
(Sermon on Life Extension Merits by Building Tower) -sūtra-śāstra, four volumes of Mahāratnakūa sūtra,
as well as 10 volumes of Shou hu guo jie zhu tuo nine volumes of Maitreya Paripraccha sūtra, one
luo ni jing (Dharani Sutra of Guarding Country Land volume of Akùara÷ataka, one volume of Dvadasa-
Lord) together with Munishili. Ban Ruo died at an anga-pratitya-samutpada and others. Among them,
unknown age in Luoyang and was buried in west Daśabhūmi vyākhyāna was translated together
Longmen Mountain. with Buddhist Ratnamati (known as Baoyi in free
(Ge Weijun) translation) from Central India and interpreted by
Buddhist Buddhaśānta (known as Jueding in free
Bodhiruci translation from southern India for four years.
Bodhiruci [Putiliuzhi] (5th and 6th centuries CE) was Emperor Xuanwu asked the believer Li Kuo to write
an Indian Buddhist monk and translator who came All Buddhist Scriptures List. Li Kuo said there were
to China in Northern Wei Dynasty. He was also one tens of thousands of Buddhist scriptures in Sanskrit
of the earliest translators of Yogacara classic. He version in Putiliuzhi’s room, with translation
is also known as Daoxi or Juexi in free translation. papers spreading everywhere. The total translations
According to volume one of sequel to Biography of under Li Kuo’s statistics are 39 books totalling 127
Eminent Monks, volume six of The Kai-yuan Record volumes while the records in the Kai-yuan Record of
of Buddhist Books, and volume nine of Records Buddhist Books are 30 books totalling 101 volumes.
of Three Treasures in the Past Dynasties, we know (Ge Weijun)
that Putiliuzhi was a native of northern India. He
mastered incantation and Buddhism Tripitaka, and Kamalasila
devoted himself to promoting Buddhism. He came Kamalaśila [Lianhuajie] (740～795 CE) was a great
Buddhist monk of ancient India and the founder
in the first propagation of doctrines of Tibetan
Buddhism.
He was the favourite disciple of Master
Śāntirakshita and a very bright student-monk of
Nalanda. He followed the concepts of Yogacara
Madhyamika and made remarks on Compendium of
Reality for Śāntirakshita’s Compendium of Reality,
make Dbu ma snang ba for Adornment of the Middle
Way and remarks on Nyāyabindu for Dharmakirti’s
Nyāyabindu, and notes for Salistamba Sutra and
Heart Sutra. He wrote Practice Order. His works
were passed down in Sanskrit version and Tibetan
Bodhiruci translation version.
Tubo King Trisong Deutsen invited Kamalaśila to
to Luoyang over Congling (known Pamirs in modern propagate Buddhism in Tubo in the 8th century CE, and
times) in the early years of Yongping (508-511) in he participated in grand debate contest held in Bsam
Northern Wei Dynasty. Emperor Xuanwu hosted a yas dgon ie controversy of immediate enlightenment
courteous reception for him and arranged for him to versus gradual enlightenment between Chinese and
live in Yongning Monastery Pagoda, provided him Indian monks, which was called as Lhasa Dharma
with food and drink, clothes, bedding and medicine, Dispute. The debate had large-scale and high
and invited him to take charge of the translation specifications. It was presided by King of Tubo in
of Buddhist Scriptures. Later, he moved to Yecheng person and over 100 monks from the two parties

252
 Cultural Contacts

Chang’an under the leadership of Master Sa-po-yuan-

gan in 750 the ninth year of Tianbao Period during
the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty with
an application for diplomatic exchange. Next year,
Zhang Taoguang, the official envoy, was sent by the
government to lead a diplomatic corps of 40 people
to Kashmir. Wukong, who had not become a monk
at that time, was among them. They passed through
Anxi (northwest of present-day Gansu Province) and
states of Western Regions and arrived in Gandhara,
the eastern capital of Kashmira in the 12th year of
Tianbao Period. Wukong, however, fell sick and
had to be detained locally upon accomplishing the
mission. He swore to become a monk in case of
recovery. Later, he kept his promise and became a
disciple of Sarivarma. In 757 CE, the second year of
Zhide Period during the reign of Emperor Suzong of
Tang Dynasty, he took complete percepts and made
years of tour thereafter in India. When he decided
to return to Chinesia, Sarivarma made his consent
after several requests and awarded him in person
the Daśabhumūka-sūtra, Sutra of Buddhist Sermon
on Dedication and Sutra of Buddhist Sermon on Ten
Powers as well as a Buddha’s tooth relic. On his way
back to Chinesia, Wukong passed through Qiuci
(present-day Kuqa of Sinkiang) and lived in Lianhua
Temple. It was when Tripitaka Master Wutitixiyu
(otherwise translated as Wutitichanyu), who was
Kamalasila adept at interpretation was requested by Wukong to
translate one volume of the Sutra of Buddhist Sermon
participated in it. Mahayana, the Chinese monk of on 10 Powers; later when Wukong arrived in Beiting
Great Vehicle, promoted immediate enlightenment (the reined location being present-day Pochengzi in
on the debate and believed that Buddhists can north of Jimusar of Sinkiang), he cooperated with
become Buddhas without long-term practice if they Tripikata Saladharma (name being paraphrased
can get rid of all misleading thoughts (false ideas). as Śila-dhamma) in Khotan (present-day Khotan
Kamalaśila, the representative of Indian monk, of Sinkiang) to translate one volume of Sutra of
supported gradual enlightenment and thought that Buddhist Sermon on Dedication and nine volumes of
Buddhists can reach the realm of correct wisdom Daśabhumūka-sūtra at the invitation of Yang Xigu
or non-discriminating wisdom. Kamalaśila won the (a military governor) and Dazhen (Śramana of
debate and he was respected by Tubo King Trisong Longxing Temple), during which Saladharma was
Deutsen and Buddhist circle. They supported the interpreter and Wukong reviewed Sanskrit text
Buddhist concepts of Master Śāntirakshita and and language. The translated sutras were compiled
Abhidhammika Kamalaśila as the main thoughts of into the New Directory for Buddhism in Zhenyuan
Tubo Buddhism which had profound influences on Period according to the imperial order in 799 CE,
development of Madhyamika thoughts in exoteric the 15th year of Zhenyuan Period.
Buddhism in the later period. (Ge Weijun)
(Kalsang gyal)
Padma
Sarivarma Padma [Lianhua] (c. 8th century CE) was an Indian
Sarivarma [Sheliyuemo] (c. 8 century CE) was a
th
Buddhist monk who came to China in Tang Dynasty.
member of Indian diplomatic corps in Tang Dynasty, He made a great contribution to the introduction
a monk and the provider of original Sanskrit version of Buddhavatamsaka-mahavai pul yasutra into China.
of significant sutras. According to volume III of Buddhist Biography in
According to the volume III of Biographies of Song Dynasty, volume 17 of New Buddhism List in
Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty and volume XVII of Zhenyuan Period, Lianhua was from central India,
New Directory for Buddhism in Zhenyuan Period etc, and came to China in the first year of Xingyuan
Tripitaka Sarivarma was born in Kashmir. He came to in Tang Dynasty (784 CE). He called on Emperor

253
 Cultural Contacts

Dezong of Tang to ask for casting a bell for India.

Emperor Dezong of Tang ordered Governor of
Guangzhou Dushi Khrom Li Fu to cast a metal bell
and then sent it to Jindui Temple in southern India.
Lianhua installed that in a location at Vairocana
Tower. Later, he requested others to send the Sanskrit
original of Buddhàvataüsaka-mahà-vaipulya-såtra
to China by sea, and also enclosed a letter saying
stories such as Sudhana visiting 55 saints which
were contained in the sutra and were handwritten by
King of Udra (now in north Odisha) in the southern
India for presentation to the Chinese emperor.
These scriptures reached China in November of
the 11th year of Zhenyuan Period of Tang Dynasty
(795 CE). In June the next year, Emperor Dezong
of Tang ordered to set up a translation workshop
in Chongfu Temple in Chang’an for the translation
of scriptures, with monk Prajna from Kashmir Padmasambhava

reading Sanskrit, Guangji from Tiangong Temple

in Luoyang interpreting, Yuanzhao from Ximing Deutsen to come to Tubo to propagate Buddhism in
Temple writing, Zhirou and Zhitong conducting the 8th century CE. He adopted Tantric magic arts to
the sentence patterns arrangement, Daoheng and subdue local Tubo spirits, transformed many Bonpo
Jianxu from Zhengjue Temple in Chengdu refining, gods as Buddhist guardian gods, and eliminated
Datong from Qianfu Temple checking the meaning, various kinds of barriers to transmit Buddhism in
Chengguan and Lingsui finalising, officials Huo Tubo successfully. He helped Master Śāntrashita to
Xianming and Dou Wenchang elaborately copying, established Bsam yas dgon and set up local Tubo
finally being presented to the emperor, 40 volumes monk organisation.
in total. After completing the work, the translation Moreover, Padmasambhava developed lay
workshop was dissolved in February of the 14th year Buddhists in Tubo and established the first batch
of Zhenyuan Period (798 CE). Later generations of lay team which was composed of 25 Buddhists,
gave the evaluation of “creating the ingenious and were “25 emperors and minister monks”,
truth and promoting the essence of the Buddhism” including King Trisong Deutsen, nobles, eminent
to the translation. monks and translators etc. He propagated Tantric
(Ge Weijun) Buddhist doctrines and ritual procedures, instructed
vajrakilaka and andro Nyingtig in great perfection
Padmasambhava and Tantric Bodhimandala. His disciples made
Padmasambhava [Lianhuasheng] (about 8th century great achievements and his Tantric dharmas were
CE) was a great Buddhist monk in ancient India and inherited constantly. He was honoured as the
the Tantric master as well as the main founder of founder of old esoteric sect of Tantric Buddhism.
Tantrism of Tubo Buddhism. Ningmapa laymen honoured Padmasambhava as
Padmasambhava was called as Ao rgyang pad King Layman or King Enlightenment, endowed him
ma vbyung gnas in Tibetan and meant Uddiyana supreme religious leadership place and called him
Padmasambhava which was a special name ie as “the second Buddha” respectfully.
the lotus-born rather than the womb-born. Later In the period of Tubo, Padmasambhava supported
generations added a lot of legendary colours to its sutra translation career greatly. He participated
his life and wrote many biographies about him. in translation of Tantric classics, including Universal
Actually, Padmasambhava was born in Uddiyana King Sutra, Eight Sadhana Teachings of Illusion and
Kingdom in northwest of India (presently located in Sutra of Condensed Meaning were translated from
west Pakistan or in Afghanistan) during the period Sanskrit into Tibetan.
of Heavenly Guarding King of Magadha Kingdom. The main works of Padmasambhava included
He was of royal descent, travelled around India, Arya-nilambaradharavajrapanisadhana-tika-nama,
visited Tantric masters widely, learned various kinds Vajravidarana-nama-dharanivyakhyana-vajraloka-
of Tantric Dharmas, inherited great perfection from nama, Sri-khasarpanalokanathasadhana-nama,
Auspicious Lion and became a disciple of Buddha Them-yig gsan-ba shes-bya-ba, Samayapanca,
Auspicious Wisdom. Alimanmathasadhana, Muktakena arapacanasadhana
On the recommendation of Master Śāntirakshita, and Vimanaprakasabhisamayatamoharapradipa, etc.
Padmasambhava was invited by King Trisong Padmasambhava played an irreplaceable role in

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propagating Tantric Buddhism in Tubo which was to the king of Tubo Khri srong ldevu btsan who sent
accepted by people and so that Buddhism can secure the Tubo translator including Ska ba dpal brtsegs
a place in Tubo. Tibetan Buddhism, especially and Cog ro kluvi rgyal mtshan to come to India and
the Ningmapa sect respected and worshiped invite him to propagate Buddhist doctrines in Tibet.
Padmasambhava more greatly than any foreign Vimalamitra had propagated Tantric doctrines
monks in the later period. and translated sutras for 13 years in Tubo then came
(Kalsang gyal) to Wutai Mountain to go on a pilgrimage and passed
away there. Mode sutras translated by Vimalamitra
Vimalamitra were Tantric classics. He translated Vajrasattva
Vimalamitra [Wugouyou] (about 8th century Gyutruldrawa Tantra, Reality Tantra, Vajrakila
CE) was a great Buddhist monk, translator, Tantra, Yamantaka Tantra, Sems sde, Klong sde, Man
Tantric master and one of founder of Tantric ngag sde with Gnyags chen dznya ku ma ra. He also
Buddhism in Tubo. cultivated many local Tantric disciples in Tubo.
Life: The transliteration of Vimalamitra was Bi Sect Inheritance Tantric doctrines propagated
ma la mi tra and the liberal translation was Dri by Vimalamitra in Tubo were inherited by the
med bshes gnyen, meaning Vimalamitra, and was Ningmapa sect later, were promoted in Tibet which
from Kashmira. He went to school at seven and was became one of the important sects inheriting Tantric
recommended to adopt monastic life because of doctrines in Tibetan Buddhism. The Ningmapa sect
uncommon intelligence. During studying Buddhist propagated three codes ie Sgyu vphrul, Collected
knowledge, 15 teachers were employed to teach Sutra (including Tantra and Commentary on Tantra)
him because of his too strong enthusiasm for as well as chapter on Great Perfection Heart and its
learning. He was selected in to the team of Pandita braches including Longsal Nyingthig and Khandro
when he was 21, was proficient in knowledge of Nyingtik originated from Vimalamitra.
different disciplines, could explain various affairs Vimalamitra instructed Sgyu vphrul to Rma rin
and truths in four kinds of voices and animal chen mchog and Gnyags chen dznya ku ma ra and
languages, understand sutras and shastras of Tipitaka Rma rin chen mchog translated Sgyu vphrul into
including Mahayana and Hinayana and was familiar Tibetan which was named Sgyu vphrul gsang ba
with Prajnaparamita Sutra. In the aspect of Tantra, snying po. Many disciples inherited Tantric Dharma
he entrusted himself to 160 masters who were good which was spread in the regions such as Mang-kar
at instruction and practice inheritance, he learned in the posterior Tibet, the south and north of Ladoi,
all Tantras of Bdud rtsi yon tan rgyud from Guru Jinsha River Basin and Bubogang etc.
Bungngha gu hya and obtained extraordinary Master Gnyags dzny na ku ma ra or Gnyags gzhon
achievements of great hand seal. He was proficient nu shes rab who was the famous character inheriting
in Sgyu vphrul and made remarks on Snying po ie Tantric doctrines of the Ningmapa sect was the
Tantric sutras and shastras including Khong gzung brilliant disciple of Vimalamitra and was honoured
gsal sgron and Vgrel chung. as the initial founder of the inheritance of Tantric
In 8th century CE, Nyang ting vdzin bzang pu, the doctrines of the Ningmapa sect. He instructed Tantric
famous monk of Tubo, recommended Vimalamitra doctrines of Sgyu vphrul to his disciple Sog po dpal
gyi ye shes who passed them to Gnubs chen sangs
rgyas ye shes. However, Gnubs chen sangs rgyas ye
shes played a transitional role in transmitting and
inheriting Tantric Dharma and became the founder
of the inheritance history of Tantric doctrines in the
middle period. He cultivated many famous disciples,
and they all made achievements, so ye shes dbang
phyug adopted the way of combination to instruct
right views, Blon chen vphags pa used the meaning
explanation form to preach doctrines. Dan gyi yon
tan mchog propagated Buddhist doctrines in the way
of disaster elimination. Legs pvi sgron me talked
about Buddhism from the perspective of poems
and proverbs. Khu lung pa yon tan rgya mtsho
combined correct views, displayed profound truths
and explained wonderful truths and secrets as well
as proved profound esoteric doctrines internally
and even adopted the form of disaster elimination
Vimalamitra to expound Buddhism smoothly.

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Vimalamitra instructed Sgyu vphrul in Tubo and earlier founders of Yunnan Acarya. Most of the
he instructed Chapter on Great Perfection Heart works about his activities were recorded in Ming
to massive Buddhists and even instructed Rdzogs Dynasty, and there were many different legends.
pa chen po snying thig to the Tubo King Trisong According to volume 12 of Li Yuanyang’s Annals of
Deutsen and Nyang ting vdzin bzang pu. Tantric Yunnan, Candragupta came to China in the 16th year
Dharma was inherited and promoted by Rabjamba, of Baohe of Mengshi (839 CE) from Magadha in the
and Klong chen snying was formed for inheritance. Western Regions, “and he meditated in a thatched
Chapter on Great Perfection Heart was a complex cottage of Fengding Mountain in the east of Heqing,
and profound Tantric Dharma system, and it had and became an enlightened God”, some said that
three branches of Tantric Dharma inheritance ie he established altar to propagate Tantric doctrines
Sems sde inheritance, Klong sde inheritance and in Changdong Mountain of Tengchong and it could
Man ngag sde inheritance. Tantric Dharma became be seen that he was a tantric monk. Quan Fengyou,
the great Tantric Dharma of the Ningmapa sect of the king of Nanzhao (824-859 CE) honoured him as
Tibetan Buddhism. the national master and married Princess Yueying
(Kalsang gyal) who was his younger sister. Candragupta not only
propagated tantric doctrines and translated the
Munisri tantric scripture The Rites of the Great Consecration,
Munishri [Mounishili] (?-806 CE) was an Indian but also launched water conservancy projects. He
monk and translator who came to China in Tang returned to his mother country in his later years and
Dynasty. He was also named Jimo. his whereabouts then became unknown. However,
According to volume III of Biographies of Eminent Li Hao’s Sanyi Essays of the Ming Dynasty informs that
Monks in Song Dynasty etc Mounishili was born in Candragupta came to Tubo to propagate doctrines
Uttarapatha. He was dignified and forthright in before the reign of Ge Luofeng, the king of Nanzhao
nature and once lived in Nalanda Temple to be (748-779 CE), then he came to Nanzhao to preach
initiated into monkhood and learn dharma. He came doctrines and was honoured as the “protective
to China in 793 CE, the ninth year of Zhenyuan national master”. He later returned to his country
Period during the reign of Emperor Dezong of Tang for eight years. He again came back to Nanzhao
Dynasty and arrived in Chang’an in 16th year, and and built Wuwei Temple and was respected by Yi
lived in the Xingshan Temple. In 19th year, he moved Mouxun (779-808 CE) and Xun Gequan (808-809
to Chongfu Temple and Liquan Temple successively. CE). He was a recluse for meditation when he was
Later, he moved to Daci’en Temple and translated 84 and died in a sitting posture when he was 99.
10 volumes of Dharani Sutra of Guarding Country If it is true, Candragupta might have lived from
Land Lord which were selected from the scriptures sometimes between the 8th century to the beginning
of the Indian version brought back by Xuanzang of the 9th century.As for the two sayings, the former
from India, together with Praj¤ā. He died in Daci’en appears to be closer to the facts and is evidenced by
Temple in June 806, the first year of Yuanhe Period the works such as Supplemented Unofficial of Nanzhao
during the reign of Emperor Xianzong of Tang and Brief Introduction to Bogu Annals.
Dynasty. His age is unknown. (Xue Keqiao)
(Ge Weijun)
Dharmapala
Candragupta Dharmapala [Fahu] (963-1058 CE) was a monk and
Candragupta [Zantuojueduo] (c. 9th century CE) translator who came to China from Central India.
was an Indian monk. He was also named Magadha He arrived in China in 1004 and settled himself
which was his native place and was one of the in Sutra Translation Institute. After Devasanti
and Dharmadeva (Fa Tian) died in succession,
great masters were needed to take charge of
translation. He and Wei Jing helped Danapala to
handle activities of Sutra Translation Institute. In
1007, he was granted the title of “Great Master of
Transmitting Sutra”. When in 1024, Chola king
from India presented through his envoys scriptures
written on pattra [palm] leaves and the emperor sent
out an imperial edict to let Dharmapala translate
it. In 1035, Dharmapala and Wei Jing edited seven
volumes of Indian Sources, and the emperor wrote
the preface for it. The emperor also composed
Shizhongshan grottoes at Jianchuan, Yunnan Song of Sutra Translation, and bestowed it upon

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translation processes and Danapala participated in

it. They translated one volume of sutras respectively
in July and Devasanti translated Dhvadja-grakeyura
Dharani. Emperor Taizong visited Sutra Translation
Institute to show his concern in person, provided
manpower and material resources and ordered to
take out all sutras in Sanskrit collected in the palace
and translate them. Hereafter, new translated sutras
were offered to the emperor on his birthday, he
granted awards when summoning them so new
sutras were printed and became popular. The
emperor changed Sutra Translation Institute into
Sutra Propagation Institute in 983 CE, and ordered
to build Sutra Printing Institute beside it, so that new
Origin of the Indian script sutras can be printed and spread quickly. At that
time, the monks including Devasanti and Danapala
Dharmapala in 1047. In 1054, he was honoured by proposed to select children to learn Sanskrit in order
the emperor with another title, Great Enlightened to develop the course of sutra translation. Emperor
Master of Transmitting Sutra and he was popularly Taizong accepted the proposal and ordered to
known as 'Six-word Master'. Dharmapala translated assign 10 young Chinese monks to learn Sanskrit,
sutras with Danapala and Wei Jing jointly in the and their learning effects were significant. In 985
early period, but later he did all the translation CE, Emperor Taizong praised that “translation styles
work alone. His main works include five volumes of of the monks including Devasanti were delicate”,
Hevajra Tantra, 30 volumes of Vajrashekhara Sutra and summoned these three monks, promoted their
with Danapala, and 20 volumes of Ratnamegha positions and daily offering standards. Hereafter,
Sutra with monks including Wei Jing. His life the monks including Devasanti and Danapala
and works are recorded in volumes 44 and 45 of proposed to seek many Sanskrit sutras collected
General Record of the Buddhist Patriarchs, volume 1 by monks and common people in Shaanxi for
of Supplemented Biographies of Eminent Monks, and translation. Emperor Taizong agreed with them.
volume 1 of New Biographies of Eminent Monks and In 986 CE, Emperor Taizong presented preface to
other similar compilations.
(Xue Keqiao)

Danagupta
Dānagupta [Shihu]（?～around 998 CE）was
a monk and translator who came to China from
Udyana of ancient India (present-day Swat Valley,
Pakistan). In February of the fifth year of Taiping
Xingguo (980), he arrived in Bianjing (Kaifeng),
the capital city of Northern Song Dynasty and they
presented Sanskrit sutras and were summoned by
Emperor Taizong of Song Dynasty (977-997 CE). Entrance of Taipingxingguo Temple, Xun County,
Several Indian monks including Dharmadeva came Henan, China
to China to offer Buddhist scriptures previously,
Emperor Taizong intended to develop the course Monk Tripitaka’s Translations of Buddhist Scriptures
of sutra translation, and he ordered to build Sutra made imperially to the monks including Devasanti
Translation Institute in Taiping Xingguo Temple and Danapala and ordered them to add it before
after the arrival of the two monks. Sutra Translation new sutras. Volume 1 of Supplemented Biographies of
Institute was established in June two years later Eminent Monks claimed that Danapala died earlier
(982 CE), Devasanti, Dharmadeva and Danapala than Dharmadeva and Devasanti which was a wrong
resided there and were honoured as “Great Master record. Because around 2008, archaeologists of the
Comprehending Sutras”, “Great Master Propagating departments including Nanjing Municipal Museum
Sutras” and “Great Master Promoting Sutras” had conducted archaeological excavation in Grand
respectively. The three monks including Danapala Gratitude Temple outside Nanjing Xinhua Gate
accepted the order of the emperor and began to for several years and found that its underground
translate sutras immediately. Meanwhile, Sutra palace was the one in of Jinling Changgan Temple
Translation Institute formed a complete set of in Song Dynasty, and unearthed rock inscription

257
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with written records that Danapala gave Buddhist intended to develop the course of sutra translation,
relics generously. It is proven that Danapala was and he ordered to build Sutra Translation Institute
still living and an active participant when Sharira in Taiping Xingguo Temple after the arrival of
Stupa was built in the fourth year of Dazhong the two monks. Sutra Translation Institute was
Xiangfu (1011 CE) of Emperor Zhenzong (998-1021 established in June two years later (982), Devasanti,
CE). It can be seen from Record of Dazhong Xiangfu Dharmadeva and Danapala resided there and
Dharma Treasures and Record of Jingyou Newly- were honoured as “Great Master Comprehending
built Dharma Treasures that Danapala was the Sutras”, “Great Master Propagating Sutras” and
executive translator of Sutra Translation Institute “Great Master Promoting Sutras” respectively.
after Devasanti and Dharmadeva died in succession The three monks including Devasanti accepted
and led new translators such as Dharmapala and the order of the emperor and began to translate
Wei Jing to translate sutras till his death. sutras immediately. Meanwhile, Sutra Translation
Danapala translated over 200 volumes of Institute formed a complete set of translation
sutras in his life and most of them belonged to processes. They translated one volume of sutras
tantric classics mainly including four volumes of respectively, and Devasanti translated Perfection
Guhyasasmayagarbha Raja Sutra, seven volumes of of Wisdom of the Little Mother Syllables. Emperor
Guhyasamayagarbha Raja Sutra, three volumes of Taizong visited Sutra Translation Institute to
Mahasahasra Pramardana, three volumes of Complete show his concern personally, provided manpower
Tathagat’s Diamond Guhyagarbharaja Sutra, six and material resources and ordered to take out
volumes of Advayasamatdvi jayamahakalparaja, and all sutras in Sanskrit collected in the palace and
he translated 30 volumes of Vajrashekhara Sutra translate them. Hereafter, new translated sutras
with Dharmapala and Wei Jing. His actvities can be were offered to the emperor on his birthday, he
seen in volume 43 of General Record of the Buddhist granted awards when summoning them, so new
Patriarchs, volume 490 of History of the Song sutras were printed and became popular. The
Dynasty, volume 18 of A Comprehensive Record of the emperor changed Sutra Translation Institute into
History of the Buddhas and Patriarchs, volume 1 of Sutra Propagation Institute in 983 CE, and ordered
Supplemented Biographies of Eminent Monks, volume to build Sutra Printing Institute beside it, so that
1 of New Biographies of Eminent Monks etc. new sutras can be printed and spread quickly. At
(Xue Keqiao) that time, the monks including Devasanti proposed
to select children to learn Sanskrit in order to
Devasanti develop the course of sutra translation. Emperor
Devasānti [Tianxizai] (1000 CE) was a monk Taizong accepted the proposal and ordered to
coming to China from Kashmir of ancient India assign 10 young Chinese monks to learn Sanskrit,
and a sutra translator. He lived in Milin Temple of and their learning achievements were significant.
Jalandhara before coming to China. In February In 985, Emperor Taizong praised them saying
of the fifth year of Taiping Xingguo (980 CE), he that “translation styles of the monks including
came to Bianjing, the capital of Northern Song Devasanti were delicate” and summoned these
Dynasty (Kaifeng at present) with Danapala and three monks, promoted their positions and daily
they offered Buddhist sutras and were summoned offering standards. Hereafter, the monks including
by Emperor Taizong of the Song Zhao Jiong Devasanti proposed to seek many Sanskrit sutras
(reigned from 977-997 CE). Several Indian monks collected by monks and common people in Shaanxi
including Dharmadeva came to China to offer for translation. Emperor Taizong agreed with
Buddhist scriptures previously, Emperor Taizong them. In 986 CE, Emperor Taizong presented
preface to Monk Tripitaka’s Translations of Buddhist
Scriptures made imperially to the monks including
Devasanti and ordered them to add it before new
sutras. Devasanti died in the third year of Xianping
(1000 CE) of Emperor Zhenzong of Song Zhao
Heng (reigned from 998-1022 CE) and the emperor
ordered to worship and bury him according
to Buddhist rites and granted him the title of
“J¤ānaviveka”.
Devasanti lived in China for 20 years, contributed
to Chinese and Indian cultural exchange, and his
main achievements included four points: firstly, he
translated a lot of sutras. He translated 57 volumes
Avalokitesvara-guna-karanda-vyuha Sutra of 18 sutras from July of the seventh year of Taiping

258
 Cultural Contacts

Xingguo (982 CE) to October of the fourth year of

Yongxi (987 CE), mainly including 20 volumes of
Bodhisattva Pitaka Vatamsaka Manjushbimula Garbha
Tantra, two volumes of Good and Evil Retribution Sutra,
four volumes of Karandavyuha Sutra, four volumes
of Entering the Path of Enlightenment etc. Hereafter,
he translated at least, 18 volumes of five sutras,
mainly including 13 volumes of Samadatta Maharaja
Sutra, three volumes of Manjushri Sadvritta Guhya
Tantra Rajasya Vimshatika Krodha Vijayanjana etc.
Secondly, he participated in establishing a complete
set of effective work procedures for Sutra Translation
Institute in early Song Dynasty. Thirdly, he proposed
Chinese teenagers to learn Sanskrit and instructed
them. Fourthly, he proposed to collect Sanskrit sutras
collected by common people in Shaanxi and made
contributions to collection of Sanskrit texts and
literature translation. His events were recorded in
Atiśa
volumes 43 and 44 of General Record of the Buddhist
Patriarchs, volume 26 of A Comprehensive Record of Early Life
the History of the Buddhas and Patriarchs, volume one Atisha’s original name was Zla ba snying po and his
of Supplemented Biographies of Eminent Monks, volume religious name was Dpal mar me mdzad ye shes. He
one of New Biographies of Eminent Monks etc. was born in Za hor in east India to a royal family
(Xue Keqiao) of devout Buddhists. Conditioned by the religious
background of the family, he accepted good
Manjusri education in culture from childhood. He started
Manjusri [Manshushili] (10th century CE) was a to learn Mathematics and languages when he was
Buddhist śramana from central India. According to three years old. He had good training in many
volume 43 of General Records of Buddhist Patriarchs, knowledge areas and could recite Buddhist texts at
Manjusri was originally a prince from central India the age of six. He went to Nalanda at the age of 11
who became a monk. He came to China with Jian and learnt Buddha dharma from Byang chub bzang
Sheng who was a Chinese monk going to the west to po. Later, as recommended by Byang chub bzang
seek Buddhist scriptures in the fourth year of Kaibao po, he went to Rajgir and followed Tantric Master
(971 CE). Zhao Kuangyin, Emperor Taizu of Song Avadhu tipa, learned and practised Shastras. He also
Dynasty, ordered others to settle him in Xiangguo simultaneously studied hetuvidya from Brahman,
Temple. He left in the third year of Taiping Xingguo Buddhists and various other masters of knowledge.
(978). Because he observed doctrines strictly, He debated with Brahmin scholars when 15 which
the masses of the capital (Kaifeng) offered many showed his superior talent in hetuvidya. He went to
properties to him but he did not enjoy. According Vikramaśila vihāra and was apprenticed to Na ro pa
to volume 490 of History of the Song Dynasty and who was named as the North gatekeeper, studied
volumes 88 and 89 of chapter four of Foreign Esoteric Buddhism dharma-mukha and obtained
Countries of the Song Dynasty Manuscript Compendium, abhisheka of Hevajra. When he was 20, his father
Chinese monks envied him very much because he hoped him to inherit the throne, selected a beauty
obtained many offerings. These zealous persons
petitioned to the emperor to request him to return
to his country because he didn’t know Chinese. The
emperor allowed the petition and issued imperial
edict to that effect. He had to go to the south several
months later, and said that he would go to the South
Sea with merchants by ship. His final whereabouts
remained unknown.
(Xue Keqiao)

Atisha
Atisha (982～1054 CE) was an eminent monk of
Indian Buddhism as well as the founding master of
Chinese Tibetan Buddhism Kadampa. Samye Monastery, Tibet, China

259
 Cultural Contacts

from the royal family to get him married. Atisha

was unwilling to marry and inherit the throne, so he
decided to go to India for further studies.
Travel to seek dharma
After arriving in India, Atisha learned cultural
knowledge from many masters. This included
extensive studies in internal and external hetuvidya
and other disciplines as well as systematic training
in the dogma of exoteric and esoteric Buddhism,
especially vdul ba lung sde bzhi and mngon pa
kun las btus pa and other important sutra of
Mahayana Buddhism.
In 1013 CE, Atisha led 125 disciples and went
to Suvarnadvipa (present-day Sumatran) by
boat for learning dharma and fetching Buddhist
scriptures. They arrived at the destination after
sailing for 13 months. At Suvarnadvipa, he learned
dharma with Serlingpa (Dharmakirti). Serlingpa Black pagoda of the Samye Monastery, Tibet, China
had a large stock of information and was a well-
known master. Atisha respected him very much Atisha arrived in Gurge in 1042 and was welcomed
and lived together with Serlingpa, learning dharma warmly and received generous hospitality of Gurge
up to 12 years; he mainly studied the instruction King La Lama·byan-chub-hod. Atisha lived in mtho
of Abhisamayalankara inherited by Maitreya lding that was the highest level of Tin Gurge and
and Asanga and Bodhicharyavatara inherited by discussed with the King La Lama·byan-chub-hod
Manjusri and Shantideva and other sutras and about how to reorganise unhealthy tendency of
obtained the perfect Bodhicitta. During this period, Tibetan Buddhism at present. And as requested by
he went to Sri Lanka to study exoteric and esoteric La Lama·byan-chub-hod, Atisha wrote byang chub
Buddhism. After finishing the study, he came back lam gyi sgron ma, illuminated the ways and means
to India, at the age of 44 and has already been a of accurately studying Buddha dharma. At that
Buddhist master with excellent and extensive time, although the great lotsawa Rinchen Zangpo
proficiency in Buddhism and specially its exoteric of Gurge kingdom was 85-years-old, he still invited
and esoteric branches of knowledge. A noble moral Atisha to his residence, exchanged Buddhism
person in both words and deeds, he served as chief opinions and resolved Buddhist difficulties. These
monk (Theravada Moderator) of Vikramasila vihara two eminent monks met and were deeply influenced
and was known as its one of eight sages in line with by each other. Atisha felt surprised that there was
Baoshengji, Bodhibhadra, Byang chub, bzang po, a Buddhist scholar who was such knowledgeable
Avadhu tipa and others whose reputation was well- at Gurge area and was also happy for the broad
known both at home and abroad. development prospect of Buddhism at this area.
Through Buddhist communication, Rinchen Zangpo
Travel toTibet to found he still had many shortcomings, especially
Disseminate Dharma on the practice side of Esoteric Buddhism which
At that time, Gurge King La Lama·Yi Sivori and needed to be improved. He asked Atisha to revise
his nephew, La Lama·byan-chub-hod at Ngari area lines of prajna paramita, Prajna sutra of light, Prajna
invited Atisha to come to Tibet and disseminate broad interpretation and other important Buddhist
dharma at any cost. But Atisha had been serving an texts that he had translated earlier. At last, Atisha
important role as the chief abbot and the temple advised Rinchen Zangpo to find a quiet place and
did not agree him to leave. Later, finally due to an retreat and cultivate himself according to a religious
accident to Gurge King La Lama·Yi Sivori made Atisha doctrine. Therefore, Rinchen Zangpo always kept on
to decide to go to Tibet and disseminate the dharma. cultivating himself according to a religious doctrine
Gurge King La Lama·byan-chub-hod despatched two at his old age up to next 10 years until he passed
lotsawas, who were Sha·Senge and Nhatso·Mainz away. He got highly enlightened on practicing
Gyalwa to go to India and invite Atisha. In the first Esoteric Buddhism.
rab-byung iron dragon year (1040 CE) of Tibetan Atisha promoted Buddhism at Gurge area for
calendar, Atisha set out from Vikramasila vihara and three years, relying on his profound Buddhist sutra,
arrived in Nepal the next year (1041 CE), staying skillful knowledge of religious rituals, advanced
there for one year and worshipping important spots Esoteric Buddhist enlightened realm. He won belief,
and historic sites of Buddhism. admiration and support of local Buddhists, and his

260
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reputation spread rapidly in the entire Tibetan area. interpretation and wrote the Vyakhya to explain this
Buddhists in the central area of Tibet (Anterior sutra, ie, Madhyamika instruction and explanation.
Tibet) invited Aatisha one after another. But having Then E·byan chub jiong nai served as a benefactor to
stayed in Gurge area for three years, he decided invite Atisha to disseminate dharma at Yer pa. Atisha
to return to Vikramasila vihara in India. When he disseminated Buddha dharma there and helped
travelled to the border of Nepal, he found the whole Tibetan lotsawa translate Asanga’s Explanation of
are engulfed in local wars and the roads impassable. Mahayana Uttaratantra Shastra. At the moment,
Atisha was held up there. Atisha was invited by eminent monk, Shakya·Kagwa,
Finally, moved by repeated requests and religious to Pang po and went there to disseminate dharma
beliefs of Vbrom ston pa who rushed from Tibet and and held religious activities. Then Atisha came
invited him, he gave up the idea of going back to back to Snye thang and continued to systematically
Vikramasilavihara and embarked on the journey lecture on Abhisamayalankara, Prajna light sutra,
to disseminate dharma in the central area of Tibet. Bodhisattvacaryavatara, Bodhipathapradipa and other
Vbrom ston pa told Atisha that there were many important sutras of Buddhism. As busy running about
famous temples in Lhasa and Samye area, thousands disseminating dharma at high altitude localities
of monks were waiting for him for abhisheka, in long time and advanced in years, the physical
consecration and lectures on dharma. They went condition of Atisha started getting worse, the lotsawa
through dpal thang, skyid grong and other places Nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba found this situation
of the Tsang and gradually went eastwards; once and accompanied Atisha to Mchims phu where he
arriving at the place where Buddhists were relatively recuperated for six months. In the first rab-byung
concentrated, they would stay for a period of time wooden horse year of Tibetan calendar (1054 CE),
and hold simple activities to disseminate dharma. Atisha passed away at the age of 72 at his residence
When they arrived at sna po la, they were welcomed in Snye thang which was miles away from the
and entrained by local Daiqia dharmaraja who held southwest of Lhasa. He was buried in Snye thang.
music ceremony of blowing horn and other activities Within 13 years in Tibet areas, no matter at
and built dam at the side of Yarlung Zangbo River to the western Ngari area or at the central anterior
benefit the public. After Atisha arrived at the anterior Tibet and Tsang areas, Atisha enthusiastically and
Tibet, he went directly to the first formal Buddhist effectively taught and explained Buddhist sutra
temple Samye temple which was built at Tubo wherever he arrived and devoted great energy to
period, and was warmly received by local Lha btsun holding consecration and foundation ceremonies for
bodhib raw dza who was also a benefactor. Many a lot of temples, pagodas and figures of Buddha at
eminent monks came to welcome Atisha’s arrival and Tibet area. Meanwhile, he widely accepted disciples
dissemination of dharma. and carried out accept apprentice, taught Buddhism
Atisha saw many Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures at pedagogy to them and trained a large number of
the library of Samye Temple. They even had versions Buddhist talents. The outstanding four disciples
that could not be found in India. He was amazed were Nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba, Khu ston
to witness the prosperity of Buddhism at Tubo brtson vgrus gayung drung, Rngog Legs PviShes
period that even exceeded India, the hometown Rab and Vbrom ston pa rgyal bavi vbyung gnas,
of Buddhism. He transcribed Madhyamika Light especially Vbrom ston pa rgyal bavi vbyung gnas
Sutra and Avatamsaka Sutra in Sanskrit and sent to inherited all Buddhism pedagogy taught by Atisha
India, helped Tibetan lotsawas to translate Asanga’s and founded the pedagogics system of Kadampa of
Mahayanasamgraha and Vasubandhu’s Perturbation Tibetan Buddhism on this basis.
Sutra of Mahayana Buddhism and many other sutras. During the period of his stay in Tibet, Atisha
When Atisha left from Samye Temple to Snye thang, translated and wrote a large number of important
he was guarded by more than 200 knights. When sutras on Buddhism Tantra. According to
he arrived at Snye thang, a lot of believers gathered statistics, the works which had been included
here and waited for him to lecture on the Buddha in Tibetan Buddhist Tripitaka Tengyur reached
dharma. Atisha lectured Abhisamayalankara and more than 100 pieces, the translation works were
Prajna Light Sutra and other sutras. represented by Vimuktasena’s 20,000 Praise Prajna
Atisha specially taught commandments to monks Light Sutra, Vasubandhu’s Perturbation theory of
at Pu Degong Temple when he stayed at Snye thang, mahayana Buddhism, Bhavyaviveka’s Explanation
built Retreat House for them, and specially taught of Madhyamakahrdayakarika and Asanga’s
“Three-level pedagogics” to Vbrom ston pa. Later, Interpretation of Mahayana Uttaratantra; his works
Atisha was invited by eminent monk Rngog Legs were represented by Explanation of Mantra Miracle
PviShes Rab to Lhasa area to disseminate dharma. World, Dbu mavi man ngag ces bya ba Dbu mavi man
Besides disseminating dharma, he also helped Tibetan ngag rin chen mdzod and Byang chub lam sgron,
lotsawa translate Madhyamika essentials of the mind in which there was the work specifically explaining

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“observation” (theoretical) such as Ma bden gnyis la from the Temple. So, Tilopa began to make a living
vjug pa, the work specifically explaining “practice” with grinding gingili and got the name of Tillipa -
(practicality) such as Spyod pa bsdus pavi sgron me. the person who grinds gingili.
As for the work perfectly explaining “observation” Tilopa travelled all over India and learned plenty
and “practice”, it is Bodhipathapradipa. These of sutras and secret methods from many masters.
works profoundly influenced the development of In Oddiyana (Tibetan Orgyan, Shambhala possibly
Tibetan Buddhism at later generations. located in Swat Valley or Odisha), he received
(Kalsang gyal) knowledge of many Dakini’s sutra and attained
enlightenment and wisdom in the core theory of
Tilopa Buddhism. Under the direction of Matangi, he
Tilopa/ Diluoba (988-1069 CE) was an eminent went to a brothel in Bengal to work for dakini
Indian monk-scholar of Esoteric Buddhism and Dharima, and practised there until he realised the
was famous as the Great Master [Mahasiddha] of thought of the Mahamudra. It is said that he and
Means of Mahamudra of Kargyu sect in Chinese Dharima squatted high up in the air with their body
Tibetan Buddhism. circled by red light and singing the gingili song
He was born in a Brahmin family in Chittagong which convinced people of their enlightenment.
town in India (now in Bangrode district of Since then, he spread the Mahamudra method by
Bangladesh). His father was Pranyasha and mother singing songs and became famous as Mahasiddha
was Kashi. The couple had no child for a long [Great Achiever] Tilopa, turning into one of the 84
time. They usually prayed for a child in the local Mahasiddhas of the Vajrayana tradition.
temple, made donations, served monks and read (Deji zhuoma)
holy sutras. Later, their desire was fulfilled and they
were blessed with a baby boy. Named Tilopa, he Naropa
was raised with much attention. Learning words Naropa (1016-1100 CE), Indian Buddhist Preacher,
from his mother, he received good education.He successor of Esoteric Buddhism, the founder of
studied Brahminical classics and became a Tirthika Mahamudra in Kargyu, Tibetan Buddhism.
Pandita. Travelling everywhere, he gradually Born of a noble family of a brahmin in India in
became interested in Buddhism, got himself April 1016, he went to Kashmir and was initiated
tonsured in Somapuriin (present-day Bangladesh), into a lay Buddhist by Gate Gagana when he was 11,
received his monk name, Prapadzar and learnt and got a dharma name, Gaba Gagana. He learned
sutra, discipline and theory. Under the guidance for three years and got outstanding academic
of Nāgārjunabodhisattva, Matangi and other great results, understood Abhisamaya alamkara, Ornament
masters, he attained Tantrik Buddhism’s “Si da of the Mahayana Sutras, Hour Wheel Vajracchedika
cheng jiu [Four Great Achievements] bu gong Tantra, Kriya Yoga, For Yoga, Annuttarayoga Tantra
chuan cheng fa”. He practised for up to 12 years in etc. He was tonsured as a monk when he was 25
a graveyard near Somapuri. Later, because he had and lived in seclusion for cultivation. He took
practised with a yogini who was the daughter of bhikshu precepts and preached Buddhist doctrine
man grinding gingili [sesame seed], he was expelled in Phullahari when he was 28. He comprehended
Five Subjects and his reputation spread all over
the land, then he became one of the four greatest
custodians of Nalanda Temple. And then he became
pandit and directed the Northern Gate, conquered
heresies and brightened Buddhist doctrine for eight
years. He was predicted by Dakini, left the temple
college, travelled and begged with a bowl and a
crutch, and sought for Tilopa for sound doctrine.
Tilopa guided his heart by 12 circumstances, asked
him to do penance and revealed him the Vairocana
Three Bodhi Tantra and taught all kinds of doctrine
of tantras and abhiseca to him. Finally, Naropa
received the Four Traditions of Mahamudra, won
the Four Excellent Achievements and became a
great achiever.
Then he lived in the cultivation place in
Phullahari, recruited disciples and preached
the doctrine. Naropa disciplined thousands of
Tilopa students in his life. Xiandiba and Venerable Atisha

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Hezhong Prefecture (Yongji City, Shanxi) invited

Dharmadeva to translate sutras. This was reported
by local officials to Emperor Taizhong (Zhao Jiong,
977–997 CE) in a petition. The emperor was very
pleased to know this because he wanted to celebrate
sutra translation activity as a grand event. In
February, Devasanti and Danapala came to Kaifeng,
the capital of the Song. Emperor Taizong decided to
establish Sutra Translation Institute in the west of
Taiping Xingguo Temple. The Institute was founded
in 982 CE. Dharmadeva, Devasanti and Danapala
were summoned to live there and titles were
granted to them. Devasanti was honoured as “Great
Master of Comprehending Sutras”, Dharmadeva
was titled as “Great Master of Propagating Sutras”
and Danapala was honoured as “Great Master of
Promoting Sutras”. They respectively were asked to
translate a sutra each. One month later, each of them
completed the translation of one volume of sutra.
Naropa Dharmadeva translated Dharani Sutra of Vasundhara
Bodhisattva. Through the participation of multiple
possessed the reputation of great wise man among parties, the Sutra Translation Institute formed a
them. He also had four uncommon father tantras complete set of translation procedures, and there
disciples, four mother tantras disciples and four were sufficient manpower and material resources.
great disciples obtained uncommon achievement Because of continuous translation of new sutras, the
ie 12 great disciples, and 800 achieved disciples, emperor ordered to change the Sutra Translation
hundreds of yoga mother achieved disciples. He Institute into the Sutra Propagation Institute. A
wrote Guhyasamaja the Sequel, Abhidharna Yoga Sutra Printing Institute was also established. In
Tantras, Hevajra Tantras etc and the famous Naro's the second year of Yongxi (985 CE), the emperor
Six Doctrines and Naro Khechari had great influence praised the newly translated sutras greatly,
on the later generations. Marpa, the founder of promoted the three monks and changed the name
Kargyu sect, Tibetan Buddhism went to India for of Dharmadeva from Fatian to Faxian. According
three times and learnt Guhyasamaja, Essentials of to Japanese scholars, Dharmadeva and Faxian
Doctrines, The Supreme Yamantaka Tantra Teachings were, however, different persons. Dharmadeva died
and Abhiseca, Mahamudra Abhisambuddha Method in 1101 CE, and the emperor titled him as “Great
and his Six Doctrines, which were instructed orally, Master of Enlightenment”.
inherited by Mila Raspa, Sgampoba and became the Dharmadeva translated 30 or 39 sutras for over
foundational doctrines of Kargyu sect. 30 years in China, most of which were related to
(Deji zhuoma) tantric classics.
(Xue Keqiao)
Dharmadeva
Dharmadeva [Fatian] (?-1101 CE) was an Indian pha damba sangje
monk and translator who visited China. According pha damba sangje (Pa Danbasangjie, ?-1117) was an
to volume 43 of General Record of the Buddhist Indian Buddhist monk, the mahasiddha of Chinese
Patriarchs, volume one of Supplemented Biographies Tibetan Tantric Buddhism and the founder of
of Eminent Monks etc, Dharmadeva was a monk from Zhibyed. He had been to Tibet for five times to do
central India who came to China before 973 CE, and missionary work.
translated sutras with Chinese monks in Fuzhou who Formerly known as Surya Kirti and also known
knew Sanskrit (present Fuxian, Shaanxi). In 973 CE, as Kamalashrivla, he was born in a Brahmin family
the magistrate of Fuzhou, Wang Guicong submitted in Tsara Singnga, Bedarra, south India. He was
a written petition to the emperor declaring that intelligent and liked learning phonology, astronomy
Dharmadeva had translated Aparimitayur-sutra and and calendar, exquisite and other Ming Study when
the Sutra of the Seven Ancient Buddhas in Fuzhou. he was young and formed ties with Buddhism. He
Emperor Taizu summoned Dharmadeva to the became a monk when he was 10 and got the name
capital, showed great respect and granted him Kamalashrivla. He followed 54 siddhas gurus such
purple clothes. In the first month of the fifth year as Leigh Arya dewa, Devathera and Kserlingba and
of Taiping Xingguo (979 CE), Śramana Fa Jin of learnt Five Ming Study and Exoteric and Esoteric

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Mar Kirg (Ma chos kyisherab), Sojo Gantownbel

(Sochung dge vdun vbar) and Wofgang Yasitenza
(Skam yeshe gyaltshan) and the transmission of
Gcod Yul represented by Marge Sai Bo (Mara serpo)
and Mar Gyula Jung (Macig labdron). For the fifth
time to Tibet, he chose Tingri (present-day Dingri
of Xigaze county in Tibet) that has more entrances
and is more economically developed to spread his
such thoughts as “to perish all the pain” and “try to
get rid of all the troubles of the world” and to treat
a variety of diseases for the majority of people. In
1097, funded by leader Ali, he built the basic dojo
Lang Kuo Temple and created the Xi Jie Sect of
Tibetan Buddhism.
Pa Danbasanje had lived in Lang Kuo Temple for
21 years and taught a large number of disciples
and many of them have become eminent monks
such as the so-called “the Four Yoga Disciples” that
Pa Danbasangjie is Qiaqin (Phyar chen) of East Gate, Baza Zhuoda
(Bdzra krodha) of South Gate, Joan (phyar chung) of
Buddhism etc. After many years of studying, he West Gate and Jiangqu Sanhua Gongga (byang chub
got a lot of achievements. He mastered 36 kinds of sems dbav kun dgav) of North Gate, One Hundred
languages, and became Pandita and was praised as and Six Great Disciples, Twenty-one Magic Variable
the “Gnam Mkhav Phyogs Med” which means “the Disciples, Twelve deposited disciples, Twenty-four
sky has no corner”. Female Yoga Disciples and later they became the
Pa Danbasangjie lives a life of penance during all inheriting branch of later Xi Jie Sect. He created
his life. He had travelled all over Indian Buddhist holy the Gar Ri Samtanling Temple that is the first and
sites including places where Nāgārjunabodhisattva, most important dojo for female monks during Hou
Seng kerdzong, Doje gdan and other eminent Hong period of Tibetan Buddhism and became the
monks had self-cultivation. He also has been to law activity centre for female monks learning and
each big cemetery and Rajgir hill in east India and practising in south Tibetan area which had a great
south India where Buddha Shakya Muni taught influence at that time. Today, it is still the famous
the dharmacakra. After ascetic austerities, he nunnery of Geluk in Tibet.
obtained all kinds of special enlightenments and Pa Danbasanje lived in Mount Wutai for 12 years
achievements of Esoteric Buddhism and created 24 and built Tsi Tsu Sa Ra and several other Buddha
Buddha halls including Dan Pujian. halls in area of Han nationality. He wrote tantric
Pa Danbasangjie had five times been to Nagri works and all of them had a profound and wide
(mngav ris), Yalong (yar lung), Peng domain (phan influence in Tibet. His Vajrayana works have a deep
yul) etc where he widely took Buddhism followers influence in Tibetan area such as philosophy of
and spread Buddhadharma. For the first two times Peace·Silver Buddha Bead, Philosophy of Peace·Gold
he spread Buddhadharma in a small area and did not Buddha Bead, Philosophy of Peace·Silver Crystal
have much influence. For the third time in Ngari Buddha Bead, Eighty Eulogies of Dingri, Heart Sutra
(Tsang), Peng domain (Anterior Tibet) and Samye, for Relief·Song of Vajra, Preach·Discussion with
he did Buddhist service and missionary work, so his Bodhisattva Minya Konka, Words from Heart·Lotus
reputation and influence gradually expanded. Later, Cluster, Odes of Cultivation etc.
in order to treat his mother’s difficulties, he has Pa Danbasanje’s later years were spent in Tibet.
been the Sangha slave of the King of Peng domain Since he came to Tibet for the fifth time, he had been
for three years. The fourth time in Tibet was the living in the County of Dingri of Tsang until he died.
important period for Pa Danbasanje’s missionary As for his age, due to the lack of details, it is difficult
activities in Tibet. He widely took followers and to verify. He made an important contribution to the
spread Buddhism in anterior Tibet. He mainly development of Tibetan Buddhism and had a great
taught 29 classics such as Twenty Ways to Seeking influence in Tibet. For example in Dingri, today,
Answers, Xi Jie Ming Deng, The Instruction of Void local people still regard Pa Danbasanje as a founder
Gate Opening and The Mental Method of Void Gate of Dingri and regard Lang Kuo Temple as the
Opening. Later, among his disciples there appears birthplace of Dingri. The statue of Pa Danbasanje
the early and mid-term transmission of Xi Jie Fa Mai and various holy things associated with him are
represented by Naguhaya Nie (Dznyvan gu hya), enshrined and worshiped in Lang Kuo Temple. On

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June 14 and 15 of Tibetan calendar, the temple held Omkarasri

the Lang Kuo Niang Qu festival to commemorate Honghaluo xili [Omkāraśri] (1101-1163 CE) was
and revere Pa Danbasanje. an Indian monk who visited China. According to
(Deji zhuoma) volume 1 of Supplemented Biographies of Eminent
Monks, he was from Magadha and cultivated tantric
Maitrabhadra doctrines in Kukkutabadagiri. In the first year of
Maitrabhadra (about 11th century CE) was a the Jin Dynasty (about 1127 CE), he went to Wutai
monk-translator from central India. According Mountain to worship Manjushri with seven persons
to Book I (Jixiang Zhuan) of Xin Xu Zhuan, he including his uncle and younger brother, Samayaśri,
translated tantric texts in sutra translation centre of and then he came to Shandong Lingyan Temple to
the capital city of Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng of worship Avalokitesvara and build temples in places
Henan Province) among others such as Miao Jixiang including Jinan. He died in 1163 at the age of 63.
Pingdeng Yujia Guanshen Chengfo Yigui. He was (Xue Keqiao)
conferred the title of Tripitaka Master.
(Xue Keqiao) kha che pan chen
shaky shi
Niguma kha che pan chen shaky shi (Kaqiebanqin.shijiashili)
Niguma, born in about 11th century CE, was a great (1122-1219 CE) was an eminent Buddhist monk of
achiever of Indian Buddhism and famous Yogini. Kashmir and the founder missionary of Tibetan
She was born in a royal Brahmin family in Kashmir Buddhism in China. He was born in Kashmir and
area and was the younger sister of Naluba. There sincerely believed in Buddha dharma since his
is another saying that she was the secret Buddhist childhood. At the age of 10, he started to learn to
mother of Naluba. Her life stories are rarely known. be a novice monk by receiving initiation percepts
When living in Sandalwood Forest in Sosaling, (Śramanera Precepts) and gaining wider cultural
India, she recruited KhyungpoNaljor (ie Shangpa knowledge through the study of language. He
Kagyu) from Tibet as her disciple and taught officially became a monk before all of the sangha
everything to him which made him the lineage and vowed not to violate any law at the age of
inheriting disciple. KhyungpoNaljor spread “Ni gu 23. Receiving and practising regulations (gelung-
Six Methods” and other “big hand” dharma to Tibet pa) in front of many Buddhist monks at 30 and
so as to found Tibetan Buddhist Shangpa Kagyu. communicating all the wise learning, he became
(Deji zhuoma) a Pandita. He has been to Tibet several times to
preach percepts of Buddhism. In the history of
Sukha siddhi dissemination of Buddhist precepts in Tibet,
Sukha siddhi [Sukaxidi] (c. 11th century CE) was a Kaqiebanqin’s method of dissemination holds a
female yoga master and great achiever of Buddhism in pioneering authoritative position.
India. Born in Kashmir, India, Sukha siddhi had three (Kalsang gyal)
sons and three daughters. She got her achievements
at the age of nearly 60. At that time, there was a Sudhasri
great famine and her family was so poor that they Sudhasri [Sutuo Shili] (about 12th century CE) was
only could beg for food. One day a travelling ascetic an Indian monk who came to China. According to
begged for food. She felt pity for him, and gave him volume 1 of Supplemented Biographies of Eminent
the only food she had. Her husband was furious after
knowing that he kicked her out. She roamed into a
village of Ougyan country in western India and lived
by selling wine. Two girls at good age usually came
to buy her wine and later Sukha siddhi knew that the
girls were living under the great yoga teacher Birwapa
who practised sutras in the forest nearby. When
the girls came again, she respected Birwapa so she
wouldn’t get their money and served him with wine
and paid him a formal visit. Sukha siddhi became his
disciple and got the four thoughts of Smiling Buddha
Warrior, made great grades and became the inheritor
of Dakini and Birwapa. Her great works: Six Means of
Handy Sutra and The Way to Four Buddha have been
Records of the Qingliang Mountain,
spread until today. written by Master Zhen Cheng,
(Deji zhuoma) Ming Period

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Monks, Sudhasri was a monk in Nalanda Monastery, ordination from Vinayabhadra in Nalanda Monastery
he came to China with seven disciples by sea when he was eight (1263 CE). He was proficient
when he was 85, three disciples went back, the in Tripitaka when he was 19, and he went south
other three died and only Buddhasri followed him. under the instruction of his master, learned Chan
They arrived in Wutai Mountain after six years, and tantric doctrines on Sriparvata Mountain and
but he died soon. His disciples Buddhasri sent his then travelled to many places. He arrived in Lanka
bodily relics to India. According to another saying, (Sri Lanka) when he was 20. He went north when
Sudhasri was 108 years old during the regime of he was 21, and travelled around India. He entered
Emperor Minzong of Jin Dynasty Wan Yanliang China from Kashi, Xinjiang between the 24th year
(reigned from 1150-1161 CE), he stopped rain for of Zhiyuan (1287 CE) and the 25th year of Zhiyuan
the emperor and “cursed the dragon to fall down” (1288 CE). After passing through many places in
and received special treatment from the emperor Xinjiang, he climbed over Altun Mountains and
who granted him with rewards. Imperial concubines entered Qinhai. He met Mahapandita propagating
made clothes for him in person. He used donated sutras from north India in Tibet and Qinghai and
properties to tonsure monks or build temples. they came to Yanjing (Beijing) together. He sat in
(Xue Keqiao) meditation on Emei Mountain in Sichuan between
1291-1294. When he was 40 in 1295 CE, he crossed
Buddhasri Jinsha River and entered into Yunnan to propagate
Buddhasri [Fotuo Shili] (about 12th century CE) was sutras. He propagated sutras in places including
an Indian monk who visited China. According to Kunming and Dali between 1296 and 1314. He built
Sudhasri in volume 1 of Supplemented Biographies a temple on Shishan Mountain in Wuding, Yunnan
of Eminent Monks, he followed his master Sudhasri between 1315 and 1320. Sunyadisya was 66 in 1321
to Wutai Mountain during the regime of Emperor and left Wuding and came to Guizhou. Then he
Minzong of Jin Dynasty Wan Yanliang (1150-1161 entered Hunan from Guizhou. He passed Changde
CE). He sent body relics of his master to his country and Yiyang and arrived in Wuchang, and then passed
after Sudhasri died and came to China again. Jiujiang, Lushan and Huaixi and arrived in Yangzhou
(Xue Keqiao) in 1322. He went north and reached Dadu (present-
day Beijing) in 1323. Sunyadisya was 70 in 1335,
Sunyadisya and was received and offered by Emperor Taiding of
Sunyadisya [Zhikong] (1225～1363 CE) was an Yuan Dynasty (reigned from 1324-1328). In 1326,
Indian monk, sutra translator and preacher who he was assigned by Yuan Ting and went to Koryo
visited China. His original name was Dhyanabhadra, (North Korea) and burnt incense on Mount Kumgang
meaning Chan Virtue literarily. Sunyadisya was his and propagated sutras there. In 1329, he was back
monastic name. in Yanjing. After that, he was resident in Fayuan
Sunyadisya was the third son of King of Magadha Temple in Yanjing, propagated and translated
in northern India and belonged to Kshatriya caste. sutras. He died in 1363 and was 108-years-old. His
According to the historical materials such as experience before 20 years old, especially the section
epitaph and preface of Indian Buddha Dhyanabhadra that he adopted monastic life, followed his master
written by Li Se in Yuan Dynasty and the appendix and received ordination in Nalanda appeared to
of Chronological Biography of Sunyadisya in a book be a fabrication although it was recorded on good
recently authored by Duan Yuming, Sunyadisya: The grounds. Because Nalanda Monastery was burnt in
Last Eminent Indian Monk Visiting China, Sunyadisya the early 13th century, Buddhism disappeared in
adopted monastic life when he was five (1260 CE) India, Magadha was occupied by Muslims and it is
because his father was seriously ill. He received impossible for him to receive ordination and learn
Buddhism in Nalanda Monastery. Moreover, there
were many legends about the life of Sunyadisya and
this appears to be more reliable.
Among the works attributed to Sunyadisya are
seven reviews that include Sitatapatroshisha-dharani,
Avalakitechvara Padma Jalamula Tantbanama
Dharani, Sarvadurgati Parishodhana Uchnisha Vijaya
Dharani, Sanskrit text of Heart Sutra, Avalokitesvara
Offering Food and Manjusri Bodhisattva Immorality
Vinaya. He wrote only one book named Chan Record
of Monk Sunyadisya. Moreover, his quotations and
poems have circulated in famous Chinese and
Hall of Heavenly Kings at Fayuan Temple, Beijing, China Korean works.

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Contributions
Sunyadisya came to China after the extinction of
Indian Buddhism and conveyed last information of
Indian Buddhism to China. He propagated Chan and
tantric doctrines in China and integrated spirits of
Indian Buddhism into Chinese Buddhism. He had
profound influences in late Yuan Dynasty and early
Ming Dynasty in China, Emperor Taizu of Ming
Dynasty Zhu Yuanzhang (1368-1398) even wrote On
Visiting New Temple (volume 14 of Collected Works of
Emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty), which recorded his
high opinions on Sunyadisya.
(Xue Keqiao)

Sahajasri
Pandita Sahajasri [Jusheng Jixiang] (c. 14th century
CE) was an Indian monk who came to China and
was honoured as Pandita. According to volume 1
of Supplemented Biographies of Eminent Monks and
Yonghua Categorised Book quoted in volume 317
of Categorised Boxes of the Yuanjian Studio, he was
from Kapilavastu in central India and belonged to
Kshatriya caste. He learned Mahayana and Hinayana
classics preliminarily and sat in meditation in snow
mountain for 12 years. It took him four years to
arrive in Gansu. He came to Wutai Mountain in
Jiachen year of Zhizheng of Yuan Dynasty and was Memorial Pagoda of Devdas at Tanzhe Temple, Mentougou, Beijing, China
respected greatly by believers in Heng Mountain.
Emperor Taizu of Ming Dynasty Zhu Yuanzhang Devadasa was from eastern India and was a
(1368-1398) summoned him after hearing about disciple of Master Sahajasri. After the death of
him and he came to Jinling (present-day Nanjing) Sahajasri, Devadasa wandered north and finally
in the seventh year of Hongwu (1374). The emperor reached China. During the reign of Xuande (1426-
granted him the title of “Good Chan Master” and 1435 CE), he built a Buddhist convent beside
he settled in Jiang Mountain (Zhong Mountain) Tantuo Temple. He lived in seclusion and did not
and governed Buddhist temples under heaven. The ever visit the city. He observed rules excellently
emperor ordered local governments not to forbid and performed many miracles. He was honoured
people to receive ordination on Jiang Mountain. as “Great Śramana”.
Therefore, many people were devoted to him and (Xue Keqiao)
believed that he was the living Buddha. Sahajasri
was a Buddhist of high morality and calm power Samghapala
and used a lot of funds and materials donated Sanghapala [Sangke Bala] (1376～1446 CE) was
by believers to conduct welfare undertakings. an Indian monk who came to China. According to
Therefore, the emperor wrote Song of Goodness and Biography of Zhi Guang in volume 1 of Supplemented
praised him as “he talked about the highest wisdom Biographies of Eminent Monks, he was from central
as growing lotus” (or “he talked about the highest India. When Zhi Guang visited India, Sanghapala
wisdom in smiles as growing lotus”). He wandered made great efforts to serve him and Zhi Guang
for three years and returned to Jiang Mountain. The brought him to China. The emperor appointed him
emperor visited him several times and often wrote as “Senior Teacher of Sutra Translation Institute”
poems for him. Hereafter, he could not walk because on the recommendation of Zhi Guang. Zhi Guang
of food disease and died soon. and Sanghapala participated in imperial Buddhist
(Xue Keqiao) ceremony activities and he did well in holding
ceremonies or helping his teacher to propagate
Devadasa doctrines. He was upright and arrogant and only
Devadasa [Diwa Dasi] (middle of 14th century- respected his teacher. He died in Shangsheng
middle of 15th century CE) was an Indian monk. Temple in Dingzhou (Dingzhou City, Hebei) in the
According to Biography of Sahajasri in volume 11th year of Zhengtong (1446).
1 of Supplemented Biographies of Eminent Monks, (Xue Keqiao)

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Sakyayasas got nothing after 12 years of practicing Esoteric

Shakyayeshes [ShijiaYeshi or Śākyayaśas] (end of Buddhism, so the thought that he may be not the
14th century CE to middle of 15th century CE) was right person to practice Buddha Warrior came
an Indian monk in China. According to Volume 3 into him and he abandoned the beads and stopped
in Records on Qingliang Mountain, he was born in practising Esoteric Buddhism, and to practice the
Kapilavastu in northern India (now on border theory of Exoteric Buddhism. However, in the
between India and Nepal) as a descendant of vajrayana of Watching Realm, Dakini came into real
Śākyamuni. In the spring of 1414, he arrived at and gave him four causes. Virupa suddenly realised
Mount Wutai and resided in Xian Tong Temple. the sutra and proved came into the shadow earth
In the winter of the same year, Emperor Yongle up the Bodhisattva and got four kinds of whispering
(1403-1424) of Ming Dynasty heard the news and causes. After practising for more than 20 years,
sent eunuch Hou Xian to invite him to the Capital he got the best achievement of the 13 places of
in Beijing. Emperor Yongle received him and Sutras of Daoguo and the achievement of Buddhism
nominated him as the Buddhist abbot of Nengren Warrior Holding which helped the spread of the
Sutra of Daoguo.
The discipline was very strict in the public
department of Temple Suomapuli. Bir wa ba was
expelled out of the union of monks because of his guilt
of eating pigeon meat. Since then, he travelled and
practiced as a yoga teacher. At that time, there were
many kings who advocated for foreign heretics. In
Yema Bana, Virupa subdued heretics using magical
power, imparted the kings who believed in heretics
to believe in Buddhism and protect it. In the forest of
Vala Nasi, he practised the Smiling Buddha Warrior
for six months and got much magical power and led
the royals and the civilians of that country to believe
Xiantong Temple, Mount Wutai, Shanxi, China in Buddha Warrior. In Padma Hasa of the southern
India, he was respected as a great master and all of
Temple and granted him rich rewards. In 1415, the people believed in Buddhism. In eastern India,
the Emperor issued an imperial edict to confer him he recruited Gurisasheri as his disciple, took him to
titles of Western Buddhist and Grand Teacher of the city of Daughter from Heaven and taught all the
the State. Before long he took leave for meditation witches to believe in Buddhism. Then, they paraded
practice in Mount Wutai where he got up only after with Gurisasheri to Diwei Kouti and did good to the
meditating for seven successive days. The Emperor people with kindness, pity and benefit. Later, they
sent messengers with letters to extend greetings for came to northern India, founded temple and great
many times. Emperor Xuan De (1426-1435) of Ming sangha, abolished the bad traditions of offering
Dynasty also extended lofty respect to him. In 1431,
Shakyayeshes left China for the Western Regions
and since then no news about him was ever heard.
(Xue Keqiao)

Virupa (bir wa ba)

Virupa (bir wa ba) was a great achiever of India
Buddhism, a disciple of Exoteric and Esoteric
Buddhism and a master of Taosim Results Sutras of
Sajia School of Chinese Tibetan Buddhism.
Born in a noble family of Chuipura of northern
India, Virupa was a prince of Saguo country.
He got tonsured to be a monk learning sutras at
his younger age. Later, he followed the abbot of
Nalanda and learned sutras of The Closest Buddha
Warrior Continuation Esoteric Buddhism, the Only
One of Kind Buddhism Warrior Continuation Esoteric
Buddhism and other sutras from Dama Maitreya.
He was famous for being proficient in yoga school
and became a Khanpo of Nalanda. Meanwhile, he Virupa

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 Cultural Contacts

sacrifice of cattle, pig and sheep. Also, he preached

the Sutra of Daoguo to Gurisasheri who became the
famous achiever, Mahasiddha Krishnapapa.
Bir wa ba had recruited many disciples in his
life and there were many great men with great
achievement. In Ougyan, he got Sukha Siddha and
gave her four thoughts of smiling Buddha Warrior
and she got great success and had the name of Dakini
becoming the disciple who got most of his power.
Virupa had written Buddhism Warrior’s Words of
Sutra of Daoguo, No Distractions of the Red Mighty An Shigao
Buddhism Warrior which are the most important
classics of Sajia School of the Tibetan Buddhism. According to Chu san zang ji ji [Compilation of
He is respected as the Great Masters of the Sajia Notes on the Translation of the Tripitaka], An Shigao
School. It is difficult to ascertain his dates of birth translated a total of 34 books (ie 40 volumes) of
and death. According to the biography in Tibetan, sutras but some of which were later lost and presently
he lived for more than 700 years. only 22 books (ie 26 volumes) are available. Later
(Deji zhuoma) generations appraised his translation as done
“with clear reasoning and appropriate wording,
giving intellectual argument without rhetoric,
Western Region embodying good quality without wildness”. It is

Personalities
easy for readers to understand, and often triggers
their tireless learning enthusiasm. The translation
project was stopped in late Jianning period of
An Shigao Emperor Ling of Han (168-171 CE) due to chaos
An Shigao (2nd century CE), also known as An Qing, around Guanzhong (present-day west of Lingbao,
was a great translator of Buddhist scriptures. He He’nan and the Shaanxi Guanzhong Plain area) and
moved to China towards the end of Eastern Han Luoyang. An Shigao then travelled to Jiangnan area
Dynasty. According to Gao seng zhuan [Biographies to teach. There are some amazing stories about his
of Eminent Monks], An Shigao was originally a stay in Yuzhang (present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi),
prince from Parthia. Praised for his filial conduct Xunyang, Kuaiji (present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang),
in childhood, he was a wise and intelligent student Guangzhou and other places. According to legend,
with comprehensive knowledge of foreign books, he finally passed away when he was accidentally
astronomy, calendar, medicines and prescriptions, attacked by fighters on the streets of Kuaiji. His
even sounds of birds and animals. Deeply influenced activities in China spanned about 30 years in total.
by Buddhist concepts of suffering and emptiness, he His doctrines belonged to the sthaviravāda school of
detested and rejected materialism and sought relief Sectarian Buddhism and his interpretation primarily
in spiritualism. After the death of his father, he focussed on the two aspects ie samadhi [calmness]
inherited the throne. But soon after the mourning, he and prajňā [wisdom]. As Gao seng zhuan [Memoirs of
passed the throne to his uncle and became a monk. Eminent Monks] does not verify the earlier arrival of
Because he was of royal blood, he continued to be Indian monks, Kāśyapamātanga and Dharamarakùa
popularly known by his honourific title, An Hou (or Dharamaratna), it can be safely presumed that
[Marquis of Parthia]. He had broad and extensive An Shigao was the earliest translator of Chinese
knowledge of Abhidharma Pitaka and was an expert Buddhist sutras.
in meditation. Travelling and teaching, he set his (Ge Weijun)
footprints in the countries throughout the Western
Regions. In the early Jianhe period of the reign of Lokaksema
Emperor Huan of Han (about 148 CE), he came to Lokakṣema (around 2nd century CE) was a sutra
Luoyang and soon learned Chinese and began to translator who came to China towards the end of
translate and publicise Buddhist sutras, successively Eastern Han Dynasty.
with the translated works of An ban shou yi jing According to Biographies of Eminent Monks,
[Sutra on the Maintenance of Thought by the Practice Lokakṣema was a monk of Yuezhi origin. He was a
of Ānāpanāsati],Yin chi ru jing [Sutra on Skandha, pure and kind-hearted person with high morals and
Dhātu and Āyatana or On Entrance to Truth by Covert hard-working nature. He read and chanted classics,
Maintenance], Ren ben yu sheng jing [Sutra on Moha, and was dedicated to the mission of propagating
Chanda,and Jāti, or the Origin of the Life of Man in doctrines (fa). In the later phase of the reign of
Desires], Dao De jing [Classic on Dao] etc. Emperor Huan of Han (around 167 CE), he came to

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 Cultural Contacts

Luoyang and learned Chinese. During the Guanghe

and Zhongping years of the reign of Emperor Ling
(178-189 AD), he translated 13 Buddhist scriptures
from Sanskrit version. When Dao’An, an eminent
monk of Jin Dynasty (314-385 CE) compiled the
Comprehensive Catalog of Scriptures, he personally
went through the three scriptures, the years of
which can be checked from the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
(2nd Guanghe year ie 179 CE), Pratyutpanna Sutra Kang Senghui
(Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhàvasthita-samàdhi-
såtra, ditto), and øåraïgamasåtra (2nd Zhongping year then crossing Syr Darya and entering Uzbekistan
ie 185 CE), of which Øåraïgamasåtra was lost. There area). He lived in India and joined his father's
were also Ādūshì Wáng Jīng, Mahàratnakåñasåtra, business and migrated to Jiaozhi (centre and north
Manjusri-pariprcha-bodhisattva-sutra, Dousha Sutra of present-day Vietnam). His parents were both
and so on which seemed to have been translated dead when he was 10. After the mourning period,
by Lokakṣema from the original language. Apart he became a monk and cultivated himself according
from the translation work by himself, he also to religious doctrines. He was a self-disciplined,
often worked with Zhu-shuo-fo (also known as magnanimous person with an outstanding ability
Zhufoshuo). For example, the two original classics and insight. He was studious and deep thinker,
proficient in Buddhist Tripitaka, extensively studied
astronomy and books of prophecy, ingenious in
debate and good at writing. There is no record
about when he arrived at the territory of Han. When
Sun Quan unified the area on the south of Yangtze
River beyond Wuhu and Nanjing, Buddhism was
unpopular there. Then, Kang Senghui went there
and proceeded to educate. He reached Jianye
(present-day Nanjing of Jiangsu Province) in 10th
year of Chiwu (247 CE), built thatched cottages, set
Lokaksema up Buddha statues and advocated Buddhist views.
With special appearance and strange behaviour, he
of Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra and Pratyutpanna Sutra was soon called in by Sun Quan. It was said that after
were introduced by Zhu-shuo-fo, and they were 21 days of fast, he had obtained a Buddhist relic and
interpreted by Lokaksema and put down in writing showed its spirituality and power in the presence of
by other Han scholars. His translation was straight Sun Quan. Sun Quan admired deeply and set up a
with little rhetoric so that the essential meaning tower and temple so the area around it was called
of the Sutra could be easily communicated and Buddha Temple. It is the first Buddhist temple built
understood. But, in order to retain the basic features in the southern regions of Yangtze River and so it
of the classics, he added lots of transliteration. Much was also called Firstly-built (Jianchu) Temple. Kang
of his translation belonged to Mahayana which can Senghui preached and translated Buddhist scriptures
be regarded as the beginning of the translation of there so that Buddha dharma flourished. It was said
Mahayana sutra in the land of Han China. He has that after Sun Hao had succeeded the throne, he had
trained disciples like Zhi Liang, who has also trained invited Kang Senghui to preach in order to cure his
other disciples like Zhi Qian. chronic disease, then endured five disciplines and
(Ge Weijun) converted to Buddhism after recovery. In April of
fourth year of Tianji (280 CE), Sun Hao surrendered
Kang Senghui to Jin. In September the same year, Kang Senghui
Kang Senghui (unknown-280 CE) was a translator suffered from a disease and died. His age is unclear.
of Buddhist scriptures who came to China during His honourific title is “Super Preach Chan Master”.
the Three Kingdoms period and a Buddhist preacher Kang Senghui translated many sets of Buddhist
who firstly contributed to the spread of Buddhism scriptures in Jianye but now only Collective
to south China. Scripture of Six Paramitas (eight volumes) and Old
According to the records in Record Set of Tripitaka and Miscellaneous Buddhist Parables (two volumes)
and Biographies of Eminent Monks, Kang Senghui’s exist. The rest have been lost, such as Purity
ancestral home was in Kangju (an ancient country Scripture of Bodhisattva, Obedience Scriptures and 250
of the Western Regions, located between Balkhash Buddha Dharma of Bodhisattva. Later generations
Lake of Central Asia and Aral Sea in Han Dynasty, evaluated that his translations were “excellent

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 Cultural Contacts

in scripture essence and righteous in article”. He him and asked him to coach the prince Sun Liang.
wrote Anapanasati Sutta, Buddha Dharma and Linden Buddhist scriptures were mostly in Sanskrit and
Scripture, but only Anapanasati Sutta and Buddha were not translated completely. From the first year
Dharma foreword are remaining now. Kang Senghui of Huangwu of Sun Quan (222 CE) to the 2nd year
learned from Han Lin, Pi Ye and Chen Hui, and was a of Jianxing of Sun Liang (253 CE), he translated 27
disciple of An Shigao. But he was also influenced by Buddhist sutras such as Vimalakirti Sutra, Nirvana
Zhi Qian Mahayana's ideas and Chinese traditional Sutra, The Dhammapada, Daming Sutras, Amitabha
Confucianism and Daoism. So on one hand, he had Sutras, Buddhist on Nine-colour Deer (according to
sympathy for others, was determined to save the The Records of Tripitaka), and another monk Zhu
world and advocated saving society by saving human Jiangyan from Wuchang also participated. He also
souls. On the other, he suggested the then emperor created the three files of Buddhist Chants of Eulogy
to implement benevolent policies to improve the on Bodhisattva, and annotated for Life and Death
real life of common people. These thoughts are fully Sutras, which were all prevailing at that time. After
demonstrated in Collective Scripture of Six Paramitas. Sun Liang ascended the throne, Zhi Qian retreated in
The scripture is actually compiled into six chapters Qiong’ai Mountain, stayed away from social affairs
according to the “six paramitas” of Mahayana and made friends with Sramana. Later, he died in
namely alms giving, keeping disciplines, enduring the mountains at the age of 60. Emperor Sun Liang
contempt, concentration, keeping still with deep of Wu wrote to the monks and praised that “Zhi Qian
meditation and wisdom. It contains 91 pieces of was simple and indifferent from wealth and fame,
Buddhist scriptures and 82 stories of Buddha itself and should be spoken highly of from beginning to
and the contents mostly contain advice. He hoped end.” The translations by Zhi Qian focus on “the real
to simultaneously carry out five disciplines and 10 prajna is that the nature of all things in the world
good deeds of Buddhism and principles of feudal is empty and virtual, the words were elegant. He
moral conduct about Chinese traditional ethics was a master of Buddhist scripture translation after
among people to make them generally abide by An Shigao and Lokaksema and later Kumarajiva re-
monks and laymen. As to people with power, he translated on the basis of this. All the translation
advocated “determining laws with Buddha dharma work promoted the spread of Buddhism in China
and managing state affairs with a righteous heart”. and Zhi Qian also played an important role in the
As to common people, he encouraged them to be “a understanding of Buddhism by Chinese people.
livestock with moral principles rather than a civilian (Tan Jie)
without moral principles”. His great contribution
to mastering Buddha dharma and Confucianism Srimitra
not only formed a unique and kind ethics of ørãmitra [Bo Shilimiduoluo, 3rd~4th century CE]
Buddhism, but also effectively promoted sinicisation paraphrased as Good Friend, was also briefly called
of Buddhism. Shimili. People of the time called him “Bema”. He
(Ge Weijun) was a monk and translator of Buddhist scriptures
who lived between the 3rd and 4th centuries and
Zhiqian came to China during Jin Dynasty.
Zhi Qian (about 3rd century CE) was a Buddhist According to the record in Biographies of Eminent
scripture translator in the Three Kingdoms. His Monks, Śrīmitra was born in Western Regions and
other name was Zhi Yue and the courtesy name was was once the prince of a country. Later, he resigned
Gongming. Dates of birth and death are unknown his sovereign authority in favour of his younger
but he was born in Dayuezhi. His grandfather, Fadu, brother and became a monk. Śrimitra’s look and
led hundreds of his countrymen to migrate in China gestures were handsome, bright and remarkable.
in Emperor Ling of Han (168~189 CE), and Zhi During Yongjia period (307-313 CE) of Western
Qian also came together. He learnt from Zhi Liang, Jin Dynasty, he came to the Central Plains in China
a disciple of Lokaksema (also see that article). He for preaching. It was a time of war, he had to go
read a lot of Buddhist scriptures very carefully and to the south crossing Yangtze River and arrived in
learnt many folk skills. He read lots of foreign books Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu), and lived
and could speak six languages. They three were in the Jianchu temple. Prime Minister Wang Dao
learned, and there was a saying that “no knowledge admired his grace and immediately accepted him
in the world was beyond the three Zhi”. In the end as a friend with the same inclination. Śrīmitra’s
of Eastern Han Dynasty, he ran away from social reputation was thus well-known. After that, all
upheaval in Wu with tens of fellow villagers. People those who came for metaphysical discussions were
called him “brain truster” since he was smarter contemporary celebrities. His disposition was,
than anyone else. Sun Quan, the Emperor of Wu however, haughty and he did not learn Chinese.
(222~252 CE) heard of his wisdom and called Communication depended on interpreters, but due to

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sister Jīvaka was extremely intelligent who could

recite after hearing once. Although many princes
and dukes proposed marriage to her, she firmly
refused them. After Kumārāyana came, she fell in
love with him at first sight and wished to marry
him. The king also made every effort to facilitate
the marriage. After Jīvaka and Kumārāyana got
married, Kumārajīva was born. Not long after that
Jīvaka joined the nunnery. At that time, Qiuci was
one of the Buddhism in the east of Cong Ridge, and
Srimitra Mahayana and Theravada believes coexisted, but
with Theravada taking the predominant position.
his excellent comprehension skills, he could always Kumārajīva followed his mother and became a
fully understand all hints, and communication monk at the age of seven, and followed a teacher to
was never hindered. He was also good at charms learn sutra. He exhibited extraordinary talent in his
and it was said his charms were extraordinarily study. He could not only recite a 1,000 verses, but
efficacious. Śrīmitra died at the age of 80 plus had fast and in-depth understanding and mastering
during Chengkang period (335-342 CE) in Eastern
Jin Dynasty, and was buried in the east of gravel
hills. Emperor Cheng of Jin Dynasty admired his
charming appearance and behaviour, ordered to set
up a temple beside his grave. Later Śramanas who
came here established another temple called Bema
Temple. When Śrīmitra was alive, there was no
spells for Jiangdong, so the 12 volumes of Buddha
Incantation to Seventy-two Thousand Devaraja for
religious protection, one volume of Incantation for
Mahamayuri Devaraja and one volume of Incantation
for Various Mahamayuri Devarajas etc should be
translated. In addition, he also had loud Buddhist
chants handed down to following generations. He
was also considered as the earliest representative Kumārajīva
for spreading Esoteric Buddhism.
(Ge Weijun) of the doctrines. At the age of nine, Jīvaka brought
him south to cross the Indus and reached Kophen
Kumarajiva (present day Kashmir), an important town of the
Kumārajīva (343-413 CE) was one of the greatest Sarvāstivāda Buddhism, in order to make him
Buddhist sutra translators in ancient China. His accept the best Buddhist scholastic education.
name meant “child longevity”. There he met Bandhudatta, the master with smart
Life of Kumārajīva - According to volume talent and broad knowledge who was one-of-a-
2 of Biographies of Eminent Monks and volume kind at that time. He followed him to study the
14 of Collected Records Concerning the Tripitaka, Kṣudraka, Dīrgha Āgama and Madhyama Āgama,
Kumārajīva was an Indian by origin born in all together four million words. The master often
Qiuci (now Kuqa, Xinjiang). His ancestors were called him exceptionally divine and handsome.
from a Brahmin family and his family took the News reached the imperial court of Kophen and the
minister position for generations. His grandfather king invited him to the palace to debate with many
was of uninhibited personality, outstandingly vadins (debaters) of other religions. The vadins of
charming and well-known all around. His father, other religions bullied him since he was young and
Kumārāyana, was honest and clever, not admiring spoke arrogantly towards him but were attacked
vanity, and a highly valued reputation and by him through the loopholes they left and they
disguised official’s position. When it came to his quit hastily in shame. After that, the king respected
inheritance, he unexpectedly abandoned the family and treated him as a distinguished foreign guest,
and travelled far to the east, climbing over Cong especially dispatching five monks and 10 novices
Ridge (now the Pamirs) and reaching Qiuci. King in the temple for cleaning like the disciples. At the
of Qiuci had long heard of his name, personally age of 12, Kumārajīva returned to Qiuci with his
went out of the city-wall to meet him and then mother. The countries along the road wished to hire
worshipped him as the royal priest. The king’s him with large sums of money but he refused except

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that he stayed in Kashgar for a year and learned the

Abhidharma Piṭaka and Sarvastivada-vinaya under
the Kashmiri monk, Buddhayaśas, and finally got
profound understanding of the meanings. Under the
suggestion of Śramana Xijian, the King of Kashgar
convened a meeting and asked Kumārajīva to rise on
the high seat and to teach Dhammacakkappavattana
Sutta. The move was not only helpful in motivating
the sanghas in the country to study Buddhism, but
it helped improve the relations between the two
countries by paying tribute to Qiuci. Kumārajīva,
besides teaching, actively searched for Hindu
classics and books of other religions, read the
four vedas, panca-vidya and other doctrines, and
explored the knowledge of astronomy, calendar,
divination, and astrology and later he could even
fulfil all his predictions. In daily life, however,
Kumārajīva was more willful and neglected minor
points of conduct. And although censured by yogis,
he did not mind about it. In Kashgar he fortunately The relic stūpa of Kumārajīva located at the Caotang
monastery, Hu County in Shaanxi Province, China.
came across Suryasoma who especially taught
Mahayana Buddhism. He respected and followed
him to study Anavatapta, Mādhyamikaśāstra, ascended seat, there was a king kneeling beside for
øata÷àstra, Dvàda÷amukha÷àstra etc. And thus, a long time for him to step on.
he gave up Theravada to embrace Mahayana. Kumārajīva’s reputation spread to the central
Later, he returned to Wen Su, north of Qiuci, and plains. At that time, an eminent monk, Dao An, was
encountered a heretic. The heretic, eloquent and in Chang’an and wanted to meet Kumārajīva and
renowned across the countries, beat the drum with interpret Buddhism doctrines with him. So every
his hands and said, “For anyone can win me, I’d be time he discussed with Fu Jian, the monarch of
beheaded for him as an honorarium.” Former Qin, he would urge him to send an envoy
Kumārajīva accepted the challenge and won to invite him. In February of the 17th Jianyuan year
shortly after. So he was “famous across the left side of Former Qin (381 CE), the kings of Shanshan
of Cong Ridge and beyond the river” and the heretic and Qianbu came to ask Fu Jian to send troops to
also bowed to convert. The king of Qiuci went to conquer west. In September the following year, Fu
Wen Su personally and welcomed him home. After Jian sent Valiant Cavalry General Lu Guang and
the return, he, at the invitation of the princess A-Kie- others to lead 70,000 soldiers to fight Qiuci, Yanqi
ye-mo-ti, taught the essence of mahasanni-pata- and other countries in the west and instructed him
sutra and illustrated the doctrines of “everything is to promptly send Kumārajīva into the border after
empty” and “pseudonym is not real”, causing many conquering Qiuci. In the 20th Jianyuan year (384 CE),
Theravada believers to convert to Mahayana. At the Lu Guang conquered Qiuci and seized Kumārajīva,
age of 20, Kumārajīva was ordained at the King’s but did not know of his honoured status, and bullied
palace. Soon after, his mother went to Tianzhu him and teased him as a mortal since he was young.
and before she went, she told Kumārajīva to go to He even forced Kumārajīva to marry the princess
the eastern land to expand Mahayana. Kumārajīva of Qiuci. Kumārajīva though firmly refused, was
committed that he would do it against all odds and repeatedly asked and forced to drink and be shut
even sacrifice himself. Two years later, Bandhudatta in a secret chamber with the princess, eventually
knew that Kumārajīva had extraordinary suffering the loss of integrity. Kumārajīva bore all
enlightenment and came from Kophen to visit him. these sorts of indignities calmly. The former Qin
Kumārajīva was extremely happy and repeatedly fell apart after the Battle of Feishui (383 CE). Two
explained the essentials of Mahayana for more than years later, Fu Jian was killed by Yao Chang. After
a month and finally made him feel convinced and Lu Guang returned with the troops to Liangzhou and
worshipped Kumārajīva as the teacher. Bandhudatta knew about it, he established a regime by himself
said, “I am your teacher in Theravada, and you are with the army and reigned in the corner. He didn’t
my teacher in Mahayana.” Since then, people from follow Buddhism and just treated Kumārajīva as a
various countries in the Western Regions were necromancer who was good at predicting disasters
convinced of his divinity, and sincerely admired and abnormalities and foretelling lucks and
him and even whenever there was a lecture in the misfortunes. Although Kumārajīva was able to come

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in and out of the imperial court, he served only the common senses to speak for Kumārajīva. Later,
as an advisor. Though he was not able to expand Dao Xuan (596-667 CE) in his Dao Xuan Master
Buddhism, Kumārajīva managed to learn Chinese in Rapport Records, even said that Kumārajīva’s sutra
Liangzhou and attentively read the Chinese ancient translation was “unique and highly unmatched”. He
classics and history books, paving the way for future was not an ordinary monk so he could conveniently
work of translating sutras. do what he wanted. All the gossip in the streets
Yao Chang of Later Qin also admired the name about the corrupted commandment were nothing
of Kumārajīva and repeatedly invited him modestly. but average men’s prejudices which were simply
But Lu Guang and his successors, Lu Zuan and Lu “not worth commenting on”. Kumārajīva was not
Long were jealous of his wisdom and capability and unaware of his violation against the commandment.
feared that he would be used by Yao Chang and did So every time he taught, he would make confessions
not want to let him travel to the east. Later, Yao first, and hoped the listeners would see him as the
Chang died and his son, Yao Xing, succeeded the lotus in the smelly mud as he taught, and just pick
throne. In May of the third Hongshi year of Later Qin the lotus without the mud.
(401 CE), Yao Xing sent Duke Longxi Yao Shuode His Sutra Translation Career Buddhism, since
to conquer Lv Long in the west. Kumārajīva was introduced in China at the time of Emperor Ming
not invited at the border until Lu Long surrendered of Han period (58-75 CE), had been more than 200
in September. He reached Chang’an on December years. And its classics, through the continuous efforts
20. Yao Xing treated him with the etiquettes of a of the translation masters of An Shigao, Lokakṣema,
state master and offered preferential respect. At this Dharmaraksa, et al, had been translated into Chinese.
point, Kumārajīva was detained outside the border However, translated Buddhist scriptures exhibited
for nearly 20 years and he himself was already not only language differences but cultural barriers
58-years-old. Yao Xing “worshipped Triratna since as well. So during early practice, it was extremely
young age” and after the succession to the throne, difficult to carry forward. The translated classics
he made great efforts to foster Buddhism. After often had a sluggish style of writing which made it
Kumārajīva came, he talked with him all day labourious for the believers to read and understand.
long without pause. Under the urge of Yao Xing, Because of this, the priority of Kumārajīva was to
Kumārajīva did not mind his old age and soon was re-translate the important classics. And for those
devoted to teaching in the central plains. In over a that had not been introduced yet, he was cautious
decade’s time, he was diligent in translating a large to translate and introduce. Kumārajīva read through
number of classics. As he was kind in nature, modest the old classics, and did find that there were “many
and a good teacher, he was very popular among the absurd interpretations that were mistranslated and
believers. His handsome and elegant appearance not corresponding to the original text.” In the fourth
and the clear and proud experience won the warm Hongshi year of Later Qin (402 CE), Kumārajīva
worship of the Buddhists and laymen. Yao Xing was invited to translate the sutras in Ximing Garden
often said to him, “You, the master, are intelligent and Xiaoyao Garden. He either recited complete
and with genius which is unmatched in the world. classics by virtue of memory or translated based on
After your life, the Buddhism blood will have no the existing Sanskirt versions. Those who listened
heir. How could that be?” So he chose 10 prostitutes and assisted in the translation included Sengrui,
and forced him to accept. Kumārajīva had no way Sengzhao, Daorong, Daosheng, Tanying, Faqin
out but to leave the monk room and live in the etc, who were the best selected for the work of
official’s house, enjoying rich offerings and high that time. According to the descriptions of several
rank. Breaking the sexual precept twice, Kumārajīva monk biographies, when Pa¤caviü÷ati-sàhasrikà-
could not avoid being criticised by the people. The praj¤àpàramità was translated, Kumārajīva held
holy man image of Kumārajīva was also damaged. the Sanskrit version by hand and Yao Xing read
Later generations had sympathy for his vicissitude. the old sutra aloud to match and compare. All the
Another legend even appeared in the Book of Jin, new translations made by Kumārajīva, which were
saying that at that time, some Buddhist disciples different from the old sutra, were fluent in diction,
saw him living with a wife and in another house accommodating in argumentation, which made
and wanted to follow his example. He summoned the congregation on the translation spot convinced
them together and put an entire pot of steel needles in admiration.
in front of them and said, “Those can imitate me During his 12-year stay in China, the classics
can marry and live in another place.” And then translated by Kumārajīva, according to Kaiyuan
he swallowed the needles as usual. All the monks Shijiao Lu, 74 books, or 384 volumes or according
were ashamed and refrained from these delusions. to conservative estimates, at least 35 books, or
Such legends tried to persuade people that he had 294 volumes (according to the Collected Records
exceptional gifts which could not be measured with Concerning the Tripitaka). The primary translated

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sutras include Vajracchedikàprajà¤pàramità- for local dialect. It is like it is still segmented and
såtra, Amitàbha-såtra, Saddharmapuõóarãkasåtra, not integrated”. As for this, the later generation
Vimalakãrti-nirde÷a-såtra, Praj¤àpàramità-hçdaya- noticed that staying long in Liangzhou was helpful
såtra, øåraïgama-samàdhi-såtra, Da÷abhåmika- in his getting familiar with Chinese, so he could,
såtra, Dhyàna-niùñhita-samàdhi-dharmaparyàya- when translating sutras later, “held the source text
såtra, the Sūtra of Maitreya Bodhisattva’s Attainment in hand and orally read it in the Qin language,
of Buddhahood, Madhyamika÷àstra, øata÷àstra, explaining it with two different dialects, and cross-
Dvàda÷amukha÷àstra, Mahàpraj¤àpàramita÷astra clarifying the central meanings”, which showed
etc. There were also three volumes of Kumārajīva his style as a great translator. What is critical,
Master Doctrines, which was a collection of letters however, was that Kumārajīva attracted a group of
on the questions and answers between him and very talented Chinese monks around him, the most
Master Huiyuan. outstanding of whom were Daosheng, Daorong,
Translation Style and Later Evaluation As a Daorui, Daozhao etc. They had domestic and foreign
prominent scholar studying both Mahayana and learning with profound rhetoric. They understood
Theravada, Kumārajīva went east to Chang’an deeply Kumārajīva’s recitation and translation of
and “carried forward the ultimate doctrines, and the sutras and could convey and write it in proper
publishing excellent classics”, in order to clarify and elegant Chinese. They were quite supportive in
the ambiguous border of Mahayana and Theravada the translation endeavour. Therefore, it’s difficult
in China and actively expand Mahayana Buddhism to exactly estimate Kumārajīva’s Chinese level, but
he believed as his own duty. His translation was the collective level of his sutra translation group is
extremely serious. Sengzhao’s preface to a 100 beyond doubt.
Treatises called him “brief and concise, dedicated Kumārajīva had a clear understanding of classic
to keep the essential points”. Sengrui’s preface to translation itself. He never thought that translation
the Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom called him could fully convey the original canon, so he said,
“vulgar and dedicated, repeating a sentence three “translating Sanskrit into Chinese would lose its
times, striving to be perfect, dedicated to keep the exquisite diction. Though the essential meaning is
essential points”. His arduous work was conceivable conveyed, the language style is different. It is like
from these descriptions. In his late years when to chew food and give it to others; not only the
translating Da÷abhåmika-såtra, as there were some flavour is lost, but it makes people throw up.” As
difficulties unsolved, though he had the original text for his work, he was very modest and proclaimed,
in hand, he delayed for more than a month until “I incorrectly serve as the translator with my
his teacher, Buddhayaśas, came to Chang’an from equivocal interpretation”. But for transferring the
Kophen. He didn’t start to write until consulting essence of the classics, he was confident. Before his
his teacher. His serious attitude towards translation death, Kumārajīva once swore before the crowd, “If
could be seen from this example. As for his translation my transferring is infallible, my tongue will not be
style, it is generally believed that he tended to burned after the burning of my body.” His body was
paraphrase, focussing on meaning rather than form. incinerated the Indian way outside Xiaoyao Garden.
Collection of Translation Records said that he “was It is said that as was expected “the fire went out and
unique and highly unmatched, so his translation the body vanished. Only the tongue was not turned
emphasised comprehension first to convey the
Buddhism meaning”. It’s obvious that his primary
purpose was to deeply transfer the thoughts of the
original canon. Though he prioritised on conveying
the meaning as opposed to precise literal rendering,
as he knew well about Sanskrit and Chinese,
Theravada and Mahayana, he was fully capable of
modifying, adding or deleting his translation for
convenience. In fact, he did realise “adaptation to
local dialect, fun without distorting the original
text” and “although the article is variant, it does not
go against the central meaning”.
As for Chinese language level of Kumārajīva,
there were different valuations. Some said he “can
convert to Chinese with fluent transliteration”,
“expert in the central land and good at local dialect”.
Some said, he “knew the grand structure of the Qin
language (Chinese)... and had special preference Da Zhilun translated by Kumārajīva

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20th year (376 CE) of former Qin Dynasty and was

regarded highly by Emperor Fu Jian. It was said
Fu Jian worshipped him as the god of his country,
whenever there was drought usually Fu Jian would
invite She Gong to call the dragon down to the
alms bowl. After that there would be heavy rain.
The gentries and civilians all admired his magic.
She Gong died in Jianyuan 16th year without any
illness. It was said his coffin was opened seven days
later for inspection, but his corpse had disappeared.
(Ge Weijun)

Kalayasas
Kālayaśas [Jiangliangyeshe] (about 390-450 CE)
A horizontal inscribed board at Kumārajīva Memorial Hall at was an Indian monk and sutra translator who came
Caotang monastery to China in the Southern and Northern dynasties.
His name was translated as Shicheng in Chinese.
into ashes”. Not long later, a foreign śramana came According to the records of Biographies of
to China, and said Kumārajīva’s translation was not Eminent Monks and Kaiyuan Catalogue of Buddhist
as much as one-tenth of the classics he had a firm Scriptures etc, Kālayaśas from the Western Regions
grasp on. It was a matter of regret that could not be was straightforward and had a pure heart and
made up for. fewer desires. He adopted a monastic life when he
Zan Ning in his Biography of the Eminent Monks was a teenager. He was proficient in Abhidharma,
in Song Dynasty said Kumārajīva’s translation read scriptures and sutras extensively, and had a
“has some fun of language of the natural Western good knowledge of Chan School. In the first year
Regions” which showed his exquisite translation. His of Yuanjia of Song of the Southern Dynasty (424
translation works went far beyond his predecessors CE), he crossed Liusha and arrived in the capital,
and were beneficial for later generations. The Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). Emperor
Collected Records Concerning the Tripitaka called Wen of Song respected him very much and arranged
them “grand in expression, clear in sutra essence; for him to live in Zhongshan Daolin Vihara. Being
sublime words in Mahayana were so splendid”. invited by Śramana Seng Han, he translated one
Although those were compliments, it was real volume of Bhaishajyaraja Bhaishajya-samudgata
that they had always been highly regarded. Some Sutra and The Sutra on Visualisation of the Buddha of
translation works, though translated by later great Infinite Life respectively which were written by Seng
translators in the pursuit of better meaning, could Han in person. Kālayaśas left Jianye shortly and
not be replaced. The widely circulated are still went to other places to disseminate the way of Chan.
Kumārajīva’s translations such as the Diamond He came to Jiangling first, then arrived in Sichuan
Sutra, Lotus Sutra and so on. in the 19th year of Yuanjia and then he returned to
(Ge Weijun) Jiangling and died there at the age of 60.
(Ge Weijun)
She Gong
She Gong (unknown~380 CE) was the monk who Dharmanandi
came to China in Eastern Jin Dynasty. He was Dharmanandi [Tanmonanti] (c. 4th century CE) was
good at conjuration magic and was also known a monk who came to China in Eastern Jin Dynasty
as Sengshe. for dissemination, education and translation of
According to the 10th volume of Biographies of Buddhist Scriptures. His name paraphrased in
Eminent Monks, 95th volume of Book of Jin and Chinese meant joy with the understanding the
63rd volume of Fa Yuan Zhu Lin, She Gong was a Buddha Dharma.
person from the Western Regions while his family According to volume I of Biographies of Eminent
name was not known. She Gong had been śramana Monks, volume IX of Compilation of Notes on
since he was young. He was good at the skillful the Translation of the Tripitaka and other data,
method of deep breathing and could walk 250 Tanmonanti was from the country of Tukhara
km within one day without eating any grains. She (northern Afghanistan). He was away from the
Gong could predict the events in the future what worldly life since childhood, intelligent and mature
he had said would be bound to become true. He in mind at an early age. He had read all classics
could also beg the magic dragon for rainfall with of Tripitaka and was specially good at chanting
mantra. She Gong arrived in Chang’an in Jianyuan and interpreting Ekottara Agama. All the fellow

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countrymen praised and admired his erudition. Dharmaruci

Tanmonanti’s ambition was to develop and expand Dharmaruci [Tanmoliuzhi] (also known as Fale and
Buddha Dharma so he travelled from the distance Faxi in free translation) (c. 4th – 5th century CE) is
through deserts and arrived in Chang’an in the a Buddhist monk and famous translator who came
middle of Jianyuan’s reign of former Qin Dynasty to China in Southern and Northern dynasties (420
(365~384 CE) (in volume VIII of Three Treasures -589 CE).
of Previous Dynasties, it was said in the beginning
of Jianyuan’s reign while in Daoan’s preface of
Ekottaragama it was said in Jianyuan 20th year). He
was heartedly welcomed with courteous reception by
Emperor Fu Jian. On the request of Zhao Zheng, the
prefecture chief of Wuwei and also the great officer
of former Qin Dynasty, Tanmonanti cooperated with
Dao An, Zhu Fonian and other famous monks on the
translation project of 59 volumes of Madhyamāgama
and 41 volumes of Ekottarikāgama, totally 100
volumes, (it was also said 92 volumes). These two
Buddhist sutras were corrected by Samghadeva later
to make it contemporaneous. Besides, according to Dharmaruci
volume VIII of Three Treasures of Previous Dynasties,
Tanmonanti had also translated two volumes of Tri- According to Biographies of Eminent Monks,
dharmika-śāstra and two volumes of Samgha-varti. Dharmaruci was from Western Regions. After he
Later Fu Jian was killed by Yao Chang. Tanmonanti abandoned his family and became a monk, he was
again translated one volume of Sutta of Asoka’s famous for mastering vinaya. Puõyatàra once recited
Abandoning of Evilness for the minister Yao Min in Sanskrit Da÷a-bhàõavàra-vinaya in Chang’an Central
Jianchu sixth year (the year of 391 CE, it was also Temple and Kumārajīva translated it into Chinese.
said in Jianchu second year) of Later Qin Dynasty. However when he translated two-third of the vinaya,
However in volume I of Biographies of Eminent Monks, Puņytārā died due to an illness. The eminent monk,
it was said when the invader Yao Chang exerted Hui Yuan, living in Mt Lu knew that Dharmaruci
pressure on the areas inside Shanhaiguan pass, mastered vinaya, so he quickly sent a letter to him
Tanmonanti had already taken leave for Western and hoped that he could bring the book to Chang’an
Regions. It was not known where he arrived which and continue to finish the translation. Dharmaruci
was not the same as the above sayings. It is difficult received the letter and earnest invitation of Yao
to mention how much sutras he had translated in Xing, the emperor of later Qin Dynasty, and then
volume VIII of Three Treasures of Previous Dynasties he came to China in the autumn of seventh year of
it was said five books and 114 volumes, while in Hong Shi (405 CE) and finished the translation with
volume I of Biographies of Eminent Monks it was said Kumārajīva. However before the vinaya was revised
106 volumes. and finalised, Kumārajīva died. So Dharmaruci went
(Ge Weijun) to other places with vinaya. It was said that after
he had travelled to many places, he finally died
in Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei, Guzang with
district government on the west of Yellow River
within Gansu). Da÷a-bhàõavàra-vinaya was finally
supplemented and finished by Vimalàkùa.
(Ge Weijun)

Buddhavarman
Buddhavarman [Futuobamo] (Futuobamo in
paraphrase means conscious armour) was an Indian
monk and translator who came to China in the
Southern and Northern dynasties.
According to Buddhist texts such as Biographies of
Eminent Monks, Buddhavarman was exceptionally
gifted from childhood in ancient India. He disciplined
himself rigorously and learned Tripitaka extensively.
A horizontal inscribed book at Kumārajīva
The monk especially understood Abhidharma-
Memorial Hall at Caotang monastery mahavibhāśā-śāstra thoroughly and took it as the

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core of all sutras. During Yuanjia Period (424-453 He came to Pingcheng (present-day northeast of
CE) of Southern Dynasty, the eminent monk arrived Datong, Shanxi), the capital of the northern Wei, and
in Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei where Guzang was respected by the crown prince Tuoba Huang,
served as the capital, west of Yellow River valley whose father Emperor Taiwu took the advice of Situ
in Gansu). In the very beginning, Śramana Daotai Cuihao to observe New Tian Shi Sect advocated by
had obtained the original Abhidharma-mahavibhāśā- Daoist Kou Qianzhi, demolished Buddhism in the
śāstra containing verses totalling more than seventh year of Taiping Zhenjun (Perfect Ruler of
100,000 characters from nearby Congling (present- Great Peace) of the Northern Wei Dynasty (446
day Pamirs) and brought it back to Guzang. He CE) burnt temples and towers and forced monks to
modestly waited for a really qualified translator. resume secular life. Tan Yao believed in Buddhism
Buddhavarman was invited to translate the sutra as firmly and promised to defend it to death. The crown
soon as Daotai learned about his arrival. From the prince persuaded him repeatedly but he still hid
lunar fourth month of 14th Year (437 CE) of Yuanjia monk clothes and instruments secretly and lived in
mountains as a hermit. Cuihao was killed four years
later. The crown prince, Huang, died next year.
Emperor Taiwu was killed a year later and Emperor
Wencheng succeeded the throne when he was 12.
Under the influence of his father Tuoba Huang, he
sent out the imperial decree to resume Buddhism
with the support of ministers and assigned the
monk, Shi Xian, to be Buddhist ruler a year later.
Abhidharma Vibhāṣa Shi Xian died in the first year of Heping of Northern
Wei Dynasty (about 460 CE). Tan Yao replaced
Period, Buddhavarman started the translation him and the title was changed into Śramana ruler.
work at Xianyugong in the city of Liangzhou with He governed Buddhist monks and nuns. Emperor
the help of Daotai (who paraphrased the sutra Wencheng respected him as his teacher and he
according to Buddhavarman’s verbal translation) became famous gradually. Monks and laymen
as well as Huisong, Daolang and over 300 other respected him greatly. After becoming the Śramana
erudite monks (who researched into the bilingual ruler, Tan Yao was invited by Emperor Wencheng
texts). Their 100-volume monumental work had not and he chiseled five rock caves and carved Buddha
been finished until the lunar seventh month of 16th images on the northern cliff of Wuzhoushan Valley
year of Yuanjia Period. Soon afterwards, Liangzhou in the west of Pingcheng. The images were about 60
was in chaos as Northern Wei attacked Guzang. or 70 chi (1 chi=1/3 m) high which were carved
As a result, many valuable objects including the grandly, and they ranked No. 1 at that time. He built
above translations were tragically burnt down. a temple named Lingyan Temple. The establishment
Almost nothing was left. Fortunately, 60 volumes of Datong Yungang Grottoes started from this.
were copied upon the imperial edict from Northern Hereafter, Emperor Xianwen and Emperor Xiaowen
Liang’s king and then transferred to Southern visited the grottoes several times. In the third
Dynasty where they were preserved well. Later, year of Heping (462 CE), Tan Yao lived in Tongle
another monk, Daoting, wrote an introduction to Temple of Yungang Grottoes and convened eminent
the great work which still exists. But Buddhavarman monks to translate four volumes of Great Luck and
fled westward and vanished without a trace. Righteousness Sutra and one volume of Sutra of Pure
(Ge Weijun) Salvation, and he translated six volumes of Handing
Down of Buddha’s Teachings and 10 volumes of Sutra
Dharmayasas of Miscellaneous Treasures (Saüyukta-ratna-piñaka-
Dharmayasas [Tanyao] (birth and death are såtra) with Kekaya, the Śramana from Western
unknown) was a monk and translator who came to Regions. In the second year of Huangxing of the
China in the period of Northern Wei Dynasty and Northern Wei Dynasty (468 CE), Emperor Xianwen
contributed to the revival of Buddhism here. conquered two prefectures Qin and Qi of Song of
The native place of Tan Yao is unknown. He Southern Dynasty. He moved hundreds of local
was possibly from Western Regions. According to households to Pingcheng which were called Pingqi
records of Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks households. Tan Yao submitted a written statement
and Book of Wei: Annuals of Buddhism and Taoism to the Emperor and asked Pingqi households
etc, he became a monk when he was a teenager. He and those from other places which can provide
followed Buddhism firmly, cultivated himself and 60 hu (1 hu=100 kg) of grains to be monastic
learned scriptures in Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei, households, and their grains were called monastic
Gansu) and was famous for being proficient in Chan. grains. Meanwhile, severe criminals and official

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slave shall be Buddha households and engage in King Temple in Linhuai County, Sizhou Prefecture of
cleaning temples, growing crops and transporting the Great Tang (volume 263 of Complete Prose Works
grains. His statement was approved and laid of the Tang). From Li Bai’s poem, Master Samgha in
economic foundation for revival of Buddhism. The volume 96 of Extensive records of the Taiping Era and
measure had great influences on the development of volume 18 of Song Dynasty Collection of Biographies
future Buddhism. of Eminent Monks, it can be seen that Samgha
(Ge Weijun) propagated Mahayana doctrines and was proficient
in tantric mantras. This reflected propagation
Samgha conditions of Mahayana and Tantra in Central Asia
Samgha [Sengjia] (628~710 CE) was a monk who and China. Samgha was very influential and there
came to China from the east of Uzbekistan. He were many supernatural legends after his death. He
adopted monastic life when he was a teenager. A was honoured as “Wise Master” by Emperor Yizong
wandering monk, he intended to go south India of the Tang after 100 years of his death. In the late
previously but changed his mind and went to China. Tang Dynasty, temples were built widely where his
He went to Xiliang (present-day Wuwei, Gansu) images were established and he was known as “the
at first and then towards east to Jianghuai in the Great Wise Monk Samgha”. In the period of Emperor
first year of Longshuo of Emperor Gaozong of the Taizong of the Northern Dynasty, Zhao Jiong (976-
Tang (661 CE) and lived in Longxing Temple in 997 CE) ordered to rebuild his pagoda. He was
Shanyang (present-day Huaian). Hereafter, he known as “Great Saint in Sizhou”. Jiangsu joint
built temple on the foundation of ancient Xiangji archaeological team found Samgha's bodily relics of
Temple in Linhuai (present-day Xuyi). There were Wukong Temple in Qingyang, Jiangyin in November
more and more mysterious legends and he won his 2003 in the underground palace. Moreover, volume
reputation largely. Li Xian, Emperor Zhongzong 27 of Records of the Transmission of the Lamp, volume
of the Tang Dynasty (705-710 CE) wrote Universal 15 of Buddhist Records, volume 2 of Su Shi’s Collected
Light King Temple for the inscribed board of the Works of Su Dongpo and volume 9 of Luo Mi’s Grand
temple and approved him to take three disciples. History had relevant records of Samgha.
All of them made great achievements. In the second (Xue Keqiao)
year of Jinglong (708 CE), he was invited to internal
bodhimanda and was honoured as the national Siksananda
master. He died in a sitting posture two years later Siksananda [Shichanatuo] (652-710 CE) was an
and was buried in Universal Light King Temple. Indian Buddhist monk and famous translator who
The eminent monk, Wan Hui, honoured him as 'the came to China during Tang Dynasty. His name
incarnation of Avalokitesvara' at that time. The is also translated as Shiqichanantuo and in free
great poet, Li Bai, had a good relationship with translation is Xuexi.
him and wrote a Song of Samgha (volume 166 of According to volume II of Buddhist Biography in
Complete Poems of the Tang Dynasty) praised him as Song Dynasty, volume IX of The Kai-yuan Record
“real monk” and described his morality, appearance of Buddhist Books, Siksananda was from Northern
and manner. Li Yong wrote Stele of Universal Light Khotan (present-day Hotan in Sinkiang). He was
intelligent and generous, had remarkable charms
and great learning. He not only mastered Mahayana
and Theravada but was also proficient in other
areas of knowledge. During Wuzhou period, people
advocated Buddha dharma, especially Mahayana. At
that time Buddhavatamsaka-Mahavaipulya-Sutra had
no complete Chinese translation. When Empress Wu
Zetian heard that there was a complete scripture in
Khotan, she despatched an envoy to search for it
and invite translators for it. Therefore, Siksananda
came to China with the Buddhavatamsaka-
Mahavaipulya-Sutra in Sanskrit. He reached Luoyang
in the first year of Zhengsheng (695 CE), lived in
the Dabiankong Temple in the imperial palace and
began the translation of the scriptures in March with
Śramana Bodhiruci from southern India and Śramana
Yijing reading out, Śramana Hongjing, Yuance and
Fazang writing and checking the meaning, and
Saṃgha Śramana Fuli reviewing. Empress Wu Zetian often

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he was cremated for commemoration. It was named

Huayan Sanzang Pagoda by local people. In addition
to the above scriptures, Siksananda also translated
two volumes of Dizang Bodhisattva Invocation Sutra,
and one volume each of Sutra Spoken by Great
Samantabhadra, Tathagatas Grahaka-citta-abhava
State Sutra, Tathagatas Wisdom Grahaka-citta-abhava
Sutra, The Discourse on the Ten Wholesome Ways of
Action, Sutra of the Benefit of Walking Around Pagoda
Clockwise, Four Sutra of Mahayana, Avalokiteshvara
Secret Buddhadharma Nyo-i-rin Dharani Mantra
Sutra, Ambrosia Dharani Sutra, Sutra of the Dharani
for Miaobi Seals and Banners and The Dharani Sutra
of 100,000 Seals, with each having one volume.
According to the record in The Kai-yuan Record of
Buddhist Books, his translated works belonged to 19
Fazang pingzhuan categories and were in total 107 volumes.
(Ge Weijun)
came to the translation workshop in person, wrote
the preface and first named it. The translation was Jnanabhadra
finished in October of the second year of Shengli Jnānabhadra [Ruonabatuoluo ] (c.7th century
(699 CE) in Foshouji Temple, with 80 volumes in CE) was a Buddhist monk and translator from
39 categories. In the first year of Jiushi (700 CE), Nanhai Sea in Tang Dynasty with the name in free
Empress Wu Zetian came to Sanyang Palace in translation as Zhixian.
Yingchuan, ordered Siksananda to translate seven According to volume II of Buddhist Biography in
volumes of Lankāvatara-sutra and wrote a preface Song Dynasty, volume IX of The Kai-yuan Record of
for it. Later, Siksananda finished the translation of Buddhist Books, and volume-I of Biographies of the
Manjuśri Vyākarana Sutra in Qingchan Temple in Westward Pilgrims in the Tang Dynasty, Jnanabhadra
Chang’an and Foshouji Temple in Luoyang, with was from Keling country (Java Island) of Nanhai
Śramana Bolun and Xuangui writing, Śramana Sea. He was well-versed in Tripitaka of Sutras,
Fabao and Hengjing checking the meaning, Śramana Vinaya and Abhidharma and had wide knowledge
Fuli arranging the sentence patterns and official of Mahayana and Theravada. During Linde Period
Taizi Zhongshe, Jia Yingfu monitoring. In the fourth of the Emperor Gaozong of Tang (664-665 CE),
year of Chang’an (704 CE), Siksananda made the Śramana Huining from Chengdu wanted to
request to return with the reason that he wanted go to India to seek holy relics by sea and met
to serve the aged mother and finally received the Jnanabhadra when passing Keling country so he
approval under repeat requests. Empress Wu Zetian stayed there for three years and translated two
ordered the censor Huo Siguang to escorted him to volumes of Mahaparinirvana-sutra together with
Khotan. After Emperor Zhongzong of Tang regained Jñànabhadra. The translation was brought by
the throne, Siksananda was called up to Chang’an in monk Yunqi to China, quickly sent to Chang’an
the second year of Jinglong (708 CE). He was sent from Jiaofu (present-day Hanoi, Vietnam), and
a beautifully decorated elephant to come riding, finally presented to the imperial court. After the
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang in person greeted him monk returned, Huining continued his journey
outside Kaiyuanmen and all the monks awaited to India. Thereafter, there was no message from
him holding their own banners. Siksananda lived him. Other record said that after the translation
in Dajianfu Temple but fell ill before beginning was sent to Jiaozhou in the first year of Yifeng
the translation. On October 12 of the first year of of the Emperor Gaozong of Tang (676-678 CE).
Jingyun of Emperor Ruizong of Tang (710 CE), he The governor Liang Nandi despatched an envoy
died at the age of 59, lying on the right side with with the monk, Yunqi, to carry it to Chang’an. In
feet together. A month later, he was cremated at the third year of Yifeng, the scriptures began to
Gurandeng Platform outside Kaiyuanmen. It was circulate with the advice of Śramana Linghui from
said that his tongue remained after firewood burned Da Ci’en Temple to the prince. Yunqi was ordered
up. Ten days later, his bone ash and tongue were by his master to promote the scriptures, and did
returned to Khotan under the escort of disciple not follow the master to India. The scriptures
Beizhi and official Geshu Daoyuan. A tower was under their joint translation were saved up to now
built specially for the storage. In Chang’an, a with the name of Mahaparinirvana-sutra.
pagoda with seven floors was also built at the place (Ge Weijun)

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Li She debate, Lishe was awarded the “Great Master of

Li She (7 -8 century CE) was a monk, a senior
th th
Shining Religion” as well as money and silk for
disciple of Xuanzang and a Buddhism theorist who building temples. Later, he wrote one volume On
came to China in Tang Dynasty. Legislation. In his old age, he was once found fault
According to volume XVII of Biographies of and relegated to Handong. After being remitted,
Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty and volume XVI of he lived in the Longxing Temple in Nanyang and
Biographies of the Six Monk Scholars etc Li She was was respected by Master Huizhong there. Li She
born in the Western Regions and was a Brahmin described Huizhong as being noble in temper
by caste. He was ambitious, alert and resourceful who would be paid attention to by the emperor
at a young age and travelled eastward to Greater with his morality. Later, Huizhong was respected
China with his close friends. He met Master and honoured by Emperor Xuanzong, Suzong and
Xuanzang in Jinsuo Mountain and became a monk Daizong as expected, as “Master Huizhong of the
after adjuration. Since then, he read a wide range State”. During Dali Period (766-779 CE) under
of sutras and was enlightened gradually, thus the reign of Emperor Daizong of Tang, Śramana
becoming a senior disciple of Xuanzang. Emperor Yuanzhao, a sutra translator in Ximing Temple
Zhongzong of Tang recognised his importance collected the speeches and actions of Lishe and
and nobles and royal officials also liked to make wrote 10 volumes of Biography of Master Lishe in
contact with him. In Kaiyuan Period (713-741 Anguo Temple of Tang. The time of death and life
CE) during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of span of Li She remains unknown.
Tang, he gave a sermon on Avatamsaka Sutra in (Ge Weijun)
Anguo Temple, which was, it is said, crowded with
believers from all directions. However, Wei Ding, Siladharma
the temporary supervisor secretary in Dali, advised Śiladharma [Shiluodamo] (c. 8th and 9th centuries
the emperor that Buddhism and Taoism should CE) was an eminent Indian monk and translator.
be banned for they would corrupt the political The name, Shiluodamo, was paraphrased as
affairs. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang convened sila-dhamma.
about 300 people holding beliefs in Confucianism, According to volume III of Biographies of
Buddhism and Taosim respectively, to debate in Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty and volume XVII
the imperial palace for recognition. Although Wei of New Directory for Buddhism in Zhenyuan Period
Ding defeated Ye Jingneng, a Daoist and Siming etc Shiluodamo was born in Khotan (present-day
monk, he was defeated by Li She with a poem, Khotan of Sinkiang), had profound attainments in
“Maybe the Buddhism doctrine appears as inaction Buddhism and a good command of both Chinese
(Wuwei), why should the current court have and Sanskrit which made him to be a great master
action (Wei)? There have been no Wei (Empress locally. In the first year of Zhenyuan Period
Wei) for more than three years, so I wonder what (785~804 CE) during the reign of Emperor Dezong
Wei (WEI Ding) is for now?” By the poem, Lishe of Tang Dynasty when eminent monk Wukong
mentioned delicately the realities in the former passed through Beiting (present-day Pochengzi in
dynasty, suggesting that Wei Ding might have the north of Jimusar of Xinjiang) on his way back
family relations with Empress Wei, who murdered to Central Plains from Uttarapatha, Shiluodamo
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang in 710 CE (fourth was sincerely requested by Yang Xigu (a military
year of Jinglong Period), reminding Emperor governor) and Dazhen (Sramana of Longxing
Xuanzong of the hidden pain, and thus beating the Temple) to translate the scriptures of Sanskrit
rival with imperial power. Upon his success in the version taken with Wukong. Nine volumes of
Da÷abhumika-sutra was firstly translated, during
which Shiluodamo read the Sanskrit text and
interpreted it. Dazhen wrote down the translated
text, Śramana Fachao embellished the text,
Shanxin reviewed the meaning and Wukong
reviewed the Sanskrit text. Later, one volume
of Sutra of Buddhist Sermon on Dedication was
translated. Upon accomplishment and compilation,
Duan Mingxiu, who was the Beiting Pacification
Ambassador, happened to return to Chang’an for
mission reporting. As a result, Wukong set out with
the translated sutra together with him and arrived
The frontal palace hall at the Longxi monastery in Nanyang,
in Chang’an in 789 CE, the fifth year of Zhenyuan
Henan Province, China. Period. After being scribed by Dou Wenchang (an

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Purnacandra
Pūrņacandra [Manyue] (9th century CE) was a monk
as well as a sutra translator who came to China in
Tang Dynasty.
According to volume III of Biographies of Eminent
Monks in Song Dynasty etc Manyue was born in
the Western Regions and held in esteem because
of his capability in yoga as well as its magic
effects after he came to Chinesia. In Kaicheng
Period (836-840 CE) during the reign of Emperor
Wenzong of Tang Dynasty, Manyue at submitted
the imperial palace the Sanskrit sutras in hope
of translating and spreading them. However, his
request was deferred due to the social and legal
Foshuo shidi jing disorder out of the “Ganlu Incident” which had
just taken place between royal court ministers and
official who governed monks and nuns), the sutras eunuchs. Master Zhixuan, who was honoured as
were submitted to the imperial palace and compiled “Enlightening Master of the State”, was willing to
into the New Directory for Buddhism in Zhenyuan accept Manyue as a master and requested him on
Period according to the imperial order in 799 CE, his behalf to translate the incantations. Manyue
the 15th year of Zhenyuan Period. Shiluodamo then cooperated with the others to translate four
returned to Khotan after the translation. volumes of Collection of Dharani Sutras and one
(Ge Weijun) volume of Sutra of Buddhist Sermon on Dignity for
Emperor Pixutuo. These were repeatedly reviewed
Wutitichanyu and checked in order to convey the complete
Wutitichanyu (between 8th and 9th centuries CE) was essence of Buddhism. Regretfully, the latter was
an eminent monk who was adept at translation of missing and the former was not included into
Western Regions sutras. The name, Wutitichanyu, the collection as there had been 12 volumes of
is also translated as Wutitixiyu and paraphrased as Collection of Dharani Sutras at that time. Other
lotus virya. traces of Manyue remain unknown.
According to volume III of Biographies of (Ge Weijun)
Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty and volume XVII
of New Directory for Buddhism in Zhenyuan Period CHINESE PERSONALITIES
etc Wutitichanyu was born in Qiuci (present-day
Kuqa of Sinkiang), had a good command of both Liu Ying
Chinese and Sanskrit and once lived in Lianhua Liu Ying (about 26-71 CE) was the King of Chu and
Temple which was located outside the western a Buddhist believer in Eastern Han Dynasty. He was
gate of Qiuzi. In the first year of Zhenyuan Period the son of Liu Xiu (5 BCE-57 CE), Emperor Guangwu
(785~804 CE) during the reign of Emperor Dezong of Han. His biography was recorded in Scroll 72,
of Tang Dynasty, when eminent monk Wukong Book of Eastern Han History. In the 15th year of
passed through Qiuci on his way back to the Jianwu (39 CE), he was conferred the title of Duke
Central Plains from Uttarapatha, Wutitichanyu of Chu, awarded as King of Chuin in the 17th year
was sincerely requested by Wukong to translate the and acquired his own fief in the 28th year. Since his
scriptures of Sanskrit version taken with the latter. mother, Madam Xu, was not favoured in Emperor
Therefore, Wutitichanyu translated one volume of Liu Xiu’s eyes, Liu Ying’s fief was the smallest and
Sutra of Buddhist Sermon on Ten Powers for him. weakest. When Emperor Ming of Han Liu Zhuang
In 789 CE, the fifth year of Zhenyuan Period, was the crown prince, Liu Ying was friendly to him
Wukong returned to Chang’an with Duan Mingxiu and relied on him. Liu Zhuang also liked Liu Ying
who was the Beiting Pacification Ambassador and and he repeatedly granted rewards to Liu Ying after
returned to Chang’an for mission reporting and he became the Emperor. In the 13th year of Yongping
submitted the translated version of the above- (70 CE), Liu Ying was reported that he associated
mentioned sutra and other two scriptures to the with necromancers, intended to conspire against
Imperial Palace. Later, the sutra was compiled into the Emperor and should be beheaded. But Emperor
the New Directory for Buddhism in Zhenyuan Period Ming remembered his former friendship, took back
according to the imperial order in 799 CE, the 15th Liu Ying’s fief and downgraded him to Jingxian,
year of Zhenyuan Period. Danyang (present-day Jingxian, Anhui), where he
(Ge Weijun) was granted with a small fief of Tangmu Town with

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500 tenants. Unfortunately, in April of the next year, in Xuzhou, for shelter. Tao Qian appointed him to
Liu Ying committed suicide in Danyang (present- supervise the grain transportation in Guangling
day in Xuanzhou City, Anhui). (present-day in Yangzhou, Jiangsu), Xiapi (present-
Liu Ying had errantry when he was young, made day in Weining, Jiangsu) and Pengcheng (present-
friends with warriors and knights. He loved learning day in Xuzhou, Jiangsu), and assigned him the
about studies of Emperor Huang and Lao Tzu in his head of Xiapi. According to Liu Yao Biography in
later life, fasted and sacrificed for pagoda. In the volume IV of the History of the Three Kingdoms,
eighth year of Yongping (65 CE), Emperor Ming sent after becoming appendage to Tao Qian, Zuo Rong
out an imperial decree that all criminals condemned indulged his subordinates slaughtering and robbed
to die could be atoned by paying silks. As the King goods transported in three counties as his own. "Then
of Chu, Liu Ying asked his counsellor to pay tributes he began to build a Buddha temple. The Buddha was
cast with copper for body and decorated with gold,
with bright and beautiful dressing and nine copper
discs. Beneath were pavilions with the capacity
of holding over 3,000 people to learn Buddhist
texts. The temple admired many people who were
interested in Buddhism around the county or other
counties and altogether over 5,000 people came
there. There was food and drink in every ceremony
of washing figures of Buddha. People who came to
visit or eat food were as many as 10,000. The cost
can be calculated as hundreds of millions. This is
the earliest record of building Chinese Buddhist
statues in temple. This suggests that there had been
group chanting of Buddhist believers in Yangze
Chuwang Ying river and Huai river region. and there were scenes of
ceremony of washing figures of Buddha and giving
of 30 pieces of silks for atone his mistakes. Emperor food. The reason that Zuo Rong believed Buddhism
Ming of Han declared: “King of Chu reads teachings was affected by Liu ying, king of Chu, who was a
of Emperor Huang and Lao Tzu and advocates Buddhism believer, and whose feud was in the
kindness of pagoda. He cleaned himself and Yangze River and Huai River region. Therefore,
abstained from meat and alcohol for three months Buddhism had influence in the region. Through
and made vows to the Heaven. What sin does he building Buddhist temples and Buddha statues, Zuo
have and what confession should he make? Return Rong tried to attract believers and gather people to
the tributes back to him and sumptuous dinner of recite sutras, in order to gain himself fame. And he
lay Buddhists and sramanas.” This declaration was also promoted Buddhism in the public by providing
spread to all kingdoms. The academic circle thinks food and drinks and exempting believers’ corvee,
that the recording about Liu Ying is the earliest expanding the influence of Buddhism.
prove about Buddhism being missionised in China. (Tan Jie)
It is said that Emperor Ming of Han dreamed a
golden man, stood tall and there was light above Zhu Shixing
his head. The next day, Emperor Ming asked his Zhu Shixing (203-282 CE) was a Buddhist monk
chancellors about his dream. Someone said: “There of Wei in the three kingdoms. He was born in
is an immortal in the west named Buddha who is six Yingchuan (its seat of local government was in
Chinese inches tall and golden.” King of Chu, Liu Yangzhai, present-day Yuzhou, Henan) with the
Ying, began to believe Buddha’s teaching. Emperor alternate names of Zhu Zixing and Zhu Shiheng.
Huan of Han was fond of divinities and sacrificed to There was a biography in Volume 4 of Eminent Monks
Buddha and Lao Tzu many times. Firstly, only a few by Huijiao in Liang Dynasty. His dharma name was
people believed in Buddha but gradually, Buddhism Eight Commandments which was believed to be the
flourished. And Buddhism was spread in China. origin of the name of one of the chief characters in
(Tan Jie) famous Chinese classical novel Journey to The West.
Zhu Shixing had great dreams and aspirations in his
Zuo Rong juvenile and intended to get rid of vulgar world.
Zuo Rong (195 CE), born in Danyang (present-day After becoming a monk, he focussed on sutras and
Xuanzhou, Anhui), was a Buddhist in late Eastern scriptures. When he taught Dao Hang Bo Ruo Jing
Han Dynasty. He once gathered hundreds of people (ie Astasahashrika Prajnaparamita Sutra) in Luoyang,
to go to his townsman Tao Qian, head of government he sighed with emotion that the translation did

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not explain all the truth of dharma, so he sworn to He was born into Yuezhi family in Dunhuang. At
travel to the west for the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra. the age of eight, he became a monk and adopted
He started off from Yongzhou (present-day Xi'an, the name of his master, an Indian monk named
Shaanxi) in fifth year of Emperor Ganlu (260 CE) Zhu Gaozuo. He was said to be clever, with an
in Wei of the three kingdoms. He passed Liusha and extraordinary memory, able to recite 10,000 words
arrived at Khotan (present-day Khotan, Xinjiang), a day, learned and well-read. He was kind, studious
where there was many Indian immigrants and was and never minded secular praise or disapproval.
popular with Buddhism. In Khotan, he made a copy During the reign of Emperor Wudi of Jin (265-290
of Perfection of Wisdom Sutra in Sanskrit with 90 CE), Chinese Buddhists only cared about constructing
chapters and over 6,00,000 words. He intended to temple statues and overlooked introducing
send back the Sanskrit version to Luoyang by his Mahayana scriptures. Seeing this, he went westward
disciples but was thwarted by Hinayana believers with his master and dedicated himself to translating
who believed that this sutra was not the formal sutra Mahanaya texts found in the Western Regions. It is
of Buddhism and submitted written complaint to said that during the trip he had become proficient
the King of Khotan, requiring that this sutra should in 36 languages. He came back from the Western
be forbidden to be introduced to China. In order to Regions with a great number of Buddhist texts
prove that the Sanskrit version can be introduced and worked diligently to translate them along the
to China, Zhu Shixing threw the sutra into fire and way from Dunhuang to Chang’an. From 266-308
the sutra was burnt but undamaged. Everyone was CE, for over 40 years, he had been preoccupied
shocked and believed that it was divine. In the third with translation, “taken as his mission to introduce
year of Emperor Taikang (282 CE) of Western Jin Buddhism and devoted his life to sutra translation
in a tireless manner”. He also built a temple in
Chang’an and his proselytising was very popular and
attracted thousands of followers. During the reign of
Emperor Huidi of Jin, political instability rose and
people were displaced. Dharmaraksa, already an
old man, went eastward to avoid chaos and came
to Mianchi and died there shortly afterwards at the
age of 78. He translated many sutras and his major
works include the following: Jataka (five books),
Lalitavistara (eight books), Guangzan Jing (10
books), Zheng Fahua Jing (10 books), Foshuo A Wei
Zhu Shixing Yue Zhi Zhe Jing (three books), Dasabhūmika-sūtra
(five books), Dengmu Pusa Suowen Sanmei Jing (six
Dynasty, Zhu Shixing sent back his disciple Furutan books), Du Shi Pin Jing (six books), Wenshu Shili Foshi
(Fa Rao) back to Luoyang with Perfection of Wisdom Yanjing Jing (two books), Foshuo Ruhuang Sanmei
Sutra. The first year of Emperor Yuankang (291 CE) Jing (two books), Dengji Zhongde Sanmei Jing (three
of Western Jin Dynasty, Khotan’s Sramana Wuruocha books), Da Ai Jing (eight books), Baonǚ Suowen Jing
and Henan’s lay Buddhist Zhu Shulan translated it (four books), Foshuo Wuyan Tongzi Jing (two books),
into Chinese ie Fang Guang Ban Ruo Jing with 20 A Cha Mo Pusa Jing (seven books), Xianjie Jing (eight
volumes. Zhu Shixing stayed in Khotan and died of books), Chixin Fantian Suowen Jing (four books),
an illness at the age of 80 in an alien land. During Foshuo Xuzhen Tianzi Jing (four books) and Xiuxing
his lifetime he wrote the Han Record in one volume. Daodi Jing (seven books).
Zhu Shixing initiated three First in the history The Jataka translated by Dharmaraksa Later
of Chinese Buddhism. He was the first monk from generations thought highly of his contribution to
Chinese mainland areas to accept bhiksuni, also the spread Buddhism. Dao An, an eminent monk in
first to teach sutras (Dao Hang Bo Ruo Jing), and to East Jin Dynasty, said, “Dharmaraksa, a bodhisattva,
travel to the west for further study of Buddhism. for his teachings and works, worthy our profound
He set a good example to Faxian, Xuanzang and esteem…… and provides the mass with a ladder to
the others for travelling west for further study enlightenment.” Sengyou also said, “It is due to the
of Buddhism. efforts of Dharmaraksa that Buddhist sutras become
(Tan Jie) widely circulated in China.” Unlike his predecessors,
Dharmaraksa, instead of arbitrary deletions,
Dharmaraksha strove to be faithful to the original text as likely
Dharmaraksa (about 231-308 or 239-316 CE) was as possible, and as Dao An said, “his translations
a monk-translator in Western Jin Dynasty and was were unpolished and made as they originally were,”
also known as Dunhuang Bodhisattva. however, “though not elegant, they are still great

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around and study. He arrived in Yedu and entered

Zhong Temple. Here he was taught by Fo Tucheng
and was appraised by him. Fo Tucheng lectured on
Buddhism sutra, and Dao An was required to repeat
it once again for the monks, who looked down on
him due to his unattractive appearance. But Dao
An talked with keen words and repeatedly solved
others’ doubts and the people at that time said, “The
monk with dark skin and unattractive appearance,
Dao An, surprised the others”.
Later, he went to Hu Ze (present-day Jin County in
Shanxi) and then to Feilong hill, Taihang Mountains
Heng Mountains and built a tower temple there.
Dao An came back to Ye Du when he was 45-years-
old and lived in Shoudu Temple with hundreds of
disciples. At the time Shi Hu died, Ran Min started
Jātaka Tales translated by Zhu Fahu rebelling. Da An moved to Qiankou Hill situated to
the west then led followers to Wangwu and Rulin
and fluent.” He was assisted by Nie Chengyuan and hills (present day Shanxi). Within 15 years after
Nie Daozhen (father and son). Nie Chengyuan was Fo Tucheng passed away (348 CE), Dao An and his
talented, dedicated and methodical, and in addition disciples moved between Hebei and Shanxi areas,
to assigned dictation, he also helped paraphrase they practised dhyana and lectured on Buddhism.
and produce more fluent and elegant translations. Later, they crossed the river to Luhun (present-
Nie Daozhen was good at writing and Sanskrit and day Song County in Henan) to avoid wars, lived in
quite helpful for Dharmaraksa. Zhu Fashou, Chen seclusion and studied further. At this moment, the
Shilun, Sun Bohu, Yu Shiya and the like were also disciples who followed Dao An included Fa Tai, Hui
involved in the work of translation, dictation and Yuan and more than 500 people.
proofreading. But his translations vary with style Shortly after Dao An arrived in Lu Hun, Murong
and complexity and sometimes language, obviously family invaded Henan. Dao An led the followers
because these works were produced over a long
period of time, in different places and with different
participants. His works, though retranslated later
on, still have an important value of reference.
Dharmaraksa was a prolific translator. According to
Chu San Zang Ji Ji compiled by Seng You, altogether,
he translated 154 sutras and 309 books. This figure
was enlarged later on, and in Tang Dynasty, Kaiyuan
Shijiao Lu recorded 175 sutras and 354 books, with
91 sutras and 208 books extant. Lv Cheng, a modern
scholar, considered this number to be 74 sutras and
177 books while the recent estimate by Tong Wei
indicated 97 sutras and 211 books.
(Ge Weijun)
Daoan
Daoan
Daoan (312-385 CE) was a monk of East Jin south and he led Fa Tai to Yang Zhou, Fa He to
Dynasty. His surname before becoming a monk Sichuan, and led his disciple, Hui Yuan, and other
was Wei. His hometown was Fuliu of Chang Shan 400 people to cross the river at night. They arrived in
(present-day Ji County in Hebei Province) and Xiangyang (present-day Xiang Yang in Hubei) in the
was born in a family of Confucian scholars. His third year of Xingning of Emperor Shuai (365 CE).
parents passed away early and was brought up by The general Heng Huo guarding Jiangling invited
his cousin Kong. He became a monk when he was Dao An to move there while Zhu Xu who guarded
12 and his master let him do farm work since his Xiang Yang also invited Dao An to come back. Dao
appearance was ugly. Three years later, he was An lived in Xiang Yang for 15 years, he stayed at
asked to read Buddhist sutra. He could recite it over white horse temple first. Because the temple was
in one night that showed his superb memory. After too narrow to accommodate more people, with the
receiving full ordination, he was allowed to travel support of grandees, they set up Tan Xi Temple,

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where a five-floor tower and a copper Buddha monks and nuns in the areas of Han nationality and
figure of six Zhang (a unit of length, one Zhang is has been followed since then.
about 3.33 m) were built. The Emperor of Pre-Qin (Tan Jie)
Dynasty, Fu Jian, had known his reputation and
despatched messengers with foreign gold Buddha Zhidun
figures, gold statues, Maitreya figures etc. Zhidun（314～366 CE）was a monk of Eastern Jin
During this period, a celebrity named Xi Zaochi Dynasty. His courtesy name was Daolin. People later
wrote letters to further friendly relations and Gao called him Zhi Gong or Lin Gong to show respect.
Ping and Xi Chao also sent letters of greeting. Dao He was also known as Zhi Xing. His surname before
An frequently lectured Fang guang po ruo sutra every becoming a monk was Guan. His hometown was
year here. In the fourth year of Taiyuan of Emperor Chenliu (present-day Kaifeng City in Henan) or Lin
Wu (379 CE), Fu Pi captured Xiang Yang, and Dao lu at the east of Yellow River (Lin County in Henan).
An was sent to Chang’an (present-day Xi’an in He was born in a Buddhist family, turned a
Shaan Xi). It is said that Fu Jian told to his governor refugee and lived in the south of Yangtze River
Quan Yi that, “I acquired Xiang Yang by hundreds during his childhood. In the capital of Jiankang,
of thousands of army, but only got one-and-a- he kept in touch with celebrities like Wang Meng
half persons.” One person meant Dao An, a half from Taiyuan and Yin Rong from Chen Prefecture
person, referred to Xi Zaochi. Dao An read books and was highly appreciated. He lived in seclusion in
extensively and was good at writing articles and the Yuhang hill, researched Asahasrika Prajnaparamita
junior scholars in Chang’an attached themselves to Sutra and other classics, translated Vaipulya Sutra
his reputation. Fu Jian ordered the scholars who and Saddharmapundarika Sutra in the first year
had doubts to learn from Dao An who translated of XianKang (335 CE). He became a monk when
Buddhism sutra in Chang’an and wrote The Theory he was 25. Metaphysics prevailed in Wei and Jin
of Reality which was later lost. There is now only dynasties, Buddhist monks also joined in discussion.
the catalogue reserved in volume 12 of Tripitaka Zhi Xun was proficient in Buddhism and understood
Records. He had also composed Catalogue of the theories of Lao Tse and Chuang-Tzu well. He
Comprehensively Sorting out Buddha Sutras which is travelled with Xie An, Wang Qia, Liu Hui, Yin Hao,
not available now. Tokiwa Daijo in Japan wrote the Xu Xun, Xi Chao, Sun Chao, Heng Yanbiao, Wang
recovery catalogue for Catalogue of Comprehensively Jingren, He Cidao, Wang Wendu, Xie Changxia
Sorting out Buddha Sutras. On February 8, the 10th and Yuan Yanbo. He used to discuss Chuang Tse’s
year of Taiyuan of Emperor Wu (385 CE), Dao An Carefree Journey with Liu Xizhi and others in White
passed away without any illness when he was 74. Horse Temple and provided new interpretations,
He was buried in Wu Ji Temple. and all these scholars gasped in admiration. After he
Dao An made a great contribution to Chinese came back to Wu area, he set up Zhishan Temple.
Buddhism which can specifically be seen in the Later, he intended to go to Shan county.
following areas: firstly, he devoted himself to the When he went through Kuaiji, he came across
study of Prajna Sutras. The theory of Ben wu faction Wang Xizhi. As invited by Wang Xizhi, he presented
that he founded was one of the most influential the article about Carefree Journey, which expressed
factions in Six schools and seven factions of Prajna new understandings with gorgeous rhetoric and
study in East Jin Dynasty. It improved the process literary talent. Wang Xizhi opened his mind and
of sinicisation of Buddhism. Secondly, he reviewed admired Zhi Dun’s opinions and talent. Wang Xizhi
the existing translated versions and annotated and invited Zhi Dun to live in Lingjia Temple. Later Zhi
translated the classics. He developed “five-missing, Dun preached at Xiao Lingli Temple of Wozhou in
three-no easy” and other scientific judgment methods
for translation. His Catalogue of Comprehensively
Sorting out Buddha Sutras was the first Buddha Sutra
Catalogue in the history of Buddhism in China.
Thirdly, he managed monk groups and formulated
normative ritual regulations such as methods of
purification, seat arrangement and sutra lecture;
methods of diet and preaching for six periods daily
and methods of Busa assigning repentance. He was
thus the founder of temple regulations in Chinese
Buddhism. He unified the surname Shi, regulating
the surnames of monks and nuns sharing the same
surname - Shi and were the offspring of Shakyamuni
which is the unified regulation for the surname of Selected works of Zhi Dun

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Shan County (present-day Sheng County in Zhejiang of Sutra” of “Notes of Madhyamaka Shastra” which
province). Hundreds of monks listened and learnt said, “The nature of the form is that the form doesn’t
from him. He moved to Shicheng Hill, set up exist separately, its nature is emptiness. ‘Cognition’
Qiguang Temple. He lived and devoted himself in is the action from the heart, when the thinking is
the Temple. Then he went to Shanyin and lectured finished, cognition’ will distinguish”; or shown in
Vimalakirti-nirdesa-sutra, Zhi Dun was Master and the introductory remarks Collected Works of Zhi Dun
Xu Xun was his assistant. They questioned and Chapter of Wonderful View of New Account of the Tales
answered and studied Buddhist principles. Zhi of the World Literary Papers which reads “the nature
Dun went to the capital after being invited by an of the form is that the form is not spontaneous,
imperial order during the period of Emperor Ai doesn’t exist separately, the nature of the form is
of Jin Dynasty. He lived in Dong’an Temple and emptiness although it exists. Therefore, the form is
lectured on Asahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra, both still the emptiness.” He researched The Ten Bhumi,
court people and commoners heartily admired his stood for arising epiphany at the seventh Bhumi, the
lectures. Three years later, he came back to Shan ones above the seventh Bhumi still needed further
county and passed away at the age of 53. Xi Chao studying, he was one of the six scholars of “little
wrote biography for him, Yuan Hong composed and epiphany” at East Jin Dynasty. He emphasised
inscribed laudatory words on an inscription, Zhou on spreading dhyana thought, endowed Dhyana
Tanbao made the memorial essay for him and Sun with explanation of sinicisation. And he also set
Chao compared Zhi Dun to Xiang Ziqi (ie Xiang Xiu, up precept platform in Shi Cheng and Wo Zhou.
philosopher and litterateur at Wei-Jin dynasties) in Based on Indian Buddhism, Zhi Dun integrated
his Theory of Moral and Distinguished Men. local traditional culture to explain Buddhism sutra,
Zhi Dun wrote Theory of Ji se you xuan, Explanation his philosophy was in accordance with Lao Tse
that form itself is emptiness and others, all of which and Chuang, his style and charm were similar with
were lost. His two works were reserved in volume 8 speakers which made Buddhist principles easy to be
of Tripitaka Records. He was good at cursive clerical understood and accepted by Chinese believers. Xi
script, fond of raising fine horses, his works and Chao commented Zhi Dun is “the only one that really
articles were handed down from ancient times and interpreted Buddhism sutra clearly since hundreds
the present Guang hongming collected works included of years, made the truth continue to inherit”. The
about 20 ancient poems of him. It was recorded greatest contribution of Zhi Dun to Buddhism is
in eight volumes in the anthology, Annals of Sui that he made great efforts to let Buddhism become
Dynasty Sutra Records, with the note of 13 volumes sinicisation and localisation.
as recorded in Liang Dynasty; in Annals of Tang (Tan Jie)
Dynasty Art and Literature Record, it was recorded
as 10 volumes till the Qing Dynasty. Both Record Fahe
of Reading and diligent Studying and Bibliography of Fahe (319-397 CE) was an eminent monk and
Shu Gu Hall recorded as two volumes, from which Buddhist scholar of Eastern Jin Dynasty. He was
it shows that the book had been lacked or missed born in Jizhou County (Hebei Province) or according
for a long time. At present, two volumes of Collected to some in Xingyang County (Henan Province). He
Works of Zhi Dun in Shaowu Xu’s version from and Daoan (314-385 CE) were taught by the same
Guangxu Period of Qing Dynasty is attached with teacher when they were young. Fahe was always
one volume of supplement. peaceful and quiet by nature and was famous for
Zhi Dun was the representative of Chinese his modesty and courtesy. He was also good in
Buddhism at Wei and Jin dynasties. “Faction of presenting his position in a clear and firm manner,
Ji Se” that he founded and “Faction of Entity” of in summarising his theory and in solving puzzling
Dao’an and Daoqian, “Faction of Heat Emptiness” questions. Around the middle of the 4th century CE,
of Zhi Mindu were the factions that had greatest the Shi Clan Rebellion (which resulted in Shi Le of
impact in “Six Schools and Seven Factions” of Prajna the clan establishing the regime known as 'Later
study in East Jin Dynasty. He had profound research Zhao') broke out in northern China. Fahe, together
on Prajna, his representative works Theory of Ji se with Daoan, fled to the south to avoid the war and
you xuan has been lost, a few words and phases are fighting. In 365 CE, they arrived in Xinye (Henan
recorded in Zhao Lun Shu which reads, “I believe that Province), where Daoan divided his followers into
form itself is emptiness”. It is emptiness not because several groups. Fahe led a part of the followers
the form is distinguished, this is what I mean; the to go to Sichuan to develop and expand dharma,
nature of the form is emptiness although it exists. and many people in Eastern Sichuan and Southern
Such as, cognition is the action from the heart, when Shaanxi were attracted by him to study Buddhism.
the thinking is finished, cognition will distinguish.” In the fourth year of Taiyuan Period (379 CE), under
or shown in the introduction “The Profound Meaning the reign of Emperor Xiaowu of Eastern Jin Dynasty

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(373–396 CE), Fahe heard that Fu Pi, originally a

high-ranking military officer in Emperor Aiping
(384 CE) of Former Qin in the Sixteen Kingdoms
period, conquered Xiangyang (Hubei Province) and
captured Daoan and took him to Chang’an (Shaanxi
Province) where Daoan was received with courtesy
by Fu Jian, the Emperor of Former Qin Regime. Fahe
then entered the central Shaanxi plain and resided
in Yangping Temple of Luoyang. According to the
records of volume 5 of Biographies of Eminent Monks,
during the fifth year to sixth year of Taiyuan Period
(380-381 CE), Fahe participated in the Meeting of
Jinyugu (present-day Liubu Town, Licheng District,
Ji'nan City, Shandong Province) and climbed one
mountain with Daoan. On the mountaintop, he Footprints of the Buddha, the Mahavihāra in Bodhgaya, India
sighed mournfully, This mountain is so high but
there are still many people who are willing to climb (now Yongji City of Shanxi Province). Once, when
it and appreciate the beautiful scene from the top. he gathered the monks to explain and publicise
If I just die here where can my spirit be found in Buddhist dharma, he told his followers that “there
nirvana? Daoan responded. Your Master, you have are so many sufferings and miseries in this world
such intelligent attitude towards this life, why should and it is happy to be dead”. He then freshened up his
you be afraid of your future life? If the wisdom and clothes, made respectful salute around the pagoda
spirit of people cannot be enlightened that is truly and then returned to his house. He died there at the
what makes us sad about. After that Fahe began to age of 80.
assist Daoan to revise the translated Buddhist Sutras, There are two main contributions of Fahe to the
“to explain and determine the pronunciation and spread of Buddhism of China. First, he went to
writing as well as to attach meaning to the texts Sichuan to develop and expand Buddha dharma,
in detail”. Buddhist Sutras which Fahe undertook which brought people in Sichuan so far unexposed
for revision include volume 30 or volume 20 of to Buddhism to learn about dharma. This pioneering
Abhidharma J¤ànaprasthana-÷àstra translated by achievement led to rich and prosperous growth of
Kashmir’s Samghadeva, volume 16 or volume 13 of Buddhism in Sichuan. Second, he went to Luoyang
Abhidharmahçdaya-÷àstra, volume 14 of Vibhàùà- and re-translated parts of the newly-printed
Abhidharma-÷àstra, volume 10, volume 12 or Buddhist Sutras together with Samghadeva, “after
volume 14 of Vasu-mitra- såtra (aka Vasumitra) that, all of those Buddha Sutras gradually have
translated by Kophen Samghabhadra, volume 14, correct translated editions.”
volume 15 or volume 19 of Vibhàùà÷àstra (aka, (Huang Xianian)
Bing Po Sha Abhidharma, Guang Shuo), volume 3 or
volume 5 of Samgharakùasamgraha (aka, Collections Faxian
of Samgharakùa) as well as volume 41, volume Faxian (342~423 CE) was an eminent monk of
33 or volume 50 of Ekottarikàgama and volume Eastern Jin Dynasty, a traveller and sutra translator.
59 of Madhyamàgama translated by the monk, Life history
Dharmanandi of Tukhara. After Daoan died in 385 Faxian, whose common family name was Gong,
CE, Fahe went to Luoyang where he and Samghadeva was born in Wuyang, Pingyang (southwest of
re-translated parts of the new Buddhist Sutras which present-day Linfen, Shanxi Province). Since there are
were printed previously and revised the errors. many versions about his life, native place and place
During the period of Emperor Yao Xing (394-415 of birth, we follow the standard version. According
CE) of Later Qin, Fahe went to the central Shaanxi to volume III of Biography of Eminent Monk, volume
plain again to develop and expand Buddha dharma XV of Record of Tripitaka and Record of Buddhism
there. Kumārajīva once composed some verses in States written by Faxian himself, he once had three
his praise to give him as a present, one of which elder brothers, all of whom had died at the age of
says, “Powerful heart is just like a high mountain seven or eight. In order to preserve his health and
which can cultivate wise and able morality, and for his long life, his parents made him become an
this morality can bring advantages and benefit for acolyte when he was only three and sent him to live
the later generations forever. Although you are just in temple years later due to his illness. When he
like a bird standing on a lonely tree, the beautiful was 10, his father died and he rejected his uncle’s
voice can echo to the clouds.” After that, Baron Jin request of resuming commoner’s life. He accepted
Yao Xu of Later Qin invited Fahe to reside in Puban the complete percepts at the age of 20. Even at

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his young age, Faxian was tenacious, brave and

intelligent. He once encountered a gang of robbers
during harvesting grains with other tens of acolytes.
While others escaped out of fear, he stayed on to
reason with the robbers. Subsequently, due to his
persuasion, robbers left without the grains. All the
monks in the temple were surprised by his firmness
and admired him.
After accepting the complete percepts, Faxian
studied hard and conscientiously but was often The ruins of the monastery of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. Faxian stayed
disappointed due to the lack of complete sutras. here while transmitting the dharma.
He, therefore, became determined to go to India
to get Sanskrit sutras on percepts. In 399 CE, the out earlier to the state of Kashgar, (present-day Shule
third year of Long’an Period during Emperor An of of Xinjiang) while Faxian and other people stayed
Eastern Jin Dynasty, he set out from Chang’an to for viewing the “Buddha Procession” organised
India to seek for Buddhist learning with his fellow by local temples. Later, Sengshao went directly
students - Huijing, Daozheng, Huiying and Huiwei. to Kashmir with a local Śramana and left without
They travelled through Hexi Corridor to Zhangye, leaving any trace of their whereabouts. Faxian and
where they met another five monks - Zhiyan, other people, however, went to the state of Kashgar
Huijian, Sengshao, Baoyun and Sengjing and went to meet Huijing and others. Climbing over Pamir
forward to Dunhuang together. They then passed and going across rivers, they arrived successively
across “Quick-sand” (ie Yardang desert) in two in the state of Oddiyana in northern India (present-
groups. Despite supplies from Li Hao, the prefecture day Swat Valley in Pakistan), the state of Gandhara
(present-day Pakistan), the state of Taksila (present-
day Taxila of Pakistan) and the state of Fulousha
(present-day Peshawar of Pakistan). By then,
Huiying died of sickness. Faxian intended to go
to central India for Buddhist sutras on percepts
with Huijing and Daozheng while Huida, Baoyun
and Sengjing returned to homeland. When Faxian
and the people with him climbed southward over
the Small Snow Mountain (present-day Sunaman
Mountain in Afghanistan), Huijing died of illness
during a cold storm, thus leaving only Faxian and
Daozhang to trudge forward to central India.
During his stay in central India, Faxian studied
Faxian Sanskrit, collected sutras on percepts and went on
pilgrimages to ancient Buddhist sites. He obtained
chief of Dunhuang, the desolation, hot wind and
other dangers made them loose directions. They,
however, moved further without any consideration
for survival by relying on the sun and piles of bones
of the dead as signs of direction. Seventeen days
later, they finally came out of the desert to Shanshan
(present-day Ruoqiang of Xinjiang) and went on
northwestward to the state of Wuyi (present-day
Yanqi of Xinjiang) where the two groups of monks
met, forming a new group of 11 people with the
participation of Huida. However, they did not obtain
sufficient supplies and support in the state of Yanqi,
so Zhiyan, Huijian and Huiwei had to return towards
Gaochang (present-day Turfan) to get their supplies
replenished. Others however continued to move
southwestward and trudged through desolation to
Khotan (present-day Khotan of Xinjiang). The chief
of Khotan accommodated Faxian and other people
in a temple. Then, Huijing, Daozheng and Huida set Faxian amidst the ruins at Anuradhapura

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Mahasangha Vinaya from Tian Wang Temple located hope of protecting sutras and Buddha statues taken
in south of Asokan Tower in Pataliputra, the state of with him.
Magadha (present-day Patna of Bihar). He lived in After drifting for 13 days, the damaged ship
Pataliputra with Daozheng for three years to study. was drawn alongside an unknown island. People
While Daozheng decided to further stay there, Faxian mended the ship and travelled on for another
was determined to take the collected Sanskrit sutras 90 days to Yavadipa Island (present-day Java of
back to homeland. He went southward alone on a Indonesia), where Faxian went on another travel on
ship at the estuary of the Ganges River. After trudging a merchant’s ship to Guangzhou with Sanskrit sutras.
his way to Simhaladvipa (present-day Sri Lanka), He unfortunately once again encountered storm and
Faxian stayed there for two years, obtaining Sanskrit turbulence. People on the ship were in anxiety and
sutras such as Mishasai (Mahāśāsakah) Percepts, Long a Brahman even said that it was this Buddhist monk
Agama, Combined Agama and Combined Collections, who had brought bad luck to them. The monk should,
which were not found in China. Even up to present, therefore, be sent off-board on a sea island. Thanks
there are places named after Faxian like Faxian Cave to the persuasion of Faxian’s sponsor, the people did
and Faxian Stone Village. On his way back eastward not take any such action in the end. Owing to the
from there on a merchant’s ship, storms damaged the cloudy weather, the ship, however, had not arrived in
ship, leading to water leakage and loss of direction. Guangzhou even 70 days later. Taking chance, people
People on the ship dropped things with them in panic sailed the ship northeastward alongside the land. Ten
while Faxian sat and prayed to Avalokitesvara in days later, they realised that they had arrived at

Faxian’s Travels
s
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Northern Sea
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Jiuquan
Darouzhi Congling Wei Changguang
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Zihe Shanshan River
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Gandhara tains yuh Pengcheng
China
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North un Jincheng
(Peshawar)
Taksha- India Qin Chang’an Jiankang Sea
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Bannu Bhida
Fuguo Changjiang River

CHINA
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Mathura Sankasya
Kapilavastu Zangqu Eastern Jin
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Central
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Kanyakubja India Kushinagar Yizhou
Vaishali
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Kausambi Guangzhou
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Champa
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INDIA
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Tamralipti
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South India

South
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Sinhala
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Travels to India

Return Journey Yav

adv
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(Ja
va)

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 Cultural Contacts

the Preface of Biographies of Eminent Monks Seeking

Dharma in Tang Dynasty). Faxian’s travels thus
opened up communication with India for seeking
the dharma and is of pioneering importance in the
history of India-China cultural communication.
Thirdly, travelling around various states, Faxian
wrote his famous one volume on travel notes i.e.,
Record of Buddhist States (the full name is Biography
of Master Faxian Travelling Westward from Chang’an
and Record of Travel in India), in which he recorded
what he saw and heard during the travel as well
as noted the geography, transportation, religion,
culture, product, customs and even social and
economic conditions of over 30 countries in Central
Asia, India and Southeast Asia. These materials are
now precious historical sources to study ancient
history, culture, geography and Buddhism in
ancient Central and South Asia. The travel route of
Faxian to India leaves a genuine real record of land
route from Chang’an through the Western Regions
The Hindi version of Faxian’s travelogue to India as well as of the sea route from India to
Faxian zhuan his way back to China. This is the earliest detailed
record of such path and of significance in the history
Laoshan Mountain in Qingzhou, Shandong Province of transportation and marine navigation between
(present-day Laoshan Mountain in Qingdao). China and South Asia.
After 14 years of travel, Faxian returned to his (Tan Jie)
homeland finally on July 14, 412, the eighth year
of Yixi Period. He arrived in Jiankang (present-day Huirui
Nanjing of Jiangsu), the capital of Jin Dynasty, Huirui (355~439 CE) was a monk who was
in the autumn of the second year (413 CE). He proficient in Buddhist scriptures in Liusong between
lived in Daochang Temple where he translated six East Jin Dynasty and Southern dynasties, once
volumes of Maha Bonihuan Sutra, two volumes of touring around southern India.
Fangdeng Nihuan Sutra (now missing), 40 volumes According to volume VII of Biographies of Eminent
of Mahasangha Vinaya, one volume of Percepts of Monks, volume II of Local Records of Sakya and
Buddhist Monk Sengqi (now missing), 13 volumes volume XV of Records by Monk You, Huirui was born
of Combined Abhidharma Heart Sutra (now missing) in Jizhou (present-day Hebei Province) and became
and one volume of Combined Collections together a monk at a young age. He observed strictly the
with Buddhabhadra, an Indian master, and sorted precepts and dedicated in touring for sutra study.
out six books of sutras, percepts and sermons, with Once when touring in the western Sichuan Province,
63 volumes in total. He died in Xinsi Temple in he was detained by local people and forced to
Jingzhou at the age of 86. be a shepherd. Later, when a businessman and
Contribution Buddhism believer passed through there, he found
The contributions of Faxian can be divided Huirui uncommon in appearance and sounded
into three areas. Firstly, he brought back and him out by query on Buddhist classics. Surprised
translated the three of the five most important at his proficiency, the businessman ransomed him
books on Buddhist percepts (Mahasangha Vinaya, to continue his cultivation. Thereafter, Huirui had
Sapoduo [Sarvastivāda-vinay] Percepts and Mishasai been devoted himself in Buddhism, studied as he did
[Mahāśāsakāh] Percepts) which played a significant before, and toured around. He once arrived in the
role in the spread of Buddhism in China. Secondly, southern India through western Sichuan Province.
Faxian’s travel to seek dharma encouraged people He was a disciple of the famous monk, Dao An, in
of the later generations to undertake such trip for his early time, and later stayed in Mount Lu for rest,
pilgrimage and study eg Xuanzang and Yijing in and went to Chang’an with Dao Sheng, Hui Yan
Tang Dynasty, who went to India to seek dharma. and Hui Guan to seek knowledge from Kumarajiva.
Praising Faxian, Yijing once said that, “in whole of Later, when he went to the Wuyi Temple in Jianye
China throughout since the ancient times, Master (present-day Nanjing in Jiangsu Province) to give his
Faxian has been a pioneer in seeking dharma and Buddhism preaches where he achieved reputation
Master Xuanzang in creating a formal path” (see out of his mastering principles of Buddhism as

291
 Cultural Contacts

well as incisive explanation. Liu Yikang, prince of and others. They were invited by the celebrities to
Pengcheng in Southern Dynasties, requested Huirui work on translating sutras and preaching in Sanskrit
again and again to be his master and wanted him which Baoyun had initiated. Baoyun translated six
to go to his palace. Huirui refused him for the same volumes of Righteous Sutra, five volumes of Buddhist
due to the rules of coming for studying instead of Goodness Sutra, two volumes of Reborn Sutra and
going for teaching, and Liu Yikang was so ashamed two volumes of Purity Samadhi. He thus translated
that he went to the temple for his monkhood. Being a total of four parts and 15 volumes. Baoyun also
familiar with local customs, pronunciation and translated with Zhi Yan six volumes of Lalitavistara
meaning, gloss for classics as well as local accents, Sutra, one volume of Four Heavenly Kings Sutra, four
Huirui was often consulted with by Xie Lingyun volumes of Broad Strictness Sutra, totalling three
who was interest in principles of Buddhism and parts and 11 volumes. His actions of going west
later wrote The Fourteen Homophone Explanation for sutras and checking and translating sutras were
through listing respectively in Sanskrit and Chinese, respected and admired by the followers.
on pronunciation and meaning of words and (Tan Jie)
expressions in scriptures. Huirui died at 85, in the
16th year of Yuanjia Period (439 CE) during the Zhimeng
reign of Emperor Wen of Song. Zhimeng (453 CE) was from Jingzhao, Xinfeng
(Ge Weijun) of Yongzhou (northeast of Lintong District, Xi’an,
Shaanxi). He became a monk when young and
Baoyun learned Buddhism with all heart, consistently
Bao Yun’s (372-449 CE) hometown was unknown reciting sutras day and night. He heard from foreign
and some said he was from Liangzhou (present- Śramana that there were relics of Sakyamuni and
day Wu Wei of Gansu). At a young age, he became sutras on equality and other areas in India, so he
a monk. He was diligent in studying sutra with made up his decision to go there. In the sixth year
an ambition of reading numerous sutras. In early of Emperor Hongshi of Yaoqin (403 CE), he invited
Long’an year of Eastern Jin Dynasty (397 CE), he 15 Śramanas overall to start from Chang’an. They
went west to seek dhamma. Despite walking through passed through Yangguan, escaping from quicksand
quicksand and climbing up Snow Mountains and all and travelled via Shanshan, Qiuci, Kingdom of
kinds of dangers, he went ahead with his journey Khotan and other countries where he also became
and met Faxian, Zhi Yan and others and finally familiar with the folk customs. When they came
arrived in India through the Kingdom of Khotan and to Pamirs, nine of them retreated due to arduous
other countries. He visited and saluted all Buddhist conditions they encountered and one passed away
relics and spared no efforts in studying Sanskrit. during the journey. Only Zhimeng and the other
He could understand the language and words of four climbed over Snow Mountains and got through
various Indian regions. After he returned, he came Xintou River (Sindhu/ Indus River), and finally
to study Chan Buddhism with Sangye Bhadra (refer arrived at Kashmir. In Saudi (present-day Taxila),
to the note) in Chang’an (Xi’an of Shaaxi Province). Zhimeng met with Sutra Salivary Pot and Buddha’s
Then soon afterwards, Bhadra was elbowed away bowl. In Kapilavastu, Zhimeng saluted to Buddha’s
by local monks to Mount Lu on the invitation of hair, Buddha’s teeth and other Buddha treasures such
Hui Yuan. Baoyun also separated from his teacher as bones, and visited the relics. Finally, he arrived
and went east to Nanjing and settled down in Dojoji at Asoka’s old capital, Hua Country (present-day
Temple. As he liked to live in seclusion, he moved to Patna) where he paid a visit to Brahman Luo Yue
Liuheshan Temple. Remote and stark, the residents of supreme wisdom and got one Sanskrit version of
there were mostly robbers and thieves. Baoyun Nirvana and one Law for Monks and other Sanskrit
persuaded the residents to stick to goodness. As sutras. In first year of Emperor Yuanjia of Song
a result, most residents got rid of evil behaviour Dynasty (424 CE), Zhimeng decided to go back to
and obeyed Buddhism. In Yuanjia of Song Dynasty China, his three partners had all died, leaving only
(424-453 CE), Śramana Hui Guan of Dojoji Temple him and Yunzhuan to return to Liangzhou (Wuwei
was going to pass away and invited Baoyun to host of Gansu). In Liangzhou, Zhimeng translated 20
the administrative affairs. Baoyun had to return volumes of nirvana. In the 14th year of Emperor
but only after one year he went back to Liuheshan Yuanjia (437), Zhimeng went to Sichuan and
Temple again. In the 26th year of Emperor Yuanjia, wrote one volume of his travel journal to the west
Baoyun died in the temple at the age of 78. Baoyun (not available now), describing the travelling
was proficient in Sanskrit, “Baoyun’s translations experiences and folk customs he saw and heard of.
were superior to all in Jiangzuo region”. Many Towards the end of Yuanjia year, Zhimeng passed
prominent monks gathered in Liusong such as away in Chengdu.
Sangye Bhadra, Sangha Rudravarman (Monk Kai) (Tan Jie)

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Kang Falang Huisheng

Kang Falang (4th century CE) was a monk who Huisheng (4th and 5th centuries CE) is a Chinese
travelled to India for Buddhist Sutra. His dates monk who travelled to India for Buddhist scriptures.
of birth and death are unknown. He was born in In the winter of November, the first year of
Zhongshan (present-day Henan Province or Ding Emperor Shengui (518 CE), the monk in Chongli
County in Hebei Province). He became a monk Temple named Bhikku Huisheng and Songyun
when he was young and was strict in precepts. He from Dunhuang were ordered to go to Western
and Zhu Faya taught the disciples by method of Regions for Buddhist scripture. They started from
“comparison” ie to explain the Buddhist scriptures the capital of Luoyang, went west and first arrived
in combination of Chinese scriptures. He also in Chiling (present-day Riyue Mountain, which is
discussed the scriptures with Dao’an and Fatai and situated to the west of Xining in Qinghai Province)
all could seize the key points. He swore to travel after crossing the quicksand/ desert they arrived at
to India to worship the Buddhist sites and seek the Tuyuhun Kingdom (near Boukha-ingol on the west
scriptures. So he invited four people, and they set bank of present-day Qinghai). It was a very difficult
off from Zhangye in Gansu Province, and crossed journey due to snow storms, flying sand and rolling
the quicksand westwards. The place was deserted pebbles all along the way.
after they had walked for three days. And then They arrived in Zuomo city (present-day Qiemo
they saw an old temple with weeds springing up County of Xinjiang) via Shanshan city (present-day
inside and there were two old rooms. There was Shanshan of Xinjiang), and saw statues of Buddha
one person in each room: one was chanting sutras, and Bodhisattva. It was said that the statues were
and the other one had dysentery. The sick person constructed by Lu Guang (337-399 CE) when he
soiled the room, making it dirty and smelly. conquered Western Regions. Then they arrived
Though the two people lived next to each other, in Hanme city (located in the east of present-day
they did their own things and did not take care for Keriya in Hotan, Xinjiang). There was a big temple
each other. Falang felt deep sympathy and said to in the south of the city with more than 300 monks
his partners, “We are all monks and are linked by in the temple as well as a 16 zhang (a unit of length,
sutras. It was alright if we didn't know but how =3.33 m) golden Buddha statue with a beautiful
could we turn a blind eye if we meet this?” So they appearance. They also saw thousands of Buddhist
stayed there for a few days and took good care of pagodas hanging millions of streamers, and each
the sick person. On the seventh day, there were had an era name.
fragrant flowers in the room everywhere and they When they arrived in Khotan (near present-day
knew that the immortal was coming. The monk Hotan, Xinjiang), they saw the king wearing a gold
who was chanting sutras said that Falang and his crown and women having good expertise in riding
partners were very sincere and persuaded them horses. The dead were cremated and the remains
that they didn't need to travel to all the countries were put on the Buddhist temple. However, only
so far and only needed to continue to perform the king was not cremated after death and put in
morality and not miss the chance and he also the coffin, buried in the remote wild and a temple
predicted that Falang would become the Exorcist was built to offer sacrifice to him. There was a stupa
in Cathay (China). The four partners no longer and Pratyekabuddha boots in Khotan. In July, the
travelled to the west and only Falang went alone. second year of Shengui (519 CE), they came to
He travelled all around to seek and study the Zhujubo (present-day Karghalik of Yecheng County
scriptures. He then went back to Zhongshan and in Xinjiang), the natives lived in the mountains and
gave lectures to teach Buddhism and propagate they did not kill animals. They fed on wheat flour
sutras. There were hundreds of disciples. He was
never heard of since then.
Kang Falang was one of the disseminators of
Chinese “comparison” Buddhism. This method was
prevailing for a period but Dao’an thought that this
method was against the true meaning of Buddhism,
and didn't allow his disciples to follow and this
method then was abandoned afterwards. Kang
Falang travelled to the west for Buddhist Sutra and
taught Faxian when he came back which was earlier
than Yuan Chwang spreading the Consciousness-
only theory of Faxian and promoted the spread and
Remains of a Buddhist statue from Butkara, Swat Valley, Pakistan.
communication of Faxian in China. Archaeologists believe that this is the Tuoluo monastery where the
(Tan Jie) monks Huisheng and Songyu arrived in around 520 CE.

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and only ate those animals that died from sickness hungry tiger. They used their travel funds and built a
or by accident. The customs and language were the tower on the top of the mountain. They inscribed it
same as Khotan and their character was the same as on the stone to engrave their merits.
a Brahmin’s (ie India). During that time, Song Yun was sick so they
In early August, they arrived at the border of stayed there for several months. In mid-April of the
Pantuo (present-day Puli County), climbed up first year of Zhengguang (520 CE), they reached
Pamirs via Bomeng city (according to Series of Han Gandhara. However, this country was fighting
and Wei) and Dulongchi. Along with dangerous with Kashmir so the king was not disposed towards
cliffs, they were blocked with strong winds and making offerings to foreign monks. They crossed
snow for thousands of miles, and finally, arrived at the Xintou river (Indus river), and reached Fofusha
the peak of the mountain. city (Western Regions called it Balusha city). They
In September, they reached Bohe (present-day worshipped Buddhist temple, the place where
Hehan). The mountains were very high and the Buddha gave his eyes to the blind people and the
valleys were deep, the winds and snow were so relics of Kasyapa Buddha and some other places.
strong that people and animals got together to be Then they came to Gandhara to worship at the Queli
warm. In early October, they entered Hephthalites temple, the so-called “No. 1 temple” in the Western
(ie Darouzhi, verified by Ding Qian, its capital now Regions. Huisheng offered the 100-ft streamer gifted
being Polk city). It was a powerful country to which by the Dowager Empress and asked a good craftsman
more than 40 countries paid tribute. The king wore to use copper to copy Queli Temple and four Buddha
luxuriant clothes and sat on a golden bed. This towers. Song Yun also offered two slaves to Queli
country had good systems and rules, but the people Temple to clean it forever. They also worshipped the
did not believe in Buddhist doctrine. They killed place where Shi Pi, the king, had saved the dove.
animals and ate them. In February, the second year of Zhengguang (521
In early November, they reached Persia (present- CE), they returned to the capital city. They obtained
day Iran). People here lived in the mountains. The 170 Buddhist scriptures during their three years in
shining snow made people dizzy. In mid-November northern India. Huisheng described in detail such
they reached Syamaka. The roads here were very things as natural resources, politics, customs, faith
dangerous and narrow. Only humans and horses of the countries and regions along the road. This is
could get through. recorded in the book written by him with the title
On the way from Bolor (near present-day Gilgit The Book of Huisheng, a Monk in the Northern Wei
in Kashmir) to Wuchang (present-day Swat valley Dynasty, Sent to the Western Regions. This is now
in Pakistan), they went by way of the air bridge on included in the 51st volume of Taisho-pitaka. It has
which they could not see the bottom of the valley. valuable materials for the study of the history of
In early December, they reached Wuchang. The interaction between ancient China and India.
weather was warm, people here were well-off, and (Tan Jie)
the king ate vegetables only and paid respect to the
Buddha in the morning and evening. After noon, he Fali
would manage state affairs. Bells rang everywhere Fali (between 4th and 5th centuries CE) was a Chinese
and exotic flowers were in blossom. Huisheng monk who travelled to India for Buddhist scriptures.
stayed here for two years. There is no information about his hometown, his
In the north of the city, there was a Tuoluo temple birth or death. He had gone to the Western Regions
which had 6,000 Buddha statues and numerous with Song Yun and Huisheng.
rooms for monks. The King often held meetings The 120th volume of the Book of Wei, the 97th
here. Hui Sheng and Song Yun respected the monks volume of the History of North Dynasties and the
in the temple who were so austere in practising 196th volume of General Annals, as well as the
Buddhism that they left two slaves in the temple to 338th volume of Wenxian tongkao [Comprehensive
help the monks to clean the temple. Chinese Encyclopedia], said the same thing about
There were many relics of Buddha around this city him, “In the middle of Xiping era, Emperor Suzong
so they visited and worshipped everywhere. In places (ie Emperor Xiaoming Yuan Xu, 516-528 CE) sent
where the Buddha sat and where he dried his clothes, Wang Fuzi, Song Yun and Monk Fali to the Western
they would note it on the tower. In the relic where Regions for Buddhist scripture. At that time, Monk
Buddha tore open his bones, the stone was very fresh. Huisheng went with them too and they came back
In the southwest of the city, there was a Shanchi in the middle of Zhengguang years.(about 523 CE).”
mountain. On top of the mountain was Buddha’s From these records, it has been understood that Fali
stone chamber, his thatched hut and so on. In the was one of those who went to the Western Regions
mountain situated in the southeast of the city, there for Buddhist scripture.
was the place where Buddha offered his body to the (Tan Jie)

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Sengmeng from his teacher but also from local monks and
Sengmeng (5 century CE) was a monk who
th
earned good impression for local Chinese monks.
travelled to India for Buddhist Sutra. Dates of birth On the recommendation of Buddhasena, Zhi Yan got
and death are unknown. In the first year of Yongchu acquainted with Sangye Buddhasena (Buddhasena
of Southern Song Dynasty (420 CE), he travelled from Kapilavastu) and impressed by his profound
to the west for Buddhist Scriptures with Tan Wujie words invited him to go back together. Buddhasena
(refer to the entry) and Tanlang (refer to the entry) was moved because of Zhi Yan’s sincerity and
and 25 other people. They experienced hardship promised him a trip to China together. Despite
and dangers, crossed snow mountains, rode cable harshest travel conditions due to snow mountains
bridges and went through cliff. Twelve of them died and deserts, they finally arrived in Chang’an (there
by the time they arrived at the flat land. The rest is another saying that they arrived at Weihai,
helped each other and finally arrived at Kashmir. Shandong by sea route). However, soon afterwards,
They travelled all around the countries of India, Buddhasena was elbowed out by local monks and left
and worshipped the site of Indian Buddha and holy for Mount Lu. Zhi Yan stayed at Shandong Temple
articles of Buddhism. Only Tan Wujie went back to (refer to the lower reaches of the Yellow River
Yangzhou at last to translate the Buddhist Scriptures region) where he meditated and studied diligently.
others including Sengmeng stayed in India for In the 13th year of Yixi of Eastern Jin Dynasty (417
more than 20 years. The specific circumstance of CE), Liu Yu (363-422 CE) crusaded west with his
Sengmeng in India is unknown, but his travel to the army to Chang’an and won the battle. He withdrew
west for Buddhist Sutra has become a much-told tale his troops back in a route passing by Shandong. The
in the history of Buddhism of India and China. minister, Wang Hui was also with the army then. He
(Tan Jie) paid a visit to the mountains and entered the temple
where Zhi Yan stayed and found him and other two
Tanlang monks sitting with pious countenance and fully
Tanlang (5th century CE), the dates of birth and absorbed in Buddhism. Wang Hui had arrived for a
death are unknown. In the first year of Yongchu of while but the three didn’t realise the guest coming at
Southern Song Dynasty (420 CE), he travelled to the all, even when Wang Hui spoke to them, they didn’t
west for Buddhist Scriptures with Tan Wujie and reply him either. With respect, Wang Hui returned
Sengmeng and other 25 people. They experienced and told Liu Yu of the entire matter. Liu Yu invited
hardship and dangers, crossed snow mountains, them to go to the capital, but they had no intention.
rode cable bridges and went through cliff. Twelve As Liu Yu asked and asked again, they finally
of them died when they arrived at the flat land. recommended Zhi Yan there. Zhi Yan was treated
The rest helped each other and finally arrived at with courteous reception by Wang Hui during the
Kashmira. They travelled all around the countries trip, and then settled in Shixing Temple. Then Wang
of India, and worshipped the site of Indian Buddha Hui established Temple Zhiyuan in consideration of
and holy articles of Buddhism. Only Tan Wujie Zhi Yan’s keenness on silence and inner peace. The
went back to Yangzhou at last to translate Buddhist astronomer He Chengtian (370~447 CE) engaged
Scriptures, others including Tanlang stayed in India in compiling new astronomical calendar consulted
for more than 20 years and had never been heard of Zhi Yan on the calibration matters of solar shadow.
since then. Zhi Yan informed He Chengtian of his findings of
(Tan Jie) solar shadow and offered help for compiling new
astronomical calendar.
Zhiyan Zhi Yan had brought Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures
Zhi Yan (c. 5th century CE) was a monk from Liu from the western regions. In the fourth year of
Song Country in Northern and Southern dynasties. Yuanjia (427 CE), he co-translated with Śramana Bao
He lived in Xiliang State (present-day Wuwei, Yun six volumes of Lalitavistara Sutra, one volume
Gansu) and became a monk when he was 20. of Four Heavenly Kings Sutra, four volumes of Broad
Wearing in robes, scrupulous as a vegetarian, he Strictness Sutra (or interpreted as Broad Strictness
was well-known for his diligence in practice. With non-faded wheel Sutra) and six volumes of Infinite
the willingness of doing something meaningful, he Bodhisattvas, five volumes of Life Sutra, two volumes
visited famous Buddhists and read many sutras, and of Bodhisattva Wreaths Sutra, two volumes of Ancient
then went to Western Regions for further study on Indian Samadhi Sutra, two volumes of Anagami Sutra,
Buddhism. He once met Faxian during his journey. one volume of Inquiry of Good Brahman to Devadatta,
After he arrived in Kashmir, he was accommodated one volume of Sound Showing Saddhamma (also
in vihara of Mahendra and learned Chan Buddhism named Sound Presenting Saddhamma), one volume
with Bhikkhu Buddhasena. After three years’ of of Regulating Species Sutra, one volume of Goodness
studying there, he received high praise not only Upasaka Sutra, one volume of Saddharmapundarika

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Samadhi Sutra and one volume of Purity Samadhi and exquisite construction structure. He wrote that
Sutra and other Buddhism classical works. the materials in the tower were made of gold or jade
Xiao Sihua lived in Lanling (present-day Linyi and changed its colour so variously and constantly
Shandong) and his wife, Liu, was sick. She mentioned that it was hard to find the same ones. “As the sun
that she could see ghosts occasionally. Her family rises, the gold plate shines brightly, as breeze blows
invited Zhi Yan for dharma and he healed her. As gradually, the precious bells ring harmoniously.”
a result, her family members stuck to five precepts Daorong’s Biography facilitates our comprehension
and became pious Buddhists. During his stay in of relevant figures, geography, custom and stories of
Zhiyuan Temple, Zhi Yan was away from redundant ancient India and Buddhism.
desires and unnecessary invitations. He usually (Tan Jie)
gave alms to the poor and begged alms which won
the respect of monks and residents. Xuanzang
Before being a monk, he had already stuck to five Xuanzang (600～664 CE) was a Chinese monk in
precepts. As he had broken them once, he was always the Tang Dynasty as well as a Mahayana theorist,
suspicious and depressed about whether he would sutra translator, tourist and envoy of Chinese and
achieve immortality after taking complete precepts. Indian culture exchange.
He, however, couldn’t find answer despite years of Family and Background
meditation. So he revisited India by sea again and The secular family name of Xuanzang was Chen
consulted the Buddhists. By lucky coincidence, he (陈), his given name was Hui (袆), and came from
met arhat Bhikkhu and was assisted to entre deep Chenhe Village, Goushi Town, Yanshi County,
meditation. In the meditation, he met Maitreya in Henan. His ancestors had been officials for several
Doushuai Palace and was informed that he had been generations, his father Chen Hui (陈惠) liked reading
successful in sticking to precepts. Delighted at this and was the magistrate of Jiangling County. Chen
message, Zhi Yan walked to Kashmir and passed Hui (陈袆) was born in this Confucian family in 600
away with no sickness at the age of 78. His body CE. There were four sons in the family of Chen and
was buried in the Holy Sepulcher. His disciple Zhi Chen Hui (陈袆) was the youngest son.
Yu and Zhi Yuan, went back from Western Regions Chen Hui (陈袆) was clever since his childhood and
and told the miraculous story of Zhi Yan to local liked reading. In 612 CE, the emperor (Emperor
people, and they all believed that Zhi Yan had Yang of the Sui Dynasty Yang Guang, reigned from
become immortal then. 605-618 CE) sent out an imperial edict that 27
(Tan Jie) monks were allowed to receive monastic ordination
in Luoyang. Several hundred people registered at
Daorong that time, Chen Hui (陈袆) was only 13, and wasn’t
Daorong (c. 6th century CE) was the monk who went qualified for recruitment. However, he attracted
to India to seek dharma in Northern Wei Dynasty. the attention of the chief examiner who made an
There was no record about his specific traces in exception to recruit Chen Hui (陈袆). Therefore,
historical materials. In Volume 5 of Records of Chen Hui (陈袆) became a monk and his Buddhist
Luoyang and Sangharam, there is a Biography of name was Xuanzang.
Daorong which describes his travel stories. He Buddhist Talent
saw Buddha parietal in Nagarahara (a region in When Xuanzang became a monk, he lived in
the northeast part of present day Afghanistan) Luoyang Pure Land Temple with his second older
and notes: “the circumference was about four cun brother, Master Chang Jie. There were riots under
(a unit of length, equal to 3.33 cm), yellow and the heaven and people lived in misery in the late Sui
white colour, there was hole at the bottom, can be Dynasty. Xuanzang and Chang Jie came to Chang’an
inserted with fingers, looked like a beehive”. He together. This was the first year of Wude of Emperor
also observed a staff made of tin which was seven Gaozu of the Tang Dynasty Li Yuan (618), and
Zhang (a unit of length, equal 3.33 mt) long; the Xuanzang was 19.
mystery of the staff was its indefinite weight, when The Tang Dynasty was just established at that
it was heavy, even a hundred people could not lift time, it didn’t secure its place, wars and riots were
it; when it was light, two people could easily lift far from end. The court attached importance to
it up. There were also a tooth relic and hair of the use of military forces and warring, and neglected
Buddha which were preserved in a precious box, Buddhism. The two brothers went south and arrived
and taken care of day and night. In Gandhara, there in Chengdu. Xuanzang was guided by famous
was Queli Buddha Tower that was known as the first teachers here and he made great achievements. When
Buddha Tower in Western Regions. This was built by Xuanzang was 21 in the third year of Wude (620
Kushan emperor, Kanishka. In biography, Daorong CE), he received complete ordinations in Konghui
described the cause to build this tower and its grand Temple of Chengdu. After receiving ordinations, he

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gave up in succession but only Xuanzang insisted in

learning Sanskrit and waiting for a chance.
Escaping from Chang’an
The places including Guanzhong and Henan
suffered from frost hazards in the autumn of the first
year of Reign of Zhenguan (627 CE) Xuanzang took
the chance to mix in refugee team and left Chang’an.
He came to Qinzhou (present-day Tianshui), passed
through Lanzhou and arrived in Liangzhou (present-
day Wuwei, Gansu).
Liangzhou was located at the key position of Gansu
Xuanzang Corridor, was the important western city in Tang
Dynasty and many merchants from inner land and
began to conduct summer retreat and learn Buddhist Western Regions passed through it. Xuanzang had
sutras and classics according to Buddhist rules and stayed in Liangzhou for a month, and was invited
became Dharmacharya formally. Xuanzang was to instruct Nirvana Sutra (Mahaparinirvanasutra) and
familiar with Mahayana and Hinayana theories as Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra. When hearing Xuanzang
well as grasped main ideas of northern and southern wanted to go to India to seek sutras, people praised
Chinese Buddhism within four or five years in him and gave funds in charity. Xuanzang only kept
Chengdu. However, Xuanzang wasn’t satisfied with travelling expenses for going west and donated rest
his knowledge and he wanted to leave Chengdu and of the funds to local temples.
go north to acquire more knowledge. The governor of Liangzhou Li Daliang observed
Despite Chang Jie’s dissuasion, Xuanzang left the ban of the court and didn’t allow monks to go
Chengdu firmly in 623 CE, went with merchants abroad in private. When he knew that Xuanzang
by ship, passed through Three Gorges, arrived was in Liangzhou, he ordered Xuanzang to go back
in Jingzhou, and lived in Tianhuang Temple. He to Chang’an immediately. Fortunately, an eminent
soon left Jingzhou went east along rivers, passed monk in Liangzhou assigned two disciples to send
through Suzhou and Yangzhou, went north to the Xuanzang to Guazhou secretly. Therefore, Xuanzang
places including Xiangzhou (present-day Anyang) walked at night and rested in the daytime and didn’t
and Zhaozhou, arrived in Chang’an finally, lived dare to expose himself. Xuanzang inquired about
in Dajue Temple and learned Abhidharmakosasastra route going west, and somebody told him that the
from Master Daoyue. distance between the place to the north was 50 li
Fa Chang and Seng Bian in Chang’an did and Jade Gate Pass was the only road going west.
deep research on Mahayana and Hinayana and There were five beacon towers at the interval of 100
were proficient in three teachings and they won li which were guarded by soldiers strictly, 800 li of
reputation in China and were well-known overseas. the Gobi Desert was outside beacon towers which
Xuanzang took advice from them. These two masters belonged to Yiwu Country. Xuanzang asked a Hu
appreciated Xuanzang’s knowledge, praised him as youth Shi Pantuo as his guide and left Guanzhou
a “Buddhist talent” and thought that he would have City that very night.
a bright future and promote Buddhism certainly. Crossing the Gobi Desert
However, there were still many disputes and Xuanzang and Shi Pantuo detoured around Jade
debates in the Buddhist circle at that time. In order Gate Pass but Shi Pantuo didn’t want to go ahead
to make these questions clear, Xuanzang decided to so Xuanzang rode a red thin horse and crossed 800
go to the west to seek sutras like Fa Xian in Eastern li of the great desert alone. Xuanzang identified
Jin Dynasty. From his point of view, the problems direction according to bones and horse manure and
be solved fundamentally if he went to the birthplace saw the first beacon tower after walking over 80
of Buddhism. Just at that time, an Indian master li. Wang Xiang, army officer on the beacon tower
named Prabhakaramitra lived in Xingshan Temple. was a Buddhist, he prepared drinking water and
He told Xuanzang that he must learn Treatise on the solid food for Xuanzang, went over 10 li to see him
Stages of the Yogachara (Yogacarabhumisastra), the off, specified the route and then bid farewell to
current great Buddhist in India was his teacher, him. According to the specification of Wang Xiang,
Master Silabhadra, who was the abbot in Nalanda Xuanzang went straight to the fourth beacon tower.
Monastery. Through contacting him, Xuanzang Under the instruction of the beacon officer Wang
confirmed his resolution to go to India to seek Bolong, he hid the fifth beacon tower and walked
sutras. Therefore, Xuanzang allied with some monks into the great desert directly.
and submitted a statement to the emperor and tried There were no birds, beasts, water and grass in the
to obtain support from the court. His companions great desert. After walking over 100 li, Xuanzang

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Tour Study in Northern India

Xuanzang can see holy relics such as monks,
Buddhist temples and images in regions of current
Afghanistan. After entering India, Buddhist
influences became more obvious. Xuanzang
visited and worshiped Buddhist relics in the
north of current Pakistan. In Nagarahara, he saw
the pagoda built by King Ashoka and worshipped
Buddhist relics in Usnisa City. He saw Bodhivrksa,
the pagoda built by King Kaniska and surrounding
Buddhist images with reverence and visited relics
of Buddhist temples and relics of earlier Buddhists
in Gandhara. He did so in Taksila.
When Xuanzang arrived in Kashmir, the local
king assigned his mentor come to the border to
meet him and he led his ministers to meet him in
his residence. The king arranged 20 sutra copyists
and five servants to serve Xuanzang and his men,
and all necessities were supplied by the king. An
An image of an itinerant monk depicted as a mural
painting on the western courtyard and at the Dukang
old local master in his 60s expounded sutras for
rear-end courtyard at Gugetuolin monastery. Xuanzang at three intervals each day, he instructed
Abhidharmakosasastrain the morning, the Orthodox
did not find water source and he had to go ahead. of Shastra (Nyayanusarasastra) in the afternoon,
With a strong spiritual power, Xuanzang walked Hetuvidya and Sabdavidya in the evening. Xuanzang
five days and four nights without drinking any was modest and erudite and had a good memory and
water. He fainted on the desert because he and his he was highly praised by the old master. After living
horse were too tired at the fifth night. He continued and studying in Kashmir for a long time, he led his
to go ahead when he woke up. He found an oasis people to go east. It was 629 CE and Xuanzang was
and a pool of clear water under the guidance of the 30 years old.
red thin horse. He entered into the border of Yiwu They passed through several kingdoms and met a
Coungry after a day of rest and two days of walking. team of robbers. Fortunately, a Brahmin was tilling
Gaochang Brotherhood farmland, convened all villagers to drive the robbers
Qu Wentai, the king of Gaochang Country (present- away and saved them. There was a knowledgeable
day Turpan) heard that Xuanzang was in Yiwu and Brahmin who claimed to be 700-years-old and
assigned his men to invite and meet him. The king Xuanzang visited him and learned relevant classics
of Gaochang received Xuanzang grandly and wanted and knowledge from him.
him to stay in Gaochang. Xuanzang said that he must Xuanzang studied Mahayana and Hinayana sutras
go to India to seek sutras. The King of Gaochang as well as Brahminist classics when going east and
made every attempt to persuade Xuanzang to stay but his knowledge became richer. At that time, he can
Xuanzang didn’t change his mind. At last, the king of read original sutras and understand instructions as
Gaochang and Xuanzang became sworn brothers and well as expound sutras for local people.
Xuanzang had propagated sutras among Gaochang In 630 CE, Xuanzang had gone over 3,000 li
subjects for a month. The king of Gaochang prepared and he arrived in Ganges River Basin and Yamuna
travelling outfit, expenses, 30 horses and 25 men River Basin from Punjab area in current Pakistan
needed for 20 years. He wrote 24 letters of credence and India. He passed through seven countries,
to inform rules of 24 countries for Xuanzang. visited famous teachers and acquired knowledge.
With the help of the King of Gaochang, Xuanzang’s He came to Kanauj in northern India in the autumn
later journey was smoother. He led his men and next year and then he crossed Ganges River and
horses to pass through the places including Yanqi and arrived in Ayodhya, the famous historical Indian
Qiuci (present-day Kuqa), began to cross Mountain city after living and learning for three month and he
Ling in the north of Cong Ridges, and it took them worshipped relics of Asanga and visited Vasubandhu
seven days to walk out of snow mountain. Over 10 who were the great Yogachara masters of Mahayana.
servants froze to death and more horses died. Out When he went east along Ganges River by ship, they
of snow mountain, the team of Xuanzang passed met another team of robbers. The robbers demanded
the current places such as Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, money, and selected Xuanzang to be a sacrifice to
Tadzhikistan, Afghanistan etc. He entered into the offer to the goddess Durga. Xuanzang was calm,
border of India finally. and sat to chant sutras and pray. Luckily, there

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were black winds, trees were broken and sand was When settling in Nalanda, Xuanzang went to
blown, waves surged, and ship floated. The robbers Rajagrha to visit holy relics when lessons were not
saw the omens, knelt down, apologised for offence given. Rajagrha was the capital of Magadha when
and asked for receiving ordinations. Xuanzang gave Sakyamuni was born. There was a bamboo forest
them five precepts. near Rajagrha where Sakyamuni lived and it was
Hereafter, Xuanzang visited several famous known as Venuvana. There were rolling hills, and
Buddhist shrines on the both sides of Ganges River famous Saptaparnaguha were located there and it
such as Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Lumbini, Kusinagara, was the place that the eldest disciple Mahakasyapa
Mrgadava, Vaisali, Patna, Vajrasana, Bodhivrksa led monks to collect sutras. Famous Grdhrakuta
and so on. Xuanzang had stayed in each place for was near to it and Sakyamuni resided there and
seven or nine days, visited and worshipped each propagated doctrines for over a decade.
place and surrounding holy relics. After visiting the holy relics, Xuanzang returned
When Xuanzang was in Vajrasana, Nalanda to Nalanda Monastery. Master Shilabhadra
Monastery assigned four great monks to meet instructed Xuanzang in Treatise on the Stages of the
Xuanzang when hearing about his coming. Over Yogachara and several thousand of monks listened
200 monks and 100 benefactors went outside to it with him. It took 15 months for Shilabhadra
the monastery to meet him. Surrounded by the to finish 100 volumes of Treatise on the Stages of
multitude, Xuanzang walked into long-contemplated the Yogachara. Xuanzang resided and learned in
Nalanda Monastery in 631 CE. Nalanda Monastery for five years. He translated it
Residing and Studying in Nalanda after returning to China.
Chinese were accustomed to calling Nalanda as Besides Treatise on the Stages of the
Nalanda Monastery but it was a university actually, Yogachara, Xuanzang listened to the Orthodox
it was the largest academic centre in the world as of Shastra, Aryavacaprakaranasastra and
well as the highest institution of Indian Buddhism. Mahayanabhidharmasangitisastra once; Hetuvidya,
There were many scholars and rich collection of Sabdavidya, Hetuvidya and Pramanasamuccaya twice;
sutras. Buddhists, Hindus, Indians as well as many Madhyamikasastra and Satasastra thrice respectively
people from other Asian countries learned there. in five years. Moreover, Xuanzang learned
Multiple subjects were instructed there and over Brahminist classics in Nalanda, especially learned
100 lectures were given every day. According to the Sanskrit grammar and phonology systematically
record of Xuanzang, this university was extended which laid solid foundation for sutra translation
by kings of six generations, its building scale was when he returned to China.
huge when Xuanzang arrived there and there were Tour Study in Southern India:
six yards and several temples. There were several In the spring of 636 CE, Xuanzang bid farewell
thousand permanent residents and many short- to Master Shilabhadra and began to travel around
term travelling learners, the population reached India. His journey focussed on southern India
about 10,000 in normal times. King attached great because he had travelled the north of India when he
importance to the university, and taxes of over 100 came to India.
cities were allocated to support them. Teachers and He went east from Nalanda and came to Munger,
students didn’t worry about food and clothing, air state of Bihar at the southern bank of Ganges River.
of study and learning was very profound so no one He had resided and studied for one year there and
violated rules and laws. learned Abhidharmamahavibhasyasastra and the
In the company of 20 monks, Xuanzang visited Orthodox of Shastra from two eminent monks. In
Master Shilabhadra, the abbot of Nalanda the spring of next year, Xuanzang went east along
Monastery, who was over 100 years old and was Ganges River, crossed dense forests and entered
honoured as Dharma-grbha. Xuanzang prostrated into current Bengal. After travelling around Bengal,
himself before the master and said that he wanted he came to the coastal Harbour Tamralipti (near
to learn Treatise on the Stages of the Yogachara from Bengal International Harbour) and intended to go to
Shilabhadra. Shilabhadra was touched deeply and Sri Lanka by ship but he had to go south because of
promised to instruct Xuanzang in person. large wind and waves and furious sea and he arrived
Xuanzang received special treatment in Nalanda in the border of State of Orissa and west northwest
and he had a certain quantity of fruits, betel nuts, and entered into Daksana Kosala after visiting holy
cardamoms and “rice offered to the horned”. relics. There was an enlightened Brahmin, and
Xuanzang was arranged to live in main room, he Xuanzang had consulted him on Pramanasamuccaya
could ride on elephant for entrance and exit and for over one month. He went south to current
was exempted from all manual works for common State of Andhra Pradesh and visited two eminent
monks. Only 10 people enjoy this kind of treatment monks and he had lived there for several months
in Nalanda. and learned Mahasanghika classics from them.

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They learned Mahayana theories from Xuanzang Xuanzang had seen that his opinions originated
too. Hereafter, Xuanzang travelled south with two from basic doctrines of heretical theorists so he
eminent monks and came to current State of Tamil listed and satirised various kinds of foolish actions
Nadu. When arriving in Kancipuri near Madras, he of non-Buddhists and outargued their theories. After
wanted to go south to Sri Lanka by sea with these several rounds of debates, the Brahmin had nothing
two eminent monks, but over 300 Sri Lank monks to reply and he stood up and said “I am defeated.
arrived by sea and said that the country suffered Please dispose me at random according to the
from famine because of the death of the king, and stipulation.” Xuanzang answered: “Our Buddhists
it was a state of chaos. Xuanzang decided not to go don’t kill living creatures and you will be a servant
to Sri Lanka. in our monastery and follow our instructions.” The
Xuanzang went west with 70 Sri Lanka monks, Brahmin accepted his suggestion pleasantly.
passed through current Karnataka, went north Meanwhile, a Hinayana master from Uda in
and arrived in current state of Maharashtra. In the Southern India (north of state of Orissa) wrote
middle region of Maharashtra, Xuanzang saw caves Seven Hundred Odes to Mahayanasodhana, presented
which was written in The Great Tang Dynasty Record them to King Siladitya and requested to debate with
of the Western Regions. This is the well-known Ajanta Mahayana monks. Therefore, King Siladitya wrote a
Caves today which is the Buddhist artistic treasure letter to Master Shilabhadra and requested Nalanda
in the world. Monastery to assign four eminent monks to Uda
Xuanzang continued to go north and entered to debate with the Hinayana monk. Shilabhadra
Northwestern India. After passing through current selected Hai Hui, Zhi Guang, Simharasmi and
Gujarat, he went west and arrived in Sindh regions Xuanzang to go to Uda. The other three monks
of Pakistan, he began to go northeast along Indus including Hai Hui were worried but Xuanzang
River after visiting Buddhist relics then passed stepped forward and said: “You great masters take
through Multan of Pakistan and arrived in Punjab. it easy because I must carry out the duty although
Xuanzang visited two or three eminent monks and I am unlearned. Even if my debate fails, I am a
stopped here to learn from them. Chinese monk and I will not shame the reputation
Expounding Doctrines in Nalanda of Nalanda.” They changed from sorrow to joy after
Xuanzang was 40-years-old in 639 CE. He hearing his words. When they set out, King Siladitya
traversed northern India, returned to Nalanda wrote another letter that they didn’t need to go and
Monastery and reported his journey to Master they will wait for his information later.
Shilabhadra. When hearing that an eminent monk Xuanzang got Seven Hundred Odes to
was proficient in Sabdavidya and Hetuvidya in the Mahayanasodhana, he asked the Lokayata Brahmin
west of Nalanda Monastery, he came there in a whether he knew Mahayanasodhana, and the Brahmin
hurry and had learned from him for two months. He said that he had heard for five times. Xuanzang asked
came to Dandavanagiri learned several sutras from him to expound it. After the Brahmin expounded
erudite Abhidharamacarya Srenika whose teacher it, Xuanzang obtained the gist, found shortcomings
also was Master Shilabhadra. They were pleased to and wrote 1,600 odes to Kuvicarapratisedha and
see each other. Xuanzang and Abhidharamacarya outargued it. He submitted Kuvicarapratisedha to
Srenika came to Mahabodhi Vihara to visit Master Shilabhadra and other eminent monks and
Buddhist relics together and worshipped Bodhivrksa they praised it. Xuanzang got the Brahmin and freed
in January next year. Xuanzang returned to him and the Brahmin bid farewell happily and went
Nalanda again. to Kamarupa in eastern India (present-day Assam).
Master Shilabhadra ordered Xuanzang to raise Buddhist Ceremony in Kanauj
an altar to instruct Mahayanasamparigrahasastra Xuanzang had propagated doctrines for over
and Vijnanamatrasiddhivicayasastra publicly. half-a-year, there was no news about debates
Meanwhile, a Lokayata Brahmin came to Nalanda convened by King Siladitya and Xuanzang thought
to require debate. He wrote 40 opinions and hung that it is time for him to return to China and began
them on the gate and spoke insolently: “I am to sort Buddhist sutras and images collected in
willing to be beheaded if one can outargue one of normal times. Eminent monks went to persuade
my opinions.” Several days later, no one responded Xuanzang to stay when hearing that he will return
to him, Xuanzang went to tear his paper and to China but Xuanzang didn’t change his decision.
trampled it with his feet. The Brahmin was angry They failed to persuade him so they came to Master
and asked, “Who are you?” Xuanzang answered: “I Shilabhadra. Xuanzang said to Shilabhadra that
am Mahayanadevadas”. This was one of Xuanzang’s he wanted to return to China to propagate sutras
names in India and the Brahmin heard of him. and show his gratitude to his master. After hearing
Xuanzang asked masters including Shilabhadra to his words, Shilabhadra was pleased and let him
be witnesses and began to debate with the Brahmin. prepare packages.

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At that time, envoys of King Kumara of Kamarupa about Kuvicarapratisedha and Xuanzang took it
came and sent a letter to Master Shilabhadra, out and presented it to him. After reading, King
which invited Xuanzang to propagate doctrines Siladitya praised him greatly and said: “I will hold
in Kamarupa. The Lokayata Brahmin praised Buddhist ceremony for you and invite Buddhist
Xuanzang in front of King Kumara after he arrived monks, Brahmins and non-Buddhists all over India
in Kamarupa so King Kumara assigned the envoys to to participate in it.” He ordered his men to make a
invite Xuanzang. Shilabhadra refused the invitation public announcement on that very day that people
on the excuses of previous appointment with King should come to the capital, Kanauj, to participate in
Siladitya and the return of Xuanzang. However, King the debate conference.
Kumara insisted in assigning the envoys to invited Xuanzang, King Siladitya and King Kumara went
Xuanzang, Shilabhadra didn’t agree. King Kumara against the river together in the early winter and
got angry and assigned the envoys at the third time they arrived in Kanauj in the12th lunar month.
and threatened: “I am sincere to propagate Buddhist The conference hall had been established, 18
doctrines if you don’t allow the invitation, I will lead kings, over 3,000 Mahayana and Hinayana monks,
my elephant army to stamp Nalanda.” Shilabhadra 2,000 Brahmanists and Jains and 1,000 Nalanda
had no alternative and told the whole story to monks had arrived. Servants, horses, carriages,
Xuanzang. Xuanzang collected returning package elephants and various kinds of honour guards were
and bid farewell to eminent monks in Nalanda and large-scaled.
came to Kamarupa with the envoys in a hurry. Two huge thatched palaces were established in
King Kumara was pleased to see Xuanzang, invited the conference hall which can hold 1,000 people
him to go to the palace and provided needs and respectively. A gold Buddha image had been cast by
comforts to Xuanzang. Xuanzang had propagated the dwelling palace of King Siladitya in the west of
doctrines there for over a month. the conference hall with the distance of five li and it
After King Siladitya returned from southern was installed on a decorated elephant. On that day,
expedition, he heard that Xuanzang went to the elephant carried Buddha image to parade, King
Kamarupa and assigned his envoys to say to Siladitya acted as Indra with a white vyajana in his
King Kumara: “Send the Chinese master to me hand and stood at the right side and King Kumara
immediately!” King Kumara said that “the Chinese acted as Brahma with a canopy in his hand and stood
master will not come at once even you get my head!” at the left side. People on two other elephants were
King Siladitya was angry and assigned envoys to responsible for scattering flowers. Xuanzang and
say: “Give your head!” King Kumara knew that he national masters of King Siladitya rode on elephants
wasn’t as strong as King Siladitya and regretted his and followed them. Kings, ministers and eminent
improper words. He convened 20,000 people and monks rode on 300 elephants. The team entered
30,000 ships immediately and escorted Xuanzang to into the conference site slowly from the dwelling
go against Ganges River.
King Kumara settled Xuanzang in a temporary
dwelling palace on the northern bank of Ganges
River, led ministers to the temporary dwelling
palace of King Siladitya at the southern bank,
and reported the news of the coming of Master
Xuanzang. King Siladitya was pleased, forgave King
Kumara and said that he will go to visit Master
Xuanzang in person. At night, King Siladitya led
his honour guard to meet Xuanzang. King Siladitya
bowed and showed his respect to Xuanzang. Being
seated, King Siladitya asked: “You come from China
and must hear of the dance music named Music of
King Qin’s Fighting. Who was King Qin?” Xuanzang
told him about China’s conditions and virtues of
Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty (627-649 CE)
and gave him a beautiful impression on China. King
Siladitya assigned his envoys to establish friendship
with Tang Dynasty soon.
The next day, Xuanzang came to the temporary
dwelling palace of King Siladitya in the company
of King Kumara and received an enthusiastic
welcome. At that time, King Siladitya inquired An image of Dharma master Xuanzang

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palace, the Buddha image was invited firstly and prepared letters of credence for Xuanzang and
people worshipped the Buddha in proper order. assigned special persons to escort him. After
Only 18 kings, over 200 ministers, 1,000 eminent Xuanzang had left for three days, King Siladitya and
monks and 500 representatives of Brahmins and King Kumara led several hundred light cavalries to
non-Buddhists could enter the conference hall and catch up him and bid farewell again.
other people could only watch outside the hall. After With profound friendship of Indian, Xuanzang
the grand ceremony, King Siladitya let Xuanzang sit led a large team of people and horses and returned
in the position of the debate master. Opinions of according to the coming routes on the whole.
Xuanzang’s Kuvicarapratisedha were read out. It was Because he was more familiar with conditions, his
hung outside the conference hall for people to read. journey was smoother than the coming journey
No one dared to debate on that day. although it was hard and they met with robbers for
Five days later, several Hinayana Buddhists several times. Some sutras were flushed away when
didn’t dare to debate but they weren’t reconciled they crossed Indus River, it took them 14 days to
to Xuanzang and attempted to murder him. King cross the great snow mountain, many people and
Siladitya was informed of it and warned them horses died, and only seven monks, over 20 porters,
strictly, so that their plot failed. On the 18th day, one elephant, 10 donkeys and four horses left.
the conference ended, but no one dared to debate. In the journey returning China, he still stopped
Xuanzang gave a speech and praised Mahayana after walking for a long time, and he visited holy
and the Buddha. At last, King Siladitya declared relics, learned as well as propagated doctrines.
that Xuanzang won. The conference hall broke Although he had been some places, he visited
into rapturous applause, and Mahayana Buddhists them with reverence this time. He went to visit old
honoured Xuanzang as 'Mahayanadeva” and friends, exchanged view with them and talked about
Hinayana Buddhists honoured him as “Moksadeva”. old days. Two years flew in this way.
Xuanzang rode on the elephant around the hall Returning to Chang’an with Reputation
and paid tribute to people. Hereafter, Xuanzang’s Xuanzang arrived in Khotan in 644 CE. The
reputation became greater in India. king of Khotan knew that Xuanzang will come in
After the completion of the conference, Xuanzang advance, and he assigned his men to meet him and
insisted on the return to China. King Siladitya make settlement preparation beforehand.
persuaded him again, and said that he had held People from Gaochang came at that time and
Moksha-maha-parishad quinquennially at the Xuanzang was informed of the death of Qu Wentai,
intersection of Ganges River and Yamuna River the king of Gaochang, he felt sad and decided to
which lasted 75 days and provided almsgivings return to Chang’an directly rather than going to
to monks and poor people for 30 years. Moksha- Gaochang. He feared that the court will punish him
maha-parishad had been held for five times and because he went abroad in private in that very year
it would be held for the sixth time that year, and so he submitted a statement in advance asked others
he invited Xuanzang to participate in it. Xuanzang to bring it to Chang’an and waited for the response
promised him. Two days later, King Siladitya led of the court.
Xuanzang to the inter-river site in the company Xuanzang had expounded Treatise on the Stages
of 18 kings. There were a lot of people, and about of the Yogachara, Abhidharmakosasastra and
5,00,000 people crowded at the banks of Ganges Mahayanasamparigrahasastra for seven or eight
River and Yamuna River. A thatched palace had months when he waited in Khotan and over 1,000
been established on the inter-river site. On the first audience listened to him.
day, the Buddha image was placed in the thatched When Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty was
palace and superior treasures, clothes and foods pleased to know that Xuanzang returned to China
were offered. On the second day, the Sun God image with reputation, he ordered his men to go to Khotan
was placed and a half of properties were offered. to comfort and meet him, and exhorted them to
On the third day, the Ishvaradeva image was placed bring monks knowing Sanskrit sutras with them. He
and the almsgivings were like those on the second wrote a letter to the king of Khotan and asked him
day. Then monks, Brahmins, non-Buddhists, poor to handle matters of Xuanzang’s return to Chang’an.
and lonely people were given alms. King Siladitya He also ordered Dunhuang officials to meet him in
offered all properties accumulated for five years in Liusha and Shanshan officials to meet him in Qiemo.
75 days, and his merits accumulated hereafter. On the 24th day of the first lunar month of the
Over 10 days later, Xuanzang wanted to take 19th century of Zhenguan (645 CE), 46-year-old
leave and return to China and declined repeated Xuanzang carried 657 sutras, various kinds of
persuasions of King Siladitya and King Kumara. Buddha images, 150 Buddhist relics and returned
Therefore, kings prepared money, grains and to Chang’an with high reputation. Officials of
materials for his return to China. King Siladitya Chang’an and the suburbs and followers came to

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meet him. Xuanzang settled in pavilion in Zhuque to China’s translatology. Firstly, Sutra Translation
Street. Onlookers crowded both sides of roads from Institute founded by him established a complete
Zhuque Street and Hongfu Temple with the distance set of systems. For example, when translating
of tens of li, temples were decorated with lanterns Treatise on the Stages of the Yogachara, Xuanzang
and coloured hangings like celebration of grand “interpreted Sanskrit into Chinese” then there were
festivals, and the views were magnificent. steps such as “translation”, “proving Sanskrit”,
Xuanzang hurried Luoyang to meet Emperor “confirming words”, “proving meanings”,
Taizong of Tang Dynasty in the second lunar month. “composition”, “supervision and reading” etc and
This was a brief ceremonious meeting. Emperor the item of “embellishment” was added, so it can
Taizong met Xuanzang on Graceful Bird Palace. be seen that labour division was more meticulous
They sat and had a long talk. The emperor inquired than previous generation. The items such as
about conditions of Western Regions and Xuanzang translation, proving meanings, composition and
replied fluently because they were still fresh in embellishment were undertaken by several people.
his memory. The emperor admired Xuanzang Systems of Sutra Translation Institute established
very much and advised him to write a book by Xuanzang became the fixed forms for Sutra
about conditions of countries in Western Regions, Translation Institute in Tang Dynasty, and was
Xuanzang agreed. Meanwhile, Emperor Taizong the model of Sutra Translation Institute in early
recommended Xuanzang to resume secular life and Song Dynasty. Secondly, he applied diversified
handle government affairs, Xuanzang refused with translation skills to sutra translation and these
thanks and he expressed his wish to translate sutras. skills can be borrowed today. Thirdly, he proposed
Emperor Taizong let him translate sutras in Hongfu important translation theories. He advocated that
Temple and all needs were arranged by Prime “translation shall be accurate and popular.” He
Minister Fang Xuanling. also set up the principle of “five non-translations”
Writing Book and Translating Sutras ie the principles of transliteration in five cases.
According to the decree of the emperor, 12 Fourthly, the quantity of classics translated by him
volumes of The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the exceeded the total volumes of sutras translated
Western Regions were finished and submitted to the by three sutra translators including Kumarajiva,
emperor in 645, which was dictated by Xuanzang Paramartha and Amoghavajra which took up a
and recorded and collected by his disciple, Bian Ji. half of volumes of newly-translated sutras. Fifthly,
In The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western he was the first Chinese translator who translated
Regions, Xuanzang recorded conditions of 138 sutras independently without help of Indians or
“countries” and regions in the aspects of history, people from other Western Regions in China’s
geography, religion, folk customs, language, sutra translation history. Sutra translation relied
characters etc in detail, which provided rich and on people from the Western Regions such as India
precious materials to study history, society and mostly even Fa Xian wasn’t an exception. Although
culture of ancient Central Asia and South Asia. Kumarajiva was born in China he wasn’t a Chinese;
Records of Xuanzang often showed direction and Foreigners in translation institute of Sui Dynasty
provided proofs for modern and contemporary were translation master.
Buddhist archaeological activities of India, Nepal However, Xuanzang’s translation institute
and Pakistan as well as places such as Lumbini, didn’t have people from Western Regions because
Kapilavastu, Mrgadava, Grdhrakuta, Ajanta, Nalanda, Xuanzang’s knowledge of Sankrit and Shabdavidya
Taxila, etc. On the contrary, many archaeological was higher than previous Chinese sutra translators.
materials proved authenticity of Xuanzang’s records. Sixthly, he made excellent achievements in the
When people visit these Buddhist shrines today, they aspect of translating from Chinese to Sanskrit.
can feel existence of Xuanzang everywhere. Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks wrote that
Both Indian and Western historians praise “Xuanzang translated 5,000 characters of Lao
Xuanzang’s The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Tzu into Sanskrit according to an imperial edict”.
Western Regions highly and thought that this book “Treatise on the Awakening of Faith was written
has a very important role in rebuilding history of by Ma Ming. Foreign monks wanted to read it.
India, even Central Asia in Middle Ages. Xuanzang translated it from Chinese into Sanskrit
Xuanzang established Sutra Translation Institute and its translated text was declared for five days.”
under the support of the court which became Seventhly, his dedication spirit inspired later
a grand event in China’s translation history. generations. According to volume 7 of the Biography
Xuanzang made great efforts to translate 1,335 of Ci’en, Xuanzang “valued every second to translate
volumes of 74 Buddhist sutras in his after-life sutras specifically. He scheduled every day, and he
which enriched treasury of Chinese Buddhist will translate at nights if he was busy in the daytime.
classics as well as made enormous contributions He slept at midnight and got up before dawn, he

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chanted Sanskrit text, marked in order and planned Life

contents to be translated next day." Born in Qizhou (present-day Ji’nan, Shandon),
Besides sutra translation, Xuanzang had made Yijing’s original name was Zhang Wenming. He
great contributions to Buddhism. In the period followed Master Shanyu and Huizhi at Tuku
of Nalanda, he wrote 6,000 odes to Treatise on Temple and became a monk at the age of seven. He
Combination of Sects in order make up conflicts diligently studied Buddhist philosophy, especially
between Madhyamika and Yogachara. In order its commandments. It is noted that he “pursued
to maintain dignity of Mahayana and refute the classic scriptures for the five years”. In the fifth
attacks of Hinayana, he created 1,600 odes to year of the reign of Emperor Gaozong (Xian Qing)
Kuvicarapratisedha. (660 CE), he left Tuku Temple. “Stretching his
Xuanzang also recruited disciples widely, inherited walking stick to Dongwei he dedicated himself to
traditions of Yogachara of Indian Mahayana Abhidhamma and the Collected Sāstras and headed
and founded Faxiang School (Ci’en School), and for Xijing reading and meditating Kusha and
became the grand master. Faxiang School had very Vijnanavada”. This explains that Yijing went to the
great importance in early Tang Dynasty and had a area around Henan and Chang’an, and continued to
batch of excellent domestic and foreign disciples. learn various classic Buddhist scriptures.
Although Faxiang School wasn’t passed down but it Yijing had the idea of going to India to seek
had profound influences and spread to North Korea, sutras very early and he wished “to have Buddhist
South Korea and Japan. companion at 14, and to go to Western Paradise
Symbol of Chinese and Indian Cultural at 18”. In the first year of the reign of Emperor
Exchange Gaozong of Tang (Xian Heng) (670 CE) in Chang’an,
At midnight on the fifth day of the second lunar Yijing got to know Monk Chuyi from Bingzhou
month of 664 CE, Master Xuanzang who worked (present-day Taiyuan, Shanxi), Monk Hongyi from
hard in his whole life, died of illness in Tongchuan Laizhou monk and another couple of monks. They
Yuhua Temple. Civil and military officials, monks all had the desire to go to India to pursue learning
and common people in Chang’an City were sad at and set off together. Yijing went back Jizhou first
the news. Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty cried to visit his master at Tuku Temple. In the second
bitterly and said, “I lost national treasure! I lost year, the second year of Xianheng Period (671 CE),
national treasure!” Court affairs were cancelled for Yijing went south from Jizhou, passed through
several days because of his death. Millions of people Yangzhou and stayed there for three summer
in the capital and prefectures sent him on his burial months, and then followed Lord Feng Xiaoquan at
day and over 30,000 people slept at his cemetery Gongzhou (now Pingnan, Guangxi) to Guangzhou.
at night. Xuanzang was the first great man in the At this time, among the companions that originally
history of Chinese culture interaction. Professor Ji planned to go to India together, some changed his
Xianlin assessed his achievements comprehensively mind and some did not want to continue due to
which were summarised in six phrases: “He was a illness. After arriving in Guangzhou, he was invited
famous eminent monk in Tang Dynasty, idealistic to Guangzhou (present-day Xinhui, Guangdong)
theorist of Buddhism, brave traveller, excellent to accept the sponsorship of Feng Xiaoquan’s
translation master, model of dedicating himself to family. After returning Guangzhou, only one monk
seeking dharma and embodiment of Chinese and named Shanxing from Jinzhou (northwest Shanxi)
Indian friendship.” Xuanzang’s great contributions was willing to accompany him for the journey. In
to the cultural interaction between China and India November that year, Yijing and Shanxing got on the
were assessed properly. cargo ship of a Persian merchant in Guangzhou and
Till today, the name of Xuanzang is known to started the trip to India.
every household in India. In history textbooks for It was not an easy task to sail in the South China
Indian primary school, there is a special section Sea in ancient times. Yijing described the situation
introducing events of Xuanzang’s visit to India. of boat sailing in the sea: “The ocean witnesses
Memorial Hall of Xuanzang was jointly built by the wave high like mountains; the giant gully saw
Chinese government and Indian government at a clouds of monstrous fluctuation.” The difficult and
distance of one kilometre in the north of Nalanda dangerous state is conceivable. But this voyage went
relics in the state of Bihar. Xuanzang shall belong to relatively smoothly. With strong wind pushing the
China and India as well as the whole world. ship fast, in less than 20 days, they reached the
(Xue Keqiao) Srivijaya (now around Palembang area of Sumatra
Island, Indonesian). Srivijaya was one of the most
Yijing important transportation and trade centres then in
Yijing (635-713 CE) was an eminent Buddhist monk the South China Sea area. It was a very prosperous
and translator of Tang Dynasty. place and Buddhism was also quite popular there.

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Yijing stayed there for six months, learning Sanskrit Chan Monk Andao from Caozhou paid worship to
to make further preparation for education in India. the Bodhi statue, which completed the ceremony.
Shanxing, who accompanied him here, fell ill and At that time, I prostrated myself on the ground for
had to return home. The King of Srivijaya was very full admiration, for the four blessings of Dong Xia,
friendly to Yijing and gave him support by sending to publicise dharma doctrine. At the initial meeting
him by boat to another state called Melayu (present- at Longhua, I encountered Maitreya and Zhenzong
day Sumatra Island of Indonesian) countries for and obtained anutpada-jnana. Then I visited all the
shrines, passed an abbot and stayed at Kushinagar.
I had been at Qincheng, entered Mṛgadāva and
crossed Kukkutapāda.”
Nalanda, Gijjhakuta and Mahabodhi Temple
were all in Magadha (present-day territory of Bihar,
India). The “Ten-Foot Square Hut” refers to the
former residence of Vimalakirti in Vaiśālī. The large
stretch of sal trees near Kusinagara was the place
where Sakyamuni’s attained nirvana. Mṛgadāva is
Sārnāth where Sakyamuni had his Dharmachakra
Pravartana. Banāras is present-day Varanasi of Uttar
Yijing
Pradesh, India. Kukkutapāda was also in Magadha.
Besides, there was a paragraph of annotations in
two months, and then sent him to a place named Mala-sarvastivada-vinaya· sudraka-vastu translated
Kedah (present-day Kedah, Malaysia). At the end by Yijing, “I recently visited Western Regions those
of the third year of Xianheng Period (672 CE), places where Tathagata stayed for over 50 years.
Yijing continued to take the king’s ship ie the ship There are eight places: the birthplace of Tathagata;
provided by the King of Srivijaya, northbound and the place where Tathagata became a Buddha; the
passed through Nicobar (present-day Andaman place where Tathagata had his Dharmachakra
Islands, India). On February 8 of the fourth year Pravartana; Vulture Peak; City of Vaishali; the
of Xianheng Period (673 CE), he finally reached place where Tathagata stepped down from heaven;
Tamralipti of East India. Yijing stayed in Tamralipti Jetavana Park and the place with a large stretch of
for a year and continued to learn Sanskrit. In May sal trees where Tathagata attained Nirvana.”
of the fifth year of Xianheng Period (674 CE), Yijing The birthplace of Tathagata was in Kapilavastū.
followed a merchant team of several hundred people The place where Tathagata became a Buddha was
to continue to go west to central India. Bodh Gaya Magadha. The place of Tathagata’s
At this time, India had many separate kingdoms. Dharmachakra Pravartana was Sārnāth of Banāras.
The journey was not peaceful. Soon after leaving Vulture Peak represents Grdhrakuta. City of Vaishali
Tamralipti, Yijing fell ill and was left behind the refers to Vaiśālī. The place where Tathagata stepped
team. His luggage was robbed by bandits on the road down from heaven was the place with Three Ladders
and he nearly lost his life. Fortunately, he escaped between heaven and earth and it was in Kapitha.
from the dangerous situation, and caught up with Jetavana Park was in Sravasti. The place with a
the companions to move on. In June of the fifth year large stretch of sal trees where Tathagata attained
of Xianheng Period (674 CE), he finally reached his Nirvana was near Kusinagara. All these places are
destination, the Nalanda Monastery of Magadha. most famous Buddhist holy lands of ancient India
At Nalanda, one of Yijing’s major activities was and most of them were in the territory of ancient
to pay homage to the Buddhist pilgrimage sites. India. It is unclear what other area Yijing visited
Yijing did not keep a complete record of his travel apart from these places. Emperor Zhongzong of
to India. It is noted only very briefly in Buddhist Tang Dynasty noted in the Introduction to the Sacred
Pilgrim Monks of Tang Dynasty: “Heading north Teachings of Monk Tripitaka of Ryonghungsa of the
from here for a few days, I arrived at Nalanda Great Tang Dynasty that Yijing “went to more than 30
first and paid homage to the statue of ‘The Great countries in over 20 years”. Yijing also said himself
One, the Buddha’. And later I went to Gijjhakuta that he “visited more than 30 foreign countries”.
(Griddhkuta) and saw the cloth-folding place. Then They probably include some places he passed by in
I headed for Mahabodhi Temple, paying respect his trip to India by sea.
to the real-portrait statue. Silk cloth donated by Beyond pilgrimage and travel for pleasure, Yijing
Shandong monks and laity was made into equal spent more time on studying Buddhism in India.
amount of Tathagata cassock, which I personally During the 10 years that he stayed in Nalanda, Yijing
served. Master Xuanlu from Puzhou presented tens tried hard to learn all kinds of classics of Buddhism
of thousands of silk covers to offer for the tribute. and collect various Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures.

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Xuanzang’s teacher Śīlabhadra had passed away at

that moment, but there were many learned monks in
Nalanda. Yijing’s teacher in Nalanda was Bhadanta
Baoshizi. Baoshizi was good at teaching the Treatise
on the Stages of Yoga Practice (Yogacarabhumi-sastra),
which was obviously inherited from Śīlabhadra.
Yijing stayed in Nalanda for quite a long time so
that he had the opportunity to have a close-up view
of the rules, the daily life of the monks and even
some trivial characteristics of the architecture of
Nalanda which provided the most specific materials
for his subsequent compilation of the Account of
Buddhism Sent from the South Seas. Therefore, he
mentioned Nalanda several times in the Account of
Buddhism Sent from the South Seas and took it as the
model for all he Buddhist temples. He also drew a An article by Yijing of a thousand
picture of Nalanda and attached it in his Buddhist Sanskrit characters
Monks Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty. But the picture
was lost long ago. and left on November 1 to Srivijaya by ship. It took
Apart from Yijing, there were other Chinese five to six months for him to return to Guangzhou
monks learning Buddhist doctrines in Nalanda and back to Srivijaya. Besides this trip, he spent all
back then. Yijing met many Chinese monks there, the rest of the six years in Srivijaya during which
and he mentioned some of them in his Buddhist he began to translate Buddhist scriptures and
Monks Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty including compile Buddhist Monks Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty
Xuanzhao, Huilun, Daolin, Zhihong and Wuxing. and Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas.
The information about some other Chinese monks In May 691 CE (second year Tianshou Period),
can be learned from other monks learning Buddhist he finished the two books and sent someone to
doctrines there although Yijing did not meet Chang’an carrying these two books and 10 volumes
them. Yijing wrote a book about their learning of of Buddhist scriptures as well as his letter to the
Buddhist doctrines later Buddhist Monks Pilgrimage imperial court about requesting the imperial court
of Tang Dynasty. to approve the establishment of a temple in the
During the decade in Nalanda, Yijing not only West. In this connection, the words “Sent from the
studied but also translated Buddhist scriptures. He South Seas” in the name of Account of Buddhism Sent
translated Mula-sarvastivada-vinaya·sudraka-vastu from the South Seas were given.
and Sata-pancasatikastotra but that was only his first In the summer of 693 CE (second year of
draft. Yijing modified the draft after returning to Changshou Period) when Yijing was 59, he finally
China when he had already had a preliminary plan returned to Guangzhou from Srivijaya. He stayed in
on translating Buddhist scriptures. Guangzhou for over a year and then left Guangzhou
In 685 CE (the first year of Chuigong Period), to the North in early 695 CE (the first year of
Yijing decided to return to China after 10 years Zhengsheng Period). In the summer of May, Yijing
of study in India. He carried with him more arrived in Luoyang that was called “Dongdu” back
than 500,000 odes of Sanskrit Tripitaka and left then. Empress Wu Zetian lived in Dongdu for most
Nalanda to the east. He was robbed on the road but of the time. There is no historical evidence to show
fortunately he arrived safely in Tamralipti. Just like whether Yijing received the imperial edict first
going to India, he took his return journey by sea. In before arriving in Luoyang, just like Xuanzang. But
the early spring of 686 CE (second year of Chuigong it seemed that he received the imperial edict first
Period), Yijing arrived in Kedan again and stayed before the departure when one looked at the grand
there until the winter. In early 687 CE (third year welcoming ceremony held in his honour when he
of Chuigong Period), he continued his voyage to the arrived in Luoyang.
south and arrived in Melayu Kingdom once again On the day he arrived in Luoyang, he received a
one month later and then arrived in Srivijaya. high standard welcome that even surpassed that of
Yijing’s second stop at Srivijaya was longer, more Xuanzang. The Volume IX of Record of Sakyamuni's
than six years in total. In July 689 CE (first year Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period
of Yongchang Period), he “sailed out from Srivijaya mentioned what happened, “In the summer of the
to Guangzhou to seek papers, ink and writers”, first year of the Empress Wu Zetian’s Zhengsheng
and “went back to Srivijaya by a merchant ship”. Period, Yijing returned to Heluo and brought back
Therefore, he accidentally came back to Guangzhou nearly 400 books of Sanskrit Tipitaka, 500,000 odes

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in total, one portrait of Vajrasana and 300 Buddhist Great Tang Dynasty and went to the west gate of
relics. Empress Wu Zetian respected Buddhism and Luoyang City to “declare the new translations of
Buddhist monks very much so she went outside the Yijing to all governors and dukes and order the
Shangdong Gate to meet him. The monks of Luoyang index of the translation”. In October 706 CE (second
held up banners and arranged a drum corps to guide year of Shenlong Period), Yijing followed Emperor
the team. The Empress issued an imperial order Zhongzong of Tang to return to Chang’an. The
of translating and placing these scriptures in the emperor ordered the construction of a building for
Foshouji Temple.” Yijing to translate Buddhist scriptures inside Jianfu
Translating the Buddhist scriptures and Temple. Jianfu Temple still exists today and famous
Writing of Books Small Wild Goose Pagoda of Xi’an is situated inside
After returning to China, Yijing immediately the temple.
started to translate Buddhist scriptures. He first In June 707 CE (third year of Shenlong Period),
participated in the translation workshop chaired by Emperor Zhongzong of Tang summoned Yijing to
Siksananda, monk from the Kingdom of Khotan and the imperial palace. The Emperor sited in meditation
then translated Avatamsaka Sutra. He finished the with śramana who was translating Buddhist
translation of Avatamsaka Sutra in 699 CE (second scriptures for three months. Yijing translated two
year of Shengli Period). He started to organise his volumes of the Sūtra of the Original Vows of the
own translation workshops since 700 CE (third year Medicine Buddha of blue Radiance and the Seven Past
of Shengli Period, or the first year of the Empress Buddhas in Dafoguang Hall of the imperial place.
Wu Zetian’s Jiushi era). He lived in the Great Fu When he was translating the scripture, “the emperor
Xian Temple. On May 5, his translation work recorded the dictations of Yijing”.
named Ruding Buding Yinjing was finished. Empress Yijing was more than 70 at that time but he still
Wu Zetian wrote the Introduction to the Translated worked hard in translations. In 705 (the first year of
Sacred Teachings of Monk Tripitaka of the Great Zhou Shenlong Period), he translated four four books of
Dynasty and called Yijing as “leader of Buddhist Buddhist scriptures, four six volumes in total. In 710
monks, and eminent monk of Buddhist temples”. CE (fourth year of Jinglong Period), he translated
This demonstrates Yijing’s status at that time. 20 books of Buddhist scriptures, 88 volumes in
According to volume IX of Record of Sakyamuni's total. In 711 CE (second year of Jingyun Period),
Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Period, he translated 12 books of Buddhist scriptures, 21
Yijing translated altogether 20 books of Buddhist volumes in total. Plus the Buddhist scriptures he
scriptures, 115 volumes in total, in the Great Fu Xian translated in Chang’an, he translated altogether 56
Temple and then in Chang’an Ximing Temple during books of Buddhist scriptures, 230 volumes in total.
the four years between 700 CE (first year of Empress But this is only the number listed in the Record of
Jiushi Period) and 703 CE (third year of Chang’an Sakyamuni's Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan
Period). That means he translated 30 volumes of Period. The actual number of Buddhist scriptures
Buddhist scriptures each year on an average. translated by Yijing is much more than this. At least
Empress Wu Zetian valued Yijing very much. 50 volumes of seven books are not included in the
According to the details of different times recorded various laws of Mulasarvastivada. This is probably
in the directories of Buddhist sutras, we can because there is less time to make final revisions
conclude that Yijing was in Luoyang when Empress although they are already translated. So they are
Wu Zetian was in Luoyang, and Yijing returned not formally circulated. Therefore, the Record of
to Chang’an when Empress returned to Chang’an. Sakyamuni's Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan
Yijing followed the empress most of the time. Period doesn’t include these translations. It is also
Apart from Luoyang and Chang’an, it seemed probably because of the negligence when compiling
that Yijing rarely went to other places. The Shaolin the Record of Sakyamuni's Teachings Compiled during
Temple in Dengfeng city is not far from Luoyang. the Kaiyuan Period. Most of the above-mentioned 50-
In April 704 CE (fourth year of Chang’an Period), plus books of Buddhist scriptures were translated by
Yijing was invited to visit Shaolin Temple and set Yijing during the 12 years between his 66th and 77th
platform of precepts there. This is the only record years. These achievements made by him in this age
about Yijing’s movement from Luoyang or Chang’an. demonstrate that Yijing worked very hard.
In 705 CE (first year of Shenlong Period), Emperor Yijing also organised workshops to teach
Zhongzong of Tang succeeded to the throne. In translation of Buddhist scriptures just like what
February, Tang became the title of the reigning Xuanzang did. He personally led, at least, four
dynasty again. Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, like translation workshops that were large in scale. In
his mother Empress Wu Zetian also respected Yijing the workshops, there were not only Chinese and
very much. He wrote the Introduction to the Sacred foreign monks but also high-ranking officials. For
Teachings of Monk Tripitaka of Ryonghungsa of the example, over 40 people participated directly in

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translating Buddhist scriptures. And his students

were all over the Jingluo”, demonstrating the he
had many students at that time.
The greatest accomplishments of Yijing was his
journey to India to fetch the Buddhist scriptures
and his translation of them. According to the record
of nolume XIII of Catalogue of the Zhenyuan Era on
Buddhism, Buddhist scriptures translated by Yijing
include Golden Light Sutra Recitation (10 volumes),
Diamond Perfection of Wisdom Sutra (one volume),
Da Kongque Zhouwang Jing (three volumes), Treatise
on the Establishment of the Doctrine of Consciousness
(five volumes), Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya (50
volumes), Mūlasarvāstivāda-bhikunī-vinaya-vibhaga
(20 volumes), Mula-sarvastivada-vinaya·sudraka-
The writings of Yijing vastu (40 volumes), The Mūlasarvāstivāda
Vinaya Nidana Muktaka (10 or eight volumes),
the translation workshop led by him in Chang’an Mūlasarvāstivāda-eka atakarman (10 volumes),
Jianfu Temple in the fourth year of Emperor Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya Samgraha (20 or 14
Zhongzong’s Jinglong era, “Tochari’s Buddhist volumes), Mūlasarvāda vinaya bhasisajya vastu
monk Dharma Momo, Indian Buddhist monk Banu (20 volumes), Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinayavastu (20
proofed the Sanskrit meaning; Kashmir’s Buddhist volumes, lack two volumes) and so on.
monk Dharmananda proofed the Sanskrit version; The number of books of Buddhist scriptures
Lay Buddhist East Indian leader Yisheluo proofed translated by Yijing was 63, 280 volumes in total. But
the Sanskrit version; Buddhist monk Huiji and Lay this figure is inconsistent with the “107 books, 428
Buddhist Lishijia dupoduo et al read the Sanskrit volumes of Buddhist scriptures translated by Yijing”
version; Buddhist monks Wengang, Huizhao, Lizhen, mentioned in the “tower inscription and sequence
Shengzhuang, Aitong and Siheng et al proofed the of Tripitaka Yijing of the Longxing Period, Datang
meaning; Buddhist monks Xuansan and Zhiji scribed Dynasty” on the pagoda of the cemetery of Yijing.
down; Lay Buddhist Gautama Vajra and Prince Apart from Buddhist scriptures, he translated the
Ashun Kasmira et al., proofed the translation. More two works he wrote: Account of Buddhism Sent from
than 20 people were responsible for reviewing and the South Seas (four volumes) and Buddhist Monks
embellishments including Grand Secretary Tejie Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty (two volumes). Yijing
Zhaoguogong , Li Qiao, Bingbu Shangshu Wei Sili also compiled three works related to religious
(Minister of Defence), Zhongshu Shilang ZHAO disciplines: Bie Shuo Zui Yao Xing Fa (one volume),
Yanzhao (deputy head of the legislative bureau of Shou Yong San Shui Yao Fa (one volume), Hu Ming
government), Libu Shilang Lu Cangyong (Deputy Fang Sheng Gui Yi (one volume).
Minister of Civil Service Affairs), Bingbu Shilang He also had a book named A Thousand Sanskrit
Zhang Shuo (Deputy Minister of Defense), Zhongshu Words that failed to be handed down from past
Reren Li You (a mid-level official at the legislative generations in China but was preserved in Japan.
bureau of government) and Su Ting. Zuopushe Under the title of the book was “Written by Tripitaka
Shuguogong Wei Juyuan, Youpushe Xuguogong Su Dharma Master Yijing”. The book recorded some
Gui et al supervised the translation; the secretary frequently-used Sanskrit word with Chinese
Dajian Sihao Wang Yong monitored the translation.” translations. The book was compiled by copying
Different people from both China and the rest of the literary form of Chinese traditional Thousand
the world gathered in the translation workshop. Character Classic and is clearly a reference book for
The work in the translation workshop was divided Chinese people to learn Sanskrit.
carefully. Of course, such translation workshops Although there are no records in the directories of
could not be organised without the support of Buddhist sutras, some books are still believed to be
the emperor. Yijing had a good relationship with translated or written by Yijing such as Lue Ming Ban
Empress Wu Zetian and Emperor Zhongzong of Nuo Hou Yi Song Zan Shu and Shaolin Jie Tan Ming
Tang, which was the basic incentive for him to Bing Xu that was believed to be written when he was
organise the translation workshops. in the Shaolin Temple for the Platform of Precepts.
Yijing alto taught students apart from translating The contribution to India-China Cultural
Buddhist scriptures. The Volume IX of the Record of Exchanges
Sakyamuni's Teachings Compiled during the Kaiyuan Many Chinese monks went to the West to seek
Period noted that he “taught students besides scriptures of ancient times. Master Faxian, Master

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Xuanzang and Master Yijing are the most famous. origin was in Kangju (between present-day Balkhash
The three masters have their own characteristics Lake and Aral Sea in Central Asia), with his ancestors
and all of them made their respective contributions being the prime ministers of Kangju for generations.
to India-China Cultural Exchanges. Yijing’s main After his grandfather moved to mainland China, he
purpose of going to India was to seek religious was awarded the position of Left Privy Counsellor
disciplines which is quite similar to that of Master by the Imperial Court. The family then started
Faxian but different from that of Master Xuanzang. to settle down in Chang’an and took Kang as the
We can clearly understand from the Account of family name according to the custom. Fazang was
Buddhism Sent from the South Seas that Yijing decent, elegant and smart even in his young age.
was very dissatisfied with Chinese Buddhism at At the age of 17 when he came to the sermon on
that time, especially the situation of precepts for Avatamsaka Sutra given by Zhiyan - the second
Buddhist monks. During the years of his stay in generation master of Buddhist Hua-yen School at
India, Yijing paid special attention to the rules of Mount Taibai he embraced Buddhism and became
Buddhist commandment and Buddhist Sangha a disciple of Zhiyan with his profound and witty
system. He brought back almost all the most popular questions and thoughts. Within few years, he had
Vinayas of Mulasarvastivada to China and translated mastered the essence of his master’s impartation. In
them into Chinese in the hope of correcting many 688 CE, the first year of Zongzhang Period during
of the biased errors of Chinese Buddhism back then the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang, Zhiyan died
by using Indian orthodox model. For that matter, he after appointing Fazang, who had not been a monk
wrote the Account of Buddhism Sent from the South at that time, to succeed and highlight his doctrines.
Seas before he returned to China with the purpose In 670 CE, the first year of Xianheng Period during
of introducing various rules of the life in Indian the reign of Emperor Gaozong, Empress Dowager
Buddhist temples to Chinese monks in detail. After Wu Zetian proposed to obtain welfare by supporting
returning to China, he translated a large number Buddhism and gave the imperial residence in charity
of Buddhist Vinayas and taught his students to put for building Taiyuan Temple after the death of
them first. Looking at what happened later, Yijing’s Lady Rongguo, her mother. Fazang became a monk
effort failed to exert great influence but the works through recommendation of Daocheng, Bochen, etc.,
he translated and written have become precious disciples of Zhiyan and senior bhadants [eminent
cultural heritage today. In particular, his Account monks] in Chang’an. He settled down in Taiyuan
of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas and Buddhist Temple, at the age of 28. Later, he was requested by
Monks Pilgrimage of Tang Dynasty are important imperial order to give sermons on Avatamsaka Sutra
materials nowadays for understanding and studying in Taiyuan and Yunhua Temples and honoured
the history of India-China Cultural Exchanges as Xianshou (which originated from Bodhisattva
and the history of Indian, East Asian and Chinese Xianshou in Avatamsaka Sutra) by Empress Dowager
Buddhism. Yijing and his works have been valued Wu Zetian. Besides sermons and compilation work,
by the international academic community since he also engaged himself in translation. He was once
early times. In Europe and Japan, his works have requested by the imperial order to engage in the
been translated into local languages and published translation task done by a Central Indian Śramana
and scholars have conducted researches on him. Divakara together with Daocheng, Bochen, etc.,
Today, all Chinese and foreign scholars studying to translate two volumes of Mahayana Sutra on
Indian history and Buddhism know Yijing and will Realisation, three volumes of Ghana Vyuha Sutra,
read the two books mentioned above. one volume of Treatise on the Five Aggregates
(Wang Bangwei) of Mahayana, one volume of Buddhavatamsaka
Mahavaipulya Sutra in Dharmadhatu etc. Also, he was
Fazang appointed as translated text-recorder and meaning-
Fazang (643-712 CE), was a monk in Tang Dynasty reviewer during the translation of 10 volumes of
with ancestral origin being in Kangju. He was the Golden Light Sutra Recitation by Yijing, 120 volumes
third generation master of Han-yen School of of Maha Ratnakana Sutra by south Indian Śramana
Buddhism who was honoured otherwise as Master Bodhiruci and 80 volumes of Buddhavatamsaka
Xianshou, Master Guoyi, Master Xiangxiang and Mahavaipulya Sutra by Siksananda, a monk in north
Master Kangzang of the state. Khotan (present-day Khotan in Xinjiang). Divakara
According to volume V of Biographies of Eminent was requested by Fazang to translate the above
Monks in Song Dynasty, volume XII of General Record mentioned Buddhavatamsaka Mahavaipulya Sutra
of Generations of Buddha and Biography of Late Major in Dharmadhatu. This led to the compilation of a
Sutra Translator Bhadant Fazang in Dajianfu Temple complete version of Buddhavatamsaka Mahavaipulya
in Tang Dynasty etc, Fazang had his family name as Sutra and its transmission through generations
Kang before he became a monk and his ancestral after adding the new translation by Siksananda.

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Foshi (ie Srivijaya, present-day Sumatra), Shizizhou

(present-day Sri lanka) etc. Later, he toured around
holy sites for a pilgrimage, sought for Sanskrit
sutras and visited masters and friends which lasted
for as long as 13 years. After that, he returned to
Chang’an finally in 719 CE (seventh year of Kaiyuan
Period during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of
Tang), travelling along the northern route through
Daxue Mountain and over 70 countries. Years of
travelling alone made him know human sufferings
well for which he sought ways to get rid of misery.
Consulting many Indian Tripitaka scholars, he
knew that the Pure Land was the best place to go.
It is said that when he passed through Gandhara,
he once saw the presence of Arya Avalokiteshvara
Fazang
after seven days’ apastia in a northeastern mountain,
Fazang used to give a sermon on Avatamsaka Sutra who encouraged him to spread Buddha dharma that
to Empress Dowager Wu Zetian, enlightening was beneficial to him and others, persuade people
her by simple metaphors and compiled meaning to pray to Buddha and chant sutras in order to go
commentary for Lankavatara Sutra, Ghana Vyuha to the Pure Land in the West. After returning to
Sutra, Brahmajala Sutra and Mahayana on Belief. China, he respectfully presented Buddha statues
During his lifetime, he preached Avatamsaka Sutra and Sanskrit sutras to Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
for over 30 times, developing and perfecting the which led him to courteous reception as well as the
distinguishing theories created by Zhiyan in detail. honour as “Tripitaka of Mercy”. He died at 69 in
Moreover, as put forward by him, the Hua-yen the Wangji Temple of Luoyang in 748 CE (seventh
philosophy ranked the first among various Buddhist year of Tianbao Period). His existing works include
philosophical schools and categories ie five religions volume I of Brief Introduction to Sutras on Going
and 10 schools. Therefore, Fazang was considered for Pure Land by Chanting. The Pure Land dharma-
as the actual founder of Hua-yen School despite his mukha he spread was of equal significance with Hui
honour as the third generation master. He died in Yuan and Shan Dao, the Pure Land masters, which
the November of 712 CE, the first year of Xiantian belongs to the Mercy School.
Period during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of (Ge Weijun)
Tang, in the Dajianfu Temple of Chang’an at the
age of 70. He was buried in the south of Huayan Shenhui
Temple the same month. Yan Chaoyin, the library Shenhui (720~794 CE) was a Chan monk in
supervisor, wrote inscription, (ie the existing Jingzhong Temple in Tang Dynasty whose ancestral
Monument of Late Major Sutra Translator Bhadant origin was in Western Regions.
Fazang in Dajianfu Temple in Tang Dynasty) for him, According to volume IX of Biographies of
describing his life, work and travels. Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty, Shenhui had his
(Ge Weijun) family name as Shi before he became a monk
and his ancestral origin was in Western Regions.
Huiri His grandfather moved to Chinesia and settled
Huiri (680~748 CE) was an eminent monk of the in Fengxiang (present-day Shaanxi). Although
Pure-Land School in Tang Dynasty. According to smart by nature, he was restrained in character
volume XXIX of Biographies of Eminent Monks of Song to not reveal his wisdom. He came to the State of
Dynasty and volume II of Records of Ksetra Rebirth, Shu at age of 30 and became a disciple of Master
Huiri was born in Donglai, Shandong Province Wuxiang (684~762 CE) in Jingzhong Temple.
with his secular family name being Xin. He became With his comprehension and tacit understanding
a monk during the reign of Emperor Zhongzong with the Master, he was recognised by Wuxiang
of Tang. After his accepting complete percepts at to take over the temple later. He did widespread
20, he met and admired the eminent monk Yijing mendicancy and persuasion during his stay in the
who had returned from the tour to India and was temple, making Zen believers gather towards him
determined to travel to the Western Regions. In from all directions. Contemporary people described
701 CE (during Dazu period under the reign of him as wood and stone when in meditation while
Empress Wu Zetian), he went by sea for three years as cloud and storm when in sermon by witticism.
to arrive in India passing through Kunlun (present- Believers would be inclined to goodness at the sight
day Con Son Island in South Vietnamese Sea), of his spiritual outlook, and correct their badness

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at hearing of his speech. He could treat people and families. Sarivarma agreed after his repeated
of different aptitudes with different methods to request and imparted in person the Sanskrit sutras,
enlighten them. In the November of 794 CE, the namely Da-abhamika-satra, Sutra of Buddhist Sermon
10th year of Zhenyuan Period during the reign of on Dedication and Sutra of Buddhist Sermon on Ten
Emperor Dezong of Tang Dynasty, he got ill and Powers, as well as a piece of tooth relic of Buddha.
died later, sitting cross-legged, at the age of 75. He once intended to return by sea while changed his
Wei Gao, the Nankang Prince who was devoted to mind as returning by land when considering the risks
Buddhism, got the essence of Shenhui’s sermon so of stormy waves. When he arrived in Qiuci (present-
he wrote article and made monument for Shenhui day Kuqa of Sinkiang) passing through Tochari
in respect and adoration. (west of Pamirs and south of Wuhu River), Shule,
(Ge Weijun) Khotan (present-day Khotan of Sinkiang) etc, and
lived in Lianhua Temple, he met Tripitaka Master
Wukong Wutitixiyu (otherwise translated as Wutitichanyu),
Wukong (731~unknown CE) was a monk and sutra who was adept at both Sanskrit and Chinese and
translator in Tang Dynasty and once visited India thus requested to translated one volume of Sutra
subject to imperial order. He is also called Fajie. of Buddhist Sermon on Ten Powers. Then when he
According to volume III of Biographies of Eminent arrived in Beiting (reigned location being present-
Monks in Song Dynasty, New Translated Versions of day Pochengzi in north of Jimusar of Sinkiang)
Sutras as Ten Bhumi in Zhenyuan Period of Tang etc. passing through state of Wuqi (present-day Yanqi of
Wukong was born in Yunyang, Jingzhao (present- Sinkiang), he cooperated with Tripikata Saladharma
day Jingyang of Shaanxi Province) with his secular (the name being paraphrased as sila-dhamma)
name being Che Fengchao and was the descendant of in Khotan (present-day Khotan of Sinkiang) to
Tuoba Clan in late Wei Dynasty. Clever and fond of translate one volume of Sutra of Buddhist Sermon
study as he was young, he was interested in ancient on Dedication and nine volumes of Da-abhamika-
classics and known for his filial piety and fraternal satra on the invitation of Yang Xigu (Jiedushi) and
duty. After becoming an adult, he devoted himself Dazhen (Sramana of Longxing Temple) during which
in serving for his country. In 750 CE (ninth year Saladharma was the Sanskrit reader and interpreter,
of Tianbao Period of Tang), Kawmira (similar to Dazhen was the writer of translated text, Sramana
present-day Kashmir) sent Sabodagan (chief leader) Fachao embellished the text, Shanxin reviewed the
and Sarivarma (master) to visit Chang’an. Next year, meaning and Fajie reviewed the Sanskrit text and
the imperial court sent Ambassador Zhang Taoguang interpreted the source text. The translated sutras
to pay a return visit to the West with credentials and were later complied into New Directory for Buddhism
other over 40 people. Che Fengchao was among the in Zhenyuan Period according to imperial order in
entourage as left deputy general of Simen Mansion 799 CE, the 15th year of Zhenyuan Period. It was the
of Weijing Prefecture. The delegation went through time when Duan Mingxiu, ambassador of Beiting,
present-day Sinkiang to Gandhara, eastern capital went to Beiting, and Fajie followed him eastward
of Kawmira, in the 12th year of Tianbao Period and in 789 CE (fifth year of Zhenyuan Period during
received courteous reception from the King. Later, the reign of Emperor Dezong of Tang) and returned
Zhang Taoguang returned with other people, while to Chang’an, the capital, in the next year (there is
Wukong was detained out of disease and swore to another saying that the year of arrival is 789 CE)
become a monk upon recovery. In 757 CE, the second
year of Zhide Period during the reign of Emperor
Suzong of Tang, he became a disciple of Sarivarma
with the dharma name being as Dharma Tuodu
(means dharmadhatu) and the age of 27. Two years
later, he accepted complete percepts in Kasmira,
taking Wushushiniedi as gegenla, Wubuchanti as
discipline teacher and Tuoliweidi as professor. He
studied percepts on Mulasarvastivada and Sanskrit
as he paid tour pilgrimage to Buddhist temples
during a four-year period. Later, he travelled around
middle India, visiting eight towers at places of
Buddha birth, enlightenment, initial dharmacakra
and nirvana as well as other holy sites, and stayed
in Nalanda Monastery for three years. In 765, the
third year of Guangde Period, he intended to return
to the Central Plains for his longing for motherland The ruins of Nalanda

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and was accommodated in Yuelongmen Embassy core theory of Dakini and the Best Subject, the
Agency as required in the imperial order. He had Topless Esoteric sutra and other sutras and had
taken the translated Chinese version of sutras got great achievement, especially the Core Theory
with him and left the original Sanskrit sutras in of Dakini was a vital sutra that the great master
Longxing Temple. Duan Mingxiu offered the tooth taught her particularly. It was inherited by her for a
relic of Buddha as well as the sutras to the imperial thousand years.
court as tributes. Later, he was accommodated in Nine months later, Yeshe Tshogyal was appointed
Zhangjing Temple of Chang’an in response to the by the Great Master to recruit a 17-year-old travelled
imperial order and was given the name “Wukong”. monk named Ayasali in Nepal. There she used the
Thereafter, he returned to Yunyang to mourn for his means of life regression to reborn a young man who
parents and the traces afterwards became unknown. died in the war which got her a great reputation.
Wukong once dictate one volume of New Translated The King of Nepal urged her to stay there to preach
Versions of Sutras as Ten Bhumi in Zhenyuan Period sutra but she refused. She learned the umbilical
of Tang (also called Records on Wukong’s Travel in lively drop, yin in the essence of the secret and
India) which was written down by eminent monk other critical sutras from the female disciple taught
Yuanzhao from Ximing Temple of Chang’an in the by Padmasambhava himself. Later, she went back
sixth year of Zhenyuan Period. This book included to Tibet with Ayasali. Learn from the Great Master,
his own birth and experiences on seeking Buddha Ayasali got achievement of Four Sets as well.
dharma in India except the detailed description of The Great Master taught Yeshe Tshogyal,
the places he passed by. Lhalundpal Gyi Sengge and other three closed
(Ge Weijun) disciples the Great Power of Vajvakilaka and then
Yeshe Tshogyal became the main holder of the
Yeshe Tshogyal power and became the Mother-Buddha preached the
Yeshe Tshogyal (732~death unknown CE) was sutra until today.
a disciple of Padmasambhava of India, a female Yeshe Tshogyal mastered all kinds of the Esoteric
Esoteric Buddhism Master in early Hong age of means and methods through practising hard. Not
Tibetan Buddhism a patriarch Mother-Buddha of only was she the main successor and the disciple
Ningma School of Tibetan Buddhism of China. of Padmasambhava also honoured in the world
She also was named Mkar chen bzv tshogyal or because of the great achievement. She became the
Mkvvgro. She became the princess of the King of first female Esoteric Buddhism Master with great
Tibetan Emperor Khrisrong Sdebtsun at the age of success and Grand Mother-Buddha of Ningma
12. Since then, Yeshe Tshogyal learned five subjects School in the history of the Tibetan Buddhism.
from many masters very carefully. As she believed Yeshe Tshogyal had followed Padmasambhava for
in Buddhism, she was appointed as the manager learning the Esoteric means for 11 years during which
of Tibetan Buddhism. In 8th century CE, the great together with other disciples of Padmasambhava,
master Padmasambhava came to Tibet and founded she transcribed in all handwriting styles 10 million
mandalas. In 756 CE, Yeshe Tshogyal took abhisek of books for any kinds of Thought Polishing Means,
Padmasambhava with the King and the great master 10,000 books of all kinds of Thought Theory,
had made out that she had the sign of wisdom dakini continued Esoteric Buddhism, Sutras, Esoteric
so he asked to open the means of Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism and other deep means the Great Masters
Buddhism and the King permitted. Therefore, Yeshe had taught. All of them were recorded in categories,
Tshogyal became a disciple of Padmasambhava and made into books and filed with different entries.
later, she got tonsured and practiced law, sutra, Finally, they hid them secretly in 25 great snow
theory, Padmasambhava gradations and other
Exoteric and Esoteric Sutras with the great master.
However, the ministers of Tibet were against
her so badly because of her practice in sutra with
Padmasambhava so the great master was expelled
and Yeshe Tshogyal was banished to Lhobrag. Before
leaving, the master and Yeshe Tshogyal hid three
Buddhism Sutras at Yamalung, a turn of a cliff that
was like a crow. Then, they went into seclusion
and practiced the sutra in Zholtod Terdrom (within
present-day Mozhu Gongka of Tibet where it was
said it is the Holy land Dakini gathered). Here, she
got every kinds of abhiseka inside and outside of
the treasured vase from Padmasambhava and the Yixicuojie

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mountains, famous scenic spots, 18 great section, which derived many means and acts of Exoteric and
108 practising area of Padmasambhava, especially Esoteric Buddhism to worship her, especially the
in Duokang area where the Great Master got his living Buddha system of Vajravarahi and Wisdom
reputation, five famous spots of five heroes, 12 Dakini of Tibetan Buddhism derived from her which
spots of the fantastic courses, three spots of the became a great branch of the Tibetan Buddhism.
imparting area, 125 great spots in Tibet, 1070 (Deji Zhuoma)
small place and in neighbouring country like
Nepal, there were hundreds of Buddhism Sutras Virocana
which contributed to spreading the means of the Virocana (Bee ro tsa na, 8th century CE) was a famous
great master to Tibet and the neighbouring foreign Tubo monk, one of “the seven enlightened monks”
countries. Therefore, Ningma School and Kargyu and among 25 Tantric mahasiddhas and ranked at
School consecrated Yeshe Tshogyal as the great the top of 108 great translators.
master of the Hiding Sutras. He was born in Nimu, Tubo. His original name was
These treasure books made up the vital classics Gaja Tangda. Tubo King Trisong Deutsen accepted
like The Great Treasure of The Hiding Sutras and the suggestion of Padmasambhava and recruited
spreading of the sutras that is spreading of classics Gaja Tangda at the age of eight to be cultivated
of the Hiding Sutras which had made up the deep in Bsam yas dgon. Tubo royal family provided
foundation for the formation of Tibet Buddhism generous life treatment to him, hoped that he could
and Ningma School of Ancient Tibet and had become an eminent local monk in Tubo early and
profound significance for the spread of Buddhism arranged him to learn culture from Shantarokshita
in ancient Tibet. and Padmasambhava. Three years later, he began
Yeshe Tshogyal had written many works. At to act as translator between the two masters and
present, there are 19 writings of Exoteric and
Esoteric Buddhism: One Hundred Knacks of the Book
of Jue Muer, Sutra of the Quiet Place, Nine Examples
of Causes and Results, The Core Theory of Whispering
Dakini Up and Down and some important books
of the Abstracts, Summary, and Article of Yeshe
Tshogyal’s Autobiography, Biography of the Great
Master: Padmasambhava. All these works have given
valuable spiritual heritage. Therefore, people called
her the Female Banzhida in Ancient Tibet, ie the
great female scholar of ancient Tibet. These means
that she imparted had come into two spread means
the whispering means and the hiding sutras means,
which was learned and spread by her most closed
disciple, Dawamu, until now, especially The Most
Esoteric Buddha Warrior Snap, and The Core Theory of Piruzhamo/Vairocana
Whispering Dakini Up and Down had wide influence
for the world. Trisong Deutsen and was appreciated by the three
Yeshe Tshogyal had made great contribution seniors. He could translate for Padmasambhava and
for the spread and development of Buddhism in instructed doctrines to Trisong Deutsen who was
ancient Tibet as well as found a way for all of the pleased at him greatly.
Tibetan women to learn words, means, spread and Gaja Tangda became an excellent translator
practice of Buddhism which made great works when he was 15 and received monk ordination
for improving entire quality and cultural spirits when he became older and became one of “the
for them. In memorial of Yeshe Tshogyal, in her seven enlightened monks” with his exoteric name
birthplace of northern Yarlung Zangbo River, was Ye shes sde. Meanwhile, he received exoteric
present-day Zhada Town, Zhanang County, people empowerment and became one of 25 Tubo
had founded Cuojie Namucuo Lakang, a temple to mahasiddhas and his tantric name was Virocana and
worship her. According to The Record of Zhanang won his reputation in the circle of tantric Buddhism
Culture, Cuojie Namucuo Lakang was constructed with his tantric name.
in the middle of 8th century CE. What should be Because Virocana was brilliant and clever as well
defined here is that later generations have deified as received good education, he was thought as
her and worshipped and consecrated her as the the Tubo youth with the brightest future. Trisong
embodiment of Vajravarahi and Wisdom Dakini. Deutsen sent two Tubo young men including
Also, they consecrated her statue in the temple Virocana to learn in India. As for Indian Buddhism at

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that time, exoteric Buddhism decayed gradually and

esoteric Buddhism thrived increasingly. Virocana
learned from a tantric vajrayana master and studied
many tantric dharmas including Vajrayana in Indian
Mahabodhi Temple. Because he was clever and
diligent, he was proficient in profound Tantric
truths. Indians thought that he was clever, had
language talent and believed in Buddhism devoutly
and gave him a symbolic name: Vajrayana, meaning
“universal guard” or “great light” and the name was
consistent with his tantric name.
After finishing his study in India, Virocana
returned to Tubo, translated sutras and instructed
tantric dharmas in Bsam yas dgon. He was proficient
in exoteric Buddhism and Vinaya-pitaka as well
as tantric Buddhism. He translated many tantric
works mainly including Universal King Sutra, Sutra An image of Renqinsangbu
of Condensed Meaning and Eight Sadhana Teachings
of Illusion jointly translated by Ma Rinchen Chok of 13, he adopted monastic life after cutting off his
(Precious Victory), Gnyags gzhon nu shes rab hair before Khenpo Yeshe Sangpo, went to Kasmira
(Youth Intelligence), Nub Sanggye Yeshe (Buddha (present-day Kashmir), and learned exoteric and
Intelligence) etc, and solely translated Brief esoteric Buddhism from 75 wise men including
Introduction to Sixty Stanzas of Reasoning and Praise Pandita Shrnghk ra lawrm and Ka ma la kupt etc.
of Endless Bright Buddha Name. Except that a few of In the period of ancient King Ludd of Guge Dynasty,
these works were collected into Tripitaka, most of the Panditas including Sa ra tu ga ra bromo, Ka ra
these works were selected into collected works of guptu and Bud ngha shrishnti were invited to Tibet
tantric dharmas of the Ningmapa sect. and they translated sutras in Tuolin Temple with
(Kalsang gyal) Lo chen rin chen bzang po and initiated the sutra
translation climax in the post-propagation period of
Li Chengmei Tibetan Buddhism.
Li Chengmei (around late 8th century CE to mid-9th Lo chen rin chen bzang po translated many
century CE) was a monk from Yunnan Province, important exoteric and esoteric sutras and shastras
China. He once studied in India and was mistaken of Buddhism including tantra classics of Buddhism
as an Indian in some profiles (Yuan Ding, Yunnan and opened construction of new tantra of Tibetan
Introduction Book). During 821-824 CE, he came to Buddhism. According to incomplete statistics, Lo
Dali and was honored as the teacher of the state chen rin chen bzang po translated 17 sutra-pitakas,
by King of Nanzhao Kingdom, Quan Fengyou 33 shastra-pitakas and 108 tantras, and modified
(824–859 CE). He built Dangshan Temple (present- many Tibetan sutras translated in the Tubo period
day Gantong Temple) in Dali and then rebuilt the according to new Sanskrit versions. Moreover, he
Congsheng Temple. He was respected as the second had translated many important Indian medical
ancestor of Nanzhao Chan Sect. His stories can classics and these translated medical works had
be found in page 51 and 52 of Zhang Shengwen’s played enormous roles in developing Tibetan
Buddhist Picture of Kingdom of Dali, chapter 13 of medical science.
General Book of Yunnan, and Unofficial History of In view of Lo chen rin chen bzang po’s important
Kingdom of Nanzhao etc. contributions made to Buddhism, King Ludd of Ali
(Xue Keqiao) Guge Dynasty canonised him as the first sacrifice
object, worshipped him as Vajra Guru and allocated
Lo chen rin chen bzang po a piece of land from Bushang Area as his land for
Lo chen rin chen bzang po (958～1055 CE) was religious activities, built several Buddhist halls as
a famous monk and sutra translator in the post- rewards for his great achievements in Buddhist
propagation period of Tibetan Buddhism. Lo chen career. Meanwhile, with the energetic support and
rin chen bzang po was of noble birth and it is said help of King Ludd of Ali Guge Dynasty, Lo chen rin
that his family was Gayu ri gayu sgra which was chen bzang po built many Buddhist pagodas, halls
one of six great families in Zanskar, Guge. His and temples in Ali Area with the centre of Guge.
youth name was Lo chen dbang phyug and “Eagle Lo chen rin chen bzang po further made
Face” was his alias because his nose was similar to achievements in Tantric practices in his late years.
a hook and he had an unique feature. At the age When he was 85, Atisa arrived in Ali Guge Area,

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he didn’t worship Atisa at first, and he began from China to India. According to volume 490 of
to respect Atisa when Atisa wrote eulogies for The History of Song Dynasty, Cihuan was a Buddhist
Buddha images in hall, followed his advices, and from Weizhou (present-day Xinxiang and Huixian
focussed on practice of tantric doctrines. He wrote of Henan). At the middle of Yongxi Period (about
an oath meditating wholeheartedly on three doors 986 CE), he came back from India with Mitra,
of Zen Room saw condensed meaning and saintly a monk from Hu minority and brought letters
appearance with supreme happiness finally, from King of North India, Vajrasana Temple and
obtained Tantric Buddhahood and completed the Nàlanda, the monk of Hu minority. In 4th year of
highest objective of monk. Under the influences of Qiande Period at the beginning of Song Dynasty
eminent monks including Lo chen rin chen bzang (966 CE), he was one of the monks who accepted
po, tracks of Tibetans coming to India for study can the Emperor’s order to learn Buddhist doctrine in
be seen everywhere from Kashmir Mountain Area India. According to volume 45 of Statistics of the
and Gangetic Plain. Buddhist Monks, Emperor Renzong (1023-1063
Lo chen rin chen bzang po made all efforts to CE) of Song Dynasty wrote Chinese Etymology of
translate sutras in his whole life, and translated a India and granted it to a translation school where
lot of important sutras from Sanskrit to Tibetan. he could discuss theories in the second year of
Later generations used Lo chen rin chen bzang po as Jingyou Period (1035 CE). There were a total of
the boundary, called tantric classics before him as 138 Chinese monks who went on the pilgrimage
Old Tantras and tantric classics translated since he for Buddhist scriptures to India and returned. This
began his translation were New Tantras. included Cihuan and Xibibai. The identity and
(Kalsang gyal) whereabouts of another 19 people are unknown.
(Xue Keqiao)
Daoyuan
Daoyuan (late 10th-11th centuries CE) was a Chinese Jiye
monk who went on a pilgrimage to India. According Jiye (mid-10th century to mid-11th century CE) was
to Book 16 of Jingyou Fabao Lu in 1017 CE (first a Chinese Buddhist who went from China to India
year of Tian Xi Era during the reign of the Emperor to fetch the scriptures. According to Wuchuan
Zhenzong), Zuntai and Daoyuan returned from India Record by Fan Chengda (1126-1193 CE), Jiye has
and presented the following to the imperial court - a surname of Wang from Yaozhou (now Yaoxian,
10 sutras, Buddha’s relics, bodhi prayer beads as well Shanxi). He was originally a Buddhist of Tianshou
as a copy of Xinyi Sanzang Shengjiao Xu written by Yard (present-day Kaifeng of Henan). In the second
Zhao Tai, Emperor Taizong, and inscribed by a monk year of Qiande Period of Emperor Taizu in Song
on a stone vajrasana near the place where Buddha Dynasty (964 CE, some say it was the fourth year
attained enlightenment, and Emperor Taizong gave of Qiande Period), the emperor issued an imperial
them purple coats and silks as a reward. edict to dispatch 300 Buddhist monks (some say
(Xue Keqiao) it was 157 Buddhist monks) to learn Buddhist
doctrine, and Jiye was among them. Jiye had
Xingqin been to India for 13 years, and returned to China
Xingqin (about 10th century CE) was a Buddhist monk in the 9th year of Kaibao (976 CE). At that time,
who went from China to India to learn Buddhist the old Emperor Taizu had died and the new
doctrines. His life history is unknown. According Emperor Taizong ascended the throne. Jiye offered
to volume 43 of Statistics of Buddhist Monks and Buddhist scriptures and Buddhist relics obtained
volume 490 of The History of Song Dynasty, in the 4th in India as a tribute. The emperor issued an
year of Qiande Period of Emperor Taizu (966 CE), imperial edict to learn and practice the scriptures
157 Buddhist monks led by Xingqin accepted the in famous mountains. Then, Jiye came to Sichuan
order of the Emperor to learn Buddhist doctrine in and mounted Mount Emei for observation. He saw
the West (some say they were applied to go west that Niuxin Mountain was surrounded by other
and the Emperor approved). The returning time is mountains. With the suitable terrain a hut was built
unknown. According to Biography of Tian Xizai in there and Niuxin temple was completed soon. Jiye
volume 1 of New Biography of Eminent Monks, he cultivated and preached in Niuxin Temple, died at
joined in the translation school and translated the the age of 84. About 100 years later, Fan Chengda
Buddhist Scriptures after he came back. travelled around Sichuan and visited Niuxin
(Xue Keqiao) Temple and found a found a Mahaparinirvana Sutra
treasured by Jiye, which consisted of 42 volumes,
Cihuan and recorded Jiye’s journey route in India in each
Cihuan (about 10th century CE) was a Buddhist volume. Although the record is simple and short,
who went on a pilgrimage for Buddhist scriptures it can correct and supplement the gap of Masashi.

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Qiande Period (966 CE). According to volume 1 of

Biography of Tian Xizai in New Biography of Eminent
Monks, Guangyuan joined the translation school
and translated Buddhist scriptures.
(Xue Keqiao)

Fayu
Fayu (about 10th century CE) was a Chinese Buddhist
monk who went to India on a pilgrimage to seek
for Buddhist scriptures. According to volume 43 of
Statistics on Buddhist Monks and volume 490 of The
History of Song Dynasty, in fourth year of Qiande
Period (966 CE), Fayu was despatched to India as
Wu Chuanlu one of the members of a large team of 157 monks
to learn the Buddhist doctrine in India. In eighth
According to the record of Jiye, he went west year of Taiping Xingguo Period (983 CE), he came
via Jie State (present-day Wudou area of Gansu), back by sea to present relics of Buddha parietal
passed many places of Gansu and Sinkiang, then he and Palm-Leaf Manuscript to the imperial court.
climbed over the snow mountains twice to reach On the way to home, he passed Samboja kingdom
Gāndhāra via Kashmir. Then, he walked towards (present-day road hub of Malacca in southeast
East and passed Jalandhara, Kānyakubja (present- Sumatra of Indonesia) and met Mimarasri, an
day Kanauj) and arrived in Vàràõasã (present-day Indian Monk who wanted to translate the Buddhist
Varanasi of Uttar Pradesh, India). Since then, the Scriptures and sought Fayu’s help to get permission
relic of Buddhism is centralised and the record from the Emperor. After Fayu’s presentation of a
by Jiye is more detailed which indicated that he report to the Emperor, an imperial decree granting
had many activities and lived for a long time in permission was issued. Fayu planned to go to India
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Due to fewer record after again to cover and consecrate Buddha’s Vajrasana
Tang Dynasty, the record of Jiye is very precious. [diamond throne] by raising funds and making
His record describes the new and old “Han ceremonial canopy and spun gold kashaya [silk
Temple”, new and old two Ràjagçhas, hot spring roll]. He also requested the king to write imperial
of Ràjagçha and the situation of Nālanda which is edicts to Srivijaya Kingdom as well as kings of
of great importance to study the history of cultural countries of southern India. The emperor wrote
communication between China and India. the imperial edict. But there is no detailed record
(Xue Keqiao) for Fayu’s later travel and its results. It can only
be verified in the inscription on the stone carved
Guangyuan in the first year of Qianxing Period (1022 CE) in
Guangyuan (about 10th century CE) was a Chinese Bodhgaya, India.
Buddhist monk who went on a pilgrimage to seek (Xue Keqiao)
Buddhist scriptures from India. According to volume
43 of Statistics of Buddhist Monks and volume 490 Jiansheng
of The History of Song Dynasty, Guangyuan was a Jiansheng (about 10th century CE) was a Chinese
monk from Chengdou and came back from India Buddhist monk who travelled to India on a
in seventh year of Taiping Xingguo Period (982 pilgrimage to seek Buddhist scriptures. According
CE) to the capital of the country (present day to volume 43 of Statistics on Buddhist Monks, he
Kaifeng) and brought the Letter from King of India returned to China in fourth year of Kaibao Period of
(Mahinan), relics of Buddha, Palm-Leaf Manuscript Emperor Taizu (971 CE) with Mañjusri, a Brahmin
and holy leaf from the Bodhi tree to the imperial monk of Central India and presented Palm-Leaf
court. The emperor ordered the Buddhist Canon Manuscript to the Imperial Court.
Master from India named Danagupta to translate (Xue Keqiao)
the Letter of Credence. In the letter, the Indian king
paid homage to the Emperor of China, was grateful Jicong
for the presentation of the cassock for Buddha’s Jicong (about 10th century CE) was a Buddhist monk
Vajrasana and wished longevity to the emperor and who went on a pilgrimage for Buddhist scriptures
salvation to the people from the land of Buddha. from China to India. According to volume 43 of
Guangyuan was one of the 157 monks who had Statistics on Buddhist Monks, he was a monk from
been sent on a pilgrimage for Buddhist scriptures Kaibao Temple. In second year of Taiping Xingguo
in India by the emperor’s order in fourth year of Period of Emperor Taizong of Song Dynasty (977

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CE), he came back from India and offered Brahma in learning Sanskrit, “He knew its meaning when
Sutras, Sarira [relics] Stupa, Bodhi-tree Leaf and a reading it and he became a monk after a year.
whiff of peacock tail to the emperor. Pleased by his Favoured by Buddhist doctrine, he was granted
work, the emperor presented him purple clothes. cassock, and known as Buddhist Master.” After Tian
Jicong was one of the members of monk team Xizai and Fatian’s death, Dānapāla became the main
(consisting of 157 monks) to go on a pilgrimage for translator and assisted in translation of Buddhist
Buddhist scriptures in India by the emperor’s order sutras with Dharmapāla, an Indian monk who came
in the fourth year of Qiande Period (966). to China in 1004 CE. In the sixth year of Dazhong
(Xue Keqiao) Xiangfu Period (1013 CE), Weijing and Yang Yi
(974-1020 CE) compiled 21 volumes of Collection
Chongda for Treasured Tricks of Dazhong Xiangfu Period; in
Chongda (about 10th century CE) was a Chinese the third year of Tiansheng Period (1025 CE) he
Buddhist monk who went on a pilgrimage from and Xia Song (985-1051 CE) wrote 70 volumes of
China to India to seek Buddhist scriptures. According Pronunciation and Meaning of Text in New Translation
to volume 43 of Statistics of Buddhist Monks, he was of Buddhist Scriptures; in the fifth year (1027) he
a monk from Taiyuan; in the seventh or eighth year and Huifang wrote three volumes of Full Collection
of Taiping Xingguo Period of Emperor Taizong of for Saint Shakyamuni, in the second year of Jingyou
Song Dynasty (981 or 982 CE)，he went to India for Period (1035 CE) he and Fahu wrote seven volumes
scriptures and returned in second year of Chunhua of Jingyou Etymology of Indian Words. According to
Period (991 CE) to present Buddhist relics and Palm- the statistics of some scholars, Weijing had translated
Leaf Manuscript to the imperial court. Then, the seven books and 121 volumes of Buddhist sutras,
Emperor honoured him by offering purple clothes. actually more than these. His translation works with
He finally went to live in Guang’ai Temple of Xijing his name are as follows: 40 volumes of Saccadhamma
(present-day Datong of Shanxi Province). of the Mahayana Sutras, 17 books and 45 volumes in
(Xue Keqiao) cooperation with Shihu and Fahu, eight books and
94 volumes in cooperation with Fahu. Weijing is the
Weijing most outstanding translator of Buddhist Scriptures
Weijing (1015 CE) was a Chinese Buddhist and in the Northern Song Dynasty. After his death, he
a translator of Buddhist scriptures. According was missed by people. In the fifth year of Xining
to volume 43 of Statistics of Buddhist monks, his Period of the Emperor Shenzong, he was conferred
surname is Li and he is from Jinling (present-day a posthumous title as “Ming Jiao Tripitaka”.
Nanjing, Jiangsu Province), the nephew of Li Yu , (Xue Keqiao)
the Emperor of Southern Tang Dynasty, in the Five
dynasties (937-978 CE). He became a monk at the Vbrog mi shakya ye shes
age of seven and could recite Saddharmapundarika Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye Shes (993-1074 CE) was a
Sutra at 11 years of age. In the eighth year of Taiping famous sutra translator in the post-propagation
Xingguo Period (983 CE), to cultivate the successors period of Tibetan Buddhism. He had historically
for translation of the Buddhist Scriptures, Tian Xizai, been referred to as “Translator Vbrog mi” and was
the Tripitaka master of India, suggested recruiting one of the founders of New Tantras of Tibetan
children from the aristocracy to learn Sanskrit, Buddhism.
and the Emperor approved that. Weijing and other Several sons of Khri bkra shis tse bei po promoted
nine boys were selected. Weijing was successful the career of Buddhism propagation who the
descendant of Trisong Deutsen governing the
Posterior Tibet Area at that time. On the basis of
weal local Buddhism and lack of monk talents, they
decided to invite eminent foreign monks as well as
cultivate local monks. They selected two young men
including Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye Shes and Dara zhonu
brtson vgrus to bring gold to study in India. They
learned Sanskrit from local teachers, laid certain
language foundation and then they went to Nepal
to study Sanskrit and left for India one year later.
Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye Shes had studied hard in
Vikramshila for eight years and laid solid foundation
in exotoric Buddhism. He went to East India,
Fragments of the Lotus Sūtra. It is now preserved in the museum at
acknowledged Hui Ming as his teacher and learned
Lüxun in Liaoning, China. exotoric Buddhism specifically.

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Through four year studies, he had profoundly

understood secrets and dharmas of Tantric
Buddhism. The guru instructed a profound Tantric
Dharma to Vbrog mi ie the way and result (lam
vbras). This Tantric Dharma became the core
doctrine of the Sagya sect of Tibetan Buddhism.
Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye Shes had studied in India
for 13 years. When he returned to his hometown,
Ladoi, he received enthusiastic welcome from many
monks and laymen who congratulated him that he
made great achievements in Buddhism. Hereafter,
Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye Shes received disciples and
instruct Buddhism as an eminent monk. He lived in
the temples such as Niegulong and Lahze rtsa and
instructed Buddhist doctrines mainly. He translated Patna Museum containing Buddha’s relics
three tantras represented by Chapter Two of Hevajra
tantra as well as Treatise on Complete Purity which Buddhist scriptures from China to India. According
was written by him and his guru and many other to volume 45 of Statistics of Buddhist Monks and
tantric classics. volume 18 of Record of Jingyou Magic Weapon,
Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye Shes visited the famous Huaiwen went to India twice during the reign of
Indian Abhidhammika Gaya Damre in Gongtang of Emperor Zhenzong of Song Dynasty (998-1022 CE)
the Posterior Tibet, he took the change to invite the and built a pagoda for Emperor Zhenzong beside
abhidhammika to propagate Buddhism in Niegulong the Diamond Throne (in Bodhgaya, India). In the
Temple and gave him 500 liang of gold as rewards, ninth year of Tiansheng Period (1031 CE, some say
and the abhidhammika had lived in Niegulong it was the first year of Mingdao Period, 1032 CE) of
Temple for five years and instructed complete Great the Emperor Renzong of Song Dynasty (1023-1063
Treasure sutras, shastras and doctrines. However, CE), Huaiwen went to India again to build a pagoda
Abhidhammika Gaya Damre completed all for Empress Dowager and Emperor Renzong and
instruction tasks within three years and requested invited cassock to consecrate for covering statue
to return to his country, but Vbrog mi didn’t agree of Sakyamuni. The emperor send out an imperial
with him, so the abhidhammika had to continue his decree for agreement and ordered Xia Song (985-
propagation till the expiry. When Abhidhammika 1051 CE) who was skilled at writing such kind
Gaya Damre got all the rewards according to the of articles, to write Record for Śramen Huaiwen’s
agreement, he was too excited and promised that Three Visits to the West. However, this record was
he will not instruct the Dharma to any others, and lost by later generations and only its title is left.
Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye Shes observed its inheritance Fortunately, Huaiwen kept the record by inscribing
or instruction right. Therefore, Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye the visit on stone on January 19, the second year
Shes became one of the founders of New Tantras in of Mingdao Period of Renzong (1033 CE). The
the post-propagation period of Tibetan Buddhism. inscription still exists, and can be observed. In
After Vbrog Mi Shakya Ye Shes made great May of the 2nd year of Baoyuan Period (1039),
achievements, he had many disciples studying Huaiwen and his peer Buddhists named Deji,
Buddhism and celebrities came out in succession. Yongding and De’an came back from Magadha
Konchog Gyalpo who was the founder of the Sagya to present Buddhist relics, Palm-Leaf Manuscript,
sect, Marpa who was the founder of the Kagyu Bodhi Leaves, Aśoka Leaves, Buddhist prayer beads
sect, Translator Gos, the main transmitter of Father and 19 books on Buddhist’s Western Paradise. The
Tantra (Pha rgyud) ie Guhyasamaji, and Sobch emperor honoured Huaiwen and granted him the
who played a key role in forming the Ningmapa title of “Sutrayana Master” as well as conferred on
sect were the aristocratic disciples of Vbrog Mi him, cassock and gold coins.
Shakya Ye Shes. Konchog Gyalpo inherited Tantric (Xue Keqiao)
Dharmas represented by Mother Tantra (Ma rgyud)
ie Supreme Happiness and Lam vbras from Vbrog Jiquan
Mi Shakya Ye Shes. Jiquan (about 10th to 11th century CE) was a Buddhist
(Kalsang gyal) monk who went on a pilgrimage for Buddhist
scriptures from China to India. According to volume
Huaiwen 44 of Statistics on Buddhist Monks, he returned to
Huaiwen (about 10th-11th century CE) was a China in the ninth year of Dazhong Xiangfu Period
Chinese Buddhist monk to go on a pilgrimage for (1016) with scriptures and Buddhist relics. Then,

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he built a temple in Yangzhou to consecrate the According to volume 16 of Record of Jingyou

Buddhist relics. Magic Weapon, in the first year of Tianxi Period
(Xue Keqiao) (1017 CE), Zuntai and Daoyuan came back from
India to contribute 10 Sanskrit scriptures, Buddhist
Daoyuan relics and Bodhi prayer beads to the imperial court.
Daoyuan (10th-11th century CE) was a Chinese Earlier, Emperor Taizong (976–1022 CE) had
monk who went to India to learn Buddhist written the preface for the Buddhist scripture, New
Doctrine. According to volume 43 of Statistics on Introduction to the Sacred Teachings of Monk Tripitaka
Buddhist Monks, volume 490 of History of the Song which was translated by Tian Xizai and other
Dynasty and volume 1 of New Biography of Eminent people. A Buddhist once carved this “Introduction”
Monks, Daoyuan was from Cangzhou (present-day on the stone tablet at Buddhism Diamond Throne
Cangzhou of Hebei). He had been in and out of [vajrāsana]. Zuntai and Daoyuan copied the
Pracya, Uttarapatha, Aparanta, Dakshinapatha and monumental stone inscription and offered to the
Majjhimdesa for 18 years, 12 years on the way and Emperor as a tribute. They were granted the purple
six years for tour and learning in India. In the third clothes and other gifts by the Emperor Taizong. This
year of Qiande Period of Emperor Taizu (965 CE), Daoyuan appears to be another person.
he came back with a crystal bottle of Buddhist relics (Xue Keqiao)
and 40 volumes of Palm-Leaf Scriptures. While
returning to China, he passed through Khotan of Vbrom ston pa
Xinjiang and accompanied an emissary from there rgyal bavi vbyung gnas
to go to the Song capital, Kaifeng. He presented Dromtön Gyalwe Jungney (Vbrom ston pa rgyal bavi
Buddhist relics and Palm-Leaf Manuscripts to the vbyung gnas, 1005~1064 CE) was a ese Buddhist
Emperor who granted an interview to him at the monk of Tibetan Buddhism. He was the founder
temple and asked about the situation of the Western of Kadam. He was born in Stod Lung (present-day
Regions. Daoyuan answered all the questions. Doilungdêqên County, Lhasa City, Tibet) and liked
The Emperor honoured him by bestowing hime to practice dharma and learn Sanskrit at an early
with purple clothes, household utensils and coins. age. After hearing the news that master Atisha was
Encouraged by the meeting with Daoyuan, Emperor preaching in Ali Guge, he went there and met Atisha
Taizu learned about the communication networks of immediately. Since then, he never left Atisha. He
northwest and issued an edict to despatch Chinese followed Atisha and served him meticulously, until
monks on a pilgrimage for Buddhist scriptures in Atisha passed away in 1054 CE in Snye thang.
India. There were 157 monks who accepted the Dromtön served his respected teacher with all his
order including Śramana Xingqin. The Emperor also heart while learned Buddhism from him. He was
issued another imperial edict to officials of various highly regarded by Atisha who taught him a lot of
states in the Western Regions asking them to guide profound tantra, which laid a solid foundation for
the monks, offer travelling and other expenses for him to create Kadam. After Atisha passed away,
the purchase of things necessary for their westward Dromtön as the most senior one among the disciples,
journey for pilgrimages. This event had become the began leading the juniors and spread Atisha’s
only large-scale officially organised activity to seek teachings. In the first rabqung year of wooden sheep
Buddhist doctrinal classics from India by the state in in Tibetan Calendar (1055 CE), Dromtön hosted an
Chinese history. anniversary of Parinirvana for Atisha in Snye thang
(snye thang, present-day Qushui County, Lhasa,
Tibet) where Atisha passed away and constructed
a Buddha hall known as Snye thang lha khang.
Because the Buddha statue of Tara worshipped by
Atisha was enshrined in the temple, people called it
Snye thang Dolma Lhakhang (Sgrol ma lha khang),
namely Snye thang Tara Hall with endless stream of
pilgrims until now.
In the first rabqung year of fire monkey in
Tibetan Calendar (1056 CE), Dromtön created the
first monastery for the heritage of Atisha lineage in
Damxung and Reting (present-day Linzhou County,
Lhasa, Tibet) under the vigorous support of local
lords, named Reting Monastery. At the beginning,
the monastery is very small where there are only
Iron lion at Cangzhou in Hebei, China more than 60 monks but each of them was very

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 Cultural Contacts

khrims rgyal ba led five servants, brought 32 liang

of broken gold and a whole piece of gold as the
gift to go to India to invite Sage Atisa in the first
cycle of Fire Bull Year of Tibetan Calendar (1037).
After arriving in India, he requested Gnas brtan of
Bi kra ma la shiaw la to allow Atisa to propagate
Buddhism in Tibet for three years and guaranteed
that he can return to India on time. Atisa arrived in
Ali Area of Tibet.
Nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba had followed Sage
Atisa for many years and he served the sage as well
as was led by him and obtained a lot from him. When
Nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba left from Nietang to
Ali, Sage Atisa held the Buddha image of three oaths
to empower him and instructed over 20 Tibetan
Tantric Dharmas including Fundamental Vinaya
Image of Jiaweitongnai Sutra, Guhyasamaji Tantra and Avalokitesvara
Cultivation to him. Nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba
observant and morally excellent. The monastery followed the instruction of Sage Atisa and obtained
was dedicated to preaching the doctrine advocated wonderful enlightenment.
by Atisha. Dromtön worked as the first abbot of Nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba translated a lot of
Reting Monastery for nine years during which he Buddhist classics from Sanskrit and was an excellent
focussed on preaching Exoteric Buddhism theories, sutra translator and was called as “Translator Nag
such as Eight Thousand Songs of Prajnaparamita, tsho” historically. His sutra-pitaka translation works
Eight thousand Songs of Prajnaparamita Commentaries mainly included Enlightenment of Virtuous Magadha
(Guang and Lu) and Twenty Thousand Songs on Woman, Chapter 5 of Enlightenment of Rigs Byed Mavi
Prajnaparamita Light rather than the construction Skor of Holy Tara, Chapter 41 of Wide Goodness of
of the monastery. He established a sound education Lucky and Wise Vajra as well as his shastra-pitaka
system for the monastery and on this basis a new translation works mainly included Praise of Subduing
sect was formed named Kadam. Dromtön has never Monsters, Praise of Dharma Realm, Praise of non-
undergone gelung-pa in his life and identified descriptiveness, Praise of the Spiritual World, Praise
himself as a lay Buddhist. But he always followed of Heart Vajra, Praise of Superior Truth, Praise of
the Buddhist precepts with strict demands on the Three Bodies and Bless and Joy Vajra Explaining
himself to set an example in the Buddhist Sangha Misery: Treatise on Precious Garland of Yoga.
community. He became a prominent figure in both (Kalsang gyal)
ability and integrity and got a high reputation in
Tibetan Buddhism. Mar pa chos kyi blo gros
Dromtön cultivated many disciples and wrote Mar pa chos kyi blo gros (1012~1097 CE was
a series of works such as Questions and Answers of China’s master of Tibetan Buddhism, the earliest
Kagyu Masters and Disciples (Biography of Atisha), ancestor of Kadampa, Buddhist texts translator. He
Thirty Songs of Praising Buddha, Ethics at Home, went to India three times for sutra.
Research on Landscape, History, Biography, Monastery He was born in Luozha, Shannan, Tibet (lho brag)
Rules, Letters and so on. and was a Buddhist monk. After he grew up, he
(Kalsang gyal) went to India for study, acknowledged Naropa and
other masters as his teachers to teach him Tantric
Nag tsho tshul Buddhism. Naropa gave him Hevajra abhisheka,
khrims rgyal ba taught him Er Pin Xu, Vajra Continue, Six Dhamn of
Nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba (1011～1064) was Na Re (Na ro chos drug) and others. One year later,
also named Dge bshes gung thang pa and was a following teachers’ guidance, he learned tantric
famous sutra translator in the post-propagation teachings such as mahamudra chagya chenpo whose
period of Tibetan Buddhism. key point is to emphasis on learning through practice.
He was born in Galadon Nag tsho Family from Marpa followed Naropa’s instruction, and learned
the Ali sect and his dharma name was Tshul khrims through practice. Esoteric Buddhism testimony
rgyal ba and he was also called as Vinaya-dhara occurred in heart, especially practice the means
because he was proficient in Vinaya. He went to of navel chakra fire and witness the no difference
India to learn from Sage Atisa. Under the instruction double-run of happy and bright. Marpa studied
of Lama Byang chub 'od of Ali Guge, Nag tsho tshul in India for sculptures for 12 years, and reached

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a high level in Vajrayana to make independent classic Vajrayana from India, many of which were
sermon and study. After returning to Tibet, he translated into Tibetan by himself such as Sadhana
began to live a life in preaching tantric literature. In Drubtab, Ear Preach of Vajrayana - Treasure,
Tibet, he took disciples while cultivating Buddhist Mahayoga in All Shastras in Buddhism, Instructions
Tantric talent and raising funds for the second on Differences between Yoga Father and Yoga
time to study in India. Due to the strong support Mother. Marpa was regarded as one of the seven
from the disciples, plans were soon realised. After translators of Tibet by later generations. Marpa
arriving in India, Marpa still acknowledged Naropa usually practiced Buddhism in white monk dress
and others as his teachers. He obtained some in accordance with India Tantra. The white monk
Tantra that he didn’t study previously from Naropa dress became the iconic kasaya robe of Kagyu from
such as three abhisekas, Zhong, Guang and Lu in generation to generation so that the Kagyu was
Hevajra, Two Fundamental Observations Continued, also known as White Sect. After three generations
No Release Continued Vajra Dakini Account and of Marpa, Milarepa and Dagpo Lhaje (Dawgs po
Common Release Continued Sambhota Comment. lha rje), Tabb Kagyu (Dawgs po bkav brgyud) was
From Maizheba he corrected some deviations in eventually formed. The doctrine of the sect was
the Tantra that he previously learned and received passed down orally between teachers and disciples.
intensive abhisekas, atthakatha and Mahamudra (Kalsang gyal)
Tantra etc and got their original sculptures. He
also completed the amendment of Tantric Dharma Macig Labdron
with Yixiningbu. Six years later, 42-year-old Marpa Macig Labdron (1043-1142 CE) was a female
returned to Tibet, married Damai Ma (Bdag med Buddhist and Tantric master of Chinese Tibetan
ma) as his wife, and raised seven children. Besides Buddhism and the founder of Jue Yu Sect of Chinese
taking disciples and preaching tantra, Marpa also Tibetan Buddhism. She is also the brilliant disciple
engaged in business and planting, never away from of Pa Danbasanje.
the secular society so his family was very wealthy. The “Majiu” (macig) in her name “Majiulazhong”
Marpa found that some of his teachers have (macig labdron) is Tibetan language which means
passed away when he arrived in India for the third “the only mother" or “only respect mother”.
time and felt very heavy. During his stay in India “Lazhong” (labdron) is the abbreviation of
he was very sick and depressed. Later, he braced Lajizhongmei which means “the wise bright torch
up and learned a lot of new Tantra Buddhism. After of Racy”. Majiulazhong was born in Tshomed
three years, he returned to Tibet. Since then, due (present-day Cuomei County), Labphyi of Tibet.
to the advanced age, Marpa was never able to go Under the impact of her family, she had learned
to India again. Marpa brought back a great deal of and believed Buddhism since her childhood. When
she grew up, she widely studied dharma and ever
visited the tantric mahasiddhas Lama Giotonba
Sonam (skyo stonpa bsod nmas blama) to request
tabhisheka. As a result, she got her wish and in Yva
Gangbala Kang (dphyibavi gangbar lhakhang) she
got the “four very deep samadhi tabhisheka”, “the
great enchantment tabhisheka” and “the magic
tabhisheka”. Subsequently, Majiulazhong learned
different thoughts from different gurus of various
sects. For example, she learned The Five Theories
of Cishi and tantric thoughts from Thib Shamalba
(shudbu zhvamarba); she learned Dzogchen from
Lama Bioton Ba (blama bastonpa); she also learned
many classics from Lama Ya Tang Ba as well as
Mahamudra Method, Six Methods of Naro, Arya Tara,
Kalacakra, Six Branch Methods, Three Songs and the
fourth continuous book of Esoteric-yana Kriya etc.
from Blama Yartingba. And she became the most
influential spiritual leader of the embodiment of
Dakini as one of Tibetan “four Dakinis”.
At the age of 23, she got married to Indian pandit
Doba Bazana (pandita thodba bhadraya) and
gave birth to two sons and one daughter. Twelve
Maerba Quejiluozhe years later, she went to the Buddhist temple again

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and visited Gussie Zappa and Sonam Lama from Grand Master after founding the Isolation School
whom she got the “Pam Achievement Five Gods’ of Tibetan Buddhism which takes pity, love and
Tabhisheka” and the secret name Dorje Wan Xiu kindness as the three basic cores to eliminate selfish,
Mar (rdoje dbang phyng ma) that means “King Kong the Samsara of Prajna as origin and the self-clinging.
free women”. The Eight Methods of Tabhisheka given She was honoured in whole Tibet, Nepal and
to Sonam Lama has become the advanced method India. Three learning travelling monks came
of Jue Yu Sect. She gave The Twelve-linked Causal to Zangri Kharmar to discuss the sutra with
Formula to Gussie Zappa and her teacher praised her Majiulazhong for more than a month during which
as “the free successful woman to enlighten exoteric four Indian interpreters interpreted for them and
thoughts, the library of all Buddhist thoughts, the finally, Majiulazhong convinced them but refused
mother of all Buddhas”. Afterwards, she went to their invitation for her to preach Buddhism Sutra in
the County of Dingri to visit Pa Danbasanje again India. The Exoteric and Esoteric Buddhism classics
who set up the dedicated Mandala for her to give she had wrote are The Great Sutra: the Truth of the
tabhisheka and many very secret tips. Majiulazhong Isolation Way in Deep Prajna Paramita, The Deep
wrote To Praise the Land of Guru and To Praise Guru Thought: the Core of the Truth and Knack of Prajna
to show her gratitude to Pa Danbasanje. According Paramita, Question & Answer: the Most Top Sutra of
to the vyakarana of Pa Danbasanje, she travelled Prajna Paramita, Abstracts: the Isolation Core of Prajna
108 snow mountains and “Nian” land (gnyan, one of Paramita, Patanjali’s Sutras of Do or Do not, the Whole
original holy sites for Tibetan nationality) as well as Abstracts, Hold Up, the Secret Sutra, Three Books
Luowang (lhomon) etc. After the ascetic cultivation, of Back Cover, Preaching Basic Sutra, the Important
she obtained great achievements and was famous in Preaching and so on. All of these classics have been
Tibetan plateau as a female tantric master. introduced into India. Majiulazhong had this famous
In 1080 CE, she made Zangri Kharmar (within quotation: all of the sutras in Tibet are translated
Sangri county, Shannan, now in Tibet) as the from India, one and the only Tibetan Sutras known
primary jogo, took in disciples from everywhere, by people is my sutra. The introduction in to India
imparted the Buddhism theory she got by her own of the classic sutras of the Isolation School is the
special means and the way to practice Vajrayana basic classic of foundation of the school. It makes
such as the unique Chod. And then, she became a the basis of the Isolation Sutra including the classics
of Exoteric Buddhism, Esoteric Buddhism and the
Shrauta Sutra. Since then, the Isolation Sutras with
another name the Great Isolation which took Prajna
Paramita as its core theory, combined with the
Isolation Core of Prajna Paramita, had been widely
spread in Tibet, Indus River basin, Nepal districts.
Therefore, it became the only Tibetan Buddhism
school introduced from Tibet into India at that time.
When Majiulazhong was 43, Tuoba Bazhaya left
his sons and daughters to her and went back to India
from Tibet. Except the old son, Gyalba Dongrub,
lived in normal plain folk life, the second son Thpd
Smyon Bsamgrub, got tonsured and became a
monk, the daughter believed in Buddhism, too. All
of them learned and practiced the sutras following
their mother and they were the main successors
and preachers of the Isolation Sutras. Since then,
Majiulazhong contributed herself into the course of
preaching the sutras and helping others. Also, she
wrote many books to record the Isolation Sutras.
She has wrote some books of Sutras and acting
theory: the Transformation of Moving by Nothing,
Worship from Hundreds of Rally, 12 Origin Methods,
Good Inside Passing, Transformation Mirror of Yangti
Sutras, Transformation of Ten Buddha, Apprehending
the Transformation of Moving by Nothing, The Secret
Five Buddha, The Secret Whispering Sutra; she also
wrote some notes: Deep Theory of Prajna Paramita:
Majiulazhong Moon Light Eliminates the Dark, Abstracts of Deep

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Prajna Paramita: Moon Light, Summary of the exoteric Buddhism theories. It is said that his monk
Isolation Sutras: Quotations, Deep Theory of Esoteric disciples were more than 23,000 among which over
Buddhism: Guardian Warriors with Bright Fire, 21 Deep 2,130 disciples could lecture Buddha Dharma, more
Theories of Samadhi, Double Definition of Exoteric than 1,800 disciples could interpret Sutra, more
and Esoteric Buddhism: Endless Victory and Light, than 280 disciples could explain sthad ma and 55
Deep Theory of Padmasambhava’ Thoughtless and disciples could explain sthad ma rgyan. His four
Definition of Dreams, Sign of the Reborn, Prediction
of the Future. These sutra classics have come into
different preaching way including the Isolation
School, both Exoteric and Esoteric Buddhism
preach, imparting Sutras and rally worship. And
it has made its own school while preaching in
every school of Tibetan Buddhism and traditional
religion: Bonism. Today, the classics of Isolation
Sutras in different languages have been spread in
Chinese Mainland, Hong Kong, Macao and western
countries which help the School could derive and
thrive everywhere of the world.
In Majiulazhong’s whole life, she had imparted
numerous disciples in Tibet. It is said that there were
5,000 disciples that usually stayed with her. There
is one sentence in her biography: Majiulazhong had
the most disciples.
(Deji Zhuoma) E. Luodanxirao

Rngog Blo Ldan Shes Rab famous disciples, Zhang Tshe Spongh·Chos Kyi Bla
Rngog Blo Ldan Shes Rab (1059～1109 CE) was a Ma, Chuo Luo ba·Luozhi Joan nai, Joan·Rin Chen
Hetuvidya scholar of Chinese Tibetan Buddhism, Drak and Zhai·Shes pa Rab were main characters to
an eminent monk of Kadampa, temple educationist, inherit and promote the Gsang phu Temple teaching
and translator of Buddhist scriptures. He had system founded by Rngog legs pavi shes rab and
studied in Kashmir. Rngog Blo Ldan Shes Rab.
He was born in Yar vbrog in Tibet, followed his (Kalsang gyal)
uncle, Rngog legs pavi shes rab, to learn Buddha
Dharma since childhood. His uncle liked him very Rngog Legs PviShes Rab
much as he was very intelligent and he was sent Rngog Legs Pvishes Rab, (dates of birth and death
to Kashmir for seeking dharma when he was 17. are unknown), Hetuvidya scholar of Chinese Tibetan
When he went through Ngari, he was lucky to get Buddhism, eminent monk of Kadampa, temple
support from prince Dbang phyug lde of Ngari educationist, disciple of Venerable Atisha.
Gurge which made him concentrate on studying He was born in Yar vbrog in Tibet, the descendant
in Kashmir for 17 years. He was apprenticed to of Chancellor Rngo chen po. His father was a
many famous masters and researched and studied householder monk of Ningmapa. He was tonsured
Buddha dharma systematically. During this period, and became a monk in the front of Buddhist monk
as required by Dbang phyug lde, he and Skal ldan Chang·Yeshe Wing Dan during his childhood. Later,
rgyal po cooperated and translated sthad ma rgyan. he went to eastern Tibet and followed Master Se
After achieving academic excellence, Rngog Blo Btsun, systematically studied Buddhist Tripitaka.
Ldan Shes Rab continued to learn Buddha Dharma He went back to the anterior Tibet after achieving
from Masters and he had ever gone to Nepal to academic excellence, researched and studied with
acknowledge Aa tu la bdzra and other masters to Atisha in Lhasa, asked Atisha to explain bkav gdams
specifically learn and practice shastras. After coming bu chos and translated rtog ge vbar ba with Nag tsho
back from Nepal, he began to revise and translate lotsawa. During the period when Venerable Atisha
sutra. Meanwhile, he inherited the religious career disseminated Buddha Dharma at Snye thang, Rngog
founded by Rngog Legs PviShes Rab to manage the Legs PviShes Rab went to Snye thang to listen Atisha
temple, translate sutra, accept disciples; centred lecturing the dharma and asked Atisha and Nag tsho
on Gsang phu Temple, he lectured Sutra and lotsawa to translate Dbu Ma Snying Povi Ti Ka, also
disseminated dharma in Lhasa, Sanye, and many asked Atisha to write Madhyamika Teaching Theory.
other places, mainly taught Hetuvidya knowledge, Later, Rngog Legs PviShes Rab became one of the
Five Theories of Maitreya, Madhyamika and other four famous disciples of Atisha in Tibet.

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After Rngog Legs PviShes Rab became famous, Qiaba Quejisenge had mastered the Sangpu
he devoted himself to temple education, especially temple for 18 years with high reputation. Based on
emphasised on systematical teaching of Tibetan Buddhist Sutra, he standardised and generalised
Tshad-marnam-hgrel. In the first rab-byung buffalo the main point of Pramana, separated and formed
year of Tibetan Calendar (1073 CE), he set up a special theory which was named She Lei Xue (bsdus
temple at the south of Lhasa and the east of Snye gra) and first created Tibetan Sura classification or
thang (today the place is in Doilungdêgên County She Lei. At the same time, he put forward that when
of Lhasa in Tibet), the name of which was Gsang learning Exoteric and Esoteric Buddhism, they shall
Phu Sne Thog Dgon, Gsang phu dgon in short. first learn debating skills, then Pramana (tsema),
Gsang phu dgon was known for promoting Tibetan Madhyamaka, Prajna, Kosha and Disciplines. The
Tshad-marnam-hgrel and Buddhist Scriptures debating skills are mainly in question-answer model.
Debating theory in Tibetan Buddhism. He trained One gives points, the other debates with answer to
a lot of disciples and made great contributions the question of counterpart. The voice must be loud
to temple education and Tibetan Tshad-marnam- and can emphasise by clap. In this way, they can have
hgrel. After Rngog Legs PviShes Rab passed away, fast improvement, deep understanding and abundant
his nephew and famous disciple Rngog BloL dan knowledge. Therefore, this teaching method has had
Shes Rab (1059～1109 CE) succeeded as the abbot positive impact on the generation of sects of Tibetan
of Gsang phu dgon. Buddhism and also played an important role in the
(Kalsang gyal) development of Tibetan Buddhism. Until now, the
She Lei Xue of massive temples basically follow the
Rgya brtson vgrus teaching method created by Qiaba Quejisenge.
seng ge Qiaba Quejisenge has written many famous books
Rgya brtson vgrus seng ge (about 11th century CE) mainly including Debate on She Lei (bsdus gra)
was a famous sutra translator in the post-propagation Pramanavarttika for Eliminating Innocence (tshad ma
of Tibetan Buddhism. He responded to the calling yid kyi mun sel), Interpretation of Hetuvidya Choice
of the court of Ali Guge Dynasty in Tibet when (tshad ma rnam nges vgrel pa), Comments on Ci Shi
he was young. He was engaged in the movement Five Theories (byams chos lngavi vgrel pa), Comments
of Buddhism Revival actively, braved dangers and on Twi-satyas of Madhyamak (dbu ma bden gnyis
difficulties and went to India to seek Buddhism. He kyi vgrel ba), Clear Interpretation of Madhyamaka
was proficient in Sanskrit and translated a lot of (dbu ma snang bvi vgrel ba), Interpretation of
sutras including Lag na rdo rje gos sngon po can gyi Bodhicaryavatara (spyod vjug chen movi vgrel ba)
cho ga dang bcas pavi gzungs, Dpal vkhor lo sdom pavi and others. Most are the classical famous books
bstod pa don thams cad grub pa rnam dag gtsug gi nor which also pointed out many errors of Chandrakirti
bu, Gzhan don slob ma rjes su bzung bavi cho ga, Dpal book. Debate on She Lei is an authority book in the
rdo rje rnam vbyor ma, Rdo rje phag movi sgrub pavi aspect of She Lei and one temple studying course in
thams, Lha mo sgrol ma nyi shu rtsa gcig la bstod pa the study of Pramana.
rnam dag gtsug gi nor bu collected in Ganggyur. Qiaba Quejisenge trained many great students,
(Kalsang gyal) including famous disciples who have been called
Eight Nyaya Free Lions (rigs pvi dbang phyug seng
cha pa chos kyi seng ge chen brgyad) namely Zangnaba Zunzesenge (Gtsang
Cha (phya) pa chos kyi seng ge, 1109~1169 CE, the nag pa brtson vgrus seng ge), Dapa Mawasenge (Dar
Hetuvidya scientist of Tibetan Buddhism, eminent bag smra bvi seng ge), Zhixia Suonansenge (Bru sha
monk of Kadampa and temple educationist. bsod mams seng ge), Maqia Zuobaisenge (Rma bya
Tibetan Qiaqia (Phya cha) (born in present- rtsod pvi seng ge), Zi Wangxiusenge (Brtsegs dbang
day Dazi County, Lhasa city, Tibet province) is phyug seng ge), Niangzhan Quejisenge (Nyang bran
very clever. When he was young, he can sing chos kyi seng ge), Danma Guanquesenge (Vdan ma
many Buddhistic songs. His parents thought he dkon mchog seng ge) and Niewa Danyunsenge (Gnyal
was talented in Buddhism so they sent him to a ba yon tan seng ge). Except Niewa and Xiali, all
temple to learn Pramana and Madhyamaka. He others have famous books about Pramana (tsema),
was shaved and made religious vows before the Madhyamika, Prajna.
seat of Xiangcaibang Quji (Zhang Tshe Spong (Kalsang gyal)
Chos Kyi Bla Ma), becoming a monk with dharma,
name Quejisenge. After that, he learnt prajina and Kun dgav rgyal mtshan
the Bodhisattva from Xiangcaibang Quji and his Kun dgav rgyal mtshan, 1180～1251 CE, was the
disciple Niezan Qujiyixi (nyan bran chos kyi ye founder of Sakya, a sect of Tibetan Buddhism in China
shes) at the same time, he studied hard at Pramana and a scholar as well. He was born in the Khon family
and Madhyamaka of which he is of great attainment. of Sakya and named as Bandandunzhu (Dpal ldan

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Dynasty, he arrived in Liangzhou to discuss with

Godan Khan about the conditions of making all local
powers in Tibet to submit to Mongolia regime. He
is the first person, as the leader of Tibet religion, to
establish political connections with royal family of
Mongolia and made great contributions to promoting
national union of Yuan Dynasty by writing letters to
leaders of both monks and laymen in Tibet, stating
the significances and advantages and persuading
them to do submission. Furthermore, he also treated
Godan Khan, made sermon and disseminated the
dharma in Liangzhou. At the same time, he has built
a new temple named as Huanhua Temple (Sprul
pavi sde), expanded Tibetan Buddhism’s influence
among Mongolians and adjusted the position of
Buddhism and Shamanism.
Sajiabanzida’s writings are pretty a lot. They are
mainly Three Law Argumentation Theory, Quantity
Sajiabanzhida Gonggajianzan Theory of Treasure, A Wise Man Introductory Theory,
Instruments Sastra, Rhetoric, Statement Research,
don grub) originally. In his childhood, he learned Maxim of Sakya, Ritual Theory, Aspiring Ritual of
to be as a novice monk by receiving initiation Madhyamaka (dbu ma lugs kyi sems bskyed kyi
percepts (Sramanera Precepts) from his uncle, cho ga), Yoga of Shenshen Master, Vows To All Yoga
Zhabajianzan, (Grags pa rgyal mtshan) and changed practicers in Snowland and so on. Of which, Three
his name to Gonggajianzan. Over there, he laid a Law Argumentation Theory is an important article in
perfect foundation for the Buddhism by extensively which he judged right or wrong of various Buddhist
learning culture and Buddhist knowledge. At the point of view that spread in Buddhist circle and
age of 25 (year of 1204), Gonggajianzan took stated his own opinions and understanding to
complete precepts (gelung-pa) of monks following Buddhism. Quantity Theory of Treasure is based on
Shijiashili (Shawkya shi), an eminent monk of Pramanasamuccaya of Dignaga and Pramanavarttika
Kasmira (present-day Kashmir) who came to Tibet of Fa Cheng. It is a brand new article on tsema written
for preaching Buddhism. He learned Theory of with his own knowledge and logic thinking and has
Hetuvidya Seven written by Facheng (Dharmakirti) an important position in the tsema field of Tibetan
like Pramanavarttika and such scriptures as Buddhism. For the Maxim of Sakya, it is a popular
Abhisamayalankara, at the same time, he also gnomology with content of mainly reflecting social
learned cultural subjects like technology, astrology, ethic and human behaviours which is spread widely
rhythmic, medicine, rhetoric, poetry, singing and in Tibetan area and deeply loved by Tibetan people.
dancing. With all of that, he became a great scholar (Kalsang gyal)
who is erudite in the Ten Indo-Tibet Subjects and
being regarded respectfully as Banzida (Pandita) Yuanyi
whose reputation spread widely around the area. Yuanyi (c. 12th-13th century CE) is a Buddhist from
Six scholars from south India, one of them named Sichuan to go on a pilgrimage for Buddhist scriptures
Chaoqigawa (Vphrog byed dgav bo), came around in India. According to volume 35 of General Records
Tibet, especially to debate with Sajiabanzida at of Buddha in Different Generations in the 31st year of
hearing of his reputation. They kicked off arguments Kublai Khan (1294 CE), he came back from India
on Buddhist scriptures for 13 days in a bazaar near to meet the Emperor in Dadu (present-day Beijing).
Saint Sambhu Temple of Mangyujizhong (Mang The Emperor asked him: “Is there any Buddha in the
yul skyid grong) and ended with failure of Indian West?” Yuanyi answered: “Democracy is focussed
scholars. So those scholars acknowledged their on China while Siddhartha is in the West.” Yuanyi
failure and decided to convert to Buddhism as consecrated a figure of Buddha by Indian jade to the
monks by receiving tonsure and took Sajiabanzida as Emperor. The Emperor cherished it very much and
their teacher. Since then, Sajiabanzida’s reputation worshiped it on the Wansui Mountain (present-day
became more and more impressive and finally, he Beihai Park). Yuanyi gave the pattra [palm] leaves
got widely known as a Tibetan cultural celebrity. from the West to the Emperor and the Emperor put it
In the year of 1216 CE, Sajiabanzida succeeded into the box inlaid seven treasures for consecration,
as the host of Sakya Monastery. In 1246 CE, at the viewing that Yuanyi is an “outstanding monk”. He
invitation of the emperor, Godan Khan of Yuan was deeply trusted by the Emperor and put in an

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began to study Tibetan language at the age of five

and recited nyi khri and brgyad stong ba when he was
nine. After he studied Nyingma Tantra under the
instruction of his father since childhood and studied
the doctrines of Exoteric Buddhism such as byams
chos sde lnga and tshad ma sde bdun in a systematical
way at gsang phu dgon of kadampa, he became
a Buddhist scholar who was well-versed in the
doctrines of Tantric and Exoteric Buddhism. As dri
med vod zer toured spiritual shrine in Bhutan, made
pilgrimage to Indian Buddhist relics and advocated
building thar pa gling in Bhutan, Nyingmapa spread
from Bhutan to Nepal, India and other countries and
regions afterwards.
Klong chen rab vbyams pa tshul khrims blo gros
was famous for revitalisation of Nyinggmapa and
created masterpieces such as klong chen mdzod bdun
The white pagoda of Qiongdao at Beihai Park in Beijing. and klong chen chos vbyung.
(Kalsang gyal)
important position, conferred as “Taibao”. After
that, Yuanyi also presented an iron pot of Buddha Red mdav ba gzhon
from the West and the Emperor was very happy to nu blo gros
ask some servants to keep it in the state treasury as Red mdav ba gzhon nu blo gros (1349~1412 CE) was
a treasure of protecting the treasury. Additionally, a Madhyamapratipad scholar of Tibetan Buddhism
in accordance with “Biography of Xiangmai” in and eminent monk of Sakya, Tibetan Buddhism. He
Volume 33 of New Biography of Eminent Monks, was from Sagya County of Tibet, China, mastered
Yuanyi once participated in the great debate of exoteric and esoteric teachings, structured a
Buddhism and Taoism in Dadu at the year of teaching system of Exoteric Buddhism Thirteen
Zhiyuanzhog (about 1278). Scriptures in Sakya temple education, developed
(Xue Keqiao) and expanded Nagarjuna’s Madhyamapratipad
theory and especially explained and interpreted
Klong chen rab vbyams pa the thoughts of Candrakirti’s Madhyamakavatara,
Klong chen rab vbyams pa tshul khrims blo gros thus playing an important role in the establishment
(1308~1364 CE), also known as dri med vod of Prasangika Madhyamaka’s dominant position
zer, an eminent monk of Nyingma sect of Tibetan among denominations of Tibetan Buddhism. He was
Buddhism and celebrated Buddhist scholar, born famous for learning and teaching Buddhist doctrines
in Zhanang County, Shannan Prefecture, Tibet. from and to Master Tsongkhapa.
According to historical record, dri med vod zer (Kalsang gyal)

Tsong kha pa
Tsong kha pa (Tsong kha pa, 1357～1419 CE), Tsong
kha pa was an eminent monk of Tibetan Buddhism
and religion reformer in China. He was the founder
of Gelug sect of Tibetan Buddhism in China.
Tsong kha pa is the honorific title and his name is
Blo bzang grags pa and the full name is Tsong kha
pa blo bzang grags pa. He was born in a Buddhist
family in Tsong-kha Ando (Huangshui river basin in
Qinghai Province).
Tsong kha pa received the layman ordination at
the age of three from Choje Dhondup Rinchen. At
the age of seven, he took the novice ordination and
was given the name “Lobsang Drakpa” and began
to receive formal education from the temple. In the
booklist directed by Choje Dhondup Rinchen, the
first book was byams chos sde lnga and followed by
Longqinraojianba Cizhenluozhe the Buddhist logic works tshad ma rnam vgrel written

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Ta’er Lamasery and Teka. On Exoteric Buddhism, he

has masterpieces like byang chub lam rim chen mo,
byang chub lam rim bsdus pa, dbu ma vgrel chen, dbu
ma la vjug pavi rnam bshad dgongs pa rab gsal, drang
ba dang nges pavi don rnam par phye bavi bstan bcos
legs bshad snying po, mngon par rtogs pavi rgyan vgrel
ba dang bcas pavi rgya char bshad pa legs bshad gser
phreng, dbu ma rtsa bavi tshig levur byas pa shes rab
ces bya bavi rnam bshad rigs pavi rgya mtsho, byang
chub sems dpavi tshul khrims kyi rnam bshad, vdul ba
mdo rtsa bavi zin bris and so on.
And on Esoteric Buddhism, he has masterpieces
such as sngags rim chen mo, rgyud kyi rgyal po dpal
gsang ba vdus pavi man ngag rim pa lnga rab tu gsal
bavi sgron me, rgyud thams cad kyi rgyal po dpal gsang
Zongkapa Luosangzhaba ba vdus pavi rtsa bavi rgyud rgya char bshad pavi bsdus
don, dpal gsang ba vdus pavi rtsa bavi rgyud kyi vgrel
by Dharmakirti and the third one was Buddhist ba sgron ma gsal ba.
philosophy book dbu ma by Nagarjuna. After In 1409 CE (seventh year of Emperor Yongle in
Tsong kha pa had learned the theoretical basis of Ming Dynasty), Tsong kha pa got the support and
Buddhism, he began to practice Exoteric Buddhism subsidise from Grags pa rgyal mtshan (1374-1440
and Esoteric Buddhism. At the same time, Choje CE), local administrator of Tibet, so he initiated
Dhondup Rinchen instructed Tsong kha pa to worship Prayer Festival in Jokhang Temple, Lhasa, Tibet,
Vajrapani in order to get rid of all kinds of disasters. by which he won great reputation for himself
Tsong kha pa often recited five words mantra of among the monks and laymen and thereupon
Manjusri to improve his intelligence. Tsong kha pa his religious prestige and social status improved
learned the rite of Buddha of immeasurable life to rapidly. It was in the same year that Tsong kha
prolong his life span. He cultivated the rite of Indra pa created Gandan Monastery (dgav ldan dgon
to become wealthy. He cultivated the rite of Six arm pa). Based on Gandan Monastery, Tsong kha pa
Maha Gala (mgon po ma haw ka la) to eliminate reorganised the order and reformed the drawbacks
natural and man-made disasters. After 10 years of of Tibetan Buddhism. He insisted that Buddhist
diligent study, Tsong kha pa laid a solid foundation should abide by Buddhist commandment and lead
for Exoteric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism. pure religious life and they should keep away from
In 1372 CE, Tsong kha pa went to Tibet for further mundane life without getting married and having
study. There he made a special study on byams chos children. On education in monastery, he advocated
sde lnga which is mainly based on mngon rtogs rgyan. to establishing complete educational mechanism in
Two years later, he went to Tsang to acknowledge monastery and the Buddhist should abide by the
eminent monk Sakya rje btsun red ndav ba gzhon Buddhist commandment and follow the sequence of
nu blo gros (1349～1412 CE) as his master and firstly learning Exoteric dharma and then practising
systematically learned mngon pa mdzod and dbu ma Esoteric Buddhism. Tsong kha pa took doctrine
vjug pa. At the age of 25, Tsong kha pa had been of Kadam as the basis of sect and Prasangika
proficient in five masterpieces and 10 enlightened Madhyamaka as the theory of sect. Through learning
including byams chos sde lnga, mngon pa mdzod, from different sects and cultivating himself, he
tshad ma rnam vgrel and dbu ma vjug pa and Buddhist built a new Buddha system and gradually formed a
Vinaya. He made open reply in famous monasteries mainstream Sect among Tibetan Buddhism, that is
and had a certain influence. the Sect of Gelug (dge lugs pa).
At the age of 30, Tsong kha pa began to write From 1394, Tsong kha pa began to expound the
books. His masterpieces like Golden Garland of texts of Buddhism and preach his Buddhist thought
Eloquence, The Great Treatise on the Stages of the from place to place. He insisted that Buddhist
Path to Enlightenment (lam rim chen mo), The Great Saddhamma pioneered by Sakyamuni is made up
Exposition of Secret Mantra (sngags rim chen mo), of theory and practice, therefore, all the teaching
Essence of True Eloquence, established his Buddhist Saddhamma, is taken in sutra, rule and theory; all
thought of integrating Exoteric Buddhism and the practice of Saddhamma is taken in the discipline,
Esoteric Buddhism. Later, Collected works of Tsong composure, and intelligence. So you cannot ignore
kha pa came out, with 19 chapters and about 140 any part, and must practice in an all-round way.
passages, circulating in different wood engraving That is, for those who determined to learn Buddhist
version of Lhasa, Drepung, Tashilhunpo monastery, Saddhamma, his hearing, learning and behaving

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shall not violate Buddhist Canon. And you need the honorific title of the second Buddha, enjoying
to keep you heart and follow threefold training. honourable religious position in Tibetan Buddhism.
At the same time, you should possess a convenient And Buddhists of the Gelug set October 25 in
way to use wisdom and intelligence as well as Tibetan Calendar, the day he passed away as the
the realisation of Sunyata and Maha Karuna. Only grandest Buddha festival to commemorate master
with such religion insight shall everyone strive Tsong kha pa.
to think and learn more about the Sutras. Keep (Kalsang gyal)
earnest practice on the third methods of Mahayana
and Hinayana. Keep earnest practice on the Zhiguang
sutras to know the discipline and composure. As Zhiguang（birth unknown-1435）was a Chinese
for theory, you should also continue to practice, monk who went to India on a pilgrimage for Buddhist
to get familiar with the wisdom that laws go scriptures twice. His style name was Wuyin and he
similarly. From the perspective of seeing, learning was from Qingyun (present-day north of Qingyun,
and practice in Buddhism, Seeing in Mahayana Shandong Province), and his surname is unknown.
is expounded and reflected in the Madhyamika According to volume 2 of New Biography of Eminent
and tsema, and practice is in Buddhism Wisdom; Monks when he became a monk at the beginning,
while in Hinayana, Seeing and practice both are he lived in Fayun Temple of Yanu (present-day
reflected in Abhidharmakosa Sastra. The common Beijing). He worked hard and studied diligently,
commandment is expounded and reflected in the learning the domestic and overseas classics. In
Commandment. And the learning begins with the the year of Yuanzhi Zhengzhong (about 1354
explanation of seeing and practice. So you will CE), Paõóãña of Indian class of excellent monks
have clear discrimination between Mahayana (it means auspiciousness in his life, Sahaja÷ri)
and Hinayana by subtle differences and different came to Yandu and lived in Fayun Temple. He
ideas in the seeing, learning and practice. Focus learnt Sanskrit by close association and became
on learning Vinaya-sutra on Commandment, the student of monk. When the Ming Dynasty was
Ornament of Clear Realization on self-restraint and established, Jinling (present-day Nanjing of Jiangsu
Madhyamaka Shastra, tsema and Abhidharmakosa- Province) was established as the capital; the master
Sastra on intelligence. The reason for attaching and apprentice met the Emperor in Jinling. After
great importance to the three-fold training understanding his hard work, Zhu Yuanzhang, the
of Buddhism in Temple education is that the Ming Emperor, went to the temple and consulted
Commandment is the foundation of Buddhism and him. The Emperor found that Zhiguang knew
base of learning dharma. Self-restraint is the way Sanskrit and ordered him to translate Buddhist
to control yourself and get rid of dissipation and texts. Then, Zhiguang lived in a hut at Zhongshan
intelligence is the method to increase wisdom and Mountain with favourable treatment. He translated
free yourself. Therefore, it goes like that “there is “Bodhisattva Vow” commonly used by Catu Parisa
no restraint without commandment and in turn, no which is simple in word and easy to understand
intelligence without self-restraint”. and he was thus admired by people. In the spring
Tsong kha pa’s disciples were too numerous of 1384 CE, Zhiguagn and his students went to
to count and many talents came out of them in the Western Regions by order to propagandise
succession. Among them, the disciples proficient the achievement and cultivation of Ming Dynasty.
in both Exoteric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism The people there were all moved and admired
include Rgyal tshab rje dar ma rin chen (1364 them. When they arrived at Mahabodhi Temple,
～1431 CE), Mkhas grub rje dge legs dpal bzang a supernatural phenomenon appeared, which
(1385~1438 CE), and Rtogs ldan vjam dpal rgya made the local people awestruck and pay tribute
mtsho (1356～1428 CE). The disciples proficient to Jinling with Tibetans. After coming back, he
in Exoteric Buddhism include Mkhas grub rje dge passed through Gobi Desert to go to India and
legs dpal bzang (1385~1438 CE), Byams chen chos brought them for consecration in the imperial
rgyal shawakya ye shes (1354～1435 CE) and Dge court, getting praise and consolation. In 1405, he
vdun grub pa (1391～1474 CE). And the disciples was promoted as “an important Zen teacher”. In
proficient in Esoteric Buddhism include Rje btsun 1425, the Emperor endowed a title to him and gave
shes rab seng ge (1382～1445 CE). They built him a golden seal, precious clothes, peacock golden
Exoteric and Esoteric monasteries on large scale cover streamer, gold and silver wares, carriages and
and ancestor temple group in Tibetan areas, and horses, expanding Nengren Temple for him to live
played an important role in promoting the flourish in. In 1426, Zhiguang was given a title of “Buddhist
development of Gelug. in the West” by Zhu Zhanji, the Emperor of Xuande
As a master of a sect, Tsong kha pa was labelled Period (was on the throne from 1426-1435). The
by descendants as the incarnation of Manjusri and esoteric and classic Heart Sutra, Bazhiliaoyi Real

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Ming Sutra, Humane King Sutra, Humane King Sutra Buddhism and made huge achievements. And he
and The White Canopy Buddha Mantra translated by served as the 10th abbot of Drepung Monastery at
Zhiguang are popular even today. 43 (1517 CE) and held Lhasa Prayer Festival at 44
(Xue Keqiao) (1518 CE), restoring the priviledge of Gelug eminent
lamas. In the same year, ngag dbang bkra shes grags
Dge vdun rgya mtsho pa rgyal mtshan (1480-1569 CE), chief of Palmer
The second Dalai Lama Gendun Gyaco (dge vdun Zhu, gave his mansion (rdo khang sngon mo) in the
rgya mtsho, 1476-1542 CE) was a high lama and Drepung Monastery to the mid-aged Dalai Lama
living Buddha of Gelug Sect. As a native of Danag, which determined his status as the Grand Living
Ulterior Tibet (present-day Xaitongmoin County, Buddha of the monastery and concurrently worked
Xigazê Prefecture, Tibet), he was considered the as the abbot of Sera Monastery at 52 (1526 CE).
child reincarnated from Dge-`dun-grub-pa since From then on, he was no doubt the first living
childhood and later, extensively accepted by Buddha in Gelug sect, with increasing Buddhist
various eminent lamas of Tashilunpo Monastery. He status and social prestige.
became a monk and learned Buddhism at the age As the incarnation of Dge-`dun-grub-pa
of 10 (1485). He accepted upasampanna at Drepung (Tsongkhapa’s disciple), the second Dalai Lama
Monastery when aged 21 (1495 CE); went to lha Gendun Gyaco, greatly expanded the potential
mo bla mtsho, a sacred lake and established chos of Gelug Sect by establishing the monastery and
vkhor rgyal (located in present-day Gyaca County, teaching Buddhism. At the same time, he worked
Lhoka Prefecture, Tibet) at 34 (1509 CE). Upon its hard to write and train disciples unsurprisingly. In
completion, he went there every summer (sixth and this way, he finally reached superb accomplishments
seventh months) to teach sutras for over 300 lamas in Tibet Buddhism as an eminent lama of his sect.
and didn’t get back to Lhasa until the 10th month. By His works including mnog rtogs rgyan Interpretation,
the age of 36 (1510 CE), he had been the fifth abbot dbgu ma rtsa ba'i shes rab Interpretation, theg pa chen
of Tashilunpo Monastery for six years. His teachings po rgyud blama'i bstan bcos Interpretation, Differences
mainly included sutras and tantras such as tshad ma between nges don and drang don and Interpretation of
rnam vgrel, mdzod, phar phyin and gsang vdus rgyud Manjusri Names Sutra. Again, he left interpretations
vgrel. In a word, he had a profound knowledge of of Buddhist logics and the Ritsugaku Sect as well
as other various writings such as Honzon Dharma
Cultivation Practice and rnying mavi gu ru zhi drag.
(Kalsang gyal)

Bson nams rgya mtsho

The third Dalai Lama Sonam Gyatso, namely bson
nams rgya mtsho, (1543-1588 CE), was a famous
living Buddha and an eminent monk of Gelug
Sect. The Third Dalai Lama, born in anterior Tibet
(present-day Doilungdêqên County, Lhasa, Tibet),
was taken to Drepung Monastery upon recognition
as the incarnation of Gendun Gyaco when aged four
(1546) and received high-level monastery education
with strict requirements over there, accepted
samanera (novice) at seven (1549 CE), succeeded to
the abbot of Drepung Monastery at 10 (1552 CE);
held Lhasa Prayer Festival by 11 (1553), acted as
the abbot of Sera Monastery when aged 16 (1558
CE), accepted upasampanna at 22 (1564 CE). Later
on, he travelled to many holy places across Anterior
Tibet and Ulterior Tibet but also lecture sutras
and dharmas at Tashilunpo Monastery, Narthang
Monastery, Sakya Monastery and other grand
temples, gaining increasing prestige. After return to
Drepung Monastery, he renovated his own mansion
and renamed it “dgav ldan pho brang”.
In Iron Dragon year (1580) of the 10th calendrical
cycle, the Third Dalai Lama went to li thang, vbav
His Excellency, the Second Venerable Dalai Lama, Gendunjiacuo thang, mar khams and other places to spread

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dharma. The lama built Litang Monastery, also

called Evergreen Cole Temple, which was located
in present-day Litang County, Garzê Prefecture,
Sichuan. In that year, he received invitation from
a chieftain surnamed Mu in Lijiang, Yunnan, but
didn’t go there for some reason. In the next year,
he went to Champa Ling Monastery in Qamdo
Prefecture to instruct Buddhist sutras. When it came
to Water Sheep year (1583) of 10th calendrical cycle,
he travelled to Xining to build Maitreya Palace and
Sutra-Teaching Academy in Kumbum Monastery. He
went to Mongolia and spread Buddhism benefiting
all beings when the Wood Rooster year (1585)
of the 10th calendrical cycle arrived. Again, he
continued teaching of sutras and dharmas in various

The Fourth Venerable Dalai Lama, Banchan, Luosangquejijianzan

Tashilunpo Monastery (bkra shis lhun po dgon). In

this way, he introduced Ensapa methods of Gelug
Sect from dben sa sgrub gnas or dben dgon and even
built sngags pa grwa tshang, establishing a complete
education system composed of esoteric and exoteric
practices and cancelling the former practice that
the monastery’s lamas had to further study at lha
sa rgyud stod smad grwa tshang. From the Water
Ox year (1613) of the 10th calendrical cycle, the
Fourth Panchen Lama held Lhasa Prayer Festival
for consecutive six years. During that period, he
initiated the system of conferring the degree, “lha
rams pa”.
With high prestige in the world of Tibetan
Buddhism, he left later generations famous works
The Third Venerable Dalai Lama, Suonanjiacuo such as dpal dus kyi vkhor lovi rtsa bavi rgyud kyi
rgyas vgrel, rdo rje phreng bavi dkyil vkhor chen povi
Mongolian banners in the Fire Pig year (1587) of sgrub thabs, mgon po klu sgrub kyis mdzad pavi rim
the same calendrical cycle so that various chieftains pa lngavi rnam par bshad pa and bla ma mchod pavi
took a lead in conversion to Gelug Sect. And the cho ga. From this Panchen Lama, the living Buddhas
next year, the Third Dalai Lama passed away at of this lineage have been all abbots of Tashilunpo
a meadow of Kharachin Banner (Ge’er’aotumo), Monastery. The monastery is also the residence of
Mongolia. His remains after cremation were placed all Bainqen Erdenis through ages.
in stupas in Mongolian and Tibetan regions for (Kalsang gyal)
commemoration. Drepung Monastery held by him
erected a silver stupa to enshrine his sarira. Ta ra na tha
(Kalsang gyal) Duoluonata [Taranatha (Ta ra na tha)] (1575 -
1634 CE), a Chinese Buddhist master, historian of
Pan chen blo bzang chos Indian Buddhism and an eminent monk of Jonang,
kyi rgyal mtshan Tibetan Buddhism.
The Fourth Panchen Lama Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen He was born in Zhang (vbrang) of anterior Tibet
(pan chen blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan, 1567- and originally named as Sijueduojie (Sri gcod rdo
1662 CE) was an eminent Gelug lama and living rje) also named as Gongganingbu (Kun dgav snying
Buddha. In Gold Ox year (1601) of 10th calendrical po) and was regarded respectfully as Taranatha (Ta
cycle, the Panchen Lama held the 16th abbot of ra na tha). At the age of four, he was invited into

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Jomonang Temple (jo mo nang dgon), cared and addition to expanding Jonang Temple including the
respected by many eminent monks and believers construction of Buddhist statues and pagodas and the
over there, for he called himself as reincarnation of compilation and engraving of Buddhist scriptures,
Jonang Gonggazhuoqiao. When he was six, he began in 1615, he proposed, planned and presided over
reading books and learning the Buddhist Scriptures. the construction of the beautiful Rtag Brtag Dam
At the age of eight, he went to Jonangquelong Chos Gling and got the support of the local governor
Temple (Chos lung dgon) to be initiated into - Phun tshogs rnam rgyal (1586~1621) who
monkhood by following Dalongba. Gonggazhaxizan mobilised a large number of human and material
(Stag lung pa kun dgav bkra shes rgyal mtshan) as an assistance and thus the Temple was successfully
officially monk. He successively took such eminent completed. The Temple had a grand scale and was
monks with great virtues like Canbulongrijiacuo exquisite beyond comparison. In addition to the
(mkhan po lung rigs rgya mtsho), Duorenba. resplendent and magnificent external buildings, it
Jiangyanggonggajianzan (rdo ring pa vjam dbyangs also had rich and colourful Buddhist cultural and
kun dgav rgyal mtshan), Qiangbalunzhu (byams artistical artifacts. At that time 180 scholars were
pa lhun grub), Jonangjizhong (jo nang rje drung) recruited to transcribe Tengyur with gold ink which
as his teachers to study systematically Exoteric and has more than 200 books. About 20 sculpture
Esoteric Buddhism. At 17, he received regulations and painting artisans were invited from Nepal to
(gelung-pa) of monks (Biqiu) and travelled around construct Buddhist statues to enshrine and worship
Tibetan area to learn widely laws of many religious magic things. The murals and sculptures of this
sects like Sakya, Taklung Kagyu, Karma Kagyu, Geluk Temple had the Buddhist artistic styles of both
and so on. At the same time, he also consulted with Nepal and India. In addition, Taranatha invited
Nirbanashili (nirbav na shriav) of India on tough from India Krishna and Ba La Bha Dra to Rtag Brtag
issues of Esoteric Buddhism and invited Gang ba kun Dam Chos Gling and consulted them about Ghosa
dgav to make explanation for the famous literary voice -understanding theory and the knowledge of
works like Mokeboluoduo (bha ra ta), Luomoyanna other disciplines, and they studied the poems and
(raw ma na) and so on. At 30, he succeeded as the mass cultures. Because Taranatha was proficient
chief throne of Jonang and began to do sermon. He in Sanskrit, he translated many Sanskrit books.
advocated Buddha Nature and Prajna that without In 1608, he wrote The History of India Buddhism
sectarian ideas and opposed sectarianism that (Rgya gar chos vbyung) according to India scholars’
merely respect one’s own religious section. dictation and their information. After this book was
Taranatha was knowledgeable about the published, one local leader from south India sent a
Buddhism and did well in preaching and his letter of praise about his learning and said he was
Buddhist career was far more than flourishing. In the only anonymous mahasiddha in Tibet.
Taranatha was proficient in various sects’
doctrines, learned widely from others' strong points
and wrote many books relating to the sectarian
history, temple records, biographies, classic
discussion, views about sects, poetry, language,
letters, Tantric practice etc. The historical records
include The History of India Buddhism, Yamantaka
Teaching History, Tsang Chronicles, Holy Land
Guide (including Widely Speaking about the Famous
Historical Sites of Jonang Temple, Widely Speaking
about the Ashram - Jeep Dedan Temple and Widely
Speaking about the Famous Historical Sites of Ganden
Pengcuo Forest); the biographies include The
Autobiography of Taranatha, The Biography of Shakya
Muni’s Achievements, The Biography of Shakya Muni’s
One Hundred Kinds of Achievements, The Biographies
of Seven Generations of Tibetan Buddhist Masters,
The Biographies of Eighty-four Successful Buddhist
Monks, The Biography of Buddhagupta Natha and so
on. The famous religious doctrines and dharmas
include The Broader Interpretation of King Kong
Yoga Extremely Significant in Double Way (zab lam
rdo rjevi rnal vbyor gyi rnam par bshad pa rgyas
Taranath pavi bstan pa zung vjug rab tu gsal ba), The Wide

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Commentary of Kalacakra Mandala Sadhana Drubtab, the Fourth Dalai Lama to entre Tibet. In the next
The Broader Interpretation of King Kong Yoga, The year, he held Enthronement Ceremony at Reting
Wide Commentary of Jimi Wucidi, Sheng Le Mandala Monastery and then became the abbot of Drepung
Practice, On The Bright Rangjung, Sheng Le Widely Monastery to systematically learn dharmas from
Praised Ben Le Tetra Sea (bde mchog bstod chen Fourth Panchen Lama Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen
dngos grub vbyung gnas), The Buddha Bhagavan Yan (1570-1662) upon establishment of their disciple-
Maud Mandala Practice, Chun Ming’s Commentary on master relationship. Then, in Wood Dragon year
the Secret Haiizang Theoty, Yidam’s Dahai Practice - (1604) of the 10th calendrical cycle, the Dalai
the Source of Taiho (yi dam rgya mtsho sgrub thabs Lama held Lhasa Prayer Festival. And 10 years
rin chen vbyung gnas), Cidi’s Auspicious Kalacakra later, namely the Wood Tiger year (1614) of 10th
Practice Informed to Forever (dpal dus kyi vkhor lovi calendrical cycle, he accepted upasampanna and
sgrub thabs bskyed pavi rim pa rnam par bshad pa held the abbot of both Drepung Monastery and Sera
dngos grub nyer vtsho), The Origin of Kalacakra, The Monastery, continuously developing thoughts and
Explanation to Kalacakra and so on. The declarations precepts of Gelug Sect. Upon arrival of Fire Dragon
include The Interpretation of Ghosa Declaration (brda year (1616) of the 10th calendrical cycle, the Fourth
sprod pa dbyangs can gyi mdo vgrel mchog tu gsal Dalai Lama died an early death at dgav ldan pho
ba), Sanskrit Reader and so on. brang, Drepung Monastery. His cremated remains
(Kalsang gyal) were enshrined at Khalkha, Tümed and other
Mongolian areas. In addition, Drepung Monastery
Yon ldan rgya mtsho erected a silver stupa for him.
The Fourth Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso (yon ldan (Kalsang gyal)
rgya mtsho, 1589-1616) was known as a famous
living Buddha and eminent monk of Gelug Sect. Grags pa vod zer
He, who was born in a khan family of Mongolia, The First Akiyoshi Buddha (Bla ma grags pa vod
was actually the great grandson of Altan Khan, the zer, birth unknown～1641) Living Buddha and
only non-Tibetan of all Dalai Lamas through ages. eminent monk of dge lugs pa of Tibetan Buddhism,
In Water Dragon year (1592) of the 10th calendrical who was born in Zhangjia Village, Huzhu Tu
cycle, Three Monasteries of Lhasa and local official Autonomous County, Haidong Prefecture, Qinghai
representatives went to Mongolia to recognise Province and converted to Buddhism at dgon lung
the incarnated child. As Water Tiger year (1602) (Youning Temple). In 1630, he was promoted to the
of the 10th calendrical cycle came along, Three sixth abbotship of dgon lung and then he resigned
Monasteries again sent eminent lamas to request the position as abbot and went to the holy land of
religion, dan tig dgon, in present day Jinyuan Village,
Hualong County, Qinghai Province to practice.
Before long, he was invited to serve as lotsawa at
thang ring dgon dgav ldan bshad sgrub gling, where
he developed disciple and taught Buddhism, gaining
widespread fame. Subsequently, he returned to dgon
lung and passed away there. His heir disciple looked
for his reincarnation, founded Akiyoshi Buddha
lineage and conferred a posthumous title of the first
Akiyoshi Buddha. In Chinese literature, he is hailed
as “Zhang Buddha” at first and renamed Akiyoshi
Buddha in the reign of Qing Emperor Kang Xi. The
later generations of Akiyoshi Buddha were well
versed in Sanskrit, achieved great accomplishments
in studying Buddhism and composed an array of
Buddhism works, revered by Qing emperors.
(Kalsang gyal)

Ngag dbang rgya mtsho

The Fifth Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso
(ngag dbang rgya mtsho, 1617-1682) was a famous
living Buddha and eminent monk of Gelug Sect.
As a native of Qonggyai (present-day Qonggyai
County, Lhokha Prefecture), anterior Tibet, was
The Fifth Venerable Dalai Lama, Awangluosangjiacuo ordained before the Fourth Panchen Lama Lobsang

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monasteries focussing on five major shastras and

sutras and precepts. On the other hand, the second
two continued four tantras (Kriya Tantra, Carya
Tantra, yoga Tantra Maha-anuttara Yoga Tantra) and
practice of Esoteric Sect.
The Fifth Dalai Lama Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso
obtained great attainments in dharma of Gelug
Sect which is reflected in his more than 30 books
including snyan ngag me lung dkav vgrel, rgyal rabs
dpyid kyi rgyal movi glu dbyangs, dbu ma la vjug pa
gsal bar byed pa, Annals of Lhasa-based Jokhang
Monastery (1645). Those representative works have
been in widespread circulation.
(Kalsang gyal)

Blo bzang bstan pvi

rgyal mtshan
The First Jebtsundamba Lobsang Tenpe Gyeltshen,
also known as blo bzang bstan pvi rgyal mtshan,
(1635-1723), was a famous eminent monk of Tibetan
Buddhism in Mongolia during Qing Dynasty.
He was born a Mongolian prince of Tüsiyetü Khan,
Khalkha, Outer Mongolia. In the sixth year (1649)
Wushi Dalailama Awangluosangjiacuo of Shunzhi Period, Jebtsundamba went to Tibet and
learned Buddhism from Fifth Dalai Lama and Fourth
Chökyi Gyaltsen, accepted samanera at six (1622) Panchen Lama, accepting samanera and continuing
and upasampanna at 22 (1638). After that, he the lineage. In the eighth year (1651) of Shunzhi
succeeded as the abbot of the Drepung Monastery Period, he returned to his hometown, Khalkha, and
and Sera Monastery, teaching Buddhist sutras and lived in Kulun, Outer Mongolia. Just from that time,
speaking dharma. Also, he extensively studied he began spreading dharma and rites of Gelug Sect,
dharma. And in this way he was adept in both new so that all followers throughout four Khalkha aimags
and old esoteric Buddhism. (leagues), ecclesiastic and secular, were all sincerely
In Water Dragon year (1652) of the 11th calendrical convinced. In the 27th year (1688) of Kangxi Period,
cycle, the Fifth Dalai Lama led a team of lamas, Jebtsundamba leading Khalkha group submitted to
officials and Mongolian guard troops (over 3,000) Qing Empire. In the 32nd (1698) of Kangxi Period,
to pay homage to Shunzhi Emperor at Beijing upon Qing government officially awarded him the title
invitation from the emperor. In the 10th year (1653) “Great Lama of Khalkha Group”. In the first year
of Shunzhi Period, the eminent lama got back. In (1723) of Yongzheng Period, Jebtsundamba passed
the fourth month, Shunzhi Emperor ordered Gioro away in the Capital and then all Jebtsundamba
Langqiu (Director of the Board of Rites) and Xi Dali Hutuktus through ages were awarded by Qing
(Vice Minister of Ethnic Minority Affairs Court) to Empire, thus they became the major religious
award him the golden volumes and golden seal. leaders governing Outer Mongolia.
After that, the eminent lama would use the seal for (Kalsang gyal)
any important official documents.
In brief, the Fifth Dalai Lama promoted rapid lcang skya ngag dbang
development of Gelug Sect across entire Tibet. In blo bzang chos ldan
dbus gtsang (within present-day Tibet Autonomous The second Chang-chia Living Buddha Ngawang
Region), he successively built 13 monasteries Lobsang Chöden (lcang skya ngag dbang blo bzang
including 10 Gelug monasteries: gays ru shangs chos ldan, 1642-1714) was a high monk of Gelug
dgav ldan chos vkhor in 1645, dgav ldan chos vkhor Sect during Qing Dynasty.
yang rtse in 1648, dgav ldan gsung rab gling also in Born in Aa mdo tsong kha (located in present-day
1648, dgav ldan vog min gling in 1649, dgav ldan reaches of Huang River, Qinghai), he was recognised
don gnyis gling in 1649, dgav ldan bshad sgrub as incarnate child of Dragpa Öser upon approval by
gling in 1654, dgav ldan thos bsam dar rgyas gling the Fourth Panchen Lama Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen
in 1651, dgav ldan chos vkhor gling in 1669, dgav (1570-1662) through reporting by Cüchim Gyaco
ldan gsang sngags yang rtse in 1647, dgav ldan vphel (tshul khrims rgya mtsho) - the abbot of Longhe
rgyas gling in 1651. The first eight were all Exotoric Monastery. Then, he became a novice (bhikhu) and

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learned Buddhism in Longhe Monastery and later of “Songzhu Temple” to name it. And in the 52nd
Guolong Monastery, pursued further study in Lhasa, year (1713) of Kangxi Period, the living Buddha
anterior Tibet for more than two decades in the 18th accompanied the emperor who came to Huizong
year (1661) of Shunzhi Period of Qing Dynasty, Temple to offer incenses. Having seen its grandeur
being adept in exoteric and esoteric methods, went and all monks from various Mongolia banners
to Outer Mongolia with his master Ngawang Lodro buried in learning Buddhism and reciting scriptures,
Gyatso to succeed in easing the dispute between the emperor was overjoyed, and said, “All affairs of
Jasakt Khan and Tüsiyetü Khan in the 25th year Gelug Sect (Yellow Hat) across the region on the
(1686) of Kangxi Period. east of Tibet will be under your administration.”
And the next year, the master and his disciple The living Buddha was not only complimented
went to Beijing and got high praise by Kangxi by Kangxi Emperor but was also venerated by
Emperor. During their stay in the capital, Kangxi Prince Yong (later Yongzheng Emperor). Imperial
Emperor fairly appreciated the Second Chang-chia Quotations, compiled upon Yongzheng’s succession
Living Buddha’s abilities of dealing with worldly to the throne, records “Chang-chia Hutuktu the
things and profundity in Buddhism. In the 27th year Universally Kind and Extensively Merciful Preceptor
(1688) of Kangxi Period, the living Buddha returned awarded by the Emperor Shengzu (Kangxi) is a real
home and held the 20th abbot of Guolong Monastery incarnation and even a great Kalyāṇa-mittatā. In my
and established a patron-priest-relationship with spare time, I benefit a lot from leisurely chatting
Lobjang Danjin, Mongolian Huxut chief. Moreover, with the master. So, I know this exactly.” Chang-
he personally went to the side of Qinghai Lake chia was not only a good friend of the prince but
to teach herders Buddhism and scriptures so that also a guru who teaches him Buddhism. Yongzheng
Buddhism showed a larger influence. When it came Emperor once said, “Chang-chia is indeed my teacher
to the 32nd year (1693) of Kangxi Period, he was and other monks just visited my house.” In the 54th
invited to the imperial capital by Kangxi Emperor, year (1715) of Kangxi Period, the eminent lama
holding the abbot of Fayuan Temple and receiving died at Huizong Temple, Dolon Nor. His remains
the award “Zhasakeda Lama” (highest lama in the were carried to Guolong Monastery, Qinghai for
capital) for he was a “profound and pure Buddhist worshiping in a stupa.
master having omnipresent wisdom venerated by (Kalsang gyal)
numberless lamas and secular followers in both
Mongolia and Tibet”. Si tu chos kyi vbyung gnas
He took charge of affairs concerning Tibetan The eighth Si tu chos kyi vbyung gnas (1699-1774)
Buddhism ordered by Ethnic Minority Affairs Court. was an eminent lama of Karma.
In the 36th year (1697) of Kangxi Period, he was As the living Buddha of Palpung Monastery,
appointed to visit Tibet and sent golden volumes eminent lama of Karma bkaH rgyud Pa and even
and golden seal to the Sixth Dalai Lama, and of Tibetan Buddhism, he spent all his lifetime
attended the enthronement ceremony. In the 40th studying Tibetology had made great achievements
year (1701) of Kangxi Period, the large monastery in Sanskrit, Sabdavidyā, Tibetan grammar, Tibet
built under the imperial edict of Kangxi Emperor medicine, Tibetan painting etc so that he even
was completed in Dolon Nor (located in present- gained high praise of eminent lamas of Gelug sect.
day Duolun County, Inner Mongolia) and named Indeed, he was a grandmaster of his time in terms of
“Huizong Temple”. Again, various banners across Buddhism and culture. He wrote many famous works
Inner and Outer Mongolia were called on to send including Introduction to Sabdavidyā, Interpretation
their individual monks to the temple as a sign for of Sabdavidyā, Survey of Sanskrit-Tibetan Glossary,
their obeisance to the Qing’s central regime. At Sanskrit Grammar Guidebook to Beginners, Astronomy
the same time, the living Buddha was appointed as and Calendar phreng ba, Table of Contents of Derge
Zhasakeda Lama who took charge of lama affairs in Edition Tibetan Tripitaka (Ganggyur), mngon pa mdzod
Duolun Lamasery. That determined his authority of kyi rnam bshad, Interpretation of Ngedon Mahāmudrā
governing Tibetan Buddhism in Monan-Mongolia. Prayer, Guru Yoga and Gohonzon Chanting Practice,
Afterwards, he spent time advocating Buddhism History of Continuing Karma Kamtsang Branch and
and teaching Buddhist scriptures in Dolon Nor Tai Situ’s Autobiography.
at Huizong Temple in full summer each year. In the ninth year (1744) of Qianlong Period of
However, he returned to the imperial capital to Qing Dynasty, Si-tu chos-kyi byung-gnas finished si
handle affairs concerning Tibetan Buddhism in tu vgrel chen which was praised as a definitive work
winter. In the 50th year (1711) of Kangxi Period, the in grammar of Tibetan and circulated in a fairly
Qing regime specially erected a monastery for the extensive way. In the 26th year of Qianlong Period, he
Second Chang-chia Living Buddha. In the next year, founded a medical academy in Palpung Monastery,
Kangxi Emperor himself wrote down the inscription which became a Tibetan medicine teaching and

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research base in Khams. His monumental medicinal at Zhenhai Temple to commemorate the third
work vbrum bcos based on clinical experience was Akiyoshi Buddha.
respected in Tibetan medical world. Besides, he The Third Akyoshi Budda mastered several
invented Palpung Monastery’s dkar ris school languages such as Sanskrit, Tibetan, Mongolian,
of painting. Both his mural and thangka were Manchu and Chinese. Besides presided over the
representative throughout Khams. translation of Tripitaka into Mongolian and Manchu,
(Kalsang gyal) lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje edited many large tool
books such as sog bod shan sbyar dag yig mkhas pavi
lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje vbyung gnas published by Nationalities Publishing
The third Akiyoshi Buddha (lcang skya rol pvi rdo House and printed in Beijing in 1988 for the first
rje, 1717~1786), an eminent monk of dge lugs pa time and Han-i Araha Sunja Haqin-i Hergen Kamqiha
of Tibet Buddhism and one of the four great living Manju Gisun-i Buleku Bithe published by Nationalities
Buddhas in the Qing Dynasty who was born in a Publishing House and printed in Beijing in October
common herdsman family of Tu Nationality lived 1957 for the first time by virtue of his abundant
near Lotus Temple in west Liangzhou, Gansu experience and practice of sutra translation which
(present-day Wuwei, Gansu). In 1720, lcang skya not only played an instruction and reference role
rol pvi rdo rje was identified as the reincarnation at that time, but also make a great contribution to
of the second Akiyoshi Buddha and was enthroned India-China Buddhist cultural exchange.
as the third Akiyoshi Buddha at dgon lung (Kalsang gyal)
(Youning Temple).
In 1734, Qing Emperor Yongzheng conferred the Vju mi pham vjam dbyangs
title of great preceptor on kang skya rol pvi rdo rhamgyal rgya mtsho
rje and bestowed gold edict and gold seal. In the Vju mi pham vjam dbyangs rhamgyal rgya mtsho
same year, the third Akiyoshi Buddha was ordered (1846~1912) eminent monk of Nyingma sect
to go to garthar chode to pay a visit to the seventh of Tibetan Buddhism and celebrated Buddhist
Dalai Lama together with Prince Guo and escort the scholar and born in Shiqu County, Ganzi Tibetan
seventh Dalai Lama to go back to Lhasa together Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province. At the
with vice capital commandant Fu Shou for the age of six, Vju mi pham vjam dbyangs rham rgyal
sake of stabilising the political situation of Tibet, rgya mtsho begin to study cultural knowledge. At
completing a major political and religious mission the age of 10, he excelled in reading and writing
in Qing Dynasty. Meanwhile, he went to bkra- and wrote essays. At the age of 12, he was converted
shislhun-po to become a disciple of the 5th Panchen to Buddhism and became a monk at gsang sngags
Lobsang Yexei and receive Bhikshu precepts and chos gling. At the age of 18, he toured religious sites
made friends with high-ranking monks in Tibet. in Lhasa. After returning hometown, he became
In 1736, lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje returned to a disciple of vjam dbyangs mkhyen brtse dbang
the capital in a rash to have an audience with Qing po (1820-1892) and studied rig gnas che chung
Emperor Qianlong who newly succeeded to throne bcu, renowned as an erudite master who excelled
and reported him on the political and religious in Indian medicine, calendar science, bzo-rig-pa
affairs in Tibet. Emperor Qianlong ordered him to (silpakarmasthana-vidya) and adhyātmavidyā,
govern temples and monks in capital and bestowed
him a seal engraved with “JasagTerigün Lama” and
lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje became pe-cin-gyi-tham-
ka-bla-ma. In 1743, lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje was
bestowed with imperial golden dragon canopy. In
1751, he was awarded the seal engraved with “Great
Preceptor for a Brilliant Feat in Revitalising Yellow-
hat Sect”. In the ranking list of Lama in capital in
1786, lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje emerged at the top
among left-wing lamas.
Before he passed away on Wutai Montain, the
third Akiyoshi Buddha asked to cremate instead
of burying his remains and build copper stupa at
Zhenhai Temple to store his ashes. Hearing the
news, Emperor Qinglong felt great grief over the
death of lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje and ordered to
use 7,000 tales of gold to build a gold stupa for
keeping his remains as well as erect a stone pagoda Jumipang Jiangyangnanjiejiacuo

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achieved great accomplishments in study into “Bstan vgyur”, collection of Tibetan Buddhist
Tibetan Buddhism and composed an array of works sacred literature on the commentaries and treaties
including masterpiece entitled” vju mi pham gsung of “bkav vgyur” by Indian and Tibetan Buddhist
vbu which totaled 32 parts (cases) and encompassed masters, monks and lotsawa has 18 serials such as
Indian Buddhism, Buddhist logic, medicine, “bStod Tshogs”, “rgyud sde bshi”, “Shes Phyin”, “d
calendar, arts and literature, offering detailed data Bu Ma”, “mDo vGrel”, “Sems Tsm”, “Prajn apti”,
for study into India-China cultural exchange. “vDul Ba”, “Skyes Rabs”, “Spreng Yig”, “Tshad Ma”,
(Kalsang gyal) “Sgra mDo”, “gSo Rig Pa”, “bZo Rig Pa”, “Thun Mong
Ba Lugs Kyi”, “bStan bCos”, “Sna Tshogs”, “Jo Bovi
Chos Chung” and “Dkar Chag” and totals 225 parts
SCRIPTURES (cases). It is hailed as the Encyclopedia of Tibetan
studies encompassing philosophy, literature, arts,
Tripitaka language, logic, astronomy, calendar, medicine,
Like Tripitaka in Chinese or Pali version, “bod technology and architecture.
yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur” of Sutra Pitika, Vinaya There is minor variation in “bstan vgyur” of
Pitika and Abhidharma Pitika (Three Treasures) different versions. For instance, “bStan vGyur” has a
is renowned as a complete collection of Buddhist total of 232 parts (cases), including “rig gnas bcu”.
sutra. In Tripitaka, Sutra Pitika refers to the sermons The catalogue is as follows:
attributed to Shakyamuni Buddha, Vinaya Pitika Serials 1, bStod Tshogs；Serials 2, Rgyud；Serials
refers to the discipline in practice to act according 3, Shes Phyin；Serials 4, dBu Ma；Serials 5, mDo
to the rules and regulations and Abhidharma Pitika vGrel；Serials 6, Sems Tsm；Serials 7, mNgon
refers to the philosophical works such as discourses, Pa；Serials 8, vDul Ba；Serials 9, Skyes Rabs；Serials
discussions or treatises on the dogma and doctrines 10, Spreng Yig；Serials 11, Tshad Ma；Serials 12,
of Buddhism. Meanwhile, “Bod yig gyi bkav Sgra mDo；Serials 13, gSo Rig Pa；Serials 14, bZo
bstan vgyur” is the common name of all Tibetan Rig Pa；Serials 15, Thun Mong Ba Lugs Kyi bStan
Buddhism scriptures and falls into two parts: “bkav bCos；Serials 16, Sna Tshogs；Serials 17, Jo Bovi
vgyur” (original) and “bstan vgyur” (counterpart). Chos Chung；Serials 18, DKar Chag.
The former refers to Sutra Pitika and Vinaya Pitika As early as 8th century CE, “Bod yig gyi bkav
and the latter refers to Abhidharma Pitika. The bstan vgyur” was translated and compiled to take
“bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur” includes over 4,570 shape. In modern times, it was constantly revised
sutras in early, middle and late Buddhist Period and and printed to produce different versions. During
encompasses sutra, vinaya and abhidharma (Three the Tubo period (8th-9th centuries CE), “idan dkar
Treasures), Kriya Tantra, Carya Tantra, Yoga Tantra ma”, “mchims phu ma” and “vphang thang ma” and
and Maha-anuttara Yoga Tantra plus grammer, “Dkar Chag” were complied in succession, which
poetry, arts, logic, astronomy, calendar, medicine were embryo of “Bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur” and
and technology etc. Tripitaka in Chinese or Pali spread by means of handwritten copy or copybook.
version contains no major part of sutras in Tantric In 14th century CE, “bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur”
Buddhist hetu-vidya and Pramānavāda, suggesting was recompiled at Na Tong Temple as the first rare
the importance of “bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur” in edition at bstan pa phyi dar, also known as the Na
study into Buddhism. Tong ancient edition. In 1410, “bkav vgyur” was
“Bkav vgyur”, also named as Dharma or original printed as Yongle editon of “bod yig gyi bkav bstan
scripture, the collection of verbal directions of vgyur” on the basis of Na Tong Ancient Edition in
Sakyamuni Budda, was compiled by his disciples Nanjing. Since most of sutras were printed with
for six times after collection, memory and reciting, cinnabar, Yongle edition of “bod yig gyi bkav bstan
includes Sutra Pitika, Vinaya Pitika and Abhidharma vgyur” was also called the red character edition.
Pitika (Three Treasures) and has seven serilas, In 1605, “bstan vgyur” was printed as the Wanli
namely, “vDul Ba”, “Shes Phyin”, “Phal Chen”, edition of “bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur”. The
“dKon bRtsegs”, “mDo Sde”, “rgyud sde bshi” and Yongle edition and the Wanli edition of “bod yig
“DKar Chag”, totalling 108 parts (cases). There giy bkav bstan vgyur” were two milestones in the
is minor variation in different “bkav vgyur” of development history of “bod yig giy bkav bstan
different version. For instance, “bStan vGyur” has vgyur”. From then on, the “bod yig giy bkav bstan
108 parts (cases) and nine serials. vgyur” spread by means of wood-block printing
Serials 1 Vdul Ba; Serials 2, Shes Phyin; Serials instead of handwritten copy.
3, Phal Chen; Serials 4, Dkon bRtsegs; Serials 5, The “bod yig giy bkav bstan vgyur” of Li Tang
mDo Sde; Serials 6, Rgyud vBum; Serials 7, Rnying edition was printed in late Ming Dynasty and early
Rgyud; Serials 8, Dus Vkhor vgrel bShad; and, Qing Dynasty (1628-1644). Under the sponsorship
Serials 9, gZungs vDus. of Yunnan Lijiang Naxi Nationality chieftain Mu

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Zeng, the sixth Karmapa Red-hat Sect Living Buddha participated in the translation of “bod yig giy kbav
Chos-kyi-dbang-phyug presided over the printing of bstan vgyur” from the middle 8th century CE to the
“bkav vgyur” which was the first printed “bod yig early 14th century CE sticking to the translation
giy bkav bstan vgyur” in Tibet. Without printing principle of inviting India eminent monks to assist
“bstan vgyur”, the edition was called the Li Tang in translating sutras to ensure excellent translation
edition of “bod yig giy bkav bstan vgyur” because it quality and consequently the vast majority of sutras
was stored at Li Tang temple. were translated from Sanskrit to Tibetan.
The Beijing edition of “bod yig giy bkav bstan (Tong Wei)
vgyur” was also known as the Songzhou Temple
edition. In 1683, the hand-written Shalu edition Buddhist Canon in Chinese
of “bod yig giy bkav bstan vgyur” was printed at Chinese Tripitaka contains collections of Mahayana
Shongzhu Temple in Beijing. “Bkav vgyur” was and Hinayana scriptures. During 1,000 years since
printed in the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi and Buddhism was introduced into China, Chinese
“bstan vgyur” was printed in the second year of the Tripitaka collected more than 50 kinds of scriptures,
reign of Qing Emperor Yongzheng. In the second but only about 20 kinds of scriptures of the unequal
year of the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1737), size are preserved till now. Buddhist scriptures in
“bkav vgyur” and “bstan vgyur” were recompiled different times have different forms and contents.
and published as Qianlong revised edition in history. Before Song Dynasty, except Fangshan Stone Sutras,
For it was printed in Beiing, it was called the Beijing all these scriptures were almost written in scroll
edition of “bod yig giy bkav bstan vgyur”. and bonded together. During Kai Bao Years of Song
The Zhuoni edition of “bod yig giy kbav bstan Dynasty (968~975), the first Tripitaka in wood
vgyur” was printed at Anduozhuoni Temple in carving came out. After that a total of 20 kinds
present-day Lintan County, Gansu Province and it (some says 21 kinds) of Tripitaka in wood carving
was named after Anduozhuoni Temple. At first, it form and printing form were issued from the Ming
took 10 years to print “bkav vgyur”, totalling 108 and Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China. After
parts (cases) from 1721 to 1731, and then, it took Buddhism was introduced eastward into Korea
19 years to print “bstan vgyur”, totalling 209 parts and Japan, Buddhist scriptures was transcribed or
(cases) from 1753 to 1772. carved or printed in the two countries according
Since “BStan vGyur” was printed at Dege Sutra- to Chinese Tripitaka. The first carving version of
Printing House in Gan Zi Dege County, Sichuan Kai Bao Zang was introduced into Japan in the
Province from 1730 to 1737, it was named after Dege first year of Yong Xi of Northern Song Dynasty
Sutra-printing House. “Bkav vgyur” was reprinted (984) and then introduced into Korea during Duan
from Li Tang edition and “bstan vgyur” was printed Gong years (988~989). The Tianxi revised version
on the basis of the handwritten Shalu edition of and the Xining revised version were respectively
“bod yig giy kbav bstan vgyur” plus sutras in “DKar introduced into Qidan and Korea in the first year
Chag” by Bu-ston. The complete set of wood-block of Qian Xing (1022) and the sixth year of Yuan
edition was stored at Dege Sutra Printing House. Feng (1083). In the ninth year of Qing Ning of Liao
The seventh Dalai Lama Kelsang Gyatso (1708- Dynasty (1063), the Kitans also sent the new carved
1757) and Tibet Prince Polhanas presided over the Qi Dan Zang to Korea. In the middle of 6th century,
printing of new Na Tong edition of “bod yig giy some Chinese translated Buddhist scriptures were
kbav bstan vgyur” based on Na Tong ancient edition introduced into Japan via Paekche country, south
and “bkav vgyur and bstan vgyur” compiled and Korea. In early 7th century, Buddhism had a great
stored by bu-ston chos-vbyung at Shalu Temple. The development in Japan because the copies of various
new edition of “bkav vgyur” was completed in 1730 Chinese translation Buddhist scriptures and the
and totalled 102 parts (cases) and over 50,000 sutra official or private carved Tripitaka were introduced
blocks and the new edition of “bstan vgyur” was into the Japanese temples. During over 700 years
completed in 1742 and totalled 225 parts (cases) from the end of 13th century to 1920s, according
and over 70,000 sutra blocks. The complete set of to various Chinese translation Buddhist scriptures,
new wood-block Na Tong edition was originally the Japanese Buddhism once compiled, carved or
stored at Na Tong Temple and lost at last. It was printed seven Chinese Tri-pitakas, such as Hong An
hailed as the best edition boasting exquisite carving Zang, Tian Hai Zang, Huang Bo Zang, Hong Jiao
craftsmanship and excellent collation. Zang, Wan Zheng Zang Jing, Wan Xu Zang Jing, Da
“Bod yig giy kbav bstan vgyur” was a great Zheng Xin Xiu Da Zang Jing. In early 20th century,
masterpiece co-translated by China’s Tibetan the Japanese Buddhists also translated Hinayana
eminent monks and Indian monks. According to Sthaviravada Tripitaka into Japanese Nan Chuan Da
preliminary statistics by bus ton-rin chen grub Zang Jing (65 volumes) and meanwhile compiled
(1290-1364), 192 Indian paditas and lo tsa bas and issued Guo Yi Da Zang Jing, Guo Yi Yi Qie Jing

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 Cultural Contacts

and Japanese Tri-pitaka which not only collected the

Chinese translations, but also collected numerous
Japanese chapters and mixed writings.
(Tong Wei)

Bod yig gyi bkav

bstan vgyur
Like Tripitaka in Chinese or Pali version, Bod
yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur of Sutra Pitika, Vinaya
Pitika and Abhidharma Pitika (Three Treasures)
is renowned as a complete collection of Buddhist
sutra. In Tripitaka, Sutra Pitika refers to the sermons
attributed to the Shakyamuni Buddha, Vinaya Pitika The Buddhist Canon (Tripiṭaka) in Tibetan
refers to the discipline in practice to act according
to rules and regulations and Abhidharma Pitika Phyin; Serials 3, Phal Chen; Serials 4, Dkon bRtsegs;
refers to philosophical works such as discourses, Serials 5, mDo Sde; Serials 6, Rgyud vBum; Serials
discussions or treatises on the dogma and doctrines 7, Rnying Rgyud; Serials 8, Dus Vkhor vgrel bShad;
of Buddhism. Meanwhile, Bod yig gyi bkav bstan Serials 9, gZungs vDus.
vgyur is the common name of all Tibetan Buddhism Bstan vgyur, collection of Tibetan Buddhist sacred
scriptures and falls into two parts, bkav vgyur literature on the “commentaries and treaties of Bkav
(original) and bstan vgyur (counterpart). The vgyur by Indian and Tibetan Buddhist masters, monks
former refers to Sutra Pitika and Vinaya Pitika, and and lotsawa, has 18 serials such as bStod Tshogs,
the latter refers to Abhidharma Pitika. The Bod yig rgyud sde bshi, Shes Phyin, d Bu Ma, mDo vGrel,
gyi bkav bstan vgyur includes over 4,570 sutras Sems Tsm, Prajn apti, vDul Ba, Skyes Rabs, Spreng
in early, middle and late Buddhist Period and Yig, Tshad Ma, Sgra mDo, gSo Rig Pa, bZo Rig Pa,
encompasses sutra, vinaya and abhidharma (Three Thun Mong Ba Lugs Kyi, bStan bCos, Sna Tshogs, Jo
Treasures), Kriya Tantra, Carya Tantra, Yoga Tantra Bovi Chos Chung and Dkar Chag and totals 225 parts
and Maha-anuttara Yoga Tantra plus grammer, (cases). It is hailed as the Encyclopedia of Tibetan
poetry, arts, logic, astronomy, calendar, medicine studies encompassing philosophy, literature, arts,
and technology etc. Tripitaka in Chinese or Pali language, logic, astronomy, calendar, medicine,
version contains no major part of sutras in Tantric technology and architecture.
Buddhist hetu-vidya and Pramānavāda, suggesting There is minor variation in bstan vgyur of
the importance of Bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur in different versions. For instance, bStan vGyur has a
study into Buddhism. total of 232 parts (cases) including rig gnas bcu. The
Bkav vgyur, also named as dharma or original catalogue is as follows:
scripture, the collection of verbal directions of Serials 1, bStod Tshogs；Serials 2, Rgyud；Serials
Sakyamuni Budda, was compiled by his disciples 3, Shes Phyin；Serials 4, dBu Ma；Serials 5, mDo
for six times after collection, memory and reciting, vGrel；Serials 6, Sems Ts m；Serials 7, mNgon
includes Sutra Pitika, Vinaya Pitika and Abhidharma Pa；Serials 8, vDul Ba；Serials 9, Skyes Rabs；Serials
Pitika (Three Treasures) and has seven serials, 10, Spreng Yig；Serials 11, Tshad Ma；Serials 12,
namely, vDul Ba, Shes Phyin, Phal Chen, dKon Sgra mDo；Serials 13, gSo Rig Pa；Serials 14, bZo
bRtsegs, mDo Sde, rgyud sde bshi and DKar Chag, Rig Pa；Serials 15, Thun Mong Ba Lugs Kyi bStan
totaling 108 parts (cases). There is minor variation bCos；Serials 16, Sna Tshogs；Serials 17, Jo Bovi
in different Bkav vgyur of different version. For Chos Chung；Serials 18, DKar Chag.
instance, bStan vGyur has 108 parts (cases) and As early as 8th century CE, Bod yig gyi bkav bstan
nine serials. Serials 1, Vdul Ba; Serials 2, Shes vgyur was translated and compiled to take shape. In
modern times, it was constantly revised and printed
to produce differenet versions. During the Tubo
period (8th -9th century CE), idan dkar ma, mchims
phu ma and vphang thang ma and Dkar Chag were
complied in succession, which were embryo of Bod
yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur and spread by means of
handwritten copy or copybook.
In 14th century, bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur
was recompiled at Na Tong Temple as the first rare
A sequel of the Chinese edition of ‘Zhonghua da zang’ (Chinese
Tripiṭaka). A group photo of the working group meeting held on July 5,
edition at bstan pa phyi dar also known as Na Tong
2008 at the Beijing National Library. ancient edition. In 1410, bkav vgyur was printed

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 Cultural Contacts

as the Yongle editon of bod yig gyi bkav bstan and bkav vgyur and bstan vgyur compiled and
vgyur on the basis of the Na Tong Ancient Edition stored by bu-ston chos-vbyung at Shalu Temple.
in Nanjing. Since most sutras were printed with The new edition of bkav vgyur was completed in
cinnabar, Yongle edition of bod yig gyi bkav bstan 1730 and totalled 102 parts (cases) and over 50,000
vgyur was also called the red character edition. In sutra blocks and the new edition of bstan vgyur was
1605, bstan vgyur was printed as Wanli edition of completed in 1742 and totaled 225 parts (cases)
bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur. Yongle edition and and over 70,000 sutra blocks. The complete set of
Wanli edition of bod yig giy bkav bstan vgyur were new wood-block Na Tong edition was originally
two milestones in the development history of bod stored at Na Tong Temple and lost at last. It was
yig giy bkav bstan vgyur. From then on, the bod hailed as the best edition boasting exquisite carving
yig giy bkav bstan vgyur spread by means of wood- craftsmanship and excellent collation.
block printing instead of handwritten copy. Bod yig giy kbav bstan vgyur was a great
The bod yig giy bkav bstan vgyur of Li Tang edition masterpiece co-translated by China’s eminent
was printed in late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Tibetan monks and Indian monks. According to
Dynasty (1628-1644). Under the sponsorship of preliminary statistics by bus ton-rin chen grub
Yunnan Lijiang Naxi Nationality chieftain Mu Zeng, (1290-1364), 192 Indian paditas and lo tsa bas
the sixth Karmapa Red-hat Sect Living Buddha participated in the translation of bod yig giy kbav
Chos-kyi-dbang-phyug presided over the printing of bstan vgyur from the middle 8th century to the early
bkav vgyur which was the first printed bod yig giy 14th century sticking to the translation principle of
bkav bstan vgyur in Tibet. Without printing bstan inviting India eminent monks to assist in translating
vgyur, the edition was called the Li Tang edition of sutras to ensure excellent translation quality and
bod yig giy bkav bstan vgyur because it was stored consequently the vast majority of sutras were
at Li Tang temple. translated from Sanskrit to Tibetan.
The Beijing edition of bod yig giy bkav bstan (Kalsang gyal)
vgyur was also known as Songzhou Temple edition.
In 1683, the handwritten Shalu edition of bod yig Buddhist Canon in
giy bkav bstan vgyur was printed at Shongzhu Mongolian
Temple in Beijing. Bkav vgyur was printed during Tripitaka of Mongolian version refers to Tripitaka
the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi and bstan vgyur which was published in Mongolian was translated,
was printed in the second year of the reign of Qing compiled, collated, carved in blocks and printed in
Emperor Yongzheng. In the second year of the reign the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. During Yuan
of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1737), bkav vgyur and
bstan vgyur were recompiled and published as
the Qianlong revised edition in history. For it was
printed in Beiing, it was called the Beijing edition of
bod yig giy bkav bstan vgyur.
The Zhuoni edition of bod yig giy kbav bstan vgyur
was printed at Anduozhuoni Temple in present-day
Lintan County, Gansu Province and it was named
after Anduozhuoni Temple. At first, it took 10 years
to print bkav vgyur, totalling 108 parts (cases) from
1721 to 1731, and then, it took 19 years to print
bstan vgyur, totalling 209 parts (cases) from 1753
to 1772. The Mongolian edition/version of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, composed
Since BStan vGyur was printed at Dege Sutra- during the Qianlong emperor
Printing House in Gan Zi Dege County, Sichuan
Province from 1730 to 1737, it was named after Dege Dade reign (1297-1307), under the order of Yuan
Sutra-printing House. Bkav vgyur was repinted from Emperor Chengzong, Sakya Lama and Imperial
the Li Tang edition and bstan vgyur was printed on Master grags pa vod zer (1246-1303) presided over
the basis of the handwritten Shalu edition of bod the translation of Bod yig giy kbav bstan vgyur into
yig giy kbav bstan vgyur plus sutras in DKar Chag Mongolian participated by Tibetan, Mongolian,
by Bu-ston. The complete set of wood-block edition Uighur and Chinese eminent monks. No related
was stored at Dege Sutra Printing House. literature record on the number of sutras translated
The seventh Dalai Lama Kelsang Gyatso (1708- then has been founded.
1757) and Tibet Prince Polhanas presided over the In Wanli Reign of Ming Dynasty (1573-1620),
printing of the new Na Tong edition of bod yig giy Mongolian was keen on accepting Buddhism and
kbav bstan vgyur based on Na Tong ancient edition Tomoto Altan Qan and his posterity advocated

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category emulated the Beijing edition of bod yig giy

kbav bstan vgyur [bkav bgyur totalling 108 parts
(cases) and bstan vgyur totalling 225 parts (cases)].
In addition, the catalogue, classification and category
were the same as bod yig giy kbav bstan vgyur. The
existing bkav vgyur in Mongolian falls into 10 parts
including rgyud sde bshi, mahaprajna – paramita,
second mahaprajna –paramita, the third mahaprajna –
paramita prajnaparamita, maharatnakuta, avatamsaka,
Mahayana and Vinaya-pitaka.
The publication of Tripitaka in Mongolian ushered
The Buddhist Canon in Manchu language in a new era of preaching sutra and spreading
Buddhism in Mongolian temples and it reflected
translating Tripitaka into Mongolian, ushering a new the dissemination of Indian Buddhist culture
era of translating Buddhist sutra into Mongolian. in Mongolia.
Meanwhile, Chahar Ligdar Khan attached importance (Kalsang gyal)
to the translation of Tripitaka into Mongolian and
valued bkav vgyur as one of Three Treasures so he Buddhist Canon in
gathered 33 eminent monks including Kunga Ao Manchu Language
Tyne to translate parts of bkav vgyur which have not As the cultural products derived from the prosperity
been translated yet into Mongolian. In 1629, monks the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi and Emperor
completed the translation of bkav vgyur. Tripitaka Qianlong, Tripitaka in Manchu version, also known as
was written with gold power and thus, it is, called Tripitaka in native language, was translated, carved
“Golden Mongolian Tripitaka” in history. in blocks and printed with bod yig gyi bkav bstan
Most of existent Tripitaka in Mongolian was vgyur as master copy and in reference to Tripitaka
compiled and printed in Qing Dynasty. In 1683, in Chinese version and in Mongolian version and it
under the order of Qing Emperor Kangxi, Prince Yu represented the highest woodblock print and binding
presided over the revision of bkav vgyur and lama layout level in China.
and scholars including Urad Gushi Bili Kun and Aba Considering that there was no Tripitaka in Manchu
Gamochu Ke from Jingzhu Temple in Beijing and though bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur and Tripitaka
Imperial Guard La Chi proofread and compiled the in Tibetan, Chinese and Mongolian were published
bkav vgyur into 108 parts (cases) and block-printed before, Emperor Qianlong issued the edict of building
in 1720. a sutra academy to translate Tripitaka into Manchu
Another bstan vgyur was translated into Mongolian to fill the cultural gap in 1773.
in the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong (1741-1749). On the suggestions of Great Preceptor kang
Under the order of Emperor Qianlong, the third skya rol pvi rdo rje, Tripitaka of Manchu version
Akiyoshi Buddha lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje an d and was translated in reference to bkav vgyur totalling
Khutukutu Lobsang Nyima Tempeh presided over 108 cases of bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur, also
the translation of bstan vgyur into Mongolian, over known as Sutra Pitika and Vinaya Pitika of Three
200 lamas and scholars from Mongolia including Treasures, expounding on the sermons attributed
age wang dan pi le, Tangute Academy Governor to Shakyamuni Buddha. In Tripitaka of Manchu
guan bu zha bu, Jasag Lama que yin pi le duo erji version, bstan vgyur was not translated because it
from the Xihuang Temple, Jasag Lama dan sen que constituted part of Abhidharma Pitika, referring to
del from the Longfu Temple and Dalai Lama bi li discourses, discussions or treatises on the dogma
kun participated in the translation. It took seven and doctrines of Buddhism. The translation work
years to translate 225 parts (cases) of bstan vgyur adhered to the principle of translating sutras
into Mongolian. A complete set of Tripitaka of bkav such as mahaprajna-paramita, maharatnakuta,
vgyur was translated into Mongolian in the early avatamsaka, mahaparinirvana, Madh Yamagama and
reign of Qing Empeor Yongzheng, and bstan vgyur Mahayana in total and sutras of sect branches in a
was translated into Mongolian in the reign of Qing simplified way. Additionally, Mongolian writings
Emperor Qianlong, were published in the Jingzhu and Chinese characters in bod yig gyi bkav bstan
Temple in Beijing. vgyur were carefully reviewed and collated as well
The final compilation, translation, collation, as translated into Manchu in the light of languages
review and printing of Tripitaka of bkav vgyur and mastered by translators.
bstan vgyur in Mongolian version were completed in To ensure smooth translation progress, Emperor
reference to the Beijing edition of bod yig giy kbav Qianlong issued an edict of compiling and translating
bstan vgyur and its classification, case number and all mantras in Mahapitaka at first. As we all know,

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 Cultural Contacts

Emperor Qianlong and the third Akiyoshi Buddha plays a vital role in promoting sutra translation and
devoted themselves to the translation of Tripitaka bequeaths our prosperity with valuable India-China
in Manchu. Usually, the third Akiyoshi Buddha cultural legacy.
determined and reviewed contents and layout as (Kalsang gyal)
well as worked as a polisher and then submitted to
Emperor Qianlong for review and approval. Buddhist Canon in
From 1773 to 1790, it took 18 years to complete Tangut Language
the translation of Tripitaka in Manchu. Among it, Tangut script - Tripitaka was originally translated
some sutras were printed and bound into volumes to from Chinese Tripitaka. In the first year of Jing
present to Emperor Qianlong as a birthday gift and You of Northern Song Dynasty (1034), Kai Bao
Emperor Qianlong rejoiced at the gift, composing the Zang was introduced into the Western Xia Regime
preface to Imperial Tripitaka in Manchu or preface (maybe Tianxi revised version of Kai Bao Zang).
to Tripitaka in Manchu. The founding emperor of Western Xia Regime, Zhao
Tripitaka in Manchu has a total of 108 parts (cases) Yuanhao, established Kodaiji Temple in Xingqingfu
and collects 699 sutras running to 2,535 volumes, to collect Kai Bao Zang and meanwhile invited
falling into five categories: 1) It collects Shes-phyin, Uighur monks to translate it into new Tangut script.
22 cases, 610 volumes; dkon brtsegs, 1 sutra, 6 cases, It took 53 years to translate Kai Bao Zang, with a
120 volumes, 1 Mahasannipat, 1 sutra, 1 case , 30
volumes; Phal-chen, 1 sutra, 8 cases , 80 volumes;
Nirvana, 2 sutras, 2 parts , 42 volumes; 2) Sutras
in one translated version: 17 cases, 206 parts, 444
volumes; 3) Tantric darma dharani, 16 cases, 322
parts, 404 volumes; 4) Theravada and discourses, 20
cases, 155 parts , 460 volumes; 5) Hinayana vinaya,
16, cases, 11 parts, 345 volumes. Mahayana Vinaya,
Mahayana sastra and Hinayana sastra are were not
included in Tripitaka in Manchu.
The layout of Tripitaka in Manchu refers to bod
yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur, richly bound in leaves and A remnant of the movable type printed edition of the Buddhist
Canon in Tangut Language
two-sided printed, 73 cm × 24.5 cm in size and
inserted vivid and lively illustration and portrait of
Buddha. According to statistics, there are a total of total of 362 Zhi, 812 books and 3,579 volumes. In
more than 700 Buddha on pattra leaves and Tripitaka the seventh year of Zhi Yuan of the Emperor Shizu of
in Manchu version is reputed to be Qing Tibetan Yuan (1270), the Emperor's teacher, Huashenyixing,
Buddha Portrait Arts treasure. played the role of the national eminent monk to
After Tripitaka in Manchu was block-printed, organise amendment and translation of the entire
the cut blocks for printing were stored in the Sutra scriptures and print the new Tripitaka. In 30th year
Academy. In 1799, the cut blocks for printing were of Zhi Yuan, The Emperor Shizu of Yuan ordered to
transferred to be stored at Meridian Gate of the send the old Tangut script scriptures to Hangzhou
Forbidden City. In those days, 12 sets of Tripitaka for carving, which was completed in the sixth year
in Manchu were printed and worshipped at Potala of Da De (1302) and included a total of about 140
Palace, Tashilunpo Monastery, Grand Zongjing kinds. But most were damaged over the time, with
Monastery, Baodi Temple on Fragrance Hill, only about 10 kinds of remaining chapters existing
Yinghua Palace in Forbidden City, the Lama Temple, till now in various places.
Shuxiang Temple in Chengde, Putuo Zongcheng (Tong Wei)
Temple, Xumifushou Temple, Falun Temple in
Mukden, Huizong Temple in Duolunnuoer and Buddhist Canon
Zhenhai Temple on Wutai Mountain. in Dai Language
Tripitaka in Manchu collects an array of exquisite The Dai Language Tripitaka stemmed from Pali
Indian Buddha statues and ancient Indian primitive Tripitaka. This one of the most ancient Tripitaka
spells (mantra) and provides important data for study recorded as books and pursued by Southern
into India-China Cultural Exchange and Academic Buddhism Sthaviravada. Spread to Dai regions
Research. In particular, the compilation, translation in Yunan, China, Dai Language Writing Tripitaka
and publication of all mantras in Mahapitaka in has four different local translations and recently,
Sanskrit, Tibetan, Mongolian and Chinese running three more versions are added therein: Devanagari
to eight volumes represents great academic Sanskrit, Latin and Japanese translation.
achievements in India-China translation history, (Tong Wei)

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Process of writing the book

In the spring of 646 CE, with the support from
Emperor Taizong of Tang (627-649 CE), Xuanzang
prepared to build a yard in order to translate the
scriptures in Hongfu Temple, Chang’an. In summer,
according to the arrangement of the court, one
of the writing masters, Hui Li, came to Hongfu
Temple. Since then, he remained there for many
years and participated in Xuanzang’s translation
work. Because he often accompanied Xuanzang
and admired his knowledge and morality so after
the death of Xuanzang in 664 CE, Hui Li wrote five
volumes of Biography of San Zang Master from Da
Ci’en Temple in order to spread his life story. After
Buddhist Canon in Dai language finishing it, he felt it was not comprehensive, and
decided to store it in the crypt. Hui Li, before his
Ullambana Sutra death, asked his disciple to take it out. After Hui
Ullambana Sutra is the name of a Buddhist sutra. Li’s death, the book soon scattered around different
The full name is "The Buddha Ullambana Sutra". places. The complete book was put together after
There is only one volume and the translator has not many years of collection and purchase of its
been known. The time of translation into Chinese fragments. On the request of concerned authorities,
should be no later than 5th century CE. According Xuanzang’s disciple Yan Cong took on the mission of
to the sutra, after Maudgalyayana obtained six revising and supplementing it. Finally, 10 volumes
kinds of supernatural power, he intended to convert were published in 688 CE as a complete book, which
his mother to Buddhism, in order to pay a debt of still survives up to now.
gratitude of breastfeeding. With the powers he saw Main content
his mother suffering in hell without anything to The Biography of San Zang Master from Da Ci’en
eat so he was very sad. He fed his mother meals, Temple has 10 volumes. Volume 1 tells about the
but the food became charcoal fire near mouth. life of Xuanzang as a Buddhist and his travelling
Maudgalyayana wept loudly from sorrow and told experiences and also narrates the process of his
Buddha. Buddha told him to prepare Ullambana on going westward to Gaochang (present-day Turpan,
July 15 with delicious food, to provide for monks Xinjiang). Volume 2 describes the experience of
with great virtue in 10 directions and by this his Xuanzang starting from Gaochang, via Agni (now
merits and virtues would liberate the secular Yanqi, Xinjiang) and Qiuci (present-day Kuqa,
parents and relieve kinsfolks. Maudgalyayana Xinjiang), climbing snow mountains to enter
complied with Buddha’s words and his mother was Kyrgyzstan and passing through Central Asia to
immediately relieved.
Because the content of the Sutra is in accordance
with filial piety of Chinese traditional morality,
it was specially popular with ruling class and the
public. Soon after its translation and distribution,
there appeared Obon Festival in China. This Sutra
is short and easy to recite. It has been popular for
1,500 years without fading and after Tang Dynasty,
it was constant recomposed and deduced to a variety
of novels and play scripts popular in the folk.
(Xue Keqiao)

A Biography of
Tripitaka Master
A Biography of San Zang Master from Da Ci’en Temple
is the biography of Master Xuanzang who went
westward to India to seek Buddhist sutra in Tang
Dynasty. This biography is also known by other
names such as Biography of Sang Zang Master of Ci’en
Temple, and Ci’en Biography for short. Its authors are A Biography of the Tripiṭaka master
Hui Li and Yan Cong. (Daci’ensi Sanzang fashi Zhuan)

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Northern India, finally reaching Sankisa (present- Biographies of Eminent

day Kannauj in north India). Volume three Monks of the Great Tang
describes Xuanzang’s travels southward across the Seeking Scriptures in the
Ganges River and various activities held in Uttar Western Regions
Pradesh and Bihar in India such as the worship Biography of the Great Monk Who Who Journeyed
of Buddhist holy land and learning from local to the West to Seek the Doctrine during the Great
monks. It specially records the history of Nalanda Tang (Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan) was an
and its scale at that time and the experience of autobiography written by eminent Tang Buddhist
Xuanzang learning from Śilabhadra. Volume monk Yi-Jing during his travel to India during the
four writes about Xuanzang’s Indian travel, latter half of 7th century CE.
learning and experiences along the way and the Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan is one of the
situation after returning to Nalanda. Volume five most important masterpieces of Yi-Jing. With two
details Xuanzang’s efforts to spread Buddhism volumes, the book was completed in the second
in Kamarupa (present-day Assam) in northeast year of Tianshou (691 CE) in the period of Empress
India and the experience of returning home after Wu Zetian of Tang Dynasty. At that time, when Yi-
participating in Buddhist Assembly of Śiladitya Jing came back from India, he stayed in Srivijaya
and Kumbh Mela. Volume six tells the story of (present-day Sumatra, Indonesia) in South China
Xuanzang from 646-648 CE, namely Xuanzang’s Sea for a time. During his stay, he wrote Great
return to Chang’an, meeting with the Emperor Monk’s Biography Who Seek the Doctrine from Tang
Taizong of Tang, construction of translation hall to India and The South Sea Posted Internal Statutes,
and translation of Buddhist scriptures. Volume and translated a number of Buddhist scriptures from
seven tells the story of Xuanzang from 648-654 Sanskrit into Chinese. Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng
CE which records that in the summer of 652 CE, Zhuan records and narrates stories of 57 monks
Dharmavardhana from Mahabodhi Temple in travelling to the South China Sea and India to pursue
India visited China and brought the letter and further studies on Buddhism. This included Yi-Jing
gifts from Praj¤āprabha and Praj¤ādeva from and other Chinese as well as Korean, Vietnamese,
the same temple to Xuanzang. Two years later, Afghan, Uzbek and other regions during about 40
Dharmavardhana returned to India, and Xuanzang years from the 15th year (641 CE) of Zhenguan to
asked him to take back two letters to Praj¤āprabha the second year of Tianshou of Tang Dynasty. Later,
and Praj¤ādeva respectively. Volume seven kept it was attached by Account of Returning to the South
the entire content of these three letters and it Seas which records stories of four Chinese monks
became the important historical materials of accompanying Yi-Jing to Srivijaya for a second
India-China friendship. Volume eight to 10 record time in the first year (689 CE) of Yongchang. After
the achievements of Xuanzang’s last 10 years as completing the books, Yi-Jing sent Chinese monk
well as mourning and commemoration of the Dajin back to Chang'an, China with a memorial to
court and monks after his passing away. the Empress on building temples in the west and his
Academic value newly written books entitled Great Monk’s Biography
For India-China Cultural Exchanges, the academic
value of Biography of San Zang Master from Da
Ci’en Temple includes four points: First, it has the
most detailed information of Xuanzang’s life story
which is valuable for knowing the life of Xuanzang
and his experience of going to India for seeking
scriptures. Second, the westward route of Xuanzang
and Biography of San Zang Master from Da Ci’en
Temple complement each other which provides
useful information for studying ancient India-
China communications. Third records about Indian
historical events and religious activities which were
helpful in building Indian history at that time and
also provided evidence for modern archaeological
excavations. Fourth, the friendly exchanges
between Xuanzang and Indian friends (including the
king, Buddhist monks and people) in the book are
historical testimony of India-China friendship and
Biographies of the Eminent Monks of the great Tang
cultural exchanges. Dynasty Seeking Scriptures in the Western Regions
(Xue Keqiao) (Da Tang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan)

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 Cultural Contacts

Who Seek the Doctrine from Tang to India and Account Seas to India and roads, which were newly built
of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas as well as 10 in Tang Dynasty and went by Tibet and Nepal and
volumes of newly translated sutras. arrived in India. All these information reflects new
Before Yi-Jing, Faxian, an eminent monk of the trends and new situations of India-China exchanges
Eastern Jin Dynasty and Xuanzang, an eminent monk in Early Tang Dynasty and later.
of Tang Dynasty had travelled to India for further The changes approximately occurred after the
study on Buddhism, and respectively produced two Linde Period of Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty.
important works, Biographies of Faxian and Journey At that time, even though monks travelling west by
to the West During the Great Tang. The travel of land and even China’s diplomatic envoy to India
Yi-Jing happened in the second year of Xianheng seldom went to India by the traditional way of
of Tang Dynasty, over 40 years later than that of Gansu, Xinjiang and Central Asia but instead they
Xuanzang. He spent more than 10 years in India and selected the newly developed and more convenient
stayed about 10 years successively in the South Seas and fast way to India by Tibet and Nepal. However,
area. He took the round trips by sea. Since Yi-Jing this road did not keep open for a long time only
stayed in India and the South Seas area for quite because of political reasons.
a long time, his writings have abundant contents The contacts by sea between China and ancient
and serve as important materials for research on South Sea regions in ancient times as well as
India-China relation in early Tang Dynasty and the India had begun since Western Han Dynasty. New
history, culture, geography and religion of India development occurred in the era of Yi-Jing and
and the South Seas area. most of monks travelled to India for further study
Characteristics of the Book on Buddhism by sea. According to records in Datang
Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan is a monk’s Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan, more than half of
autobiography which also records experiences of over 50 monks in the book went to and left India
more than 50 Chinese monks who travelled to India by sea. But the communication routes of South
for further study on Buddhism at that time one by Sea recorded in the book were not one way but
one as well as situations of India and the South many routes. These monks might go on board in
Seas in all aspects. Some of information recorded in Guangzhou or Jiaozhi (now in Hanoi, Vietnam) or
Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan is not contained in Zhanbo (Champa, in Vietnam) or by Srivijaya or
in Tang Western Regions. For example, many Heling (present-day in Indonesia's Java area), or by
geographic names not recorded in Tang Western Langjiashu (South of Burma) or by Nārikira (present-
Regions appear in Great Monk’s Biography Who Seek day Andaman Islands) to arrive at Tammralipti
the Doctrine from Tang to India. Another example, the (present-day West Bengal, India) in east India, or go
description of Nalanda Monastery, the most famous southwest from Jietu (present-day Kedah, Malaysia)
temple in India at that time, is not specific in Tang to Nagappattinam in south India and then travelling
Western Regions while Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng to Simhaladvipa (present-day Sri Lanka) or going
Zhuan India has a rather specific record not only on north to east Indian states by sea or travelling to
the origin of its name but also on its architectural west India from Simhaladvipa. There were too many
structure, materials used and construction methods, routes and travellers were not limited to certain
as well as the management system in the Monastery fixed routes.
and all other matters. The book covers sole records From the era of Yi-Jing, more and more sea
on many aspects of the Monastery which has routes were taken rather than land routes. Chinese
particular meanings for understanding the history monks mostly chose to travel and come back by
of Nalanda Monastery. sea. Besides, Indian monks also came to China
From the perspective of historical development of by sea. For example, Nati came to Chang’an by
India-China exchanges, there are many highlights sea in the sixth year of Yonghui (655 CE) and
in Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan. For example, Vajrabodh and Amoghavajra came to Guangzhou
the route from Chang’an in Tang Dynasty to India, by sea in the seventh year of Kaiyuan (719 CE).
going by Gansu, Xinjiang, Central Asia and other Nati went back to India, bypassing the South Sea.
regions now, is the uppermost land route between Amoghavajra also went back to India by sea in the
India and China since the Han Dynasty ie the Silk 29th year of Kaiyuan (741 CE) and later he came
Road. Tang Western Regions and Stories of Master back to China again by sea. Sea route became very
Xuanzang in Da Ci'en Temple, a book recording important during this period. This was, on the
personal experience of Xuanzang, has rather specific one hand, due to changes in military and political
records on this route; but Great Monk’s Biography situations in Central Asia which obstructed the
Who Seek the Doctrine from Tang to India has not land route. On the other, economic development in
much record on it. However, the latter covers fairly the south gradually surpassed the north and there
specific records on communication from the South were new improvement and development of ship-

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 Cultural Contacts

building technology and seamanship promoting but this mainly centralises around the difference
the sea route. In addition, advancement of trade of its full name and shortened name. But after
and business made metropolises in the South Song Dynasty, the name of Datang Xiyu Qiufa
important domestic trade centres and to some to Gaoseng Zhuan prevailed. On its volumes, only
even commercial ports for international trade. volume 205 of Art and Literature in History of
Guangzhou was one of the largest foreign trade Song Dynasty compiled by Tuotuo in Yuan Dynasty
cities at that time. recorded “three volumes” of the book. This is
The route by the way of Tibet and Nepal was obviously wrong.
somewhat related with the rise of Tibetan regime in Its Influence in the World
ancient China and its friendly relationship with Tang During the late 19th century CE, as the basic
Dynasty. Situations of Chinese monks travelling to material for research on exchanges between India
India through this road recorded in Yi-Jing’s books and China as well as on religion, history and
also reflect this historical fact. geography of India and the South Sea, scholars
A route from present-day Yunnan Province to India attached importance to Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng
was also mentioned in Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan and published successively some translation
Zhuan. As this route was tough and difficult, only versions of this book in Western languages and some
few people selected it and only few records on it of the books also included research achievement of
were preserved. But this route had been in existence scholars. There were mainly the following kinds of
before Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty and was never translation versions.
interrupted as a matter of fact. In 1894, French scholar Ed. Chavannes translated
Routes chosen by monks for travel for further Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan into French and
studies on Buddhism were actually routes for trade published in Paris. The name of the book is Mémoire
and business. Such is the case with the “Silk Road”, compose à l’époque de 1a grande dynastie T’ang
both on land and in sea. According to Datang Xiyu sur les religieux éminents qui allèrent chercher
Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan, "We could find that monks 1a loi dans les pays d’Occident. Its translation
mostly took business ships and went along with version by Ed. Chavannes was supplemented with
businessmen. Of course, since traffic conditions were his comments.
extremely inconvenient in ancient times, in addition In 1911, when British scholar S. Beal translated
to diplomats who served as envoy abroad, only Stories of Master Xuanzang in Da Ci'en Temple, he
businessmen and monks would be willing to leave also translated some chapters in Datang Xiyu Qiufa
their homes and risk their lives, travelling between Gaoseng Zhuan into English and published together
China and foreign countries." All information in with the English version with the name of The
Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan showed that Life Of Hiuen Tsiang by Shaman Hwui Li, with an
Chinese monks who travelled to India for further introduction containing an account of the works of
study on Buddhism had once made enormous I-Tsing. The book was published in London.
contributions on cultural interaction between India Ed. Chavannes’ version is better in these two
and China in ancient times. versions of Western languages. Although S. Beal’s
After Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan, the version is only selected translation, there are
earliest record on it was The Kaiyuan Record. many mistakes. There are some mistakes in Ed.
Thereafter, it was recorded in catalogue of all Chavannes’ version but he made large efforts
Buddhist scriptures in successive dynasties. It was and carried out meticulous study on annotations
also recorded in volume 46 of Buddhist scriptures so his book was of higher level. One of the most
in Old Book of Tang and volume 59 of Art and obvious mistakes in Ed. Chavannes’ book is that he
Literature in New Book of Tang. But it was named as misunderstood the notes in Yi-Jing’s book as being
Buddhist Pilgrim Monks in Old Book of Tang without made by descendants and he believed they were
the two words “Tang Dynasty”. It was also named added by scholars in Later Zhou Dynasty (955-960
as Buddhist Monks or Buddhist Pilgrims in many CE). He did not realise that all “Zhou” in Yi-Jing’s
Buddhist scriptures catalogue. It was recorded book refers to the times under Empress Wu Zetian’s
in volume 67 in General Annals and volume 226 reign instead of that in Later Zhou Dynasty. Because
in Book of General. In County Vegetarian Reading the translation and annotated time was early, Ed.
Records written by Chao Gongwu in Southern Chavannes could not utilise some later research
Song Dynasty, it was recorded as Buddhist Monks. results including materials found in archaeological
In Account on Triratna Buddha by Feizhuo in the excavations. This limitation was caused by times. In
Song Dynasty it was named as Buddhist Pilgrim. addition, Ed. Chavannes’ version was based on the
Some even named it as Buddhist Pilgrim Monks of version in Chinese he could find at that time, not a
Zhou Dynasty. Probably the primitive name of the checked copy so there were often some problems
book was slightly confused before Song Dynasty, on words.

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But until today, when western scholars need A Record of the Buddhist
to quote the book of Yi-Jing. If they do not Religion as Practised
understand Chinese, they still use Ed. Chavannes’ or in India and the Malay
S. Beal’s version. Archipelago
In 1942, Japanese scholar Adachi Kiroku Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas was
published a Japanese translation and annotation written by Monk Yi Jing in Tang Dynasty. It is a
of the book in Tokyo and supplemented with the book about religious disciplines written by Yi Jing
original Chinese version at the same time. The when he stayed in Sumatra and it emphasises
title was still Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan. religious discipline about diet and daily life, worship
In the preface, he said that the master copy he and admiration of the Buddha, dietary hygiene and
adopted was the carving copy in Kaiyuan Temple other aspects of Indian monks.
in 18th year (1148 CE) of Shaoxing in Southern Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas is
Song Dynasty that is the so-called Piluzang in one of important works of Yi Jing and is codified
later ages, which was hidden in the library of in the second year of Tianshou (691 CE) of Empress
Ministry of Imperial Household. It seemed that Wu Zetian. When Yi Jing came back from India, he
Adachi Kiroku had made comparisons between stayed in Srivijaya Empire in South Sea (present-day
this version and Gaolizang, Huangbozang and Sumatra, Indonesia) on the way. During his stay, he
other versions. However, there were quite a few wrote Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas
mistakes in the edition of Kiroku due to separated and Great Monk’s Biography Who Seek the Doctrine
sentences and phrases, and for the lack of check from Tang to India. After the books were written
in record. Many notes in the book were not down, Yi Jing asked Dajin, a Chinese monk to take
entirely right. a petition to the Emperor for building temple in the
In 1961, there was another Japanese version West, a copy each of Account of Buddhism Sent from
of Datang Xiyu Qiufa Gaoseng Zhuan in series of the South Seas and Great Monk’s Biography Who Seek
books All Scriptures Translated in Japanese published the Doctrine from Tang to India as well as 10 other
in Tokyo. The translator was Takata Osamu. But new translated scriptures for submission at the
according to the introduction in the book, the Imperial Court in Chang’an.
translation time of original version by Takata Purpose of Writing
Osamu was in 1940. The purpose for Yi Jing going to India was to
In 1986, Indian scholar Latika Lahiri published study Buddhism. He spent a long time living in
a new English version in Delhi with the name of India’s Nalanda Monastery and also visited some
Chinese monks in India. Unfortunately, there were temples in India and South Sea area. At every place
many mistakes too. Lahiri used the Dazheng Buddhist he visited, he paid special attention to observe the
Scriptures version for the English translation which religious lives and regulations of monks and monk
had many errors on words and also caused more groups ie actual theory and practice of Buddhism
mistakes in her translation. and compared them with that of in China at that
In 1988, Zhonghua Book Company in Beijing time. Yi Jing thought, the disciplines practiced and
published Collation and Annotation of Great Monk’s the regulations implemented in Indian temples were
Biography Who Seek the Doctrine from Tang to models for Chinese Buddhists to follow. Account of
India, collated and annotated by Wang Bangwei. Buddhism Sent from the South Seas written by Yi Jing,
The new collation and annotation version consists based on what he saw and heard, “complies with the
of the original version, record check and notes. holy teaching and practice the significant doctrine.”
Seven carving versions after Song Dynasty and He wanted to introduce Buddhist disciplines
four versions in modern times were used during practiced in India to China through this book. At
its collation so it can be called as the refined and his eyes, only by this, can Chinese Buddhism be
thoroughly-checked copy. Besides the collation on developed correctly.
full text of Yi-Jing’s original version, the collation Main Contents
and annotation version also made specific notes on Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas was
names, geographical names, historical geography, composed in four scrolls, further divided into 40
religion words and so on and attached reductive chapters which included following contents.
Sanskrit original when necessary. There were also It has a pretty long preface which introduces the
appendices and indices attached to the book. This world view of Buddhism, common situations of
version should be the most specific, complete, Indian religion, origin of Buddhism and its sects,
and useful one for research on Datang Xiyu Qiufa current status of Buddhist sects and situations about
Gaoseng Zhuan (Great Monk’s Biography Who Seek Mahayana and Hinayana. The main purpose of Yi
the Doctrine from Tang to India). Jing was to explain the origin and relationship
(Wang Bangwei) between each sect of Buddhism. He mentioned the

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talked of popularity of Buddhist sects and disciplines

at that time, “The distribution levels of the four sects
are not quite the same in different kingdoms. In
kingdom of Magadha, people learn all the four sects
but Root Sect is the most popular. There are three
sects in Luotu and Xindu with the Positive Power
Sect being the most popular and largest. In the
northern kingdoms, there are four sects and Holy
Mass is the largest. In southern kingdoms, people
revere Honour Seat Sect but other sects also exist.
In eastern kingdoms, four sects exist in mixed form.
In Lion Island, people revere Honor Seat Sect but
Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas
(Nanhai Jigui Neifa Zhuan) repel Holy Mass Sect. In kingdoms in South Sea, the
revered one is Root Sect, sometimes Positive Power
main facts of Indian Buddhism at that time that Sect and now other two sects are aslo included.”
“sects and groups were developed from different “South to Zhanbo is Linyi. In this kingdom, there are
origins, and they have similar inheritance but four more Positive Sect and few Root Sect.” “But in the
main outlines”. There were four main sects. The first east part, people practice dharmaraksa. In the centre
was A li ye mo he seng zhi ni jia ye, Zhouyun Holy part, it is all-inclusive. In the very south, Root Sect
Mass Sect. It was divided into seven branches. Each is very flourishing. But those who recite Ten Songs
pitaka of their Tripitaka had more than 1,00,000 and Four Division take the scripture as titles.” These
odes making it a total of 3,00,000 odes for the whole are very important materials for studying Buddhism
Triptika. These could be translated and edited into in India, Southeast Asia and China at present.
1,000 scrolls. The second was A li ye shi ta bi luo Based on contents in 40 chapters, main ones are
ni jia ye, Zhouyun Holy Honor Seat Sect. With three the following: I) Diet and Hygiene: Food and water
branches, it had the same cannon as that of the first are divided into clean and dirty and people need
one. The third was the A li ye mu luo sa po xi di to eat clean food and drink clean water; rinse the
po to zhi ni jia ye, Zhouyun Holy Root Sect. With mouth and wash hands after meals; brush teeth
four branches, it also had the same cannon as that in the morning; toilets should be kept clean; take
of the first one. The fourth was A li ye san mi li bathe frequently etc. II) Daily Life: This discusses
di ni jia ye, Zhouyun Holy Positive Power Sect. It stringent regulations related to kinds of seat -
had four branches, 2,00,000 songs in three cannons sleeping mat and pillow used, methods to wear
and 30,000 songs in regulation. There were many robes, acceptance of donation from benefactor,
similar as well as different doctrines among the reception of monks from outside, burial of monks,
four sects whose practices developed according to disposal of property or goods after the death
current situations. We used to divide them into five of monks and life in summer. III) Fitness and
sects that were not heard by western countries”. Medicine. This informs that walking is beneficial
“There are also many other branches and sects with to health; why do people get sick and methods for
different names, which are same as I already talked, medication and warnings on making medicines
so no more unnecessary words. All in all, in India and from urine. Extensive knowledge about ancient
states in South Sea, there are four nikayas.” Accounts Indian medicine is presented providing important
of Yi Jing, based on his own observation, are very information for studying Indian medicine and the
important for understanding Indian Buddhism in history of medical exchanges between India and
the seventh century. By Yi Jing’s records we can China. IV) Worship Buddha and Praise Buddha: This
see that Buddhist disciplines’ sustenance and spread describes methods of consecrating Buddha, making
closely relates to sects. Yi Jing wrote: “Then there Buddha statues, building pagodas, chanting merit
were people who manifest disciplines and gather and praise of Buddha and respecting teachers and
differently. There were men who uphold disciplines Buddha. V) Astronomy. The 30th chapter addresses
and are divided differently. As I saw and heard, how to observe and measure time in one day, how
different cannons teach differently.” to measure seasons in one year as well as how to
There was another purpose for Yi Jing’s preface. talk about the ancient Indian method of calculation
He wanted to explain the Indian Buddhist disciplines of time for monsoon rains. A comprehension of
that he introduced in Account of Buddhism Sent from astronomical information described here provides
the South Seas basically belonged to a sectarian good material to study the history of astronomy
system to endure and spread. “All talked herein are and in some cases, the details provided here are the
basically based on the study of (Buddhist) sects and only material source. VI) Ancient Indian Education.
things of other sects are not mixed in.” Yi Jing also Yi Jing describes details of education in ancient

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Indian, especially in the case of Sanskrit education. Tang to India and Account of Buddhism Sent from
He also mentions a series of classics related to the South Seas drew the attention of Western and
Sanskrit grammar including Learn to Talk and Japanese scholars at an early time. At the end of
Scripture of Sudanluo (Paṇinisutra). In addition to 19th century CE, Japanese scholars Kenjiu Kasawara
Paṇinisutra, he also referred to the ancient Indian and Ryauon Fujishima translated some important
Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali and Bhartṛhari and portions of Account of Buddhism Sent from the South
“explanations” or “interpretations” they wrote. He Seas into French. Russian scholar V. P. Wasil’ev
also recorded the procedures for learning these translated some portions into Russian. The complete
cannons. Yi Jing’s recording is very critical and English version was translated by another Japanese
some of the details cannot be easily understood. scholar Junjiro Takakusu and the book was
This requires further research and study. published in 1896 by the Oxford University Press,
Significance of the Book with its name being Account of Buddhism Sent from
After Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas the South Seas by I-Tsing.
was sent to China, it became quite popular in the After Junjiro Takakusu’s English version was
Buddhist community. There are three extant ancient published, Account of Buddhism Sent from the South
transcripts: one was found in the Dunhuang Library Seas became known by Western and Indian scholars.
Cave and the other two are kept in Japan. It is Because of translation’s completeness and higher
identified that the transcripts were copied during study level, Junjiro’s English version is still the best
the 8th century CE which is less than a century from version abroad so far and it is still being reprinted
the formation of the transcripts. Therefore, we can in India now. Besides, Junjiro’s English version
realise the popular situation at that time. Same as was translated based on Qing Dynasty’s carving
Great Monk’s Biography Who Seek the Doctrine from copies but not the precise one so the translation’s
Tang to India and other books, when Yi Jing died quality was affected. This book is being translated
or at the latest after his death, Account of Buddhism for over 100 years and some aspects are obviously
Sent from the South Seas “was incorporated into the require modification and supplement from
imperial project”. After copying by generations, contemporary perspective.
most contents are still in the Tripitaka. In 2000, Account of Buddhism Sent from the South
Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas Seas’s another English version was published in the
contributes great values to contemporary studies on United States entitled Buddhist Monastic Traditions of
the history of Indian Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, Southern Asia which was translated by the Chinese
Sino-foreign relationship history in Tang Dynasty Buddhist scholar Li Rongxi, and published by the
and even general history, geography, culture, and Japanese Buddhist Mission Association in Berkeley,
social life in ancient India and South Sea area, California, USA (Berkeley: Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai).
specially with regard to the situation of Indian In 1959, there was a Japanese version adopted
Buddhist Sangha’s internal religious life in the 7th into Volume 84 of Japan-China Writing and Account
century CE, the book provides almost most upto date Compilation in All National l Scriptures published in
and detailed information. Here take the problems Japan. The version was translated by Ono Genmyo
of comprehension of Mahayana and Hinayana (Xiaoyexuanmiao) as early as in 1936.
as an example. Indian Buddhism was divided In 1995, Zhonghua Book Company published
into Mahayana and Hinayana and 18 sects were Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas with
Hinayana, almost without a doubt. Yi Jing listed Annotations, annotated by Prof. Wang Bangwei.
Indian Buddhist’s four major sects’ (ie four nikayas) The new version included the original text, check
names, inheritance and the number of cannons. This notes and annotations. On the aspect of checking,
text is referenced in many studies to illustrate the the version used two kinds of transcripts from Tang
distinction between sects but the sentence: “there Dynasty, one was from Dunhuang Library Cave and
was no certain distinguish among four sects” as a the other one was the Nara period transcript stored
supplement after the text is often overlooked. In in Japan, and six kinds of carving copies from Song
fact, according to Yi Jing, it mainly understood to Ming dynasties, included Korean version as well
sects by the distinction of disciplines but as for the as Taisho-pitaka printed in Japan. It collected most
four sects are concerned, each maintained their versions, so it could be called as the precise version.
own traditional discipline, with monks in each sect While checking and annotating Yi Jing’s original
having faith both in Mahayana and in Hinayana, book, this version annotated people’s names, place
without distinct limitation. In other words, the four names, history, geography and religious vocabularies
sects Yi Jing said were not all Hinayana. in detail as well as adding the original text in Sanskrit
Influence to the World when necessary. And many appendixes and indexes
Like Biographies of Faxian, Tang Western Regions, were attached in the book. It should be deemed as
Great Monk’s Biography Who Seek the Doctrine from the most detailed, most complete and most useful

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 Cultural Contacts

version for studying Account of Buddhism Sent from exotoric mahayana is the cause, also known as
the South Seas. In 2009, Zhonghua Book Company Prajna; Tantrayana is the result, also known as Ati
published this book again, and the author modified Yoga. While implementing the two mahayana of
some details for the 1995 edition before reprinting, cause and result, must regard being with Bodhicitta
and more appendixes were added. as the important basis. The sequence of the
In 2004, Japanese scholars Miyabayashi Akihiko learning should be simultaneously with the exotoric
(Pinyin: Gonglin Zhaoyan) and Kato Eiji (Pinyin: Mahayana and Tantrayana, starting from mikaeri
Jiateng Rongsi), published a renewed Japanese and learning the tisrah siksah.
version entitled Modern Language Translation of A Mikaeri is the entrance of liberation; it is the
Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas. There basis for being with Bodhicitta. According to the
were detailed annotations included in this book teachings of Samantabhadra Practice Chapter, in the
either. This is the latest fruit for Japanese scholars whole process of climbing Bodhi tower, regarding
studying Account of Buddhism Sent from the South buddha-dharma-sangha and treasure supply, we
Seas and many contents quoted Wang Bangwei’s must be with an un-returnable heart and supported
Account of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas with seven practices, determine to achieve the
with Annotations. conversion of life to buddha-dharma-sangha at three
(Wang Bangwei) levels. Based on this Mahayana conversion, initiate

Bodhimargadipasastra
Byang chublam sgron is a representative work of
Indian eminent monk Atisha (982~1054) and also
a foundation work of religious doctrines of Kadampa
faction. At the same time, it laid theoretical basis for
Tsongkhapa’s two masterpieces of byang chub lam
rim chen mo and sngags rim chen mo, having a broad
impact on religious doctrines of Tibetan Buddhism.
Byang chublam sgron is a classic treatise written
by sage Atisha in Ngari district of Tibet in the year
of 1043 as per requested by lha bla ma byang chub
vod. The entire book consists of 69-and-a-half
Odes. This theory divides human beings into three
levels of upper, middle and lower, according to the
temperaments of all living creatures in the world,
thus put forward the theory of "skyes-bu gsum”. All Bodhimargadipasastra (Puti Daoju Lun)
those who seek through all means in reincarnation
for their own benefits only and not consider the great compassion for all sentient beings, observe
others are called lower man. All those who reject the cause of suffering and suffering consequences in
reincarnation and wish to get out from karma the world reincarnation for the sake of liberating all
influence, however are still restricted as seeking creatures, initiate an unreturnable great Bodhicitta.
for their own benefit only, not able to help liberate As for the body nature, righteousness and methods
others are called middle man. All those who cut off of initiating this Bodhicitta, there were many
all their own bitterness, and pledge to cut bitterness different viewpoints from ancient Indian scholars.
of all living creatures, are called upper man. One should base on the doctrines proposed by the
The theory emphasises that the lower man two factions of Nāgārjuna and Asanga, with the
should practice the death impermanence doctrine, same Bodhicitta throughout the whole process or
if without a world-weary mind toward this life, divide into three hearts of cause, result and method,
he cannot entre the door of dharma. If thinks five or divide into vow made to Buhda and man’s heart,
Khandas as ego, it is impossible to get liberation; if all dedicated for a continuous and broad learning to
not bring forth great Bodhicitta, it is impossible to increase and enrich this Bodhicitta.
entre Mahayana. Also in Mahayana, if not combine Śikṣā is also the three sikkhā: adhisīla-sikkhā,
with skillful wisdom and only practice sunyata, it adhicitta-sikkhā and adhipaññā-sikkhā. adhisīla-sikkhā
is not impossible to become a Buddha; if not fully is through Buddhist discipline to gain the Samādhi,
comprehend the true righteousness of doctrine, it through Samādhi are to gain the wisdom, and
cannot be a true second initiation (secret initiations) practice accordingly. Herein adhisīla-sikkhā parallels
and third initiation (intelligence initiations). the seven categories of followers of śrāvaka precept
Mahayana is further divided into exotoric of Hinayana with Buddha discipline and rituals of
Mahayana and Tantrayana, the cause and result: Mahayana, only those consistently with pratimoka

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could gain and follow Bodhisattva Precepts. Among original meaning of Asanga’s Bodhisattva-bhūmi;
the seven categories of followers, according to the adhicitta-sikkhā was taken from Chapter of
Buddhist teachings, those who practised the bhiksu Meditation and Sambhara written by buddhabhadra;
Buddhist and thus gained Bodhisattva precepts adhipaññā-sikkhā was originated and inherited from
were especially in big quantity. While accepting the Suvarnadvipa. Arisha himself was from the academic
precepts, the rituals should be carried out according faction of buddhabhadra and Suvarnadvipa,
to the illustration in Asanga’s Buddhist Worldly while buddhabhadra was inducted from Manjusri
Precepts Chapter. Regarding the precepts to follow, and Cantideva/zhi ba lha, and Cantideva was
practice learning and discipline issue, if not detailed, inducted from Nāgārjuna, Aryadeva/phags palha,
illustrated in Asanga’s Buddhist Worldly Precepts Bhavyaviveka and Candrakīrti; Suvarnadvipa’s
Chapter, which may take reference of Śântideva’s doctrine was inducted from Maitreya and Asanga.
Mahayana Collection of Bodhisattva theory. Therefore, Atisha’s doctrine has the advantages of
Adhicitta-sikkhā, Buddhist discipline produces the two factions of mādhyamaka and Vijñāptimātratā.
Samādhi. According to Buddhabhadra's Chapter of While the principle of adhipaññā reflects more
Meditation and Sambhara, to practice meditation, concepts of Nāgārjuna, for the points lacking of
one have to meet with all the “nine requirements”, details in the mādhyamaka academic faction, briefly
that is, to meet nine conditions which include: take the doctrines from Vijñāptimātratā academic
one, should be away from evil karma; two, under faction to enrich it.
guidance of what have been heard; three, dispel (Kalsang gyal)
prapanca; four, not greedy for extensive preaching;
five, manasi-karoti of each other; six, recite the Moksalankarasastra
given merits and virtues; seven, practice diligently Gradual Path of Mahayana: Supreme Liberation (Dam
and govern accordingly; eight, calm Samatha and chos yid bzhin nor bu thar pa rin po chevi rgyan
vipassana and nine, residence, food and others ces bya ba theg pa chen povi lam rim bzhugs so).
should be convenient. With all these nine conditions, It was the representative work and masterpiece of
follow one nidāna and live with its meaning, the rest Dakpo Kagyu who was an eminent monk of Tibetan
skillful and convenient things can be taught by other Buddhism as well as the theorist of Dakpo Kagyu
teachers, which could not be explained with words. School of Tibetan Buddhism and the foundation
Adhipaññā-sikkhā "Samādhi" means "stopping", it work of practice system. It played an important
is not enough to try to get rid of karma confusion transitional role in the development history
and other barriers with “stopping” only, to remove of gradual path for practice school of Tibetan
barriers "vipaśyanā" is necessary, it is also known Buddhism.
as "Nirvana Yoga". But conversely, with wisdom Contents
only is not enough to achieve the perfect status of Gradual Path of Mahayana: Supreme Liberation is
a Buddhist, there should be also with convenience. composed of two parts. Part one is instruction (lus
Both wisdom and convenience are necessary, none kyi rnam bzhag tsam bstan pa) and it is divided
of them could be missing, if the two separate from into chapters because it has only one page. Part
each other, they will become trap for each other two is explanation (Yan lag rgyas par vchad pa) and
and increase the barrier for perfect experience it takes up four-fifth of the entire book. It is the
of supreme Bodhi. But what is wisdom? What is keynote of the sutra and is divided into 21 chapters.
convenience? According to buddhabhadra, among The rareness or innovation of Gradual Path
the six concepts of donation, discipline, tolerance, of Mahayana: Supreme Liberation lies in the fact
Samādhi, diligence, prajnā, the first five concepts that it simply combines Gradual Path with Great
belong to the conveniences, the last one prajnā, is Hand Seal, mixes exoteric doctrines with esoteric
supreme wisdom, with conveniences as sikkhā of practice, uses cultivation and practice to verify and
this doctrine thus to cultivate wisdom, in this way, experience doctrines and thoughts and understand
one could quickly attain the experience of supreme Buddhism profoundly, especially life inspiration
Bodhi. So, what is the entity of wisdom? It is the and awakening, and seeks a way of release. Dakpo
inner enlightened wisdom of understanding the Kagyu wrote this personal way of release into
self nature of noumeon of Dharma Practices like the book and pointed a way of release to sentient
skandha, realms, Ayatana “born out of nothing” and beings. The sutra thought that a way of release
“emptiness”. The principle of "Dharma Practices are shall be sought to leave far away pain and arrive at
born out of nothing” can be understood from the land of milk and honey. The premise included six
two aspects: one is authoritative teaching evidence, items, cultivation cause, reliance and promotion
the other is logical or dialectic rational inference. as well as cultivation method, achievements and
The sage, Atisha’s adhisīla-sikkhā and illustration implementation career. The sutra focusses on
of bringing forth Mahayana Bodhicitta adopted the instruction and proving, uses Bodhicitta method as

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Path of Mahayana: Supreme Liberation expounds

the way of release of Tibetan Buddhism, especially
explains how to obtain cultivation conditions and
gradual process for the fruition state or realm
of Bodhi. As an important term and concept of
Buddhism, Bodhi (enlightenment) implies profound
connotations and great ideal, symbolises the spirit
of Mahayana Buddhism as well as reflects pursuits
of great and eminent monks, such as compassion,
wisdom, Bodhicitta and bodhisattvacarya. Therefore,
immediate voidness view and Bodhicitta appear in the
concepts of wisdom and Upaya in Tibetan literature.
Speaking in modern language, the so-called wisdom
means theory, and Upaya means method, way or
practice; immediate voidness is a correct view and
is beyond the world; while bodhisattva-carya is to
join in secular life and obtain profits for others ie to
save all beings.
Moksalankarasastra (Dachengdaocidi (Kalsang gyal)
Jietuozhuangyanlun)

bu ston chos vbyung

the guideline and obtains essences of three scopes As a masterpiece of Tibetan Buddhism in China,
of spiritual practice. the book has the full name of “bde bar gshegs pavi
Main Subjects bstan pavi gsal byed chos kyi vbyung gnas gsung
Gradual Path of Mahayana: Supreme Liberation rab rin po chevi mdzod” and is written by eminent
proposes many systematic and rigorous subjects but monk of Tibetan Buddhism Bu ston rin chen grub
the three subject had the most academic challenges (1290-1364) in 1322. The book consists of four
including release cause - Tathagata-garbha, release chapters. There are three parts in the first chapter:
reliance - human shape treasure and release in the first part, the author explains hearing and
promoter - good knowledge. tells merits and virtues of Saddhamma; the second
Release cause - Tathagata-garbha Everyone part expounds how to verify Saddhamma hearing
has Tathagata-garbha originally which lays the most and spread; the third part explains how to hear,
superior congenital foundation for sentient beings spread, learn and practice the Saddhamma. In the
to walk towards the way of release. Therefore, second part of the book, the author describes the
everyone can obtain supreme and perfect Bodhi history of the Saddhamma. And in the third part, the
(enlightenment) and attainment of supreme and author tells the history of the spread of Buddhism in
perfect Bodhi is equal to getting rid of the suffering Tibet involving the former period and later period
of Samsara. and the preacher including Sakya Pandita of India
Release reliance - Human shape treasure and other areas, and directory of translators. The
Human shape treasure is of importance in the way
of release. The sutra thinks that it’s hard and rare
to obtain human form treasure. Buddhism fully
expounds the truth that human shape is hard to
obtain and it is precious from the perspective of
the six way of rebirth, and proves that only human
beings have subjective and objective conditions to
practice Buddhism and get rid of worries and pains.
Release promoter - Good knowledge Release
promoter is good knowledge and it is difficult to seek
complete good knowledge. The sutra thinks that the
key is to obtain human shape treasure which is the
basic foundation and any achievements could not
be made without instruction and guidance of good
knowledge. It emphasises here that good knowledge
is release promoter and is an indispensable important
condition of way of release. With vivid cases,
distinctive standpoint and didactic ways, Gradual
Budun Fojiao Shi

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fourth part compiles the catalogue for Buddhist dissemination and sects in the period from King
texts and Abhidharma, including Exoteric Buddhism Ajatasattu to King Kaniska (third generation king
and Esoteric Buddhism Sutras. in the Darouzhi Kushan dynasty reigned in the 2nd
Integrating history, theory and catalogue, century CE). Part two includes chapters 13 and 27,
this book makes exquisite and brief description, and narrates dissemination conditions of Mahayana
explanation and demonstration on Buddhism, Buddhism represented by Madhyarnaka and
the origin of Tibetan Buddhism and teaching Yogachara as well as Hinayana Buddhism remaining
methods and texts. It is rare and precious among in the period from the death of King Kaniska to King
historical works of Tibetan Buddhism because Govicandra (the king reigned around the 7th century
of its exquisite narration, thorough discussion, CE in a Kingdom of India). Part three includes
careful correction and unobstructed words. More chapters 28 to 37, and narrates dissemination of
importantly, it also provides valuable information Mahayana Buddhism presented by Tantrism at later
about the important figures, mainstream sects, stage and conditions of the elimination of Indian
main theory and key books of the Indian Buddhism Buddhism from King Gopala (first generation king
and Tibetan Buddhism. Until today, it still has a of Pala Dynasty reigned in the early 8th century CE)
profound academic influence on Tibetology. It was to King Lakshmanasena (last king of Sena Dynasty
published in 1988 by China Tibetology Publishing reigned in late 12th century CE). Part four includes
Company in Beijing and its Chinese version has chapters 38 to 44, and records other historical
been handed down. facts of Buddhism. Character information related
(Kalsang gyal) to Mahayana (represented by Tantrism) can fill the
blank of historical literature of Buddhism.
Rgya gar chos vbyung In view of time, History of Indian Buddhism was
History of Indian Buddhism (Rgya gar chos vbyung): from the early 5th century BCE to 12th century CE.
It is a historical work of Buddhism history written It has provided much rare and precious information
by Taranatha who was the eminent monk of the related to history of Indian Buddhism to common
Jonang sect of Tibetan Buddhism. It is a Tibetan people while other information is short of conditions
literature and history book which uses Indian kings of characters, doctrines, groups, temples, almsgivers
in successive dynasties as the preface, focusses and especially enemies in the later period of Indian
on kings protecting Buddhism and activities of Buddhism. Therefore, Tibetan History of Indian
Buddhist masters propagating Buddhism, introduces Buddhism was translated into several foreign
transmission, inheritance, dissemination, change, languages in 19th century CE popularly and there
prosperity and decline of Indian Buddhism after the have been Russian, German, Japanese and English
nirvana of Buddha Shakyamuni. versions successively.
The entire book is composed of preface, body (Kalsang gyal)
and postscript, has 44 chapters and can be divided Chos vbyung dpag
into four parts roughly. Part one includes chapters bsam ljon bsang
1 and 12, narrates transmission, inheritance, Chosvbyungdpagbsamljonbsang (Ruyibaoshushi) is
a masterpiece of Tibetan Buddhism which was
written by sum pa ye shesdpalvbyor (1704-1788)
of Gelug, Tibet and published in the 13th year of
Emperor Qianlong (1748) of Qing Dynasty. With
the systematic description of the long standing
historical development and evolution of Buddhism,
including its spread in the four regions of India:
Han region, Tibetan areas and Mongolia, the book
primarily introduces the causes and conditions for
expansion and flourishing of Buddhism in Tibetan
and Mongolian areas. The book’s content is rich,
which not only collects a large number of historical
data but also corrects the errors on time occurred in
predecessors’ books. The book provides important
literary sources for researches on the history of
Indian, Tibetan, Chinese, Mongolian Buddhism as
well as politico-religious and other situation there.
The book is reputed as masterwork both at home
and abroad, and has been translated into many
Yindu Fojiao shi languages, and has also been treated with great

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religions and philosophy sects in India, especially

in sects of Buddhism. The second chapter explores
on before-propagation period and post-propagation
period of Tibetan Buddhism and history of sects
including Nyingma, Kadam, Kargyu, Zhi-byed,
Sakya, Jonang, Gelug and Bonpo and so on. This
makes deep expositions especially on dogmata,
sadhanadrubtab and theory of different sects.
The third chapter briefly describes the origin and
ideology of different religions and philosophy sects
of Buddhism and Daoism in China. The fourth
chapter states the situation of the propagation of
Buddhism in the Western Regions and Mongolia
and so on. The fifth chapter, as the conclusion of
the book, narrates the subjective and objective
conditions and purposes of compiling the book. It
was published and distributed by Gansu Minorities
Press in Lanzhou, China in 1984, and the Chinese
Ruyi baoshu shi version was published by Beijing Minorities Press
in 2000.
importance by the academic world. The book was (Kalsang gyal)
published and distributed by Gansu Minorities Press
in Lanzhou, China in 1992 and the Chinese version Gu Bkrvi Chos Vbyung
was published by the Press in 1994. GuBkrviChosVbyung (Guozhafojiaoshi) is about
(Kalsang gyal) the history of Tibetan Buddhist sects written
by senior Tibetan Buddhist monk gurubkrashes
Thuvu bkwan grub mthav (unknown birth and death). It has a total of eight
Thuvu bkwan grub mthav (Tuguanzongpailiuyuan) chapters introducing the narratives on the birth and
is a masterpiece of Tibetan Buddhism with the full dissemination of knowledge of Buddha, the spread
name of "grub mthavthams cad kyivbyungkhungs of Buddhism in India and Tibet, the production
dang vdodtshulston pa legs bshadshelgyi me lung". of new and old Esoteric Buddhism, exploration of
It was compiled by Thuvubkwanblobzangchoskyinyi terms and the introduction of terms’ life etc in detail.
ma (1737～1802) of Gelug in Tibetan Buddhism, This book provides specific descriptions about
and published in sixth year of Emperor Jia Qing original teaching methods, lineage inheritance,
(1801) of Qing Dynasty. There are five chapters in main temples and religious rituals of Nyingma
the book. The first chapter briefly introduces the sect of Tibetan Buddhist. It also briefly introduces
history evolution of thought and doctrine of various meanings and developments of the general and

Tuguan Zangpaiyuan Liu Dunli fojiao shi

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specific Pancavidya. It is thus an important Tibetan From 1747, 1carn skya III rol pavi rdo rje
book for studying Buddhist history, especially (1717~1786) started writing Lcang Skya Grub
teaching history of Nyingma sect. In 1990, it was Mthav. The publication of this book aroused great
published by China Tibetology Publishing House. repercussion in Tibetan Buddhist academia, and
(Kalsang gyal) had a positive impact, especially for promoting
the development of Grub Mthav doctrine. It was
later hailed as the highest academic achievement
DOCTRINES in the research field of Tibetan Buddhist Grub
Mthav doctrine. The structure of the content is:
Grub Mthav Smra Ba Firstly, it illustrated the mistakes of ancient Indian
Grub Mthav Smra Ba was one of academic subjects Samkhya, Brahma, Nārāyaṇa, Vicara, Maheśvara,
of Tibetan Buddhism in China which expounds Vaisheshika, Nyaya and other heretic factions
on doctrines of Indian Buddhism. With the from a critical perspective; secondly, standing
emergence of Tibetan Buddhism, grub mthav smra on Buddhist viewpoints, separately stated all
ba took shape and developed gradually. It is a the thoughts and viewpoints of Sarvāsti-vāda,
system combining explanation of the doctrines of Sautrāntika, Vijñāptimātratā and Madhyamika;
Buddhism characterised by four Indian Buddhist taking the logic relationship between causes,
sects (Sarvastivada, Sautrantika, Vijnanavada and principles and results as a theoretical starting point,
Madhyamika) which were made from the entire by widely cited the teachings of Nagarjuna, Asanga,
the eminent monks of Tibetan Buddhism generation Vasubandhu, Aryadeva, Dignāga, Dharmakirti
by generation. and Tsongkhapa, demonstrated the coherence and
In Qing Dynasty, grub mthav smra ba raised its differences between the principles of four Buddhist
status in academic fields of Tibetan Buddhism. In sects, focussed on expounding Buddhist thought of
particular, eminent monks of dge lugs pa composed svātantrika and Prasaṅgika.
an array of works to work on study into grub mthav In 1773, jam dbyangs bzhad pa II dkon mchog vjig
smra ba and made contributions to making grub med dbang po (1728~1791) finished the writing of
mathav smra ba a famous school. Grub Mthav Grub Mthav Rin Chen Vphring Ba on the basis of
Chen Mo by vjam dbyangs ngag dbang brtson Extensive Discussion of Grub Mthav by jam dbyangs
vgrus, Lcang Skya Grub Mthav by lcang skya rol bzhad pa I dbal shul ngag dbang brtson grus. The
pvi rdo rje and Grub Mthav Rin Chen Vphring book is concise and to the point, so is called Brief
Ba by dkon mchog vjig med dbang po are the Discussion of Grub Mthav or Introduction of Four
representative works. Buddhist Factions, and it has an outline feature of
In 1689, vjam dbyangs ngag dbang brtson vgrus Grub Mthav. Firstly it expounded the viewpoints of
(1648-1721) composed Grub Mthav Chen Mo to other factions (lam) and doctrines of inner faction
come up with innovation and deepen grub mthav (Buddhism) from a comparative perspective and
smra ba. The work contained extensive contents defined the essential difference between the two.
which criticised the reviews of different schools Those who converted to the Tirana of Buddha-
including ancient Indian Samkhya and expounded dharma-sangha were called inner faction; those who
on the doctrines of Mahayana and Theravada such as
Sarvastivada, Sautrāntika, Sautrāntika, madhyamika
and Vajrayana Buddhism. The book is divided into
13 chapters: chapter one, introduction of Siddhanta;
chapter two, refutation of uccheda-drishti; chapter
three, refutation of nityadrishti of Samkhya and other
factions; chapter four, refutation of nityadrishti of
Brahma and other factions; chapter five, refutation
of nityadrishti of nārāyaṇa and other factions;
chapter six, refutation of nityadrishti of Maheśvara
and other factions; chapter seven, refutation of
nityadrishti of Digambaras faction; chapter eight,
establish Sarvāsti-vāda’s viewpoints; chapter nine,
establish Sautrāntika’s viewpoints; chapter 10,
establish Vijñāptimātratā’s viewpoints; chapter
11, establish viewpoints of Sauātantrika faction;
chapter 12, establish viewpoints of Prasaṅgika
faction; chapter 13, answer difficult questions about
Vajrayana practice and achievements. Tibetan version of Zongyixue

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were converted to worldly divinity were called the

outer faction. Secondly it focussed on discussion of
the religious thoughts of four Buddhist factions, not
only made summaries of the Buddhist viewpoints
of all Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika, Vijñāptimātratā and
Madhyamika, but also separately expounded the
philosophical ideology of Sauatantrika madhyamaka
and Prasangika madhyamaka.
(Kalsang gyal)

Gzhung bkav pod lnga

Gzhung bkav pod lnga (Wubu Dalun): The five
important classics of Tibetan Buddhism which refer
to Hetuvidya, Prajna, Madhyamika, Abhidharmakosa-
Sastra and disciplines.
Hetuvidya: One of the five important classics
of Tibetan Buddhism, refers to Buddhist Logic.
Buddhist Hetuvidya has many functional Research books on five sects of Tibetan Buddhism
properties: it is a kind of instrumental and
functional knowledge, a discipline that can be the abstract theory of “the meditations of sunya”.
correctly reasoned and intellectually exercised, the Prajnaparamita has created the Mahayana Buddhism
methodology and epistemology for the seeking of also known as Bodhisattvayana. Bodhisattva has the
the truth and is known as the golden key to open spirit of self-consciousness, being aware of others,
the treasure house of knowledge. Therefore, in all self-interest and interesting others. Bodhisattva’s
sects’ education of Tibetan Buddhism, Hetuvidya is initial approach to become a Buddhist believer is six
relatively consistently learned first and is thought perfections including almsgiving, commandments
the eye for the study of Prajna. People study observing, ksanti, virya, meditation practice and
Madhyamika later because they think Madhyamika prajna. Having a Bodhicitta and studying six
is result of the study of Prajna. Historically, Tibetan Paramita are the main characteristics of Mahayana
Buddhist monks applied and developed Dignaga’s Buddha and the motive power to contribute to the
Pramanasamuccaya and Dharmakirti’s Seven rise of Mahayana Buddhism. So Prajna thought refers
Commentaries of Hetuvidya and so on, all that got rid to six Paramita. While Maitreya’s Abhisamayalankara
of the four Indian heretics’ thought and established is the argument, teaching or knack of Prajna Paramita
the four Neidao’s thought, and ultimately established Sutra and an outline comment on Mahavagga
the Buddhist Prasangika Madhyamika. Hetuvidya Prajnaparamita that gives the first place to the
not only plays the role of “breaking the evil theory thoughts of Madhyamika, namely “all dharmas have
and establishing the right thought” in the process no self-nature” and the second place to the thoughts
of “breaking” and “establishing” Buddhism, but also of yoga and order. Therefore, Tibetan Buddhism
becomes the arguing skill basis in texts for religious takes Abhisamayalankara as the outline of the study
titles of Tibetan Buddhism. of Prajna and incorporates it into one of the five
Prajna: One of the five important classics of important classics of Tibetan Buddhism, and which
Tibetan Buddhism and the early important Buddhist has become the most important content to know
ideology and theory of Mahayana. Its fundamental Buddhist Prajna empty wisdom and achieve the
classic is Prajnaparamita and also known as the wisdom of Buddha.
mother of Buddha (Yum chen mo) because the reason Madhyamika: one of the five important classics
for all Buddhas to become a Buddha is mainly that of Tibetan Buddhism and one of the four Buddhist
they depend on Buddhist scriptures of which the sectarian doctrines. It occupies an important
essence and realisation process (originating from sex position in the entire history of Buddhist thought.
empty theory and how to study Buddhist scriptures It absorbed the thoughts of Agama and Prajna; then
and to become a Buddha) are originated from it created Madhyamika of Tibetan Buddhism that
Prajnaparamita. Therefore, Prajnaparamita is called is greatly valued and vigorously carried forward.
the mother of Buddhist scriptures or the mother of So Madhyamika flourished and was developed in
all Buddhas. In addition, Prajnaparamita is thought Buddhism, and even the thoughts of Madhyamika
the transcendent enlightenment intelligence namely became the main theoretical basis of Tibetan
Prajna is wisdom, based on which the truth -- true Buddhism, based on which their own views of
suchness, true essence, and false and sex empty Buddhism are established, for example, “the five
theory are explored. Therefore Prajna is said to be important classics” took Madhyamika and Hetuvidya

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as two important theories to establish the Buddhist (dge tshul ma), the female monk who is two years
views of point. Hetuvidya is thought the eye for the earlier to become the bhikshuni and follows six
study of Prajna so it is learned first. People study commandments; upasaka (dge bsnyen) or recluse, the
Madhyamika later because they think Madhyamika male believers following “the three commandments
is result of the study of Prajna. That shows that the and the five precepts”; Upasika (dge bsnyen ma)
purpose of studying Madhyamika is darsana-marga or recluse, the female followers at home following
and to get the kosher thoughts of Madhyamika. “the three commandments and five precepts”. The
Tibetan Buddhism placed Madhyamika on an differentiation of these seven groups of people is on
important position in the entire Buddhist system. the basis of the discipline they comply respectively.
Especially during the period of Houhong of Before nirvana, Shakyamuni has completed the
Tibetan Buddhism, Chandrakirti’s main works formulation of doctrines for the seven kinds of sangha.
about Madhyamika were translated into Tibetan Each of the seven kinds of sangha, such as bhikkhu or
Language, and thus all thoughts of Madhyamika bhikkuni can form the sangha when the monks and
have been preserved in Tibetan Tripitaka and believers gather to reach a certain number. Among
the authoritative status of Chandrakirti has been the five kinds of monks, the acolyte belongs to the
established in Tibetan Buddhism. bhikkhu, the sikkhamana and the samaneri belong
Abhidharmakosa: One of the five important to the bhikkuni. The Sangha aims at serving all
classics of Tibetan Buddhism and its full name is beings and making all beings conscious. In order to
Abhidharma Abhidharmakosa, of which Abhidharma manage Sangha and make them to be engaged in the
(mngon pa) refers to the abhisamaya doctrines regular collective religious life, rules and regulations
and arguments, and the word Abhidharmakosa has were formulated, especially for different believers,
the meaning of hiding Tibetan and treasure-house. various discipline were formulated to follow. Since
Whether Han Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism or then the doctrines have been established. Just as
Southern Buddhism, they all have such tripitakas as Bkav-thang-sde-lngamonks said: Monks are the
sutra-pitaka, vinaya-pitaka and Abhidhamma pitaka, faithful practitioners or defenders of the doctrine, so
and all that have formed a complete theoretical it is said that monks are the foundation of Buddhism,
system and practical method of all sects of Buddhism. and consequently a number of Sangha organisations
And Abhidharmakosa Sastra belongs to Abhidhamma are established.
pitaka and is classified into the Tengyur in the (Kalsang gyal)
Tibetan Tripitaka, which is the India monk Taetok’s
commentary on sutra-pitaka and vinaya-pitaka taught Gzhan stong gi lta ba
by the Buddha and the further explanation of “Four gzhan stong gi lta ba (The View of Other Emptiness):
Noble Truths” in the first part of Dharma-chakra. As It is the basic doctrine of Jonang sect of Tibetan
Theravada’s view in Abhidharmakosa Sastra says, it Buddhism. It separates from many schools of
is a kind of Buddhist theory with its content mainly Tibetan Buddhism and other school observes the
about Theravada Buddhism and an indispensable view of self-emptiness of Madhyamika.
and important part of Buddhist Tripitaka. As one “Self-emptiness” differs from “other emptiness”
of the five important classics of Tibetan Buddhism, in terms of cognition mainly ie dissimilarities
Abhidharmakosa Sastra has become an important and similarities between common statement and
study content of Tibetan Buddhism. ultimate truth. Secular things come from conditions,
Discipline: One of the five important classics of while conditional causation will not have self body,
Tibetan Buddhism, and it is the basis of Buddhism and which is called as secular phenomena which don’t
Buddhist study, so it occupies a dominant position exist ie all things are void. The Jonang sect thinks
in the Tibetan Buddhist study system. The reason that substances existing are described as “voidness”
why Buddhism was able to flourish relies mainly by wrong realisation or analysis of people to deny
on organisation of the sangha and the guarantee absolute substances existing; the supreme dharma
of discipline system. The Sangha compromises the nature is the unchanging truth permanently and
monk and believers at home. In the strict sense, the environment for intelligence enlightenment ie
the monks and believers at home have some supreme existence. That is to say, the ultimate truth
differences: bhikkhu (dge slong), the male monk is formless, cannot be described with words, and is
over the age of 20 following 250 commandment; far from all meaningless statements so the ultimate
bhikshuni (dge slong ma), the female monk over truth is the supreme reality.
the age of 20 following 300 to 500 commandments; Jonang sect thinks that nirvana is the permanent
acolyte (dge tshul), male monk under the age of dharma, and it exists permanently. It is far from
20 following 10 commandments; Samaneri (dge worries and those who ignore worries cannot
tshul ma), the female monks under the age of 20 reach nirvana. Intelligence must be meditated to
following about 10 commandments; Sikkhamana cultivate Bodhisattva heart and those who observe

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by heart. There are no any persons meditating, and

something that can be meditated can’t exist because
meditator and the meditated are just a lighting
characteristic of thought.
(Kalsang gyal)

Rgyud
Rgyud is tantric theory of Tibetan Buddhism. As one
of the important schools of Buddhism, it inherited
its origin and development from Tang Tantrism,
Eastern Tantrism and Tibetan Tantrism, and has
been transmitted into different regions. In terms
of three language families of Buddhism, Tantrism
is widely transmitted in Tibetan and Chinese
Buddhism ie Northern Mahayana Buddhism.
Concept of Tantrism: There are many alternative
names in Tibetan and Chinese language systems.
For example, the names such as Tantra, Tantric
vehicle, secret vehicle, esoteric incantation vehicle
and Mantra vehicle etc and the famous scholar Xu
Fandeng explained it specifically: “the school is
characterised by chanting mantras ie the so-called
‘true words’.” Great attention is paid to Tantrism in
Tibetan Buddhism, especially profound doctrines are
endowed to it so it becomes the essence of Buddhism
is honoured as diamond vehicle (Vajrayana) or
The ideology of Takongjian resultant vehicle which secures it a supreme place.”
Great monks of Tibetan Buddhism answered why
doctrines can get rid of unenlightened worries and Tantrism (gsang sngags) has so many alternative
see nirvana. names or venerable titles. The Fourth Panchen Blo
Ocean of Definitive Meaning: Final Unique bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan (1567-1662). As a
Quintessential Instructions fully expounds Tantric matters of the Gelug sect of the generation,
Buddhist thought of the view of other emptiness. he explained the word of Vajrayana (rdo rje thegs
For example, the ultimate truth of other emptiness pa): there were profound reasons for Tantrism
is unchanged permanently, the world of feeling which is called as “Vajrayana”. Firstly, Mahayana
has the same meaning as Tathagata-garbha which doctrines are fully concluded in the six paramitas;
is the foundation of all things and cannot be empty secondly, the six paramitas are condensed in skills
absolutely. Jonang sect admits that immaterial and intelligence and lastly, skills and intelligence
nature which is conditional, it is the law of mutual combines into oneness ie Bodhicitta. However,
causation of all actions, is delusive and unreal Bodhicitta is the profound meditation of diamond
and belongs to secular truth, just as the fact that being (Vajrasattva) ie diamond (Vajra), so Tantrism
the non-existence is self-empty. while the self- is called as diamond vehicle.
existence of the ultimate truth isn’t empty, so it is Explanation on the concept of resultant vehicle
other emptiness. (vbras buvi thegs pa) is more theoretical or logical.
Jonang sect thinks that emptiness is existence of The eminent monk of the Kagyu sect Bu ston rin
heart itself, light is language, and the unity of the chen grub (1290～1364) once expounded that sde
two is “enlightenment” (heart). This kind of division snod can be divided into Hinayana Tripitaka and
method is same as the division of three bodies: real Mahayana Tripitaka. Therefore, Mahayana Tripitaka
existence of heart is the body with infinite spiritual also contains sutras and shastras of causal vehicle
potential (Dammar body); light is the reward body, (Yogachara School) and resultant vehicle (Tantrism).
and its representation form is the embodiment. Once That is to say, Exotoric Buddhism doctrines are
sublime intelligence (intelligence god) appears, classified into causal vehicle (rgyu yi thegs pa) is
illusive phenomena will stop. If there are illusive used as the theoretical basis of Tantric cultivation
phenomena on the contrary, intelligence will and only the entry into the practical stage of
suspend. The world of things is unreal and things resultant vehicle is the highest dharma of “attaining
are just some phenomena, which are only caused enlightenment in this life”. The establishment of
causal vehicle and resultant vehicle rationalises the

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were three birthplaces for Tantras: the first was the

place of the Buddha’s spiritual body. The founder,
Samantabhadra Dharmakaya Buddha declared great
perfection self-nature to retinues or disciples in
Wisdom Ocean without time concepts and words.
The second was the place of the Buddha’s reward
body. The founder Sambhogakaya Mahavairochana
presented superior doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism
to five Buddhas, five consorts including Mother
Voidness and Freedom, Bodhisattvas including
Kshitigarbha and female Bodhisattvas including
Grace and Charm as well as retinues or disciples in
Document on Mixuxue self-appearance altar filled with voidness with six
syllables or indescribable words and it was in the
relations between exoteric Buddhism and esoteric age of self-appearance of intelligence. The third was
Buddhism as well as constructs the cultivation the place of the Buddha’s embodiment. The founder
system of Tibetan Buddhism. Enlightenment or Vajra Dhara, appeared an illusory intelligence body
attainment of Buddha fruits can be obtained after of Vajrasattva instructed inscrutable exoteric and
learning doctrines of causal vehicle (exoteric esoteric doctrines to numerous retinues or disciples
Buddhism) and then practicing cultivation of including obtainers of good karma, Bodhisattvas,
resultant vehicle (esoteric Buddhism). achievers, intelligent cultivators of voidness,
New and Old Tantric Doctrines: Old and new worldly gods, dragons, human beings, asuras and
Tantric doctrines are inherited in Tibetan Buddhism. dri za in the Tushita heaven (one of the six heavens
In the aspect of exoteric Buddhism, there is no of desire), and it was in the age between infinite life
difference between the new and the old as well as the and life of 100 years. The old school emphasised
saying between the new school and old school and the place of the original founder Bodhisattva of
it is divided according to conditions of propagation Universal Benevolence largely when narrating
of Tantrism purely. As for the division between Tantric heritance and source of entire Buddhism. The
the new and old, there are many sayings and the unshakable holy place of Dharmakaya Buddha was
most common saying is that tantras translated by highlighted by the fact that Bodhisattva of Universal
Pandita smri ti before he came to Tibet are called Benevolence declared great perfection to reduce
as Tantras of the old school, and tantras translated the places of other Buddhas and the combination
after Rin chen bzang po are called as Tantras of the of the three bodies makes the reward Buddha and
new school; tantric classics translated by Pandita the embodiment Buddha are in the secondary or
smri ti before he arrived in Tibet (late 10th century subordinate place.
CE) are subject to the old tantras and tantric classics Four Tantras and Six Tantras: Tantric literature
translated since the great translator Rin chen bzang in sutras and shastras is called as Tantra (rgyud) while
po (958~1055) are subject to the new tantras. rgyud in Tibetan has the meaning of continuity or
In terms of sects, only Ningmapa sect inherited succession which conforms to the implication of the
the old tantric traditions, and other schools Chinese character of “续”. Its history can be traced
belonged to the new tantric system. The Ningmapa back to the 8th century CE. The concept of Tantra of
sect promoted or practiced Tantric heritance, Secret Mantra (sngags kyi rgyud la) had appeared
which originated from the old tantric traditions in in Vphang Thang Catalogue (dkar chag vphang thang
the 8th century CE while the doctrines which were ma), the catalogue of Tripitaka compiled in the
promoted and practiced by the schools such as the Tubo period. Moreover, the part of Tantra of Secret
Gelug Sect, Kagyu Sect, Sagya Sect and Jonang Sect Mantra was listed in Denkar Catalogue (ldan dkar
originated from the new tantric system in late 10th gyi dkar chag) in the same period, which was same
century CE. as Vphang Thang Catalogue basically, and they can
In terms of tracing back to historical sources be proved mutually. However, the pre-propagation
of Tantrism for the new tantras and old tantras, period of Tibetan Buddhism hadn’t established
there are many common views as well as subtle Tantric cultivation system such as Four Tantras or
differences. Tantrism is propagated from the Six Tantras in a strict sense in the Tubo period.
oneness of the three bodies of the Buddha. It is Bu ston rin chen grub recompiled the catalogue of
declared with the spiritual body to support the Tibetan Tripitaka on the basis of Denkar Catalogue,
original meaning, instruct with the reward body to Mchims phuvi dkar chag, Vphang Thang Catalogue
purify self-nature, and preach with the embodiment and Snar thang gi bstan vgyur dkar chag and
to embellish words and realise phenomena. There literature catalogue compiled by translators in the

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14th century CE. The compilation deleted and added three common Abhishekas including Buddha, Lotus
the previous catalogues of Tripitaka. Sutras and and Vajra, Ratna, and each part has Abhisheka,
shastras of Tipitaka of Buddhism can be divided into instruction and enlightenment of over 50 kinds of
two types mainly, exoteric Buddhism and esoteric Dharmas including Buddhas, group leaders, consorts,
Buddhism, literature is named after sutra (mdo) and Shikhin, Wrath Gods, Wrath Goddesses, envoys and
Tantra, respectively, exoteric classics are called as Wealth God; Performance Tantra has instruction
sutras, and esoteric classics are called as shastras. and enlightenment of “Five Manjusri Bodhisattvas”
Great monks of Tibetan Buddhism proposed who are the leaders of Tathagata group; Yoga Tantra
the concept of Four Tantras (rgyud bzhi) in 10th has instruction and enlightenment of multiple kinds
century CE. On the premise of sutras and shastras of Dharmas including Purifying Twelve Altars with
defined strictly, Tantras were classified into Action Evil Incarnations, Universal Brightness, Vajrapani
Tantra, Performance Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Destroying the Lord of Death; Anuttarayoga Tantra
Great Yoga Tantra, and the system of four tantras including three types, including Father Tantra,
was established; hereafter, Great Yoga Tantra was Mother Tantra and Nondual Tantra. Father Tantra
classified into three Tantras, Upaya Tantra (also orients at Abhisheka and heritance of Guhyasamaji,
called Father Tantra), Intelligence Tantra (also Manjusri Vajra and Avalokitesvara etc.; Mother
called Mother Tantra) and Nondual Tantra, and the Tantra orients at Supreme Happiness, Vajravarahi,
theory of Four Tantras or Six Tantras of Tibetan Five Deities of Kurukulle, Amitayus Buddha, Great
Tantric Buddhism was created. Pity and Independent Existence, and Twenty One
The new school represented by Gelug sect divided Taras, etc.; Nondual Tantra orients at perfect
Tantric classics into four types: Action Tantra, Abhisheka and heritance of body speech of Hevajra,
Performance Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Anuttarayoga Kalachakra Vajra, Fifteen Deities of Nairatmya,
Tantra. In Sngags rim chen mo, Tsong Kha Pa Panjaranatha Mahakala, Vajrapani Subduing
expounded cultivation ways, rites and methods, Monsters, and White Intelligence Tara etc.
use of ritual implements, Satyadevata types, As the representative of the old school, the
transmission and heritance of Tantric doctrines and Ningmapa Sect proposes different views from the
codes of different schools. The later generations new school and divides Tantric classics into six types
including monks in the Qing Dynasty observed (Tantras): Three External Tantras (Action Tantra,
the classification method of four Tantras of Tsong Performance Tantra and Yoga Tantra) and Three
Kha Pa basically. Action Tantra and Performance Internal Tantras (Maha Yoga, Anusara Yoga and
Tantra mainly instruct external rites including Great Perfection Ati Yoga). Three External Tantras
Abhisheka, rules and ceremonies, heritance affairs attach importance to external physical practice and
and Four-member chants etc. Yoga Tantra explains Three Internal Tantras pay attention to cultivation
four-classes of Siddhi cultivation methods including of heart and air. Therefore, individual views and
Buddha, Vajra, Ratna and Lotus; Anuttarayoga practice are form on Anuttarayoga Tantra, and the
Tantra expounds attainment methods including core of its doctrine promotes great perfection.
four Abhisheka methods, various kinds of profound From the perspective of gradual path to cultivation,
rules and rites, and gradual paths to cause of act and great perfection is divided into preface and main
perfection. Gradual path to perfection is divided into body. The main body is divided into gradual paths
Father Tantra, Mother Tantra and Nondual Tantra, to cause of act and perfection while gradual paths
in which Father Tantra includes Guhyasamaji to perfection are divided into gradual paths to
and Great Authority, etc., Mother Tantra includes happy voidness, complete voidness and intelligence
Supreme Happiness and Hevajra etc., and Nondual perfection; gradual paths to intelligence perfection
Tantra includes Kalachakra Vajra. Three Tantric is divided into Sems sde, Klong sde, Man ngag sde.
Dharmas including Father Tantra (pha rgyud),
Mother Tantra (ma rgyud) and Nondual Tantra (ngo
bo gnyis med kyi rgyud) are formed in Anuttarayoga
Tantra and are inherited.
The Sagya sect divides Tantric cultivation
methods into common Dharma and Distinctive
Dharma. Common Dharma includes Vajra Mala, One
Hundred Attainment Methods, Attainment Dharma
Sea and One Hundred Dharmas of Natang etc and
Abhisheka, enlightenment and cultivation can be
opened externally and internally. Distinctive Dharma
includes Action Tantra, Performance Tantra, Yoga
Tantra and Anuttarayoga Tantra. Action Tantra has Vajrayana diagram painted in Drepung monastery

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The realm of Bodhisattva of Universal Benevolence

can be obtained if the whole gradual cultivation
process to construct great perfection is completed.
(Kalsang gyal)

Way of Great Perfection

It is the core doctrine of the Ningmapa Sect of
Tibetan Buddhism. It originated from Tantrism
of Indian Buddhism and was formed in “the pre-
propagation period” of Tibetan Buddhism and
developed in “the post-propagation period”. In
terms of overall content, it inherited tantric thoughts
of Indian monks including Padmasambhava and
Vimalamitra as well as collected Buddhist thoughts
and tantric heritance of the eminent Tubo monks
including Virocana was promoted by great monks of
the Ningmapa sect, and formed “great perfection”
with independent system of profound doctrines and The documents on Dayuan manfa
published by the zhongguo Sichuan
practice verification gradually. minzu chubanshe.
“Thuvu bkwan blo bzang chos kyi nyi ma”
explained great perfection: “it means birth, death intuitive conditioning power and heart essence. ” It
and nirvana of all things in the current world reach can be seen that any external environment comes
perfection and completion in the light voidness, so it from self heart while heart shape shows natural
is named perfection. There is no superior way to be wisdom and no better dharma can be sought without
free from birth and death so it is named greatness.” it. Although there similarities between “sems sde”
It can be seen that “great perfection” is bright and and great hand seal of the new sect in the process of
clean intelligence of human beings for open way cultivation, but specific methods or measures differ
and abandonment of impurity of passions and is greatly, for example, great hand seal uses heart to
the inborn pure disposition of all beings. That is to show environment while “sems sde” is intuitive
say material movement and change processes of all essence voidness.
things in the world as well as birth and death are In view of “region”, “klong sde” means broadness
generated or eliminated in the state of bright and and all-embracing, and it is a kind of dhamata realm.
clear voidness of spirits (thoughts) of human beings “Man ngag sde” proposes that all things including
so that their spirits can be proved clean and pure in samsara and nirvana shall be attributed to dhamata
this way, people can cultivate according to dharma, of voidness or persistence with intelligence of
so that their spirits will not be polluted and they can being free from acceptance or rejection and non-
reach an ideal realm of voidness and cleanness. If differentiation of dual combination, and bright
people can treat with this clear intelligence or clean and clear intelligence free from influences of
spirit and realise it by special ways, they can obtain conditions and feelings of samsara and nirvana, so
nirvana and realise “attainment of Buddhahood in that the superior concept of body of self-enlightened
this life”. Vajra-sphota is attained. Meanwhile, it proposes
As an independent systematic doctrine, the three concepts including purity of substance
connotations of “great perfection” are mainly characteristics, enlightenment of self nature and
composed of “sems sde, klong sde and man ngag broadness of great pity, and thinks that the essence
sde”. “Sems sde” means that heart can be realised in of substance is immortal and immaterial, and
three aspects: Essence, shape and field. For example, substance is pure; the voidness and wonderful phase
pure heart essence, bright heart nature (shape) and don’t hinder explicit knowledge, and self-nature is
broad heart field (function). This is a complete and enlightened; the voidness and wonderful virtues can
true heart. True heart is Buddha heart so it can be show impure and pure phenomena, which is broad
seen that everyone has Buddha heart. Therefore, great pity.
“Thuvu bkwan blo bzang chos kyi nyi ma” pointed From the perspective of schools of Tibetan
that “sems sde” shows state, only self heart and Buddhism, only the Ningmapa sect inherited the
heart nature can present natural wisdom, and there old Tantric traditions, and other schools belonged
is no other way except natural wisdom. The skill to to the new tantric system. Ningmapa sect promoted
attain this way is similar to the great hand seal sect, or practice Tantric heritance, which originated
which can show environment, while “sems sde” is to from the old Tantric traditions in the 8th century
seek the ultimate reality of cleanness and purity for CE, while the doctrines which were promoted and

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practised by the schools such as Gelug sect, Kagyu Therefore, birth and death is for not knowing self
sect, Sagya sect and Jonang sect originated from the heart while nirvana is for knowing self/ heart.
new Tantric system in late 10th century CE. Because heart is often disturbed by confusion,
As the school inheriting the old Tantric doctrines, people cannot understand properties of natural
the Ningmapa sect took the lead in differentiating intelligence of heat usually and they will know that
doctrines of Sakyamuni. The whole Dharma is birth and death don’t differ from nirvana naturally
divided into nine vehicles: “nyan thos, rang rgyal,
byang sems, kri ya, Au pa, yo ga, bskyed pa ma
ha yo ga, lung Aa nu yo ga and rdzogs pa chen po
Aa ti yo ga” etc and the first vehicle “nyan thos”
is graded to the ninth vehicle “rdzogs pa chen po
Aa ti yo ga” to gradually reach the supreme realm
of great perfection. As one of the main founders of
old tantric heritance, Vimalamitra had profound
influences on the Ningmapa sect which was the
pyramidal Buddhist or cultivation system, especially
played an important role in forming the thought of The documents on Mixuxue published by the
great perfection. Beijing Minzu Chubanshe.
(Kalsang gyal)
and obtain Buddha’s fruit once they understand
lam vbras characteristics of the innate intelligence so
The Way and Result (lam vbras) is the Core doctrine the cultivation concept that “all things are
of the Sagya sect of Tibetan Buddhism. misrepresentations of the mind, all things and the
Sagya Sect is a school with different thoughts. The mind are misrepresentations of illusion and all
masters including Saban Gongaji, Tshig don and illusions are void”. This cultivation concept explains
their followers promoted Svatantrika Madhyamika that the existence of environment is denied by
concepts while the masters including Rendawa heart, the existence of heart is denied by illusion,
Zhonu Lodro held Prasangika Madhyamaka and the existence of illusion is denied by arising
concepts even later monks held Mind-Only concepts from conditional causation, which conforms to the
as well as advocated the thought of “the wrong view concept of “non-differentiation among birth, death
concerning unrealness of the attributes”, and many and nirvana” and verifies the truth that they don’t
eminent monks cultivated “great perfection” of run against one other and words cannot express the
Ningmapa Sect. The core doctrine ie the distinctive enlightenment of the realm, and it can be verified
view of the school is “the way of result”. There are in cultivation practice truly.
exoteric and esoteric contents. (Kalsang gyal)
In the aspect of exoteric Buddhism, it contains
Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka thoughts and is related to Phyag Rgya Chen Po
Maitreya Buddhist thoughts. Madhyamaka thoughts It is the core doctrine of the Kagyu Sect of
are highlighted by “the first is to break non-blessing, Tibetan Buddhism. Kagyu sect is consistent with
the second is to break egocentrism, and the last is to other schools, promotes Madhyamika thoughts,
break all views”. especially observes Karmapa’s Prasangika
In the aspect of esoteric Buddhism, characteristics Madhyamaka. Because Kagyu Sect attaches
such as the union of knowledge and emptiness as well importance to practice and cultivation of guru
as the absolute birth, death and nirvana of human heritance and tantric doctrines, great hand seal
heart shall be proved and enlightened through becomes its unique core doctrines and rites.
systematic cultivation; absolute reality of the innate The so-called “great hand seal” does not mean
intelligence shall be realised to reach the realm of the hand seal in cultivation and practice of Tantric
unity between the Buddha and self. The cultivation doctrines but is a symbol to obtain achievement,
processes are to find general properties of human enlightenment and intelligence for cultivation
heart firstly, and seek the way from “clear heart” to and practice of Tantric doctrines, such as self-
“empty heart” secondly, realised the secret of “the nature, ultimate reality, Bodhi, true body and
union of knowledge and emptiness”, thirdly as well as true character.
prove and understand the characteristics of original The Great Hand Seal is related to exoteric and
nature including absences of position, colour, shape esoteric cultivation. Exoteric Great Hand Seal
and substance etc. Sagya sect holds the opinion that means that concentration and cultivation of non-
heart has two characteristics: firstly, it is twined by differentiation can attain enlightenment while
a mess; secondly, its nature is the innate intelligence. Esoteric Great Hand Seal means putting air into

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great and happy brightness from mid rids, which

is the essence of Anuttarayoga Tantra. Esoteric
great hand seal has complex doctrine system and
multiple branches.
There are four yoga ways mainly in the aspect of
cultivation: one-pointedness yoga, simplicity yoga,
one taste yoga, and non-meditation yoga.
Besides great hand seal, Kagyu sect promotes
specific cultivation of “six doctrines of Naropa”
which originated from Tantric doctrines inherited
from Indian Master Naropa. Great hand seal and
doctrines of Naropa are inseparably interconnected.
Six doctrines of Naropa are composed of six
cultivation doctrines advanced gradually in the A mural painting in the ancient monastery of Juenangpai.
due order from the shallower to the deeper. Firstly,
dharma attainment is to obtain the goal of Vajra combine body with heart and enter into a state of
Dharani by developing the natural intelligence of stabilised bliss and emptiness.
bliss and emptiness of a cultivator; secondly, vision (Kalsang gyal))
body attainment is to obtain reward of perfect
Buddha’s body by developing natural intelligence Naro Chosdrug
of immediate voidness and non-differentiation of Naro Chosdrug is one of important practice methods
a cultivator; thirdly, dream attainment is to prove of Kargyu sect of Tibetan Buddhist. It is made up of
and realise the true reality of empty self-nature six progressive tantric methods: 1) The Yoga of Inner
by developing natural intelligence of awareness Heat (Kundalini) method to light the mental state
of voidness; fourthly, bright attainment is to of believers to reach the spiritual state as that of
obtain the two goals of utmost enlightenment and Vajradhāra; 2) Huanshen Chengjiu (Yoga of Illusory
absolute reality by developing natural intelligence Body) method to help believers to acquire complete
of complete voidness of a cultivator; fifthly, magical powers as that of Sambhogakaya Buddha;
intermediate attainment is to obtain ultimate
release by developing natural intelligence of
the three periods of a cultivator; sixthly, phowa
attainment is to obtain achievement of Buddha’s
body by developing natural intelligence of non-
differentiation of a cultivator.
(Kalsang gyal)

sbor drug
Six-Branch Yoga (sbor drug) is practiced by the The Indian version of Naruoliufajing.
Jonang School of Tibetan Buddhism. Typically,
a Jonang monk will have a three-year meditation 3) Mengjing chengjiu (dream) method to lighten the
retreat. Six-branch Yoga can be divided into mental state of believers to realise that emptiness is
six phases including Withdrawal, Meditative the nature of trueness; 4) The Yoga of Clear Light
Concentration, Harnessing One’s Life-Force, (Guangming) method to lighten the nature of mind
Retention, Recollection and Samadhi. Withdrawal of believers to get complete realisation of spiritual
is to enable the mind of a practitioner to withdraw state of enlightenment and emptiness; 5) The Yoga of
from the secular world and completely enter into intermediate state/existence (Zhong yin) method to
empty forms. Meditative Concentration is to lighten the mental state of believers in three worlds
make the mind abide in joyfulness and calmness. and to get complete release and 6) The Qian shi
Harnessing One’s Life-Force is to draw in and chengjiu (Phowa) method to inspire nirvikalpa-j¤āna
sustain vital winds within the central channel and of believers to acquire Buddhist body.
not flow to the right or the left channel and to (Kalsang gyal)
obtain natural joy in a calm sitting. Retention is to
enable a practitioner to harmonise the nerve system Smon lam chen
and control the lifeforce. Recollection is to make a mo in Tibetan
practitioner concentrate the mind on a point and Prayer Festival (smon lam chen mo in Tibetan) is
connect it with the universe and obtain incessant the largest and grandest event for Gelug Sect. In the
force while Samadhi is to enable a practitioner to first month of Earth Ox year (1409) of the seventh

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calendrical cycle, Tsongkhapa founded Prayer

Festival in Jokhang Monastery to commemorate
Sakyamuni for his miraculous feats of defeating
“Six Heretics” and advocating Buddhism. Later on,
Gelug Sect monasteries continued the ceremony,
added new things to it during development and
prolonged the duration to a larger and larger scale.
In this way, it evolved into a comprehensive prayer
festival for Gelug Sect and even all other sects of
Tibetan Buddhism.
Lhasa Prayer Festival (lha sa smon lam chen mo)
is held at Jokhang Monastery, Lhasa between the
third and 25th day of the first month every year and
thus called Prayer Meeting Festival. Participants,
mainly lamas from the above Three Monasteries
of Lhasa, amount to 20,000-30,000. If secular
people are included, that is a very huge number.
Aristocrats and merchants from Shannan Prefecture A large prayer being held at the Potala Palace
(U region or anterior Tibet), Shigatse Prefecture
(Tsang region or ulterior Tibet) and Amdo-Kham favoured by ordinary people are performed. Butter-
donate substantial givings to express their wishes of oil flower exhibition (one of Three Consummate
believing in Buddhism, thanking lamas and eternal Arts of Kumbum Monastery) is famous for exquisite
bloom of Buddhism. The main agenda includes workmanship and design novelty. The flowers are
opening ceremony on fourth day of the first month: made of butter, only last one day, much like a flash
lamas begin chanting scriptures and making prayers in the pan. Pilgrims flood the monastery to watch
and perform other thematic Buddhist rites; hold a that on the day. That is indeed a spectacular scene.
debate for awarding candidate lamas the highest Labrang Monastery Prayer Festival (bla brang
degree “lha rams pa” on the 12th, 13th and 14th smon lam chen mo) which originated in reigns of 2nd
days of the month; have butter-oil lamp exhibition Jamyang Zhepa or called Jamyang Könchog Jigme
overnight on 15th day, which is pleasantly noisy; Wangpo (1728-1792) is held between the third to
take the ceremony “gtor rgyag” on 24th day which 17th day of the first month every year. With various
means sending off hungry ghosts by giving them colourful activities, it includes lamas’ scripture
food (lamas of rnam rgyal graw tshang and sngags pa chanting and eminent lamas’ Buddhism teachings
graw tshang, Potala Palace and Drepung Monastery throughout the whole period. During the festival,
specially prepare the event, and 500 lamas even hold massive debates for conferring degrees such
disguise themselves as ancient Mongolian soldiers to as “rdo rams pa” and “rams vbyams pa” on those
parade, burn hay stacks and shot guns so as to dispel qualified candidates. In the meantime, hold various
all disasters or misfortunes in this year); on the 25th rites and ceremonies: the 8th day, “setting livestock
day, perform the ceremony of “inviting Maitreya” free”, which means not hurting them; the 13th day,
then come to an end so that all lamas return to their “Buddha painting show” where believers worship
respective monasteries. thangka paintings in a solemn and grand manner;
Kumbum Monastery Prayer Festival (sku vbum the 14th day, “Buddhist dance” with vivid scenes
smon lam chen mo), was first held in the Water Sheep attracting all followers; the 15th day, “butter-oil
year (1583) of the 10th calendrical cycle upon edict flower exhibition” where people play about till deep
of Third Dalai Lama Sonam Gyatso (1543-1588). It night; the 16th day, lamas “hold Maitreya” statue in
lasts from 6th-17th day of the first month annually parade to chant scriptures” around the monastery so
and mainly includes scripture chanting, Buddhism as to pray for peace and bliss of the future world”
teaching and various rites. On 14th and 15th days, with accompanying Buddhist music.
Buddhist dances and butter-oil flower exhibitions (Kalsang gyal)

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Philosophy

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Philosophy

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Philosophy
OVerView

India-China philosophical interaction traces its on a scale and frequency rare in the cultural
history back to 1st century CE. With the spread of history of the world. Besides Buddhist philosophy,
Buddhism from India to China, the two countries the philosophy of Astika that includes Samkhya,
have carried out exchanges in religion, philosophy Vaisesika, Yoga, Nyaya, Puarra Mimansa and Vedanta
and culture for 2,000 years. Dating from Han and nastika that includes Jainism and Lokayatika
Dynasty, India-China philosophical exchange was were introduced to China and had a profound
carried out intesively in Wei Jin Southern and influence on ancient Chinese thought and culture.
Northern Dynasties reaching a climax in Sui and Meanwhile, Chinese philosophy such as Lao Zi’s Dao
Tang Dynasties and was taken further in Song De Jing, Daoism and Confucianism also spread to
and Yuan Dynasties. In Ming and Qing Dynasties, India and is believed to have had some influence on
Indian religious and cultural development.

Spread of philosophy of Buddhism to

China
In the 1st century CE, Buddhism spread to China in
the transitional period between the Eastern Han and
Western Han Dynasty. With the spread of Buddhism
in China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures were
successively translated from Sanskrit into Chinese
and accepted by Chinese Buddhists, resulting in the
rise of Buddhist philosophy in China. During the
early stages of translation of Buddhist scriptures,
monks from India and Western Regions played a
major role. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Master
An Shigao from Parthia went to China to teach the
doctrines and philosophy of Theravada Buddhism
and translated Theravada sutras such as Anapanasati
Sutta, Jataka Sutra and Dvadashamukha Shastra.
Additionally, the Tokharian monk Lokakṣema taught
‘A Source Book in Ancient India Philosophy’, Mahayana Buddhism and translated Mahayana
translated by Yao Weiqun, front cover sutras such as Asahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra,
Shurangama Sutra, Paramita Samdhi, Vimalakirti
India-China philosophical exchange was at a low
ebb due to the obstructions caused by the Western
colonialism. In modern times, it has achieved a
leapfrog development and entered a period of
growth due to increasingly powerful status of India
and China as well as the development of friendly
relations between the two countries. In ancient
China, there were numerous Buddhist monks and
scholars who endured much hardship to study in
India and seek wisdom. Similarly, a large batch of
Indian Buddhist monks and scholars went to China
to preach and translate sutras as well as carry out
academic exchange at the same time. In Sui and
Tang Dynasties (6th to 9th centuries CE) Indian and
Chinese scholars carried out philosophical exchange ‘Lotus Sutra (Fahua jing)’, Song Dynasty edition

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disciple Kui Ji was influenced by Indian Buddhist

philosophy as well as typified by Sajdhinirmocana
Sutra, Yogacarabhumi Sastra and Vijnaptimatra Siddhi
Sastra translated by Xuanzang and his disciple Kui Ji.
By embracing the philosophy formulated by Asanga
and Vasubandhu, leading members of the Dharma-
image Sect of Mahayana Buddhism, it preached the
doctrine of Consciousness-Only (vijnapti-matrata-
Perception is reality). The Tian Tai Sect that
emerged in the Sui Dynasty inherited Nagarjuna’s
‘Madhyamakakarika (Zhong Lun)’ philosophy, the representative of Madhyamaka and
considered Nagarjuna as the founder of the Sect.
Nirdesa Sutra and Aparimitayus Sutra with a group By embracing the emptiness of nature established
of his disciples. In Eastern Jin Dynasty, eminent by its founder Nagarjuna and further development
Indian monk Kumarajiva who was well-versed in combined with their own practices. The Tian Tai
Mahayana Madhyamika philosophy translated a Sect developed the doctrine of Three Meditations of
large number of Mahayana sutras including the One Mind or threefold contemplation in one mind.
famous Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra, Lotus Sutra, By interpreting void, unreal and mean existence in
Amitabha Sutra, Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra, tri-satyas advocated by Nagarjuna as three dogmas
Madhyamakakarika, Sata Sastra, Dvadashamukha (truths), to their eyes, all existence in the universe
Shastra, Mahaprajna Paramita Sastra and Satyasiddhi was subject to conditions (unreal truth), all unreal
Sastra which expounded on the Madhyamika
philosophy formulated by Nagarjuna. With the
increasing popularity of Buddhism in China,
many Chinese Buddhist scholars participated in
translation of Buddhist sutras. Among them, Master
Xuanzang studied sutras in India for 17 years and
brought over 600 Buddhist sutras to China. After
returning to China, he devoted himself to translation
of Buddhist scriptures for 20 years and translated
75 Mahayana and Theravada sutras running to over
1300 volumes including Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra,
Ksitigarbha Pranidhana Sutra, Sajdhinirmocana Sutra,
Yogacarabhumi Sastra, Abhidharma Mahavibhasa
Sastra, Mahayana Samuparigraha Sastra and Vajra Prajna Paramita (Diamond) Sutra,
Prakaranasyavaca Sastra. With the spread of Kangxi edition of Qing Dynasty

Buddhist sutras, Buddhist philosophy and doctrines

prevailed in China, including Skandha, four existence was void (void truth) and unreal truth
noble truth and Nidana in Theravada Buddhism and void truth were inseparable (mean truth). If
and Prajna, Madhyamika and Vijnanavada of one could meditate on this concept with the whole
Mahayana Buddhism. mind, it was called Three Meditations of One Mind
In Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhism was in its or Inconceivable Profound Meditation. The Chan
heyday in China and eight Buddhist sects such as Sect emerged in Tang Dynasty and prevailed in Song
Tian Tai Sect, Three-Sutra Sect, Pure Land Sect, Dynasty, becoming the most influential Buddhist
Huayan Sect, Dharma-image Sect, Meditation sect in China. Under the influence of Lankavatara
(Chan) Sect, Vinaya Sect and Esoteric Sect emerged Sutra, Vajracchedika Prajna Paramita and Mahayana
in China, most of which were influenced by Indian Sraddhotpada Sastra, it espoused Buddhist
Buddhist philosophy. Among them the Three- philosophy and advocated the doctrine adapting
Sutra Sect which was rooted in Madhyamaka in to the actual situation of China. In ontology, Chan
Indian Mahayana Buddhism and was typified by Sect regarded original consciousness and divinity
Madhyamakakarika, Dvadashamukha Shastra and as an immortal spiritual world and all things in the
Sata Sastra by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva, emerged real world reflected the nature of divinity. In other
in Sui Dynasty and it espoused Madhyamaka words, it advocated pure and non-contaminated
philosophy formulated by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva immortal original consciousness, divinity and
and preached the emptiness of nature, the two- human nature. It developed the doctrine of knowing
fold truths and eight-negation Middle Way. The one's own mind and discovering one's own nature
Dharma-image Sect founded by Xuanzang and his and thus attaining enlightenment and achieving

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as reincarnation, karma, virtue having its reward

and evil having its retribution, abstaining from
killing animals and freeing captive animals, had an
influence on Chinese people’s thoughts.

The Philosophy of Hinduism and

Jainism and its transmission to China
Samkhya is a sect of Sad-darsana (Astika) which
spread to China early and had a considerable
influence on China. As one of the earliest
philosophical systems of India, its history can be
traced to 5th century BCE and it developed its total
Left: Commentary on the Śata-śāstra, Kangxi period (1680); Right: system as a philosophy in 5th century CE typified by
Commentary on the Śata-śāstra, Yanbao period, Japan (1680)
Samkhya-Karika of Isvarakrsna in the 4th century CE.
After Samkhya spread to China, it was translated into
complete Buddhahood which gained in popularity Samkhya, Samgha Philosophy and Kapila Philosophy
among Buddhist believers in China. in Chinese Buddhist sutras. Nevertheless, the majority
In 7th century CE, Buddhism spread from of scholars deemed that it should be translated
Mainland China, India and Nepal to Tibet. The into Samkhya for Samgha which was meant to do
Buddhism that emerged in Tibet was called Tibetan calculation (counting) and took on a deep meaning of
Buddhism. The philosophy of Tibetan Buddhism meditation and study. According to Annotation of the
advocated the doctrine of Dependent Origination Doctrine of Mere Consciousness authored by Kui Ji, a
and the Emptiness of Nature of Madhyamaka of Chinese monk of Tang Dynasty, Samgha Philosophy
Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Indian carried the literal meaning of doing counting and
Buddhism. It was split into different sects such as calculation, and numeration was considered the
Nyingma Sect, Kadam Sect, Kagyu Sect, Sakya Sect origins of all dharmas. Therefore, it was named
and Gelug Sect due to different doctrines, practices Samkhya. As elaborated by Sata shastra by the
and regions. Among them, the Gelug Sect was the Chinese monk Ji Zang of Sui Dynasty, all dharmas
most influential and widespread sect. It embraced revealed 25 truths and Samgha Philosophy was
the philosophy of Dependent Origination and the
Emptiness of Nature of Madhyamaka advocated by
Nagarjuna and expounded on the doctrine of all
existence in the universe being subject to conditions
and all the things in conditional existence lacking
intrinsic nature/existence (immortality), negating
the truth of objective things and shedding light on
the philosophy of desisting from ego and entrenched
belief, dispelling ignorance and illusion and
achieving immortality by embracing the doctrine
of Dependent Origination and the Emptiness of Nature.
After its spread to China, Buddhist philosophy
had an influence on Chinese philosophy and folk
thought. In Southern and Northern Dynasties and
Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhist philosophy was
absorbed into the mainstream of Chinese philosophy Satyasiddhi Shastra (Completion of
Truth/ Chengshi lun)
and outweighed Confucianism in the Eastern and
Western Han Dynasties and Metaphysics of the Wei
and Jin Dynasties. Additionally, Neo-Confucianism named Samkhya. The spread of Samkhya to China
that emerged after the Tang Dynasty reflected the dated from late 4th century CE to early 5th century
ideas and influence of Buddhist philosophy. For CE (the Eastern Jin Dynasty), when Indian Buddhist
instance, Zhu Xi, an exponent of Neo-Confucianism monk Kumarajiva translated a large number of
of Song Dynasty, advanced the theory of feudal Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Chinese.
ethics and asceticism by embracing the philosophy His translation works Maha-prajnaparamita–shastra
of the nature of mind of Chinese Buddhism (Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom by
that prevailed in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Nagarjuna) and Mahayana-sutra-lankara (The Sutra
Additionally, the philosophy of life and the moral of Glorifying the Enlightened Mind by Asvaghosha)
philosophy advocated by Indian Buddhism such introduced Samkhya. In 6th century CE (Northern

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created by Vaisesika. In 5th century CE, Vaisesika

spread to China and this is attributed to eminent
Indian monk Kumarajiva whose translation work
entitled Satyasiddhi Shastra (Completion of Truth)
mentioned Vaisesika many times. In 6th century
CE, eminent Chinese monk Ji Zang elaborated on
Padartha in Vaisesika in his work entitled Sata shastra
in Sui Dynasty. In 7th century CE, Xuanzang studied
in India and brought Daśapadārthaśāstra (Treatise
on the Ten Padarthas) in Sanskrit by Maticandra to
China. In 648 CE, he translated it into Chinese in
Chang’an in the 22nd year of the Zhenguan Reign.
Subsequently, Vaisesika prevailed in China. In
modern times, the Daśapadārthaśāstra (Treatise on
the Ten Padarthas) in Sanskrit was lost in India and
Statue of a Yoga practitioner only its Chinese version translated by Xuanzang was
well-preserved in China. Therefore, it was of great
and Southern Dynasties), the Chinese Buddhist academic value to study the philosophy of Vaisesika
monk Chen Zhendi (about 548-596 CE) translated and the thought of ancient India. After the spread of
Samkhya-karika in Sanskrit into a Chinese version Vaisesika to China, its Visesa-Padartha and Anu had
entitled Hiranyasaptati (Suvarnasaptatisastra) and an enormous influence on Chinese philosophers. For
annotated and elaborated on the relations between instance, Tang Materialist philosopher Lu Cai (600
spiritual self, self-nature and the three virtues or ～655 CE) quoted the Anu of Vaisesika many times
powers, the relations between spiritual self and self- and defined atoms and transmittable gas within the
nature and the evolution of self-nature (primordial scope of substances which formed the basis for the
substances). This facilitated Chinese understanding world when he was expounding on his Atheism and
of the philosophy of Samkhya. Hiranyasaptati had Materialism. Additionally, he made a comparison
been valued and well preserved in Chinese Buddhist between the doctrine of atoms constituting substance
circles. In modern times, since Samkhya-karika has in Vaisesika and the doctrine of qi producing all
not been passed on from generation to generation things in Book of Changes and drew a conclusion that
in India. Hiranyasaptati had great value in academic Vaisesika and Book of Changes advocated the same
study. Indian scholars hailed Hiranyasaptati which doctrine in different forms.
was translated and annotated by Chen Zhendi as Nyaya in Hinduism, also know as Hetu-vidya,
the best annotated work of Samkhya. To preserve was included in Najarjuna-pancavidya-sastra as a
Samkhya sutras, they translated Hiranyasaptati in philosophical school in Hinduism specialising in the
Chinese into Sanskrit and published it in India, study of logic. After Buddhism emerged, it further
showing that Chinese Buddhist monks made a developed Hetu-vidya based on Nyaya in Hinduism.
contribution to preserving Indian cultural heritage As early as 5th century CE (Northern and Southern
and promoting India-China philosophical exchange. Dynasties in China), Indian Hetu-vidya works
The Vaisesika philosophy of Hinduism spread to (including both Buddhist and Hindu works) were
China in earlier times and its Padartha and Anu introduced to China and translated into Chinese. In
had an enormous influence on Chinese philosophy. Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang translated Nyayamukha by
Vaisesika emerged in 2nd century BCE, much later Indian Hetu-Vidya Master Dignaga and Nyayapra-
than Samkhya, and its sutras included Vaisesika- vesa by Sankarasvamin, disciple of Dignaga, into
sutra by the sage Kanada and Daśapadārthaśāstra Chinese, which influenced the development of
(Treatise on the Ten Padarthas) by Maticandra. Chinese logic. Additionally, Indian Hetu-vidya
Vaisesika was transliterated into “fei-shi-shi-jia” prevailed in Tibet more than the in the Central Plain.
(吠世师迦) and “pi-shi-jia” (毗世师) and literally
translated into “sheng-lun” (胜论) or “sheng-zong”
(胜宗) in Chinese sutras. Because Chinese scholars
regarded Vaisesika as a philosophy that studied
difference among the world’s phenomena, and
some deemed that it focussed on special categories
(Visesa-padartha), it outshone other sects. According
to Annotation of the Doctrine of Mere Consciousness by
Kui Ji, it was named Vaisesika because it established
Padartha and other unrivalled doctrines or it was Ekottaragama -sutra (Anguttara-Nikaya)

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Vehicle Zen by Dhyana, Six Dharmas by the Tian

Tai Sect and Samadhi of Buddha Recitation by the
Pure Land Sect. In ancient China, many traditional
Chinese body-building exercises learned from
Indian Yoga and Sutras of Tendon Changing
prevailing in Northern and Southern Dynasties,
Tianzhu Massage prevailing in Tang Dynasty and
Brahmanic Techniques prevailing in Song Dynasty,
were all introduced from India. Bodhidharma,
founder of Shaolin Temple, was a monk from India
‘The Monasteries of Luoyang (Luoyang jialanji)’ and once taught the Sutras of Tendon Changing at
Shaolin Temple. The practice of Sutras of Tendon
In 8th and 9th century CE, a large number of Indian Changing, such as inner strength, outer strength,
Hetu-vidya works were translated into Tibetan moving exercise, static exercise, somatic exercise,
script. After the 11th century CE, Tibetan Buddhist breathing exercise and mental exercise, showed a
scholars composed their own Hetu-vidya works striking resemblance to Astanga Yoga including
after absorbing and digesting Indian Hetu-vidya. inner practice, outer practice, sitting posture
It is worth mentioning that the Annotated Edition (somatic exercise), regulating breathing (breathing
of Pramanavishchaya or Brief Annotated Edition of exercise) and meditation (metal exercise). The
Pramanavishchaya by Gedain Sect Scholar Qiaba Brahmanic Techniques which prevailed in Song
Queji Sengge and Interpretation of Pramanavishchava Dynasty and were mentioned in Yun Ji Qi Qian
by Chapa Chkyi Sengge (1109-1169), disciple by Zhang Junfang included 12 techniques such
of Qiaba Queji Sengge, Nyaya-dvaratarka-astra as Snake-gong, Tortoise-gong, Peacock-gong,
by Sakya Sect Scholar Sapan, Pramānavārttika Crane-gong, Lotus-gong and Immortal-gong which
Nyayakosa by Uyugpa Rigpabisinge and Note for
Pramana Samuccaya by Gu Caojie (1364～1432 CE),
disciple of Tsongkhapa, had a profound influence
on Tibetan Hetu-vidya.
Indian Yoga had a profound influence on
China. Originally, Hindus practiced Yoga to
achieve spiritual liberation and Yoga took shape
in the Upanishadic era. In 2nd century BCE, Yoga
developed into a theoretical philosophy by means
of generalisation and theorisation. After the
emergence of Buddhism, it established its own
system of practice by absorbing Yoga sutras of
Hinduism. With the spread of Buddhism to China,
Indian Yoga sutras and methods of practice were
introduced to China and had a profound influence Graduation ceremony photo of the Arts and Philosophy Class of Peking
on Chinese Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, University, June 1918. (Front row, from left): President of the Peking
University Cai Yuanpei (5th), Chen Duxiu (6th), Liang Shuming (7th).
medicine, martial arts, Qigong and Chinese
Buddhist sect practice methods such as Utmost
fostered the development of Chinese martial arts
and Qigong.
Besides Hindu philosophy, Indian Jainism
and Lokayatika philosophy was also transmitted
to China quite early. The Sutra on the Descent of
Maitreya by monk Dharmaraksa in the western
Jin Dynasty introduced Nirgrantha Jnanaputra
and his thought. Chinese Buddhist scriptures
including Ekottaragama-sutra, Samyuktagama-sutra,
Mahaprajnaparamita-shaskra (Great Treatise on
the Perfection of Wisdom) and Satyasiddhi Shastra
expounded on the doctrine and philosophy of
Jainism. It is worth mentioning that Commentary
Graduation ceremony photo of the first study class of Yu Jia Shi Di Lun
on the Ten Stages Sutra and Satyasiddhi Shastra
(Yogacarabhumi- sastra), Famen Monastery Buddhist College translated by Eastern Jin Master Kumarajiva

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 Cultural Contacts

Exchange of philosophical ideas in the

Modern and Contemporary period
From 1840 to 1919, since both India and China
lost some of their status and were dominated
by Western powers, philosophical and cultural
exchange between India and China declined.
In modern times, with the revival of India and
China, and the improvement of their relations,
India-China philosophical exchange ushered in
a new era of growth. Two events contributed to
this. First, in 1924, the celebrated Indian poet and
philosopher Rabindranath Tagore visited China
‘A Brief History of Indian
Philosophy’, Shang Yongtong, and his philosophical wisdom aroused Chinese
1946, (front cover) people’s interest in Indian philosophy across China.
Second, in the early 20th century, the movement
introduced Lokayata Philosophy to the Chinese of the revival of Chinese Buddhism emerged.
people. As a popular ancient Indian folk philosophy Due to this movement, China set up Buddhist
of atheistic and materialism, Lokayatiaka was academies in different regions such as Shanghai
regarded as a kind of false doctrine by Buddhists. Huayan University, Hangzhou Huayan University,
According to Satyasiddhi Shastra, it advocated Chinese Inner Studies Institute in Nanjing, Buddhist
the doctrine of no donations, no temple, no Institute in Wuchang, Yushan Buddhist Institution
incineration, no kindness, no evildoers, no good/ in Zhenjiang, South Sea Buddhist Institute in Putuo
evil karma, no current life, no afterlife, no parents, Mountain and Minnan Buddhist College, to impart
no myriads, no karma, no transmigration, no arhat Buddhist knowledge, train Buddhist talent and
Sambo practice and intelligence and no body. study the philosophy of different religions of India.
Additionally, Chinese Buddhist institutes offered
Spread of Confucian and Daoist courses on Indian Buddhist philosophy, the Vedas,
Philosophy to India Upanishads and the philosophy of six Hindu sects.
Chinese Confucian and Daoist philosophy spread In early 20th century, China launched a campaign
to India and had some influence on Indian religion to study and research into Indian philosophy and
and philosophy. As more and more merchants, many universities offered a course on Indian
officials and monks travelled from China to philosophy. In 1916, the Philosophy Department
India, Chinese Confucianism and Daoism were of Peking University ran the course on Indian
introduced to India as well. According to The philosophy and Xu Jishang taught it. From 1917 to
Monasteries of Luoyang by Yang Xuanzhi, in the 6th 1924, Liang Shuming taught Indian philosophy at
century CE, Chinese Buddhist monk Song Yun and Peking University. In 1922, Tang Yongtong returned
Huisheng were granted an audience by the King from the United States and taught history of
of Wuchang State on their pilgrimage to India and Indian philosophy and Chinese Buddhist history at
they introduced and elaborated on Confucius' and Southeast University in Nanjing, Nankai University
Mencius' philosophy as well as Lao Zi's and Zuana in Tianjin and Peking University. In 1946, Wuhan
Zi's philosophy to him. In the 7th century CE, Tang University offered a course on Indian philosophical
officials Li Yibiao and Wang Xuance returned to history, and Jin Kemu and Shi Junxian taught the
China after they served as envoys to the Western course in succession. In 1948, Jin Kemu taught
Region and reported that the King of East Tianzhu Indian philosophical history at Peking University.
State showed interest in Lao Zi. Therefore, Emperor When Tang Yongtong served as vice president of
Tang Taizong issued an edict ordering eminent Peking University, he continued to offer the course
monk Xuanzang to translate Dao De Jing from on Indian philosophy to postgraduate students.
Chinese to Sanskrit. After Tang Xuanzang translated The above universities ran the courses on Indian
it from Chinese to Sanskrit, Daoism spread to India philosophy which encompassed Indian Buddhist
and had influence on Indian ideology to some philosophy and the philosophy of six Hindu sects,
extent. Daoist practices affected the Saktam in Jainism and Lokayata of Atheism.
Hinduism. For instance, Daoism advocated that the As they carried out the study of Indian religious
balance between yin and yang produced the world philosophy in depth, Chinese scholars published
and that one should practice inner Alchemy and a multitude of academic works. In 1919, Liang
outer Alchemy. Similarly, Saktam proclaimed that Shuming published Introduction to Indian Philosophy.
copulation produced all things in the world and it In 1925, Liang Qichao published A Brief History of
attached importance to mental and body practice. Indian Buddhism. In 1936, Huang Chanhua published

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 Cultural Contacts

History of Indian Philosophy, and in 1943, Yin Shun pioneered in producing the first academic journal
published Buddhism in India. In 1945, Tang Yongtong for studying South Asia issues entitled South
published A Brief History of Indian Philosophy. Asia Studies. Subsequently, Sichuan University
Additionally, they published many papers on Indian produced the quarterly periodical entitled South
philosophy in magazines to introduce ancient and Asia Studies and the Yunnan Academy of Social
modern Indian philosophy to Chinese people. Sciences produced Southeast Asia and South Asia
After founding of the People’s Republic of China Studies. The establishment of these related academic
in 1949, India and China cemented relations institutions and the production of academic journals
and consequently a new era in India-China strengthened the study of Indian philosophy and
philosophical exchanges was ushered in. In 1950s culture by Chinese scholars and trained a large
and 1960s, the Department of Oriental Languages batch of postgraduates and new scholars.
and Culture of Peking University began to admit As they carried out study of Indian philosophy
students who studied Hindi language, Sanskrit in depth, Chinese scholars had great achievements
and Pali and Beijing Broadcasting Institute in this field. First of all, they reaped the fruits
(predecessor of today's Communication University of translation of Indian philosophical sutras by
of China) ran courses on Tamil language and translating almost all the great ancient Indian
Bengali language to train expertise on India-China philosophical classics from Sanskrit to Chinese.
philosophical exchanges. After the start of reforms After the 1980s Indian classics were published in
in 1978, Chinese scholars carried out the study of succession. These included the Ramayana translated
Indian philosophy in depth and China launched by Ji Xianlin in 1980, Mahabharata, the Preface
translated by Jin Kemu in 1993, Mahabharata
translated by Huang Baosheng in 2005. Sanskrit
Aesthetics Anthology translated by Wu Baihui in
1997 (excerpt from Wisdom of Moon State), Fifty
Upanishads translated by Xu Fancheng in 1984,
Upanishads translated by Huang Baosheng in 2010,
Manava Dharma Sastra translated by Jiang Zhongxin
in 1986, Bhagavad Gita translated by Zhang
Baosheng in 1989, Bhagavad Gita translated by
Huang Baosheng in 2010, Agama Sustra translated
by Jiang Zhongxin in 1986, Agama Sastra (Frog
Upanishad) translated by Wu Baihui in 1999 and A
Source Book in Ancient India Philosophy translated by
Yao Weiqun in 2003.
Meanwhile, Chinese scholars translated a good
number of Indian philosophical works and some
modern works from English to Chinese including
South Asian Studies (front cover) Indian Philosophy authored by D Chattopadhyaya and
translated by Huang Baosheng and Guo Liangyun in
a campaign which called for setting up academic 1980, Lokayata: A study in Ancient Indian Materialism
institutions, training professionals and reaping the authored by D Chattopadhyaya and translated by
fruits of research. Wang Shi’an in 1992, Contemporary Indian Philosophy
In 1978, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences authored by Basant Kumar Lal and translated by Zhu
worked with Peking University to set up the Mingzhong in 1991, The Life of the Divine authored
South Asia Institute with Ji Xianlin as its director by Aurobindo Ghosh and translated by Xu Fancheng
and Huang Xinchuan as deputy director. It had in 1984, Sadhana authored by Rabindranath Tagore
Indian Philosophy Research Office specialising and translated by Gong Jing in 1992, The Yoga
in research into the philosophy of Hinduism, and Its Objects authored by Aurobindo Ghosh and
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Subsequently, the translated by Xu Fancheng in 1998 and The Synthesis
Department of Philosophy of Peking University set of Yoga authored by Aurobindo Ghosh and translated
up an Oriental Philosophy Research Office. The by Xu Fancheng in 2005.
Department of Philosophy of Renmin University of Besides translation works, Chinese scholars
China set up a Religious Research Office and the published academic works on Indian philosophy
Institute of Philosophy of the Chinese Academy including Huang Xinchuan’s works such as Study of
of Social Sciences set up an Oriental Philosophy the Indian Modern Philosopher Swami Vivekananda
Research Office. In 1979, the South Asia Institute (1979), History of Indian Philosophy (1989) and
of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Modern and Contemporary Indian Philosophy (1989),

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Wu Baihui’s Indian Philosophy Exploration of who visited China from the 2nd century onwards,
Veda and Interpretation of Upanishads (2000), Yao mention that they learnt five secular sciences or
Weiqun’s Indian Philosophy (1992) and Introduction Pańcavidyā as a basic training course. These sciences
were also taught at the Nalanda University along
with other religious training.
One of the earliest references to Pańcavidyā in
the Chinese language is found in a Buddhist work
Wu Ming Lun 五明論 that has been part of the
Chinese Buddhist canon. This work is attributed
to Nagarjuna which is often written as Long Shu
龍樹 in Chinese, so the title Long Shu Wu Ming
Lun 龍樹五明論or Nagarjuna’s Pańcavidyā. There
are references to medicine including gynaecology
and obstetrics in this work. Incidentally, Nagarjuna
had studied and taught at Nalanda too according
to the accounts of Xuanzang 玄 奘 (602-664 CE)
and Yijing 義 淨 (635-713 CE) the famous Chinese
Buddhist travellers of Tang Dynasty. An Indian
The Synthesis of Yoga (front cover) Buddhist monk Jnanabhadra, visiting China in 6th
century CE, translated this work in collaboration
to Indian Religious Philosophy (2006), Li Jianxin’s with three other monks.
Study of Indian Classical Yoga Philosophy (2000), Each area of the Pańcavidyā or the corpus of
Sun Jing’s Indian Advaita Vedanta Philosophy knowledge that a Buddhist monk was supposed to
(2002), Gong Jing’s Rabindranath Tagore (1992) and master, made its mark in the new place where it
Radhakrishnan (1996), Zhu Mingzhong’s Aurobindo was transmitted to. It is well manifest in canonical,
Ghosh (1994), Jiang Yili’s Sankara (1997) and A historical and popular literature, in cave engravings
History of Indian Vedānta Philosophy co-authored and paintings, in manuscripts stored there, and also
by Sun Jing and Zhu Mingzhong (2013). Among in popular legends like those of ‘Bhaişajyaguru’,
them, Huang Xinchuan’s History of Indian Philosophy Yaowang or Yaoshi (藥王 or 藥士). The names
quoted ancient Chinese data to expound on the of authors like Long Shu 龍樹for Nagarjuna and
philosophy of the Upanishads, Six Hindu sects, Qutan Xida 瞿曇悉達for Gautama Siddhartha were
Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata and other religions used for works on ophthalmology and astronomy,
in a comprehensive and systematic way, reaching respectively, and even names of medicinal formulae
the highest level of study of Indian philosophy by and alloys point at these exchanges. Many loan
contemporary Chinese scholars. words entered Chinese language from Sanskrit too,
e.g., Chan 禪for Dhyāna, Jiu zhi 九執 for Navagraha,
Ka mo lo迦 摩羅for Kāmalā or jaundice in Sun
THEORY Simiao’s literature and San guo 三 果for Triphalā.
Ancient Indian medicine left its profound mark
Pancavidya on Chinese medicine in the fields of ophthalmology,
Ancient Indian knowledge system called Pańcavidyā gynecology, pediatrics, pharmaceutics, physical
(five disciplines of knowledge) played a significant fitness, and psychological treatment like ‘dhyāna’.
role in expanding transmission of a whole range of Many anecdotes of Buddha and Bodhisattva relate
new ideas from India to China. It was customarily to their delivering medical instruction, medicines
comprised of Śabdavidyā (science of language), and medical texts to the needy.
Hetuvidyā (science of logic), Cikitsāvidyā (science Amoghavajra (CE 705-774), a prominent Buddhist
of medicine), Śilpakarmasthānavidyā (science of monk from South Asia, introduced esoteric Buddhism
fine arts and crafts), and Adhyātmavidyā (science of in the form of Tantra and alchemy into China.
spirituality). Known in Chinese as Wu-ming-lun, it is He translated a large number of Buddhist works
also referred to as Sabdavidya (science of language), into Chinese. As the Buddhists were committed
Hetuvidya (science of logic), Chikitsavidya (science of to lessening of human sufferings and hunger, the
medicine), Śilpakarmasthanavidya (arts and crafts) Buddhists pursued alchemy, both physiological
and Adhyatmavidya (science of spirituality). to achieve immortality and metallurgical to make
Indian Buddhist monks were learned people; silver- and gold-like alloys. Worshipping Buddha
many of them were Hindu Brahmins by birth. They involved making idols and vessels made of metals
customarily studied the prominent sciences of time like copper and alloys, like brass and bronze. This
in their childhood. Biographies of Indian monks, process opened more areas of interest where ideas

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could be exchanged viz alchemy and metallurgy. certain basis and studying principal components
New processes and materials became known and of the argumentation. Overall, Hetuvidya is a kind
new words entered Chinese scientific terminology. of logic, though it includes considerable contents
They were first found in technical books and later, of argumentation and general epistemology. Since
listed in ancient dictionaries and compendia. Xinxiu Buddhism has quite consummate discussions
Bencao 新修本草 of the 7th century CE and Bencao on Hetuvidya, many people would like to refer
Gangmu 本草纲目 of the 16th century CE include Hetuvidya as Buddhist logic.
‘Nao sha’ for ammonium chloride or Sal ammoniac, Though not the earliest founder, Buddhism has the
Ti hu 醍醐 for ‘Ghŗta’ or clarified butter and Niu highest achievements in respect of ancient Indian
Huang 牛黃 for ‘Gorochona’ ie dried gallstone of Hetuvidya. It was originally derived from thoughts
domestic cattle. Transliterated terms like Totamu or schools of some Indian philosophies or religions
土多牟 for zinc, which is ‘Tutthanāga’ in Sanskrit, rather than from Buddhism.
became common in Chinese literature.
As a first step, the Buddhists had to learn each
other’s languages. They wrote elaborate articles on
systematic learning of Sanskrit or Fan wen 梵 文 as
it is called even today. They compiled specialised
dictionaries to translate Sanskrit and Pali works into
Chinese and Tibetan. For that, Chinese phonetic
parallels for Sanskrit words were selected. The very
first such attempt is seen in Faxian’s writings. He
left China in the late 4th century CE to reach India
in the early 5th century CE. As translation activity
gained momentum dictionaries were composed.
‘Mahāvyutpatti’ ie Fanyi mingyi da ji 翻 譯名
義大集 (collection of translated names), is a 9th
century Sanskrit-Tibetan dictionary; during Song
Dynasty in the 12th century Fa yun 法雲 compiled
a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary. Fanyi mingyi ji 翻 譯
名義集. There is also a work by Li yan 禮言 viz
Fan yu za ming 梵語雜名 (miscellaneous nuances Hetuvidya: New Explorations; papers on
Hetuvidya by Chinese scholars (front cover)
of Sanskrit). These dictionaries are part of the
canonical literature.
These are a few among numerous examples of Its earliest form is associated with ancient Brahmin
alchemy, medicine, lipi or script and Tantra making argumentation about sacrifice. Brahmanism has a
their mark on Chinese cultural and scientific life. very ancient origin in India, and at its early stage in
(Vijaya J Deshpande & Kamal Sheel) particular, believed that “sacrifice is omnipotent”.
Its sacrifice had various forms and very complicated
Hetuvidya procedures. In ancient India, religious doctrines
Hetuvidya is a logic-centered theory of knowledge and sacrificial procedures were passed on mainly
in ancient Indian philosophies of religion. through oral means and with time going, followers
Originally, it was formed out of some Indian might remember and say differently and debate thus
philosophies of religions other than Buddhism, would occur. Objectively, this might make people
and later on, it was assimilated and transformed strive to find out a fixed form of inference and
by Buddhism and became an important component corresponding logic rules. Ancient Hetuvidya is the
of Buddhist thinking. Buddhist Hetuvidya, at a earliest of such reference and logic rules.
height of development, is a main representative of Its earliest form is also related to clashes among
Indian logics and occupies an important position different thoughts or schools of thought that arose
in the history of the development of ancient before or at the same time with Buddhism. These
oriental philosophy. thoughts are numerous and quite complicated,
and clashes between them gave rise to wide
Birth of Hetuvidya argumentation, creating a cultural and mental
The term “Hetuvidya” can be divided into “hetu”, environment suitable for the formation of Indian
which means knowledge or wisdom and combined, Hetuvidya.
"vidya" refers to knowledge or wisdom acquired The Nyaya School, as one of the six schools of
through inferred cause or basis. Therefore, Brahmin philosophy, was the first to satisfy such a
Hetuvidya is a kind of logical reasoning that demand and to make an important contribution to
obtains knowledge by proving an argument on the establishment of Indian logic or Hetuvidya. The

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Nyaya Sutra, the earliest classic text for this school, The Nyaya thinks that a right form of inference
was composed around 1st century CE by Gautama (or or argument consists of five parts: proposition
Gotama), and existing text, with later interpolations, (pratijna), cause (hetu), illustration (udaharana),
was formed in about 3rd to 4th centuries CE. application (upanaya) and conclusion (nigamana).
This is usually called as “Five-Part Syllogism”.
According to the Nyāya Sutra Bhāshya by Vatsyayana
(about 4th century CE), an application of this five-
part syllogism can be as follows:
Proposition: Sound is non-eternal.
Cause: Because it is created.
Illustration (positive): Whatever is created is non-
eternal, as is a plate or dish.
Application: So is sound, it is created.
Conclusion: Therefore sound is non-eternal.
Above is an example of positive illustration
(sadharma) and below is an example of negative
illustration (vidharma):
Lectures on Hetuvidya
(Nyāya praveśatāka śāstra
Proposition: Sound is non-eternal.
Lectures), Japan Cause: Because it is created.
Illustration (negative): Whatever is not created is
Before or when the Nyaya Sutra was composed eternal, as is Atman.
in India there were already certain scattered logic Application: Sound is not so and it is created.
theories or concepts. For example, Bhadrabahu Conclusion: Therefore sound is non-eternal.
(about 433 to 375 BCE), a Jaina philosopher In addition to five-part syllogism, the Nyaya also
put forth some concepts or categories about the offers a detailed analysis of the causation of inference
process of inference, involving the proposition, errors and argument failures, and expounds five
cause, example, conclusion and the like, but these logical errors, three quibbles, 24 futilities and 22
concepts or categories all have a lesser influence occasions for rebuke.
than the Nyaya Sutra and a considerable part There are five kinds of fallacy that may lead to
of them are only mentioned in some ancient failed inference, including the inconclusive, the
documents, and their specific contents are not contradictory, the controversial, the counter-
very clear. In contrast, the Nyaya Sutra is the first questioned and the mistimed (for details please
book in ancient India that proposed systematic refer to Nyaya Sutra 1, 2, 4-9).
logic theories and played an important role in the Quibble is the opposition offered to a proposition
formation of Indian Hetuvidya. by the assumption of an alternative meaning,
From the Nyaya Sutra and its commentaries, including quibble in respect of a term, quibble
it can be seen that the logic proposed by ancient in respect of a genus and quibble in respect of a
Nyaya mainly lies with “pramana”, which refers to metaphor (for details please refer to Nyaya Sutra 1,
means of right knowledge and usually was discussed 2, 10-17).
by an ancient Indian philosophy. According to Futility consists in offering objections founded
Nyaya Sutras, there are four means of attaining on mere similarity or dissimilarity. There are
right knowledge: perception, inference, comparison 24 kinds of futility as follows: (1) balancing the
and verbal testimony. The Nyaya’s logic is mainly homogeneity, (2) balancing the heterogeneity, (3)
related to inference and its relevant theories can be balancing an addition, (4) balancing a subtraction,
divided into two parts. One is inferential theories (5) balancing the questionable, (6) balancing the
about obtaining right knowledge and the other is unquestionable, (7) balancing the alternative, (8)
analyses for the causation of fallacies or failure in balancing the reciprocity, (9) balancing the co-
the course of inference. presence, (10) balancing the mutual absence, (11)
balancing the infinite regression, (12) balancing
the counter-example, (13) balancing the non-
produced, (14) balancing the doubt, (15) balancing
the controversy, (16) balancing the non-reason,
(17) balancing the presumption, (18) balancing the
non-difference, (19) balancing the demonstration,
(20) balancing the perception, (21) balancing the
non-perception, (22) balancing the non-eternality,
Abhidharmasamuccaya, translated by Xuanzang (23) balancing the eternality, and (24) balancing

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the effect (for details please refer to the Nyaya have many innovations. Hetuvidya in the works
Sutra 5, 1, 1-43). written by famous Buddhist commentators such as
The following are 22 occasions for rebuke, for Hagarjuna, Maitreya, Asanga and Vasubandhu, is
which an argument or inference fails due to breaking basically “old Hetuvidya”.
rules: (1) hurting the proposition, (2) shifting A considerable number of Buddhist texts include
the proposition, (3) opposing the proposition, contents of old Hetuvidya, including among others,
(4) renouncing the proposition, (5) shifting the Upaya-Kausalya-hṛdaya śastra, Yogacarabhumi-sastra
reason, (6) shifting the topic, (7) the meaningless, (volume XV), Prakaranaryavaca-sastra (volume XI),
Mahayanabhidhar-ma-samuccaya-vyakhya (volume
XVI), and Tarka sastra.
The Upaya-Kausalya-hṛdaya śastra discussed
a number of Hetuvidya questions, for example,
discussion about “four means of knowledge”
(perception, comparison, example, sutra), and
discussion about improper “cause” or “example” that
might lead to contradictory or failed inference, and
Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya-vyakhya, many of such contents were similar to the Nyaya.
Fangshan Stone Classics
The Yogacarabhumi-sastra also mentioned
Hetuvidya, with most such discussions in the
(8) the unintelligible, (9) the incoherent, (10) the
inopportune, (11) saying too little, (12) saying too
much, (13) repetition, (14) silence, (15) ignorance,
(16) non-ingenuity, (17) evasion, (18) admission of
an opinion, (19) overlooking the censurable, (20)
censuring the non-censurable, (21) deviating from
a tenet, and (22) the semblance of a reason (for
details please refer to the Nyaya Sutra 5, 2, 1-25).
The Nyaya laid a basis for the establishment of
Indian Hetuvidya and put forth the basic form,
theoretical framework or discussion. Later on,
most issues discussed by quite developed Indian
Hetuvidya that focussed on Buddhist logic were
from the Nyaya Sutra. The difference is that
Buddhism significantly pushed forward Indian
logic and Buddhist Hetuvidya has more in-depth ‘Index to the Yogacharabhumi- sastra:
and scientific study in respect of inference and Chinese- Sanskrit- Tibetan’, (front cover)
categorization of logic errors.
volume XV, suggesting that “valid knowledge can
Old Hetuvidya in Buddhism be obtained through the following eight means: (1)
Logic theory proposed by Nyaya is quite systematic proposition, (2) cause, (3) example, (4) similarity,
and had an important influence on the history of (5) dissimilarity, (6) perception, (7) inference, and
Indian philosophy and attracted many ancient (8) valid cognition. Here, the first five correspond
Indian philosophers to pay attention to the problem to Hetuvidya, and the latter three are main
of logic. Some were prominent Buddhist thinkers. In categories of “pramana”. Volume XV explains each
the course of the evolution of Buddhist Hetuvidya, of them in details.
Theravada and early Mahayana had less discussion “Proposition” corresponds to that of Hetuvidya’s
on logic, while Yogacara (a school of Mahayana) paid five-part syllogism and is mainly intended to
more attention to this respect. Buddhist Hetuvidya establish a proposition or a basic idea. According
texts were mostly composed by Yogacara thinkers, to the Yogacarabhumi-sastra, “a proposition is either
and of them, Dignaga (about 5th to 6th centuries for asserting one’s own idea or refuting, defeating or
CE) had prominent achievements in respect of agreeing with an idea of others”.
Hetuvidya, and is often used to divide the history According to Yogacarabhumi-sastra, “cause”, similar
of Hetuvidya development and before him is “old with that of the Nyaya, “is to explain the proposition
Hetuvidya” and after him is “new Hetuvidya” and on the basis of similarity, dissimilarity, perception
Dignaga is a leading character for new Hetuvidya. and inference and to obtain valid knowledge”.
Basically, old Buddist Hetuvidya absorbed the "Example" equivalent to the "illustration" of
logic from Nyaya and other schools and did not Hetuvidya, as explained in the Yogacarabhumi-

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sastra, “is also to explain the proposition, by using “Valid cognition” is to obtain knowledge through
examples to make for easy understanding”. teachings or theories of the wise or holy man,
“Similarity” refers to similar points between and according to the Yogacarabhumi-sastra, “valid
things. According to the Yogacarabhumi-sastra, “It is cognition refers to teachings of the omniscient
to use similar means to prove the proposition. There or what he hears or follows, and it also has three
are five kinds of similarity ie similar in state, similar categories, the one is no violation of holy scriptures,
in bhava-svabhava, similar in application, similar the second is no defilement, and the third is no
in means and similar in cause and effect”. This is breaking of recognised law.” The Nyaya Sutra also
relevant to “positive illustration” (sadharma) of the mentions “valid cognition”, but with a description
Nyaya’s five-part syllogism. not identical with that of Yogacarabhumi-sastra.
“Dissimilarity” means no similar point between The Prakaranaryavaca-sastra, in the Volume 11,
things. According to Yogacarabhumi-sastra, “It is basically has the same discussion with the Volume
15 of Yogacarabhumi-sastra.
The Mahayanabhidhar-ma-samuccaya-vyakhy has a
detailed discussion of Hetuvidya in the Volume 16,
suggesting “there are eight types, that is, proposition,
cause, illustration, application, conclusion,
perception, inference, and valid cognition”, but
these eight are different from those mentioned in
the Yogacarabhumi-sastra, since “application” and
“conclusion” replace “similarity” and “dissimilarity”
in the Yogacarabhumi-sastra.
As for “application”, the Mahayanabhidhar-ma-
samuccaya-vyakhy explains it “as extending the
proposed maxim to remaining cases and making
the proposition applicable and correct under other
circumstances”.
The Mahayanabhidhar-ma-samuccaya-vyakhy
explains “conclusion” as “consummate, complete and
having a final result in respect of the proposition”.
‘Great Commentary on the Nyayapravesa’ As for the other six types, the Mahayanabhidhar-
ma-samuccaya-vyakhya basically is not different
to use dissimilar means to prove the proposition. from the Yogacarabhumi-sastra, and some names are
The same with above categories, there are different, but contents are the same.
five kinds of dissimilarity”. This is relevant to In the Mahayanabhidhar-ma-samuccaya-vyakhy,
“negative illustration” (vidharma) of the Nyaya’s the first five types are a kind of syllogism, and below
five-part syllogism. is an illustration:
“Perception” is knowledge obtained through Proposition: Things are without self
senses, and Indian philosophies all recognise this Cause: Because an aggregate can be supposed.
“pramana”. According to the Yogacarabhumi-sastra, Example: As apply the present to the past.
“perception has three kinds, the one is not invisible, Application: If reputed, the proposition is non-
the second is not having thought or being obliged permanent.
to think, and the third is not deranged”, and the Conclusion: So five aggregates are non-eternal
Nyaya Sutra also mentions “perception”, but with and without self.
a description somewhat different from that of the Closer to the contents of the Nyaya Sutra is Tarka
Yogacarabhumi-sastra. Sastra, another text of old Buddhist Hetuvidya,
“Inference” actually is a major component of which discusses Hetuvidya under “three classes”,
Hetuvidya, and the Yogacarabhumi-sastra divides and its occasions for rebukes are extremely similar
it into a number of categories, “inference means to those in the Nyaya Sutra and its discussion about
thinking and identifying all possibilities that have syllogism and dispute errors basically are the same
been thought or should be thought, and has five with relevant discussions in the Nyaya Sutra.
types: inference from appearance, inference from The Tarka sastra introduces a “five-part” syllogism
the corporeal, inference from action, inference in respect of occasions for rebuke ie “proposition,
from recognised law, and inference from cause and cause, example, application, and conclusion”, and
effect.” The Nyaya Sutra also mentions “inference”, uses the following example to illustration this:
but with a description very different from that of the Proposition: Sound is non-eternal.
Yogacarabhumi-sastra. Cause: Because it is created.

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Example: Whatever is created is non-eternal, as Chinese and Tibetan translations eg Nyaya-mukha,

earthenware is. Upadayaprajnaptiprakarana, Praj~naapaaramitaa-
Application: So is sound. pi.n.daartha-sa.mgraha, Pramāṇa-samuccaya,
Conclusion: Thus sound is non-eternal. Alambana-parīkşa and Hastavalaprakarana. And
The five-part syllogism in the Tarka sastra, though among them, Nyaya-mukha and Pramāṇa-samuccaya
different in name, is completely the same with that are the most important.
in the Nyaya Sutra and both have used the virtually Samkarasvami, a disciple of Dignaga, mainly
same examples. composed the commentary on Dignaga’s Nyaya-
As for erroneous dispute, the Tarka sastra says under mukha ie the Nyāyapravea.
“Occasions for Rebuke”, “there are 22 occasions for Dharmakirti is a quite accomplished thinker of
rebuke”, which are consistent with those in the Nyaya new Hetuvidya and has many writings, including
Sutra, also including: (1) hurting the proposition, (2) the so called “Seven works on Hetuvidya” ie
shifting the proposition, (3) opposing the proposition, Pramanavarttika, Pramanaviniscaya, Nyayabindu,
(4) renouncing the proposition, (5) shifting the
reason, (6) shifting the topic, (7) the meaningless,
(8) the unintelligible, (9) the incoherent, (10) the
inopportune, (11) saying too little, (12) saying too
much, (13) repetition, (14) silence, (15) ignorance,
(16) non-ingenuity, (17) evasion, (18) admission of
an opinion, (19) overlooking the censurable, (20)
censuring the non-censurable, (21) deviating from a
tenet, and (22) the semblance of a reason.
Overall, old Buddhist Hetuvidya, with logic
reasoning assimilated from the Nyaya, is different
from the Nyaya but not much and enough to
separate both in a strict sense,
Old Buddhist Hetuvidya and Nyaya all have
some aspects that are not complete or rigorous.
For instance, “five-part” syllogism obviously has Nyayamukha: A Study (Yin Ming
repetitions and after removing the first two or Zheng Li Men Lun Yanjiu); front cover
the latter two, the remaining three parts still can
accomplish the inference. Old Hetuvidya in the Hetubindu, Sambandha parikṣa, Santanantara-siddhi
main is a kind of analogous or inductive inference and Vada-nyay, all extant in Tibetan and some in
and a conclusion from such inference sometimes Sanskrit as well as some modern Chinese translations.
is not necessarily correct. Moreover, in spite of Of them, Nyayabindu and Pramanavarttika have the
considerable studies on “hetu”, old Hetuvidya still greater influence.
lacks adequate exploration as to how to decide a As for Dharmapala, Silabhadra and Jayasena, their
“hetu” is right or not and so, its theories of logics thoughts about Hetuvidya are scattered in Yogacara
are not rigorous. Besides, its “occasions for rebuke” works, including their won.
include contradictory or fallacious contents as well New Hetuvidya is an improvement of the old
as contents that violate specific rules of dispute and Hetuvidya, since its syllogism is improved, and it
some of contents are not within the strict scope is more accurate when deciding whether a “hetu” is
of logic reasoning. These defects arose mainly right or not.
because old Hetuvidya or the Nyaya proposed their In old Hetuvidya, Buddhism usually adopted a five-
theories in the process of debate and these theories part syllogism and some Buddhist texts, when talking
are for the need of argumentation rather than for about Hetuvidya, mentioned “three-part syllogism”,
pure logic reasoning. for instance, the Mula-madhyamaka-karika
mentioned “proposition-cause-comparison”, but its
New Hetuvidya in Buddhism examples also contained “application”, and it is not
The important reform made by Dignaga signalled a sure form of three-part syllogism. “Yogacarabhumi-
the formation of the new Buddhist Hetuvidya, with sastra” refers to “ Founding Communion”, “Debating
major figures including Dignaga, Samkarasvamin, on the Causal” and “Allusion”. To sum up, three-
Dharmapala, Silabhadra, Jayasena and Dharmakirti part syllogism in old Hetuvidya is neither a regular
and Dignaga, Samkarasvamin and Dharmakirti had nor a perfect reference. On the basis of these
the greatest influence. shortcomings, new Hetuvidya explicitly removed
Dignaga had written many works, but many of them “application” and “conclusion”, made “three parts”
were no longer available, and extant texts are mainly a quite regular form of syllogism and further

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improved and made some contents more reasonable example, as a dissimilar case (vidharma), “emptiness”
or scientific. Dignaga and Samkarasvamin all gave should not have the cause’s attribute.
three-part examples in their works. Hetucakra is the most prominent innovation made
An example in Nyaya-mukha by Dignaga is by neo-Hetuvidya thinkers, and it was based on and
as below: was a further improvement of “trairupya”.
Proposition: Sound is non-eternal. Hetucakra was used by neo-Hetuvidya thinkers to
Cause: Because it is made. decide whether a cause is right or not. A “cause”
Positive example (Sadharma): Whatever is made that satisfies pakṣa has nine possibilities with
is non-eternal, as a bottle. sapakṣa and vipakṣa: (1) + sapakṣa, + vipakṣa, (2)
Negative example (Vidharma): Whatever is + sapakṣa, – vipakṣa, (3) + sapakṣa, ± vipakṣa, (4)
eternal is not made, such as void. – sapakṣa, + vipakṣa, (5) – sapakṣa, – vipakṣa, (6) –
While, an example in Samkarasvamin’s sapakṣa, ± vipakṣa, (7) ± sapakṣa, + vipakṣa, (8)
Nyāyapravea can be summarised as follows: ± sapakṣa, – vipakṣa, and (9) ± sapakṣa, ± vipakṣa
Proposition: Sound is non-eternal. (Note: + = all, ± = some, – = none)
Cause: Because it is created.
Positive example (Sadharma): Whatever is created
is non-eternal, such as a bottle.
Negative example (Vidharma)” Whatever is
eternal is not created, such as emptiness.
In Nyāyapravea, when talking about the three
constituents of valid source of knowledge,
Samkarasvamin suggested “using proposition-cause-
comparison to make people understand”, “….can be
proved when explaining to others..., and only with
these three, can a proposition be proved”.
The most important difference between new
and old Hetuvidya lies with their analysis of
“hetu”, since whether a “hetu” is correct or not
directly relates to the success of the inference. Old
Hetuvidya made much exploration in respect of
A compilation of Hetuvidya in Nyaya Theory
“hetu”, for instance, it proposed “fallacious cause”,
but, it failed to show what hetu is correct and to
discuss it in a clear and detailed manner. In this Dignaga and others were of the opinion, above
respect, new Hetuvidya made much improvement (2) and (8) all satisfy the latter two conditions of
or reformation, and many of its theories of “hetu” “trairupya”, and therefore, are valid cause, and the
were contained in “trairupya”. The term “trairupya” remaining seven are fallacious cause, since they do
had been mentioned in old Hetuvidya, for example, not satisfy the latter two conditions.
volume I of Mula-madhyamaka-karika but without Under new Hetuvidya, errors (faults or occasions
a clear explanation. It is neo-Hetuvidya thinkers for rebuke) were organized, replenished and closely
that discussed “trairupya” in a complete and connected with “trairupya”, and were divided
clear manner. into paksābhāsa, hetvābhasa and drstantābhāsa.
“Trairupya” refers to “three conditions” that Samkarasvamin, in Nyāyapravea, gave a most
have to be met to be a valid source of knowledge. systematic list of 33 errors, including nine paksābhāsa
And these three conditions are: pakṣa, sapakṣa ie pratyaksa-viruddh, anumana-viruddha, svasastra-
and vipakṣa. viruddha, loka-viruddha, svavaccana-viruddha,
Pakṣa means that it should be present in the case aprasiddha-visesan, aprasiddha–visesya, aprasi-
or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus’. ddhobhaya, and prasiddha – sambandha, 14
Take an example from the Nyāyapravea, the cause’s “hetvābhasa” that include ubhayasiddha, anyatar-
attribute must be present in “sound” (as the object). siddha, samdigdhadsiddha, asrayadsidddha,
Such an attribute can be present in many things, but sadharana-anaikantik, asadhāraṇa-anaikantika,
“sound” must have it. sapaksa-eka-desa-vrtti-vipaksa-vyapin-anaikantika,
Sapakṣa means that it should be present in a vipaksaikadesa-vrtti-sapaksa-vyapaka—anaikantik,
‘similar case’ (sadharma) or a homologue. For apaksa-vipaksalkadesa-vrtti, viruddhavyabhicarin,
example, the attribute should be present in a similar dharma-svarupa-viruddha, dharma-visesa-
case (sadharma), that is, “bottle”. viruddha, dharmi-svarupa-viruddha and dharmi-
Vipakṣa means that it should not be present in visesa-viruddha. Ten drstantabhasa include
any ‘dissimilar case’ (vidharma) or heterologue. For sadhana-dharmasiddha, adhya-dharma-asiddha,

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ubhyaya–asiddhah, ananvaya, viparitanvaya, and he had a different opinion on Asadharaṇa-

sadhya-avyavrtta, sadhanavyavrtta, ubhayavyavrtta, anaikantika and Viruddhavyabhicarin, the two
avyavrtta and viparita-vyatireka hetvābhasa proposed by some Hetuvidya thinkers
In addition to logic reasoning new Hetuvidya, the (Dignaga and others).
same with Hetuvidya, also has epistemology-related Asadharaṇa-anaikantika means that a cause is
discussion. In Nyāyapravea, Samkarasvamin put not present in similar and dissimilar cases and thus
forth the so-called “eight approaches to two kinds of cannot establish whether the proposition is right.
benefit” (or eight propositions in two kinds of making For instance, suppose the proposition is “sound is
aware). These eight approaches are: sadhana, dūaa, non-eternal”, the cause is “can be heard”, a similar
sadhanabhasa, dusanabhasa, pratyaka, anumana, case is “bottle”, and a dissimilar case is “emptiness”.
pratyaksabhasa and anumanabhasa. “Two benefits” “Bottle” and “emptiness” all cannot be heard and
refer to enlightening self and others and in fact so, the cause cannot prove that the proposition is
indicate the comprehensive role to be played by right. This actually is the fifth circumstance under
the new Hetuvidya. Clearly, these theories are more the Hetucakra.
systematic and improved than those in old Hetuvidya. Viruddhavyabhicarin means that in the course
After Dignaga and Samkarasvamin, Dharmakirti of an argument, both sides put forth their own
further pushed forward new Hetuvidya. According propositions, and “causes” all satisfy “three
to texts such as the Nyayabindu, Dharmakirti had conditions”, but conclusions (or propositions) are
ideas on the form of inference, the judgment of totally opposite (or contrary), and so, which side is
valid cause and inferential errors that were different right cannot be established. For instance, one side
from or not even mentioned by Dignaga and others. proposes: sound is non-eternal, because it is created,
As for the form of inference, Dharmakirti had a as a bottle, and another proposes: sound is eternal,
unique understanding of “three-part” syllogism, because it can be heard, as an attribute of sound. For
and thought that “example” could be combined each side, their proposition seems to be right but it
into “cause”, since the meaning or role of an cannot prove the other’s fallacy.
example could be included into “cause”. Therefore, For Dharmakirti, above two hetvābhasa in
“example” actually does not necessarily become fact were not possible to arise, and so, should be
a separate part. However, Dharmakirti thought removed.
that it was not necessary to remove “example” or With above thoughts of Dharmakirti, new
“three-part” syllogism and instead, the sequence Hetuvidya became more sound and rational. After
of the “three parts” could be rearranged with him, there were also a number of Hetuvidya scholars,
“example” in the first and “proposition” in third. It who usually inherited new Hetuvidya thoughts
would be “example-cause-proposition” and such a from Dignaga, Dharmakirti and others and pushed
form of inference, in fact, is similar to “three-part” Buddhist Hetuvidya to a height of ancient Indian
syllogism, and is something of deductive reasoning logic, and greatly enriched the pool of ancient
and is more rational or scientific. Indian philosophy.
As for “valid cause”, Dharmakirti advanced
on the basis of “trairupya”. He suggested, there Dissemination and Influence in China
could be three kinds of valid cause that satisfied Indian Hetuvidya was brought into China together
“three conditions” ie unattainable, of self-nature with other Buddhist thoughts, and had an important
and causal. “Unattainable cause” means, when influence on ancient Chinese thoughts. In particular,
inferring the non-presence of an object, the cause when Yogacara School arose in the Tang Dynasty,
can be not finding this object under relevant since Hetuvidya had been much discussed in Yogacara
conditions, for instance, the signs (sound, body, texts, some Yogacara thinkers, while disseminating
etc.) of the presence of someone are not found in Yogacara, also worked vigorously to spread Hetuvidya
a certain place, and this being a cause, it can be theories. Moreover, Tibetans have translated and
inferred that this person is not present; “cause of kept many valuable Hetuvidya texts, some of which
self nature” means inferring the genus of an object are no longer available in India and both Chinese and
from its attributes, for instance, an object can Tibetans have played an important role in facilitating
move and make a sound by itself (with attributes the study and development of Hetuvidya.
of animal or belonging to a kind of animal), it In modern China, scholars have attached
could be inferred as animal; “causal cause” means significant importance to Hetuvidya, since it is a
inferring the cause from the effect for an cause- major representative of Indian logic and an important
and-effect object. For instance, from the rising of branch of Buddhism. Some Hetuvidya scholars have
water, it can be inferred that it rains in the upper published many articles and works on Hetuvidya and
reaches of the river. As for “inferential errors”, universities also offer courses on Hetuvidya.
Dharmakirti also put forth some novel ideas (Yao Weiqun)

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Hetuvidya of Tibetan included the eminent monk khu lung pa yon tan
Buddhism rgya mtsho (1813～1890) and his work tshad ma
Hetuvidya of Tibetan Buddhism (Tshad Ma Rig rig pa, the great monk Thubten Gelek Gyatso (1844
Pa) is the main subject and debate way of Tibetan ～1904) and his work bsdus grvi spyi don rin chen
Buddhism interpreting its semantics, and it is also sgron me and the eminent monk Mipham Namgyel
called as Pramana. Its connotations are related to Gyatsho (1846～1912) of the Ningmapa sect and his
logistics, cognition and epistemology of Buddhism. work tshad ma rnam vgrel gyi gzhung gsal bor bshad pa
Hetuvidya of Tibetan Buddhism comes from Indian legs bshad snang bavi gter, etc.
Buddhism, has been developed in Tibet creatively, (Yao Weiqun)
is listed one of the five great theories of Buddhism
as well as becomes main component of 10 Tibetan Collected Topics of
metaphysics and plays an important role in studying Tibetan Buddhism
and cultivating Tibetan Buddhism. Collected Topics of Tibetan Buddhism (bob brgyud
Tibetan Buddhists used and developed logic nang bstan chos lugs bsdus graw) is a special
thoughts and interference ways of Hetuvidya discipline that conducts classification, conduction
including Dignaga’s Pramana-samuccaya (theme) and summarisation for essentials of Hetuvidya,
and Dharmakirti’s Pramanavarttika (explanation), and a compulsory course of Dharma Character for
broke through four Indian heretical theories, beginners. It plays a role in “establishing correct
established concepts of four Buddhist sects and intelligence to defeat heretical theories” in the
set up the tenets of the thoughts of Prasangika criticising circle of Buddhism and all other heresies
Madhyamaka. Therefore, Hetuvidya was honoured and becomes the requisite defense skill and thinking
as the golden key to open up the knowledge treasure formula in obtaining religious academic rank.
gate of Tibetan Buddhism. A large number of monks Theoretic system of collected topics is composed
attached importance to it as a methodology and of three parts: small principle, middle principle
cognition to seek truth and they wrote book and and large principle from which develop from the
expounded theories to develop Hetuvidya. easy to the difficult. Small principle starts from
The previous (11th ～13th century CE) achievements identifying red and white colours and realising the
which were made by Tibetan Buddhists in the term and concept of Hetuvidya gradually and its
field of Hetuvidya included mainly three types: deduction is short and poignant; middle principle
commentaries, original treatises and comprehensive is a process to realise things, analyse the conflicts
treatises. Commentaries treatises remarked such as contradiction and compliance and expand
Hetuvidya classics of Dignaga and Dharmakirti, which its Pramana knowledge; great principle is entry into
were represented by tshad ma rnam par nges pavi debate stage of prasangika debate mode which aims
dkav bvi gnas rnam par bshad pa of rngog blo ldan at displaying mistakes in thought and cognitions
shes rab (1059～1109); original treatises were through debate and has profound ways and
collected topics created by Tibetan monks uniquely, complicate interference.
which were represented by tshad mavi bsdus pa yid Three procedures includes disputing with other
kyi mun sel of cha pa chos kyi seng ge (1109～1169); schools, establishing self-concept and defeating
comprehensive treatises were further studies on wrong thoughts for the principles of collected topics,
Hetuvidya on the basis of previous achievements, ie raising questions, expounding opinions and
which were represented by tshad ma rigs gter of sa drawing conclusions. Disputing with other schools
pan kun dgav rgyal mtshan (1182～1251). is based on Pramana theory, adopts the form of
Hetuvidya of Tibetan Buddhism in the Qing prasangika debate, refutes wrong opinions of others,
Dynasty was developed on the previous basis dispels doubts of others, and obtains argumentation
constantly and temples of Tibetan Buddhism of truth. Establishing self-concept is to demonstrate
represented by the Gelug sect became the base to opinions of the arguer and observe and quote the
develop and promote it. Through temple education opinions of classical works of Pramana such as
and five great treatises on systematic cultivation, Dignaga’s Pramana-samuccaya and Dharmakirti’s
studies on Hetuvidya were developed and deepened, Pramanavarttika. Defeating wrong thoughts is
many theoretical schools were formed in the field established to dispel doubts and wrong opinions of
of collected topics, and the main schools including others. Theoretical opinions are expressed in the
btsan po bsdus-grva, gsal bsdus-grva and khen chen arguer’s stand to refute various theories proposed
bsdus-grva, etc. by the other party.
Except the Gelug sect in Qing Dynasty, eminent Connotation structure of collected topics is
monks in other schools had conduct profound studies composed of blo rig and rtags rig. The former is to
on Hetuvidya, and there were many great scholars expound connotations and psychological cognition
and numerous famous works. The representatives (psychology) of Hetuvidya from the perspective of

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cognition; rtags rig is to expound the two concepts sastras. As for different roles of the five sciences,
including pratyaksa-pramana and anumana- volume V (Chapter of Appeals) of Sutra Lamkara
pramana from the perspective of logics (logics). written by Asanga and translated by IndianTripitaka
The ultimate objective of Tibetan Buddhism Prabhakara Mitra pointed out that “Adhyàtma-vidyà
Hetuvidya is to infer and prove the theoretic is a science of self-knowledge. Hetuvidya shastra is
concepts of Buddhism such as “performing good a science of conquering heretics. Shabdavidya is
deeds to eliminate evils, karma and retribution, a science of persuading others. Chikitsavidya is a
eliminating worries and nirvana”. Meanwhile, it science of medicines. Shilpasthanavidya is a science
focusses on Dharmakirti’s Hetuvidya, proposes of enlightening all living beings.” Adhyàtma-vidyà
reality in external environment, admits objective was related to different doctrines of different ancient
existence, attaches importance to roles of Buddhist Indian schools, contents were complicated and there
pramana in the process of knowing things and forms were mutual differences, and these schools thought
a kind of system of Hetuvidya theory with unique that their theories were authentic adhyàtma-
characteristics. vidyà. Religion and philosophy knowledge of
(Yao Weiqun) Indian schools had massive sutras translated into

Adhyàtma-vidyà
Adhyàtma-vidyà was an ancient Indian knowledge
related to religion and philosophy, and was one
of the five sciences. Indian Buddhists claimed that
Buddhist theories such as teachings of Tripitaka and
12 divisions preached by Buddha and his disciples
were “inner-teaching” or “inner-learning”, and
called all non-Buddhist theories as “heretics”, and
there was the statement of “18 heretical scriptures”
or “ninety six heretics”. Adhyàtma-vidyà was
also called as “inner treatise” or “inner doctrine”.
volume III in Bodhisattva Charya Nirdesha translated
by Indian Tripitaka Dharmakema in the middle
Northern Liang Dynasty thought that “Buddha’s
teachings were named adhyàtma-vidyà. There were
two functions briefly: the first was to show cause Li Baiyao’s Mahayanasutralamkara
(Da Cheng Zhuang Yan Jing Lun), Ming
and effect positively; the second was to show that Dynasty edition
cause led to effect and the corresponding result
shall not be obtained without kama cause.” (Bodhi Chinese and Chinese scholars know about ancient
Power Chapter) in volume III of Bodhisattva Charya Indian Adhyàtma-vidyà and recognise pluralism
Nirdesha translated by Kophen Tripitaka Guavarman and complexity of Indian religion and philosophy
in the Liusong Dynasty pointed out that “inner through the Samkhya classic Hiranyasaptati and the
treatises meant 12 sutras. Bodhisattva-mahasattva Vaisesika classic Vaisesika-dasa-padartha-prakarana
sought 12 sutras for two affairs. The first was to (written by Maticandra) which were regarded
know the cause and effect. The second was to show as “heretics of six teachers” by Buddhists and
that cause leads to effect and corresponding result were respectively translated by Indian Tripitaka
shall not be obtained without kama cause.” Volume Paramārtha in the Chen Dynasty and Xuanzang in
II of Travelling Notes of the Western Regions in the Tang Dynasty.
Great Tang Dynasty explained that the connotation (Chen Ming)
of Adhyàtma-vidyà was “to think about five vehicles
and understand cause and effect as well as truth”. Metaphysics of Wei and
Volume XIII of Yogacharya-bhumi-shastra preached Jin Dynasties
by Maitreya Buddha and translated by Xuanzang During the late Eastern Han Dynasty, three kingdoms
pointed out that Adhyàtma-vidyà had four forms period and Eastern and Western Jin Dynasties, “idle
ie form of establishment of sutras, vinaya and talk” (qing-tan or pure conversation) was popular.
shastras, form of establishment of specific Buddhist The fans and followers of “idle talk” (pure talk) lived
names and appearances, form of explaining a dissipated life, boasted of showing off an attitude
Buddhist doctrines and form of knowing doctrines of the Daoist natural inaction. Their thoughts and
of Buddhism, in which the form of establishment statements were referred to as “Metaphysics of
of sutras, vnayas and shastras meant to explain all the Wei and Jin Dynasties” by the people of later
Buddhist doctrines with Buddhist sutras, vinaya and generations. The system of “metaphysics” of Wei

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and Jin Dynasties contain theory of moralisation stressed on following the nature with no constraint”,
and theory of character and talent. The theory of and believed that “people should be in pursuit of
moralisation included debate over existence and non- the nature and break away from the limits of
existence of the fundamental and incidental, debate moralisation”. The root cause of this viewpoint
on statements (sayings) and their connotations and was that the rulers surnamed Sima of that time
debate on moralisation and the nature and so on concealed all the lawlessness and unfairness of
which is represented by Wang Bi, He Yan, Xiang Xiu regime under disguise of moralisation. Ji Kang and
and Guo Xiang. The theory on character and talent Ruan Ji felt shameful to wallow in the mire with
focused on appreciation of talent, which originated such rulers as Sima. “Theory of Four Fundamentals”
in “Records on Figures (personnel)” authored by Liu authored by Zhong Hui, was based on the theory
Shao and was subsequently, introduced in another of Character and Talent with nothing new ideas. In
work titled “Theory of Four Fundamentals” authored contrast, theorists of moralisation sprang up like
by Zhong Hui. All the ideas of metaphysics of this
period, with spirit of Taoism as its main theme, was
combined with Confucian theories and a new system
of thought thus emerged based on the convergence
of different ideas.
Originating Evolution - Confucianism and
Daoism began to integrate in Han Dynasty. Kong
Rong while replying to Li Ying said: “Previously
respectable Confucius and Daoist saint Lao Zi
maintain the relations between the teacher and
student. So I also maintain friendly relations with
you”. This became a story passed on at that time with
admiration. Obviously, in the late Han Dynasty, the
scholars admitted that Confucianism and Daoism
got blended. In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Confucius
and Lao Zi were deemed homologous. During
Zhengshi Period (about 240-249 CE), Wang Bi, He
Yan and other scholars studied Lao Zi and Zhuang ‘Records of Personnel (Renwu zhi)’, Liu Shao
Zi’s sayings, but they preferred to debate over the
Confucian classics. For example, He Yan annotated mushrooms from generation to generation with such
“The Analects of Confucius”(lun-yu) and Wang Bi representative masters like Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang,
authored one book “Answers to Questions on Analects whose ideas combined together came to be known
of Confucius” and annotated the “Book of Change”. as “Yuan Kang Metaphysics”. According to Xiang
Wang Bi and He Yan were born in famous big Xiu and Guo Xiang, the “nature” and “moralisation”
families, followed the traditions of “idle talk” since actually never contradicted, and man’s doings were
the late Han Dynasty; they had discussion between always in divine order of the nature. For example,
them with many questions raised for each other and the “Chapter of Qiu Shui” in Zhuang Zi, annotated
analysed any issues with serious arguments over and by Guo Xiang, pointed out that “Can people never
over again; they raised the status and quality of the control horse and cattle for use in their lifetime?
“idle talk” to the extent that people desired to imitate Can people never halter cattle or horse? Cattle or
their contents and style. They further discussed horse should be haltered which is their manifested
about the relations between the fundamental and destiny. This seems to be “mandate of heaven”,
the incidental between “moralisation” (Confucian but this is the natural rule followed by man”. In
ethical code) and the “nature” and between sages’ debate over existence (being) and non-existence
emotionless feature and emotional feature. Liu Shao, (non-being) of fundamental and incidental, Xiang
Fu Gu and other contemporaries played the leading Xiu and Guo Xiang put forward such opinions as
role in the discussion on the “theory of character “self-conversion” and “independent conversion
and talent”. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, evaluation in calmness” and believed that “Existence is self-
for human personalities and investigation of nature existence rather than stemming from non-existence.
was an important issue which was closely related In other words, all things are made by themselves”.
to talent selection and recruitment system of that Pei Wei authored the book Theory of Existence in
time. During the period of “Seven Intellectuals in which he argued that “everything is self-engendered
Bamboo Forest” (zhu-lin qi-xian 255-262 CE), Ji and non-existence has no way for existence”,
Kang and Ruan Ji adored the nature to put forward and also believed that “all sentient things of the
a viewpoint of “going beyond moralisation and world are self-engendered and inevitable rather

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and changes due to the ontology of non-existence.

The so-called things in the universe are based on
inaction. He Yan clearly put forward that existence is
based on non-existence and relies on non-existence.
Non-existence is home to all things”. Wang Bi on
the other hand flexibly discussed about the inter-
dependence of existence and non-existence. He
stated that “the heaven and earth are based on
fundamental”. Non-existence is such fundamental,
and thought that “existence is tangible, finite
Zhouyi, Laozi, Zhuangzi and limited, while non-existence is absolute and
unlimited with the ultimate significance”. Starting
than stemming from non-existence”. Since then, from the concept of “basing on non-existence”,
moralisation theory shifted from “stress on non- he put forward political theory of “stressing on
existence” to “stress on existence”. By the time of fundamental and depression for the incidental”
eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420 CE), it has already and “stressing the fundamental and upgrading
been 300 years that Indian Buddhism had been for the incidental” and thought it necessary to
introduced in China. Lots of important classics on administer with “doctrine”, achieve laissez-faire and
Buddhism had too been translated and other local fundamentally focus on guiding principle without
writings made debut with profound influence of the entanglement in detail from the key perspective.
Buddhist theory on native culture; the development School of thought stressing existence believed that
of metaphysics also accordingly presented different “existence is self-engendered”. Pei Wei authored
trend during this period compared with previous the Theory of Existence and argued that “Everything
period. The “Lie Zi”, annotated by Zhang Zhan, is self-engendered, and non-existence has no way
originally stated that “existence serve the purpose for existence”, and also believed that “all sentient
of vanity, while all things are proved by extinction”. things of the world are self-engendered rather than
However, the argument of “no existence and no absolute beings”. Guo Xiang also stated that “non-
non-existence” replaced the argument of existence existence cannot give birth to existence because
and non-existence of the fundamental and the non-existence is nothing. Existence and all things of
incidental, which became a new style and fashion the universe result from conversion from voidness”.
of discussing metaphysics. Since then, the rich “Conversion from voidness” means that all things
contents of metaphysics provided the much needed were engendered in the profound and everlasting
theoretical grounds to comment on sutras of realm beyond the knowledge of humans. All things
Buddhism. Following this, the unique characteristic never hinder each other, but all the things together
features of the ideas of “metaphysics” gradually give birth to the universe and the nature.
faded away. The term “metaphysics” (xuan-xue) Debate over moralisation and the nature was
was first found in Book of Jin: Biography of Lu Yun intended to identify the relationship between the
which says: “there is essentially no metaphysics Confucian ethical code and the nature. The nature
in the beginning”. However, at that time, the is the true look of the universe with no artificial
understanding of metaphysics was not the same features whereas rite, music and moralisation were
as that of later periods, during which academic created by human beings. Institutions, systems, rite,
analysis with focus on “idle talk”, facial looks and
even family status was attributed to “metaphysics”.
In Northern and Southern Dynasties, Book of
Change, Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi were crowned as
“Three Classics of Metaphysics”. With all this a new
school of thought with its own classical form was
then taking shape.
Philosophical Thoughts - Theory of moralisation
took different views for existence and non-
existence of the fundamental and the incidental
in two directions ie school of thought stressing on
non-existence and the school of thought stressing
existence). The school of thought stressing non-
existence advocated “non-existence as the basis
of everything” and “the doctrine of non-existence Annotations and Commentary on the Analects of Confucius, He Yan
governs all things of the universe; everything exists (Wei), Xing Bing (Song)

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music and moralisation cultivated and restraint the that “I can neither engender creatures, nor creatures
people’s behaviors and emotions. According to He engender me. So I am the nature. moralisation was
Yan and Wang Bi, “moralisation (purpose) stems inborn existence which was the same as the nature
from the nature (means)”; moralisation is incidental and should not be destroyed. According to Chuang
and tangible, and the natural is fundamentally Tzu, “Haltering horse head or piercing cattle nose
intangible. But Wang Bi took faith in Taoism and is human behavior”. Guo Xiang believed that “It is
referred to Taoism and Confucian thoughts, who inevitable to halter horse head or pierce cattle nose
believed that “ceremony is nothing but a kind of in the lifetime. As a result, moralisation is created
tangible constraints, which is falseness with limits. by humans, but the reason is natural”.
It is necessary to start from the ontology of nothing, Debate over sayings and connotations was long-
remove the ceremonial constraints, achieve the real standing. According to Book of Change · Xi Ci,
morality that rite, music and moralisation target at, “Books are unable to cover all sayings and sayings
and make all things in place”. According to Wang Bi, are unable to cover all connotations”. In the Wei
and Jin Dynasties, Confucianism and Daoism got
blended and the Book of Change was held in high
esteem and explanation on “theory of change”
gained its popularity. In interpreting the “theory of
change”, scholars often faced up to the relationship
among saying, exterior and connotation. With such
questions demanding solutions, the philosophical
foundation of metaphysics was laid. The “Sayings”
refer to the language form, such as sound and
other symbols. Connotation refers to meaning of
the language and contained truth. Exterior refers
to image and imago described by the language.
According to theory of moralisation, there were
Book of Changes (Zhouyi), an extant three issues for debate over sayings and connotations
block-printed copy of the Ming Dynasty
viz sayings beyond connotations, sayings on a
par with connotations and connotations beyond
Daoism and Confucianism demonstrated homology sayings. Xun Can put forward a theory of sayings
so that “Existence was reflected because Confucius beyond connotations ie “Sayings are overshadowed
advocated non-existence, while Lao Zi advocated by connotations”, especially the sage’s connotations
existence and disadvantages were revealed”. RuanJi are unable to be revealed by exterior. Of course, the
and Ji Kang put forward a viewpoint of “going beyond language is unable reach its deep connotation. In
moralisation and keep unconstrained in the nature” addition, the fundamental reason for the general
due to dissatisfaction with the rulers surnamed things is unable to be explained exactly. This theory
Sima. After the rulers surnamed Sima usurped the revealed the limitations of language, but believed
regime of Wei Kingdom, they advocated ruling the that sage could break through the limitations.
country with filial piety, but they avoided to mention Ouyang Jian put forward a theory of sayings on
loyalty closely related to filial piety for purpose a par with connotations ie “Exploring the law of
of downplaying the illegality of regime through things has to rely on the corresponding concepts
the replacement of connotation of “moralisation”. and appellations. Different things have different
Moralisation, referred by Ji Kang, was different from definitions, while different emotions have different
that referred by Wang Bi and He Yan, which was appellations. Appellations change with things.
manipulated by rulers and descended into opposite Appellations and things echo with each other.
side of human nature. Ji Kang regarded ceremony Wang Bi held the theory of connotations beyond
and moralisation as chains, and believed ceremony sayings, and believed that “in the concrete world,
and moralisation were the shackles of human nature the appellation in the language cannot accurately
and went contrary to the nature. Only going beyond express the speakers’ inner meaning but the imago
moralisation and removing ceremony was the way can convey the meanings beyond language. He put
out to recover the nature and comply with the truth. forward three concepts of “sayings” eg “exterior”
Guo Xiang’s viewpoint was different from Ji Kang’s, (expression) and “connotation” and believed the
who stated that “moralisation is the nature”. As relationship among saying, exterior and connotation
Taoism was not respected and Seven Intellectuals as follows: “Imago described by language can fully
in Bamboo Forest (Ji Kang and others intellectuals) convey speaker’s meaning, while the language can
got adrift and never followed decorum despite great objectively describe the image. This is because the
reputation, Guo Xiang put forward a proposition appellation in the language is derived from static

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and see that what they do, their activities do not

overstep the boundary line. Thus, even though
they can respond to objects (external environment)
but never be bothered by objects”.
The theory on character and talent was a special
theory which evolved in the course of bringing
about certain change in the imperial examination
system in late Han and early Wei Dynasty. Due to
chaos caused by wars of devastation, the scholarly
class migrated from their native places to other
places of safety and security; the township-
level imperial exam so far being held according
to tradition remained discontinued. During the
Book of Changes (Zhouyi), annotated by Zhu Xi (Song), regime of the Emperor Ming of the Wei Dynasty
Zengyantang edition, Qing Dynasty
(who reigned during 226-239 CE), Liu Shao devised
the rules and regulations to conduct the tests and
image, and static image is derived from final versions examinations for the examinee. In order to ensure
of changing things and changes in the human the effectiveness of test method, it was necessary
minds. Wang Bi made argument for relationship to evaluate characters and recommend potential
among “sayings”, “exterior” and “connotation”, officers according to their talent and character. The
and further put forward the method of cognition “Records of Personnel”, authored by Liu Shao, took
in “understanding the exterior despite lack of the the ideas of Confucianism, Daoism, moralisation
sayings and understanding connotation despite the and legalism together. It was a monograph talking of
lack of the exterior” which greatly promoted the the ways on how to make assessment of the people,
development of metaphysics. which met the need of that time. But the “Records
In the “theory of moralisation”, debate over on Personnel” discussed the ideas of Yin-Yang,
sages’ emotionless feature and emotional feature image and Spirit, that match with the heavenly
was launched between He Yan and Wang Bi. From ideas of he saints”. According to History Book of
the perspective of pleasure, anger, sorrow and the Three Kingdoms Period · Book of the Wei Dynasty
joy, He Yan divided people into three categories: · Biography of Fu Gu, Fu Gu often discussed about
ordinary people, virtuous people (man of virtue similarity and difference of talent and character
and talent) and saints and thought that “Ordinary and Zhong Hui gathered all those opinions of Fu
people are unable to control the temper and cannot Gu. The Theory of the Four Fundamentals, authored
maintain balance of mind. With ordinary emotions by Zhong Hui, collected popular opinions of that
like the joys and sorrows, the virtuous are able time on talent and character, accompanied by his
to make the emotions limited. Ordinary people own comments. A chapter titled A New Account of
keep unconstrained emotions. But Yan Hui keeps Tales of the World · Literature to be found in the
his anger in control”. The saints achieve the aloof Book of the Wei Dynasty: says that the theory of
status at will while fully maintaining a balance of “four fundamentals discusses the similarities
their minds. Therefore, saints’ emotionless feature between talent and character (represented by
doesn’t mean that saints have no emotions such prime minister Fu Gu); dissimilarities between
as joys and sorrows. But they don't express their talent and character (represented by chief
emotions like ordinary people. From the perspective secretary Li Feng), integration between talent
of the objects generated by pleasure, anger, sorrow and character (represented by assistant minister
and joy. Wang Bi thought that “Saints would not Zhong Hui) and separation between talent and
let objects influence their state of emotions. But a
saint is also emotional”. He said: “Saints are equal
to gods. They have also emotions like ordinary
people. However, with an enlightened mind and
some divine qualities, saints make their existence
possible without worldly desires. With the same
emotions, saints respond to objects in a different
way and fashion”. Wang Bi cited an example and
said that “Confucius cried for Yan Zi’s death and
felt sad for the illness of Bo Niu which proved that
saints too are emotional. Saints have reached the
status and position of controlling their emotions Book of Changes (Zhouyi), an old manuscript

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character (represented by cavalry officer Wang Buddhism in the Six Dynasties, scholars gradually
Guang)”. Actually Fu Gu and Zhong Hui’s theories refrained from discussing about metaphysics.
on talent and character were simply developed to (Jiang Julang)
evaluate characters for practical purpose, so its
philosophical value was less than that of “Records Neo Confucianism of the
on Personnel” authored by Liu Shao. Song and Ming Dynasties
After southward migration of the scholars The philosophic thinking of Confucianism in
during the period of Eastern Jin Dynasty, the Song and Ming dynasties was called “Lixue”,
then prevailing ideas on metaphysics also crossed “Xinglixue” or “Daoxue”, each of those means Neo-
the Yangtze River. With the spread of Buddhism Confucianism. The word “Neo-Confucianism” first
in China, topics of scholars’ discussion were also appeared in Lou Guanfu’s memorial to the emperor
influenced so that the argument of “no existence that he used to asked a posthumous title for Zhou
and no non-existence” replaced the argument of Dunyi. According to his statement, Lixue had
existence and non-existence of the fundamental and already been reflected into people’s daily life, and
the incidental. Buddhist scholars also introduced later it begun to form a system by Confucius and
then popularised by Zisi, and Mencius. During 1000
years from Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasties, different
Confucians had different theories. However, the
Confucianism restored its original appearance until
Song and Ming Dynasties. Broadly speaking, “Lixue”
includes “Xinxue”, which means the Neo-Confucian
School of Mind and it is not contrary to “Lixue”.
When the Confucians in Song Dynasty explained
and interpreted Confucianism classics, they were
against the ancient chapters kept exegetical study
style from Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty. On
the contrary, they adhered to the principles of
pursuing the Confucian classics argumentation,
exploring the famous theories and even life, and
their theories were called “Yilizhixue”, “Lixue”
in short. Zhang Zai said “Yilizhixue needs to be
further studied; otherwise, you won’t understand it
completely by a superficial reading”; this statement
‘Records of the Three Kingdoms- Book of the Wei has disclosed the complexity of Neo-Confucianism.
Dynasty (San Guo Zhi: Weishu)’, compiled by Chen “Lixue” takes the Confucianism as the core and
Shou, (Western Jin Dynasty), Qing Dynasty edition

metaphysics into the annotations and interpretations

of the Buddhist sutras. “Sutras are cited and referred
to while explaining the contents of other books”. For
example, when Hui Yuan mentioned “real look”, he
drew an analogy from Xhuang Zi theory. When Zhi
Daolin discussed about existence and non-existence,
he took Wang Bi and Guo Xiang’s thoughts as the
clue. Metaphysics also profoundly influenced the
Buddhist theory itself at that time. For example,
when Dao An sought to explain the meaning of
emptiness, we very often find the influence of Wang
Bi’s “theory on sayings and connotations” in them.
He also paid the equal attention to “removal of
Zheng Meng, block- printed edition,
disorderly intention and appearance of the origin”. Qing Dynasty
Influenced by Guo Xiang’s thoughts and methods,
Zhi Daolin said: “Reason for material existence of absorbs Buddhism and Taoism thinking patterns or
things is not self-engendered. The so-called material their partial theories to act as its own supplement
existence is also empty”. And the relationship and development, so “Lixue” scholars were called
was similar to the relationship between existence “Neo- Confucians” by the missionaries. Compared
and obscurity. However, with the development of with ancient Chinese local philosophy, the contents

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human beings, and the new development direction

of Neo-Confucianism. Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, two
brothers in Henan, were students of Zhou Dunyi,
and they insisted to regard the “Li (Principle)” as
the foundation of study. Later, they preached in the
capital of their country, and had many followers.
At the same time, Zhang Zai and Shao Yong also
pursued the doctrine and strived to practice
personally; they preached and taught apprentices,
and “Lixue” was prevalent for a long period. Zhang
Zai wrote Zhengmeng, Tongshu, Ximing, Dongming
those books, paid more attention to the learning
of sages, and obeyed the principle of practicing
personally strictly, while Shao Yong was famous for
his Huang Ji Jing Shi Book, Guan Wu WaiPian Book
and Yin ChuanJi Rang Ji Book. Though his knowledge
was the same with the spirit of humaneness and
righteousness, courtesy and music, his opinions
about the change of the Universe were unique. Shao
paid more attention to the research of divination; he
once precast that Wang Anshi would be the Prime
Minister (in feudal China) of Song Dynasty and many
other things as well. In Southern Song Dynasty,
Chu Hsi learned the philosophy of Cheng Hao and
The Three Religions Painting (San Jiao Cheng Yi mainly, as well as other Confucians and
Tu), Ding Yunpeng, Qing Period
then he appointed Neo-Confucianism as the main
philosophy in the society and finally became an
of “Lixue” was more profound, the theory was agglomeration of different thoughts; he preached
more complete and the thinking pattern was more Confucian classics argumentation and wrote books.
complicated because it integrated Confucianism, After that, Daoism became prevalent. People in
Buddhism and Daoism together.
In the middle and later periods of Tang Dynasty,
Han Yu, Li Ao and other scholars tried to change
the study style since Han and Tang Dynasty. Han
Yu wrote the book Yuandao, Li Ao wrote Fuxingshu
(Complexity of Human Nature, Xing refers to Human
Nature); they started to begin the transformation
of Confucianism. Earlier, during the Song Dynasty,
the famous Confucians such as Sun Fu, Hu Yuan
and Shi Jie advocated “Taking humaneness and
righteousness and music as learning contents”
and took Confucian Orthodoxy as their own
responsibility. They started the Neo-Confucianism ‘Question and Answers about the Catalogue of Books (Shu mu
in Song Dynasty and they were called “Three elites da wen)’, Saoye Shanfang Stone Printed Edition, 1925
in the earlier of Song Dynasty” by later generations.
Though “Yilizhixue” started by the three elites later generations regarded the schools represented
was not perfect. They gave priority to practicing by Zhou Dunyi, Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi, Zhang
personally, so they established the foundation of Zai, Shao Yong, and Chu Hsi as Lian, Luo, Guan and
Neo-Confucianism. What’s more, the study style Min School. Together with Chu Hsi, Lu Jiuyuan, Lv
advocated by them got rid of the ancient chapters Zuqian, Chen Liang, Ye Shi and other scholars were
kept exegetical study style, so they were called the also famous across the country. Lu Jiuyuan started
forerunners of “Lixue”. But the actual inaugurator “Xinxue”, took “enlightening the mind” as the
of Neo-Confucianism was Zhou Dunyi. He wrote the principle; he thought that “Mind is Principle”, put
book - Interpretation of Tai-chi Diagram in which he forward “the Universe is my mind and my mind is
pointed out many elementary statements, such as the Universe’, which was excellent and outstanding
the generation and development of the Universe, and had a trend to surpass the philosophies of Cheng
the prevalence of the Principle of Heaven and life of Hao, Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi. Lv Zuqian combined

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From left: Meng Zi, Han Yu, Zhou Dunyi, Li Ao and Zhang Zai

the theories of different scholars and was famous thought that “Everything only has one Principle of
for his various learning; while the theories of Chen Heaven”, “the Principle comes out first and then
Liang and Ye Shi reflected their minds of obtaining there comes Xiang, after that, the Shu comes out”;
justice and benefit, which was thought to be the though Zhang Zai put forward “Nothingness is the
utilitarianism. Between Jin and Yuan Dynasties, root of the world” and thought that everything was
the trend of study was weakened and there was “Qi”, he also put forward “though the principle is
no distinguished scholar; until the middle of Ming one thing. It can be reflected differently in different
Dynasty, Yu Yao and Wang Yangming who were forms” which meant the Principle existed in Qi.
not successful of being officials started researching Chu Hsi said “before the generation of the planet,
Xinxun, the Neo-Confucian School of Mind. They there only existing the Principle”, “the Principle is
followed Lu Jiuyuan’s philosophy, and put forward the root of everything; Qi is the image or form of
the thoughts “Nothing outside the Mind” and “No everything”. They all regarded the principle as the
principle outside the Mind”, regarded “Conscience” root of the Universe and the reason why everything
as the root and emphasised “The Unity of Knowing came into being.
and Doing”. Chen Xianzhang, at the same time As for what is the principle, Cheng Hao, Cheng
with Wang Yangming, came up with “to know the Yi, Chu Hsi, Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming all
truth with peaceful and clarified mind”. It also had different opinions. Cheng Yi pointed out that
inherited the trend of Lu Jiuyuan. The Confucians “Human Nature is the Principle”. He said “Human
in Qing Dynasty just inherited the theories of Nature is the Principle and the Principle is Human
former Confucians and didn’t put forward any Nature as well’. He also said that “the Principle
other excellent theories, and they even criticised belongs to the Heaven, if it is gifted to human, it shall
that Xinxue in Song and Ming Dynasty was empty, be called human nature; if it is spoken by human
and then restored the chapters kept exegetical beings then it shall be called human mind”. Yang
study style in Han and Tang Dynasty. However, Shi explicated “Xing is 'Human Nature'; action along
the Neo-Confucianism didn’t vanish, it only existed the human nature is principle. Human nature, life
weakly. Listed in Zhang Zhidong’s book, Questions and principle belong to one part but with different
and Answers about the Catalogue of Books, there name, originally there is no difference. Speaking of
still were 22 Confucians. During the period of life is the heaven; speaking of the human nature is
Republican of China, there were many scholars who the world; speaking of the principle is the action.”
were famous for their Neo-Confucianism theories, He thought the principle and human nature are the
such as Ma Yifu, in Kuaiji, etc. The main schools of same and the only difference between them was
Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasty can be that the objects that they adhered to were different.
summarised with eight words, and they are “Lian, Chu Hsi spoke highly of Cheng Yi’s opinion — the
Luo, Guan, Min and Cheng, Chu, Lu, Wang Schools”. Principle is Human Nature, he said “since Confucius,
Zhou Dunyi pointed out the theories of Tai Chi, this statement of Cheng Yi is the most accurate”,
Yin and Yang, and the run of five phases in his book “everything in the world has their nature and
Interpretation of Tai Chi Diagram. He used the concept human beings are born with the temperament of
of “Tai Chi” first in this book, and established the humanness, righteousness and benevolence”, which
elementary theme of Neo-Confucianism. Shao combined the Principle and Qi together to the object
Yong once said “the nature of Tai Chi is unchanged of a man. At the same time, he also pointed out that
permanently, however, everything in the world “Human Nature” is different when it adheres to
changes all the time”, which also regarded Daoism different objects and there exists differences between
as Tai Chi, and regarded “mind” as Tai Chi. But Nature of the Heaven and Nature of Temperament.
Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi didn’t talk about Tai Chi, This difference also originated from Cheng Yi. He
they put forward “the Principle of Heaven”, they said “a man’s nature comes from the heaven and his

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talents come from his temperament. If he has good by greedy, it is just the human mind”. He thought
temperament, then he possesses good talents, vice “Path-Consciousness comes from the Principle and
versa”, thought that human beings were different Human Mind comes from the human body, so even
from each other because of their temperament, the sages cannot get rid of human mind”. However,
though they received the same principle of heaven, Lu Jiuyuanput forward totally reversed opinion, he
there still existed many differences, or in other said “everyone has one mind, can anyone possesses
way, Human Nature presented by different people two minds?” Wang Yangming also thought
was different from the principle of heaven itself. “Everyone only has one mind, and if his mind is not
Cheng Hao once said “Mind is Li and Li is Mind”; affected by bad things, then it can be called Path-
Xie Shangcai also said, “Mind is the principle of Consciousness. However, if it is affected badly, it
heaven”. Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming further is only called popular feeling. If a man could keep
claimed “Mind is Li”, Lu Jiuyuan advocated that his faith firmly, than he has the Path-Consciousness,
“Xinxue” was powerful and should be respected but if he lost his Path-Consciousness, then he just
by people, he said “Mind is the only one. Principle possessed dominant feeling. This means that no one
is the only one as well. Both, Mind and Principle, has two minds”.
are unique and the two of them won’t exist”. The prevalence of Buddhism has promoted the
“Everyone has a Mind and Mind is Li. So mind is new development of Confucianism. On the one
Li”. He thought that mind of human beings was the hand, the Confucians in Song and Ming Dynasty
principle of heaven and due to the impediment of tried to establish their own philosophy to compete
bad habits, the principle of heaven could not be with Buddhism, and they formed their own
spread, and the mind was stifled. Wang Yangming theories; on the other hand, some Confucians were
also said “mind is Li, and is there anything or any deeply inspired by Buddhism, and they deepened
principle that exists beyond the mind?” he thought Confucianism theory. Zhang Zai pointed out “Taixu
that principle existed within the mind, so he is mind” to repel Buddhism, because Buddhism had
advocated the learning of “To Conscience”. Cheng the saying of “Everything in the world is illusory”.
Hao and Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi thought that Human Chu Hsi used sentences in Buddhism to interpret the
Nature was principle, logically thought that human features of mind and good quality, such as “People
nature was not kind, but the principle of heaven who are indifferent to fame or wealth can sense
was; Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming thought that everything”, “Human’s nature is rational, so they
mind is principle, which meant human nature was can handle everything”, etc. This kind of action
kind, but it needed to return to the conscience to was mocked by Buddhists in Ming Dynasty, they
remove bad habits and obtain the original nature. mocked that Chu Hsi learned from Buddhism and
As for the question of human mind and Taoist mind, looked down upon it at the same time. Chu Hsi used
Chu Hsiand Lu Jiuyuan had different opinions; their the metaphor “The Moon Reflected in All Rivers” of
divergences reflected in the difference and uniform Buddhism to interpret “Li Yi Fen Shu”, which means
of “nature is principle” and “mind is principle”. that everything was included in Tai Chi completely.
“There are many uncertainties in the mind of He said, “Tai Chi is only one single object, however,
human being, and human nature is delicate, so if everything has its own nature and they are all reflected
you want to understand human nature, you need in Tai Chi. It is similar to the moon, which is the only
to constantly strive for perfection, concentrate on one existed in the sky, however it can be reflected
what you are doing, and adhere to the Doctrine of in all rivers and seen everywhere, but we cannot
the Mean strictly”, this is a sentence in the book of say that the moon is divided into different pieces”.
Shangshu, and it is the thought of the Confucians of Confucians in Song and Ming Dynasty advocated
Song and Ming Dynasty and it is very important. the “Idea of Respect”. Cheng Yi said, “improving
Chu Hsi said “if the Mind can sense the Principle, self-control needs the idea of respect”, the so-called
then it is Path-Consciousness; but if it is controlled respect means that you need to concentrate on the

From left: Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, Zhu Xi, Lv Zuqian and Lu Jiuyuan

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thing that you are doing, and don’t be tempted by

outside things, and advocated meditation, and used
meditation to practice Confucianism theory and
improve self-cultivation. The idea of respect is similar
to the Meditation Kung fu of Buddhism. Meditation
was rare used by the Confucians in Pre-Qin Period
and Han and Tang Dynasty, but the Confucians in
Song Dynasty regarded it as a way to improve self-
cultivation. As the forerunner of Neo-Confucianism,
Cheng Hao obtained his learning from researching
the Six Classics, “research the Buddhism for decades
with no achievements, however, obtain a lot after
researching the Six Classics”. Thus, Buddhism
has profound influence on the establishment of
Neo-Confucianism.
(Jiang Julang)

Jainism Tirthankara Mahavira

As one of the three major unorthodox schools
of thought in ancient India, Jainism can trace The actual founder of Jainism is Vardhamāna
its theoretical roots back into time immemorial. (around 6th century BCE) ie 24th Jain Tirthaṅkara,
However, Jainism as an independent and full- Nirgrantha-jñātaputra. Vardhamāna is the birth
fledged religion did not emerge until around 6th name of Nirgrantha-jñātaputra. According to
century CE. Being popular throughout the entire some scholars, the sect led by Pārśvanāth (23rd
Indian history, Jainism remains an influential Jain Tirthaṅkara) was also known as “Nirgrantha
religion in the country to this day. It spread to China sect”. Vardhamāna enforced a series of active
along with Buddhism, where it attracted a huge reforms in Jainism, nurturing it into one of the
amount of attention in the philosophical sphere of most influential religious sects in ancient India. In
ancient China. recognition of his significant contributions to the
History and Representative Literature establishment and development of Jainism, he was
Certain Jain theories can be traced back to widely hailed by his followers as Mahāvīra (“Great
Upanishadic era or even earlier. Most Jainists tend Hero”). Opinions differ regarding the exact date of
to hold that Jainism has multiple founding masters Vardhamāna’s birth and death. Some believed him
or siddhas, who laid down the most basic seminal to be a contemporary of Shakyamuni. Born into a
theories of the religion. According to relevant Kshatriya family, he became a monk at the age of
records, there were 24 “Tirthaṅkaras” in Jainism, 30 and for the next 12 years he practiced intense
including Rsabhadeva (1st Jain Tirthaṅkara), meditation and severe penance and after achieving
Ajitanātha (2nd Jain Tirthaṅkara), Pārśvanāth (23rd Kevala Jnana or enlightenment, travelled around to
Jain Tirthaṅkara) and Nirgrantha-jñātaputra (24th preach Jainism and died at the age of 72.
Jain Tirthaṅkara). In fact, most “Tirthaṅkaras” are Around 6th century BCE, a massive anti-Brahmin
just fictional characters, with only the 23rd and 24th movement emerged in ancient India spawning a
ones being actual historical figures. large number of thinkers who proposed all kinds
of brave new ideas. According to relevant records,
there were over hundreds of significant thinkers
active at the time, with the most influential ones
being the renowned “Six Masters”, including
Nirgrantha-jñātaputra. Thanks to his painstaking
efforts and other early members of Jainism, the
sect gradually grew into an influential religion in
ancient India with a huge following cementing its
position on the Indian philosophical and religious
scene as one of the three major non-orthodox
schools of thought in the country (other two being
Buddhism and the Lakayata school).
Jainism was divided into two sects of Digambar
and Śvētāmbara in about 1st century CE. The monks
Jain Temple, Gwalior Fort, Madhya Pradesh, India of Digambaras practiced naked or “sky-clad”, while

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A lot of historic records concerning Jainism

survive, both in India and China. Among the earliest
Jain texts are 14 Purvas and 12 Anga. Purva means
before, referring to the foundational texts that
emerged earlier; while Anga means a limb ie a part
of the canon. However, 14 Purvas and one Anga have
been lost, so the current Jain canon only consists of
11 Anga. The Śvētāmbara sect considered 11 Anga
canonical, about which Digambar disagreed.
In addition to 11 Anga, Jainism also has large
bodies of literature, with the most important
ones including Pancastikaya-sara and Pravachan-
asia by Kundakunda (around 1st century CE);
Tattvarthadhigamasutra by Umasvati (around 5th- 6th
Indian ascetics century CE) which was regarded by both Śvētāmbara
and Digambar as canonical; and Nyqyqvatqra by
those of Svetambara were always white-clad. Some Siddhasana Divakara (around 8th century CE).
Buddhist literature referred to Digambar as “a Additionally, such Jain monks as Haribhadra Suri
school of naked practitioners”. It put an inordinate (around 8th century CE) and Hemacandra (around
emphasis on ascetic practices and required its 11th - 12th century CE) also wrote many Jain texts.
practitioners to strictly abide by its “no private Chinese Buddhist scriptures including Dirghagama-
wealth” rule, going so far as to count one’s clothes sutra, Madhyama-agama, Samyuktagama-sutra,
as “wealth” and demand their removal too. The Ekottaragama-sutra, Abhidharmamahavibhasa-sa
earliest representative figure of the Digambar sect Sutra, Mahaprajnaparamita-shaskra, Yogacara-
is Bhadrabahu. blumi Shastra and Prakaranaryavaka, also contain
Śvētāmbara sect also endorsed ascetic practices, information on Jain activities and theories.
though more moderately than the Digambar sect, Main Theories - Śvētāmbara and Digambar sects
at least, in terms of clothing - they insisted their both left large collections of Jain literature but
practitioners wear white clothes. The earliest there are also many Jain texts that are not jointly
representative figure of the sect is Sambhutavijaya. recognised by the two sects. According to the book
The Digambar and Śvētāmbara sects mainly differ “Tattvarthadhigamasutra”, where the major Jain
in their interpretations on rules and disciplines and theories were intensively presented and elaborated,
don’t otherwise contradict each other too severely. the Jain theoretical system mainly concerns the
The two sects further broke down into quite many following few issues: seven tattvas; Jiva and Ajiva;
sub-sects in the ensuing centuries. five kinds of Jnana (Mati, Sruta, Avadhi, Manah
Before 13th century CE, Jainism was spread paryaya and Kevala); Seven naya (Sapta Bhanga, or
throughout of India, even counting quite a few seven-fold judgment); reincarnation and release; and
kings among its followers and supporters. Though social ethics.
by no means a dominant religion in ancient India,
it developed a massive following among Indian Seven Tattvas
civilians. Jain metaphysics is based on seven truths or
Popular throughout the Indian history, Jainism fundamental principles, also known as tattva or
was once a huge influence not just among the navatattva, which are an attempt to explain the
ruling elite, but also among the downtrodden and
exploited lower-class people. Thwarted just like
other indigenous religions in ancient India by the
Islamic penetration of the South Asian subcontinent,
Jainism’s influence gradually dwindled in the
years that followed. However, as an independent
religious sect, it managed to survive throughout
the ages in India. Its doctrines continued to exert
influence well into contemporary times in the
country. Many prominent politicians and thinkers
in contemporary India, including Mahatma Gandhi,
had been profoundly exposed to the influence
of Jain doctrines. Jainists also hold considerable
economic and political sway in modern India. Dirghagama Sutra (Chang Ahan Jing)

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Samvara refers to the stoppage of Asrava.

Nirjara refers to preventing karmic particles from
seeping into Jiva through ascetic practices.
Moksa means liberation, salvation or emancipation
of soul, completely free from the karmic bondage,
the attainment of true and pristine nature of infinite
bliss, infinite knowledge and infinite perception.
The various philosophical theories of Jainism
are mainly derived from, or build upon, the
interpretations on “Seven Tattvas”.

Jiva and Ajiva

Jain views on worldly things or phenomena are
mainly contained in the notions of Jiva and Ajiva,
two of the Jain “Seven Tattvas”. Their contents
actually constitute the basic theories of Jainism on
the natural philosophy front.
The so-called Jiva in Jainism is roughly equivalent
to something that exists eternally in living bodies,
and is also different from the “self” (soul) in other
religious sects. According to such Jain texts as
Jain lady holding a fly-whisk; Indian miniature painting Tattvarthadhigamasutra, Jiva does not just exist in
nature and solution to the human predicament. The living bodies, but also resides in non-living entities.
knowledge of these truths is essential for the liberation Jainism divides Jiva into two types: one is stuck
of the soul. Accordingly, Tattvarthadhigamasutra first in reincarnation cycle; the other is liberated. The
proposed the Seven Tattvas which includes Jiva, “reincarnated” jiva is further divided into Trasa
Ajiva, Asrava, Bandha, Samvara, Nirjara and Moksa. jiva (mobile jiva) and Sthavara jiva (immobile jiva).
Jiva mainly refers to the main actors to be Sthavara jiva exists in earth, water and plants,
reincarnated and released in life phenomena. while Trasa jiva exists in animals that possess more
Jainism divides Jiva into two categories: non- than one sense-organ. Thus, the “reincarnated”
liberated jiva; and liberated jiva. The former only jiva exists in virtually everything, including living
exists in regular objects, while the latter dwells in things and non-living things, like earth and water.
human bodies or bodies of other living things, who Therefore, it can be said that Jainism had actually
can achieve liberation and release through practices proposed a belief that “everything is alive”, which
and making efforts to learn truths. is a notion highly representative of the religion.
Ajīva are the five non-living substances that The liberated jiva apparently refers to the souls
make up the universe along with the jīva, reflecting that have broken free from material bondage.
Jainism’s basic views on worldly phenomena. It is a fundamental goal of Jainism to free Jiva
Asrava refers to the influx of karmic particles into from bondage.
Jiva. Jainism held that karmic particles stem from The so-called Ajiva is mainly comprised of four
one’s actions; parts: Dharma; Adharma; Akasha and Pudgala, all of
Bandha refers to the binding of karmic particles which are important Jain concepts concerning the
to Jiva. state or forms of existence of things.
In regard to dharma and adharma,
Tattvarthadhigamasutra 5.17 explains, “the role of
dharma and adharma, is to help motion and rest,
respectively”. According to Jainism, things can
move and rest due to the presence of dharma and
adharma. The two concepts were also mentioned
by other Indian schools of thought; for instance,
the Vaisesika dharma and adharma are equivalent
to karma, and are related to one’s actions. Jainism
does not espouse such an interpretation and only
considers them the condition or cause for motion
and rest of things.
Concerning “Akasha”, Tattvarthadhigamasutra
Jain treatise on astronomy in Devanagari 5.18 states, “akasha provides shelter for all other

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Atman/Brahman are essentially one and the same.

In contrast, in interpreting “Jiva”, Jainism never
made the claim that only Jiva is real and all things
are unreal.
From the Jain interpretations of Jiva and Ajiva,
we can see the basic theoretical paradigm Jainism
developed on the issue of universe or worldly
phenomena. The religion held that jiva is a spiritual
substance that will never perish. It exists in both
human bodies and other animals and plants, even
Kalpa Sūtra, Jainism in such non-living things like earth, water, fire and
wind. Ajiva contains the basic material elements
things.”Jainism used the concept of Akasha in (atoms) that constitute all type of things in the world,
explaining “space”. and also contains dharma and adharma, which,
Concerning “Pudgala”, Tattvarthadhigamasutra respectively, are responsible for making things
5.19-25 explains, “the function of Pudgala is to move and making things rest. The concept also
form the basis of the body and the organs of speech contains space and time, which provide necessary
and mind and respiration, and also to contribute conditions for things to exist. This kind of Jain
to sensuous pleasure, suffering, life and death of theory had actually done a fairly good job analysing
living beings”. As we can see, “Pudgala” in Jainism in a systematic manner the basic composition and
actually means “matter” as the fundamental forms of existence of natural things.
elements of worldly things and is of the form of an
atom and of the form of an aggregate. Atom was Five Kinds of Jnana
actually considered by most ancient Indians as the The Jain epistemology contains certain religious
smallest unit for each type of matter, a theory that elements, emphasising sense-perception and
was later adopted by many schools of thought. considering it a sure path leading toward
Jainism also tackles the issue of “time”. enlightenment. Accordingly, Tattvarthadhigamasutra
Tattvarthadhigamasutra 5.22 says, “The function of proposed five kinds of Jnana ie Mati, Sruta, Avadhi,
time is to assist substances in their continuity of being Manah paryaya and Kevala.
(through gradual changes), in their modifications, Mati-Jnana refers to knowledge acquired through
in their actions and in their proximity and non- the senses. The Jain “senses” mainly mean such
proximity in time”, which represent an important external organs as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and
Jain theory on the forms of existence of things. body. “Mind” is an internal organ, which normally
Jainism regards Dharma, Adharma, Akasha, plays the role of directing external organs to convey
Pudgala and Jiva as the five eternal substances externally acquired information to the “knower”.
(draya’s), pointing that the fundamental elements Sruta-Jnana refers to scriptural (articulate)
of universe are the five substances plus time. knowledge derived through language, symbols,
Tattvarthadhigamasutra 5.1-4 states, “Dharma,
adharma, akasha and pudgala constitute the Ajiva.
They are called drayas or substances. Jivas are
also substances. The five substances are eternal in
nature and they, along with time, form the whole
universe.”
The Jain theory of “jiva” and “ajiva” represents
the religion’s view on categorisation of worldly
things. The theory is a kind of Anamabhavada
theory, contending that things form resulting from
the combination of numerous kinds of elements,
including both material and non-material elements.
The Jain concept of “Jiva” contains undertones
of reincarnation or release; however, the Jain
“Jiva” is distinct from the concept of “Atman” or
“Brahman” in the mainstream Brahmin philosophy.
The Jain jiva exists in all kinds of things, or
achieve release and break away from bondage;
while the Brahmin “Atman” or “Brahman” refers
to the things themselves, assuming that things and Basic Division of Universe according to Jainism, a 15th century painting

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which Avadhi knowledge is directly acquired is not

high enough.
In framing its “five Jnana” theory, Jainism was
actually trying to emphasise that: the capacity of
human organs to understand things is limited, and
might very likely give rise to misconceptions or
incorrect perceptions. To attain perfect knowledge
one must eliminate reliance on sense organs and try
to directly perceive or intuit.

Seven naya (Sapta Bhanga, or

seven-fold judgment)
Epistemologically, Jainism proposed a seven-
fold judgment theory, positing that things could
be judged as falling under either of the following
seven categories: existent; non-existent; existent-
cum-nonexistent; indescribable; existent and
indescribable; non-existent and indescribable; and,
Jainism: History, Society, Philosophy and
existent-cum-non-existent and indescribable. It also
Practice (front cover) held that things are subject to constant change, and
due to the fact that things are diverse in terms of
signs, etc. Without using such external organs as location, time and attribute, word Syät (“probable”,
eyes and ears to directly sense external objects, “perhaps”, “maybe”) shall be prefixed to each of these
knowledge can nonetheless be gained by examining seven predications to prevent the proposition from
and comprehending words contained in scriptures being absolute. A fairly representative Jain work on
or said by gurus, teachers or prophets. Sruta shall this theory is Syadavadamanjari by Malisena (around
be based on Mati. 13th century CE).
Avadhi-Jnana refers to direct perception of self, The Jain seven-fold judgment is obviously of
time and space. It is a natural born and direct regular worldly knowledge and. therefore. cannot
perception of things and shall be distinguished be relied on to attain absolute truth. According to
from the faculty of perception assumed by regular Jainism, any judgment or mode of understanding
living bodies. The object of Avadhi can be ordinary regular, worldly knowledge is limited, hence the
material-based things. prefix Syat. Theoretically, this theory has elements
Manah paryaya-Jnana refers to mind-reading ie
direct perception of what people thought about in
the past and what people will ponder in the future.
Jainism believes that the object of Manah paryaya is
minuscule and subtle.
Kevala, or Ominiscience, refers to knowledge of
all substances in all their modes: past, present and
future, unlimited as to space, time and object. It is a
state of highest perfection in Jainism, in which one
has boundless vision. This kind of state can actually
be construed as a state of liberation. Kevala can only
be attained by eliminating karma.
In analysing the five Jnana, Jainism posited that
the first two Jnana are indirect, while the last three
ones are direct. Mati, Sruta and Avadhi are prone
to errors, while Manah paryaya and Kevala are
error-proof.
According to Jainism, knowledge acquired through
organs and speech normally has to pass through a
medium and therefore is prone to distortions and
mistakes. In contrast, direct acquisition of knowledge
without the aid of such medium as organs or speech
is more impervious to error. The reason why Avadhi
is also considered error-prone is that the degree to Wheel of Life, Tibetan thangka

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Karma which is an invisible force or a small

particle that will exert influence on one’s afterlife
and lead to painful reincarnation. To exit the cycle
of reincarnation one must try and suppress his or
her actions. Tattvarthadhigamasutra 1.1 states that
“Samyag Darshan (Right Belief or Perception),
Samyag Jnan (Right Knowledge) and Samyag Charitra
(Right Conduct) together constitute the path to
liberation.” The so-called Samyag Darshn means to
understand and uphold such basic Jain theories as
Seven Tattvas; the so-called Samyag Jnan means to
acquire wisdom or right knowledge by means of the
last two of the Jain Five Jnana; and the so-called
Samyag Charita means to observe and abide by such
Jain code of discipline as the Five Vows, including
its rules of acetic practices. Taken altogether, this
theory is similar to the liberation theory advocated
by other Indian religious sects and can be described
as a “wisdom-based liberation” theory.

An ascetic in Rajasthan, India Social Ethics

The Jain social ethics theory is mainly reflected
of eclecticism or agnosticism. However, it is worth in their vows. Tattvarthadhigamasutra 7.1 specifies
pointing out that Jainism did not propose this theory that “desisting from killing, falsehood, stealing,
without an ax to grind as an unorthodox system, like unchastity and attachment is the five-fold vow.”
Buddhism, Jainism represents the values, beliefs The Jain “Five Vows” are not unlike the codes of
and opinions of the middle-to-upper class people conduct of other religious sects in ancient India. It
of non-Brahmin origins in ancient India who had is worth noting that Jainism put extra emphasis on
long held a grudge against the Brahmin superiority the “no killing” vow, which it enforced most strictly.
and hence tended to reject the Brahmin claim that Besides, the scope of the vow is also much wider
canons are absolutely sacred and are not to be than that of other sects. For instance, Jainists are
questioned, leading to the Jain tendency to regard not allowed to kill not just people and animals, but
with suspicion all of the judgments that had by then certain plants as well, which might be attributable to
been widely upheld as “truth” - a tendency that the Jain theory that plants also contain “jiva”. Quite
helps explain why Jainism espoused this particular some historic records contain passages describing
seven-fold predication theory. Jainists as being extremely careful walking out for
fear of hurting small plants.
Reincarnation and Release Jainism is also known for its ascetic practices.
Jainism also has its own “reincarnation and release” Many religious sects in ancient India endorsed
theory. Concerning the issue of reincarnation and ascetic practices, but Jainism attached greater
cause thereof, Tattvarthadhigamasutra believes that importance to them. Certain Buddhist works contain
the action of the body, the speech organ and the extensive references to Jain asceticism.
mind is called activity. The “no killing” precept and asceticism of Jainism
Karmic particles generated by one’s activities flow were once very well-known in ancient India, and
into jiva and impose bondage thereupon, giving rise their influence continues to this day. The “non-
to reincarnation. Karma can be divided into good violent” philosophy and ascetic lifestyles popular in
karma and bad karma. The former will allow one contemporary and modern India can be traced back
to enjoy pleasure and live longer, get born into a to these ancient Jain traditions.
good family; while the latter will subject one to Spread and Influence in China - Jain theories
awful forms of existence. Jainism held that to get and ideas spread to ancient China along with
released is to break free from the bondage of all the Buddhism. Most people in ancient China gained their
karmic particles. And when jiva gets liberated, one first glimpses into the religion through Buddhism.
will attain a blissful state of consummation. As a sister religion of Buddhism, Jainism
This particular Jain theory is actually aligned maintained extensive contacts with Buddhism,
with the traditional Indian religious theories that hence the extensive references to Jainism in many
had emerged since the advent of the Upanishads, all Buddhist texts including both seminal works of early-
of them emphasising that human actions produce day Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhist texts that

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Six Orthodox Schools

Six orthodox (astika) schools (Liupaizhexue) refer
to six main schools in the Brahmanic philosophy of
ancient India, eg Samkhya, saamkhya-yoga, Vaisesika,
Nyaya, Mimamsa and Vedanta. They respected
the authority of Veda which is regarded as a holy
document by Brahmanism and Hinduism. The origin
Queen Trishala conceiving Mahavira, Kalpa Sūtra, Jainism of thought has a long history in ancient time. They
have been developed from some thoughts in Vedas
emerged still later on. Large bodies of such Buddhist and Upanishads. They have many believers in later
works were introduced to China and translated into generations, and usually take the main position in
Chinese. Some Chinese monks mentioned Jainism the thought circle. Therefore, they are regarded as
frequently when repudiating or introducing relevant the orthodox schools of ancient India philosophy.
theories of other schools of thought. Some thoughts of six orthodox (astika) schools
When introducing the “Six Masters” active during (Liupaizhexue) already appeared in 1000-600 BCE.
the Buddhist era, the Chinese versions of various But the formation of their independent schools was
Agama sutras all mention the main founder of in 300 BCE to the beginning of the Christian era.
Jainism, Nirgrantha-jñātaputra. Samyuktagama- Samkhya formed the independent school in about
sutra (volume XXXII) and Samyuktagama-sutra 400 BCE. According to legend, the founder of this
(alternative translation) (volume VII), both contain school was Kapila, at that time. At present, the existing
an overview of the “no killing” percept advocated by earliest document of this school is the Samkhya-
Nirgrantha-jñātaputra. Ekottaragama-sutra (volume karika, which is a systematic document made by
L) states Buddha’s opinion of Nirgrantha-jñātaputra Isvarakrsna in about 400 CE. The time for karika
— “Nirgrantha-jñātaputra is of a dim, confused and is not that early compared with other basic classics
agitated mind”. of other orthodox philosophy schools. However,
In his book Chenweishilun, Master Xuanzang also almost all systematic classics of Samkhya before
repudiated relevant Jain theories. For instance, they were lost were regarded as the representative
the “saivites” mentioned in the book actually document of ancient Samkhya. Its position is the
refers to some early-day Jain thinkers. In its same as that of basic classics in general orthodox
first volume, the book dedicates some portions philosophy schools. After Samkhya-karika, the main
addressing the “saivites” theory, rejecting it as works of this school are an explanation to Samkhya-
unreasonable and implausible. In addition, the karika. The basic theoretical frame of Samkhya is the
book also mentioned some other Jain concepts so called “two realities and twenty five concepts”
when repudiating “ātma-grāha”.
There are also many other Chinese Buddhist works
containing Jain references, which greatly facilitated
Chinese people’s efforts to get to know Jainism and
its theories.
In contemporary and modern China, Jain
theories have also stirred up a lot of renewed
interest. Jainism still has a large following in India,
as is known to those Chinese who have visited the
country. Some Chinese scholars also paid special
visits to Jain temples and interacted with modern Hetuvidya Nyaya Dvara Sastra, Reign of
Jainists. Some Indian visitors to China also made Guangxu, 1881 edition
active efforts to introduce the religion to Chinese
people, with relevant Jain literature also brought (namely 25 basic concepts in theories of this school -
to China. Purusha, Prakrti, Buddhi, self control, eye, ear, nose,
Some Chinese scholars focus their research on tongue, skin, vocal organ, hand, foot, excretory
Jainism. Many research papers on Jainism have organ, reproductive organ, heart, fragrant, flavour,
also been published in relevant Chinese scholarly colour, feel, sound, earth, water, fire, wind and air).
journals. There are also chapters dedicated to Its various philosophical thoughts are included in
Jainism in books published in China about Indian this frame. Samkhya holds a parinama-vada theory,
philosophy or religions. In Indian philosophy or which believed that things in the world and life
culture, courses offered in Chinese universities, Jain were formed by the mutual interaction of material
theories are also extensively mentioned. Prakrti and psychogenic Purusha (two realities).
(Yao Weiqun) According to this school, transformed things (other

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feature of this school is to distinguish the main

category of natural phenomenon by the “padārtha”
(reality corresponding to concept). Ten padārthas
mentioned by this school are: dravya-padārtha
(object), guna-padārtha (static property of object),
karma-padārtha (dynamic state of object), sāmānya-
padārtha (common relations among objects), viśesa-
padārtha (difference relation among objects),
samavāya-padārtha (indivisible causal relation
between the object itself and its property), śakti-
padārtha (make object be able to generate specific
result jointly or independently), aśakti-padārtha
(make object be unable to generate specific result
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
jointly or independently), sādrśya-padārtha (relative
(front cover) similarity and difference relations among objects)
and abhāva-padārtha (nonexistence state of object).
23 concepts) form the samsara (world). This world In the system of padārtha theory, Vaisesika discussed
is full of suffering. If one wanted to be relieved, he/ paramānu theory, pramāna, view of time and space,
she had to depend on the highest intelligence of view on similarity and difference, etc. Vaisesika also
the “two realities and 25 concepts” of Samkhya to pursues liberation. It holds that the understanding of
distinguish Purusha and Prakrti to get rid of samsara the highest intelligence of padārtha theory can get
and get relieved. rid of the samsara and reach the supreme good state.
Saamkhya-yoga formed the independent school Nyaya formed the independent school in about
in about 200 BCE. According to legend, its founder 100 CE. According to legend, its founder was
was Patanjali at that time. The basic classic of this Gautama at that time. He wrote the basic classic
school was the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali. The existing Nyaya-sutra for this school. The existing Nyaya-
Yoga Sutra included contents which were added in sutra contained contents added by people in later
later generations and it was finally formed in 300- generations. It was finally formed in about 300-400
500 BCE. After Yoga Sutra, books of saamkhya-yoga CE. After Nyaya-sutra, books of Nyaya were mainly
were mainly an explanation and note on Yoga Sutra. explanation and note on Nyaya-sutra. Nyaya takes
The appearance of saamkhya-yoga has a theoretical the “Sixteen categories (padārtha)” as its basic
systematisation on the ancient yoga practice in the
Indus Civilisation period. It also had important
influences on the formation of cultivation theories
of philosophy schools of religion in India. Saamkhya-
Yoga devotes to restrain the role of the heart to
reach the samadhi state. Its specific cultivation
method is the so called “eight steps of Raja yoga”, eg
Yom, niyam, asan, pranayama, pratyahar, dharana,
dhyan, samadhi. The later three steps of the eight
steps are called “general restrain”. Through it,
people can gain various magical powers, distinguish
Prakrti and Purusha and finally reach the “Dharma
Megha samadhi”. In this samadhi, various samsara
seeds can be destroyed to achieve final release.
Vaisesika formed the independent school in The Purva Mimamsa Sutras of
about 200 BCE. According to legend, its founder Jaimini (front cover)
was Kanada in that time. He wrote the basic classic
Vaisesika Sutra for this school. The existing Vaisesika system. The so-called padārtha refers to reality. In
Sutra included contents which were added in later discussing and debating issues, Nyaya put forward
generations. It was finally formed in 200 CE. In 16 basic concepts or categories, eg means of valid
about 600 CE, another two important books of knowledge, objects of valid knowledge, doubt,
Vaisesika appeared, eg Padarthadharmasamgraha purpose, example, conclusion, the constituents of
of Prasastapada and Vaiśesika-daśa-padārtha- a syllogism, argumentation, ascertainment, debate,
prakarana of Maticandra. Main philosophical disputations, destructive criticism, fallacy, quibble,
thoughts of Vaisesika were reflected in the contents refutations, and points of the opponent’s defeat.
of these three books. The important theoretical This 16 padārthas form the basic theoretical frame

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of this school. In explaining these padārthas, Nyaya its founder was Badarayana at that time. He wrote
put forward theories such as categories of four the basic classic Brahma-sutra for this school.
pramāṇas, basic syllogism for five step method, This school generated many branches later. Each
reflection and reasons for reasoning and debating branch was mainly formed according to different
failure, etc. Nyaya regards the intelligence of 16 opinions on the Brahman atman relationship theory
categories (padārtha) as the basic way for liberation. mentioned in documents, such as Upanishad, etc.
Mimamsa formed the independent school in These branches mainly are: bhedabheda-vada of
about 200 BCE. According to legend, its founder Badarayana, advaita of Sankara (788-820 CE),
was Jaimini at that time. He wrote the basic Viwistadvaita Vedanta of Rāmānuja (about 11-12th
classic Mimamsa-sutra for this school. The existing centuries CE) and Dualism of Madhava (about
Mimamsa-sutra contains contents which were added 13th centuries CE). Bhedabheda-vada holds that:
by people in the later generations. It was finally as the creator or fundamental reason of the world,
formed in about 100 CE. Earlier explanations on Brahman is not the same with Atman. But in the
Mimamsa-sutra were made by Sabara in the 5th aspects that any Atman has Brahman property and
century CE. Main Mimamsa thinkers after Sabara anything cannot exist without Brahman, Brahman
were Kumārila and Prabhakara in 7th and 8th and Atman are the same. Advaita holds that:
century CE. These two people played an important Brahman or the greater self is the foundation for all
role for the later development of Mimamsa. things, and all things are the illusion of Brahman or
Mimamsa takes the Vedic sacrifice as its main object greater self. Nothing is independent from Brahman
of study. They believe the correctness of Veda canon or greater self. Atman (phenomenal world) is neither
a part of Brahman nor the variation of Brahman. As
a phenomenon of life, numerous Atman and greater
selves are the same thing in nature. They are reflected
differently for body restriction. They are the same
in fact. Viwistadvaita Vedanta holds that: Atman
(small self or the phenomenal world) is the property
or constituent part of Brahman (entity or whole).
Although property or a constituent part belongs to
the entity or whole, the property or constituent part
cannot be regarded as unreal. In the meantime, it
shall be realised that, the phenomenal world (small
self) is not void, but is only limited to the property
or constituent part of the highest entity. The highest
entity of objects is the Brahman which cannot be
divided. Dualism holds that: although Brahman is
the foundation, it is not the same with atman and
‘A Brief History of Indian Philosophy’, these two concepts are different. Both of them are
Shang Yongtong, 2008, (front cover) entity in a dualism relationship.
Thoughts of six orthodox (astika) schools
and efficiency of sacrifice. Corresponding to this (Liupaizhexue) took the leading position in the
standing, the basic thought for this school is the philosophy history in India. They also have great
“sound permanent residence theory”. The so called influence in the thought circle of modern and
sound refers to language, concept or knowledge, contemporary India. Particularly, theories of
specially refers to language or knowledge of Vedas. Vedanta are still the leading traditional philosophy
Mimamsa held that this concept and knowledge in the thought circle of modern India.
was born in nature rather than man-made. It is In ancient times, thoughts of six orthodox (astika)
permanent and absolute. Common language and schools (Liupaizhexue) were also spread to China
concept is the displaying of the natural sound and with Buddhism. In Chinese Buddhist sutra, there are
shall on the basis of this natural sound. Mimamsa many contents on reporting or criticising thoughts
emphasises on “sound permanent residence theory” of these schools. The academic world in modern
to prove the immutability and supremacy of Veda and contemporary China also pays much attention
and its thoughts. Mimamsa once largely broke the to these schools. There are many research papers
theism of ancient India, absorbed and developed the on these six schools in Chinese learned periodicals.
padārtha theory of Vaisesika. Fundamental classics or document of these schools
Main thoughts of Vedanta were put forward in have been translated into Chinese in China. There
the Upanishad. But it did not form an independent are also many Chinese research monographs on
school until in about 100 CE. According to legend, these schools. In college curriculum, there are many

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contents on these schools. There are many paper on ancient Indian medicine, also mentioned early
titles on these schools. Samkhya thoughts in its various chapters.
(Yao Weiqun) Many of the surviving records mentioning the
main founders of the school are of a mythical
Samkhya proportion. For instance, Samkhya karika recorded
Samkhya or sāṃkhya is one of the major philosophical in its first half, that “once upon a time, there was
schools of Brahminism in ancient India. With a long
history in India, the earliest theories or thoughts
of the school were mentioned in some of the most
ancient Indian literature. It became an independent
school of philosophy around 4th century BCE. A
pervasive and strong influence throughout India’s
intellectual history, the theories postulated by the
school had long been a subject of wide interest in
the country’s philosophical community. It spread to
China along with Buddhism.
Theoretical Evolution and Major Texts
The word, Samkhya, is based on the Sanskrit word
sāṃkhya, which arguably has multiple meanings.
Some claimed that it had something to do with
“number” or “enumeration” as the school specifies
the number and nature of the ultimate constituents
of the universe, around which it built its basic
theoretical system. Still others contended that the Swami Vivekananda
word meant “search” or “reflection”. In Chinese
Buddhist scriptures, in addition to being referred a divine figure called Kapila, who descended into
to as Samkhya, the school was also variously called the world from the sky”. And in its second half,
“Jiapiluo Lun”, “Yuzhong Waidao”, or “Seng Qu”. it went on to go through the school’s genealogy
According to relevant Sanskrit records and with Kapila unequivocally credited as the very
Buddhist scriptures, the school was founded by first founding sage of Samkhya, and then it was
Sage Kapila, a legendary figure whose existence was passed to Asuri, Pañcaśikha Garga, Uluuka and
widely debated. Some scholars who believe in his Isvarakrsna. And among the various “founding
existence speculate that he lived around 4th century fathers” of the school, the one who played the
BCE. However, the school was determined to most important role in spreading Samkhya was
originate earlier than that. Some Samkhya theories Isvarakrsna (4th century CE).
were believed to have come from the Shvetashvatara The earliest foundational texts of the Samkhya
Upanishad, which contains explicit references to the school never survived including one particularly
theories of early-day Samkhya school. Some Samkhya important - Samkhya work, Sastitantra. The earliest
ideas can be traced back to the Vedic period. The extant work that offers a systematic exposition of
Sanskrit epic, the “Mahabharata” (especially the the school is the Samkhya-karika by Isvarakrsna.
“Bhagavad Gītā”), contains rich details of the school. Although created hardly any earlier than the
In addition, “The Caraka Saṃhitā”, a huge treatise foundational texts of other orthodox schools of
philosophy in ancient India, due to the fact that
most of the major Samkhya texts had been lost
before the book, it had been widely considered the
foundational text of the Samkhya school. Following
Samkhya-karika, the most significant Samkhya works
primarily comprised commentaries on the book,
with the five existing ones being: Suvarṇasaptati,
or Treatise on the Golden Seventy (translated into
Chinese by Paramārth in 6th century CE); Yukti-
Dipika by unknown author (around 6th century
CE); Gaudapada-bhasya (around 7th to 8th centruries
CE); “Mathara-vrtti” (slightly later than Gaudapada-
bhasya); and Tattvakaumudi by Vacaspati Misra (9th
century CE). The major text of the later Samkhya
Bhagavad Gita, Chinese edition (front cover) school is Samkhya-sutra, rumoured to be authored

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roles of the three gunas and the interrelationship

among them. Samkhya theories had long been
widely regarded as a distinctive part of Indian
orthodox philosophy.
Main Theories - According to the Samkhya-karika
and commentaries thereon, the basic philosophical
system of the Samkhya school can be characterised
by dualism and 25 tattvas. “Dualism” refers to
the two ultimate realities, Prakriti, matter and
Purusha, self (spirit), advocated by the Samkhya
school, while 25 tattvas are the 25 basic concepts
The Six Paths of Metempsychosis, Dazu Rock (including Dualism) of the philosophical system of
Carvings, Chongqing the Samkhya school. The school considered its basic
concepts as “reality” and “truth”, hence the name
by Kapila, but actually penned by some unknown tattvas (Sanskrit word for “reality”, “realness” and
author between 14th and 15th century CE. Significant “truth”). Into this philosophical system built around
commentaries on the sutra include, Samkhya-sutra- dualism and 25 tattvas, the Samkhya school had
vrtti by Aniruddha (15th century CE) and Samkhya- also incorporated a series of important sub-theories,
pravacana-bhasya by Vijnana-bhiksu (16th century including Pre-existence of effect in cause theory, Three
CE). Important works of later Samkhya school also gunas theory, the Three Pramāṇas theory (Pratyakşa,
include Samkhya-sara by Vijnāna-bhik su. In addition, Anumāna, and Śabda), and the reincarnation theory.
there is also a Samkhya text by an unknown author, Transformation Theory (Dualism and 25 tattvas)
called Tattvasamasa, which is widely considered a - The Samkhya upheld a “transformation” theory,
key text of the later-day Samkhya school. claiming that all things, creatures or phenomena in
The later-day Samkhya school was heavily the world are transformed from a certain kind of
influenced by the Vedānta school, and also absorbed fundamental cause. The process of transformation
quite some elements from Yoga Sutra. The Samkhya concerns two “ultimate realities” and 25 basic
school during this period differed from the early concepts (aka Dualism and 25 tattvas), with
Samkhya school mainly in that the concept of “dualism” referring to “Prakriti” and “Purusha” and
“Isvara” was introduced, reflecting the school’s “25 tattvas” meaning Purusha (Transcendental Self),
efforts to seek middle ground between monism the uncreated (unmanifest) Prakriti (primordial
and dualism. nature), Mahat/Buddhi (intellect), Ahamkara
An important philosophical influence in ancient (ego, consciousness of self), Manas (mind), the
India, the theories of this school received a five sense-organs, the five motor-organs, the five
heavy dose of scrutiny from other schools of subtle elements and the five gross elements. These
thought. For instance, many Buddhist and Vedanta Tattvas are involved throughout the process of
thinkers once actively analysed and criticised the transformation of objects.
Samkhya theories. Prakriti is a material entity, while Purusha is a
The philosophical theories of the Samkhya school spiritual one. The interplay of the two gives rise
also exerted some influence on the intellectual to all the phenomena in the world. When affected
scene of contemporary India. In modern India, by Purusha, Prakriti will lose its inner balance,
during religious and social reform movements, leading to the occurrence of all kinds of worldly
certain thinkers or philosophers, when engaging in phenomena. Prakriti gives birth to buddhi (rational
social activities or building philosophical systems, part or judgmental part of the mind), which further
had heavily absorbed or borrowed from Samkhya cites ahankara (self-awareness or I-am-ness). This
ideas. For example, such famous philosophers in on the one hand, engenders ekadasa — indriya
contemporary India as Vivekananda and Aurobindo (11 indriya) ie sight, hearing, smelling, tasting,
Ghosh all conducted serious analyses of Samkhya touching, speech, hand, foot, anus, genitals and
theories. Vivekananda held that dualism was the mind and on the other hand, begets five panca —
most prevalent philosophical viewpoint in India, tanmatras ie sound, touch, colour, taste, and odour
in actuality considering the dualistic theory of the or smell which further generates five Bhutas, ie
classic Samkhya school as natural. Additionally, he space, air, fire, water and earth.
also extensively borrowed from Samkhya theories in A typical philosophical system built around the
expounding his epistemology. When studying the theoretical core of “transformation”, “dualism and
yoga school, Ghosh also scrutinised a key concept of 25 Tattvas” theory constitute a unique philosophical
the Samkhya shool ── three gunas (tamas, sattva, perspective on the occurrence of life phenomena
and rajas), and talked about the significance and and the creation of the world in ancient India.

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person can they progress together. Likewise, only by

combining Prakriti and Purusha can the 23 tattvas of
Samkhya be created, thereby giving rise to all things
in the world.”
In the Samkhya school’s “transformation” theory,
three gunas are a key concept that plays a significant
role, which concern Prakriti, its transformations, as
well as the root cause therefor.
The Samkhya school held that all things in the
world are composed of three gunas (qualities),
A Commentary on Hetuvidya, Qing, Guangxu, Jinling
ie sattva, rajas and tamas. Sattva is illumination,
Scriptural Press, 1896 enlightening knowledge, and lightness; rajas is
energy, passion and expansiveness; and, tamas is a
According to the Samkhya school, the binding force and darkness. The No. 12 of Samkhya-
transformation of worldly objects or life phenomena karika described sattva as something that can
is related to both Prakriti and Purusha, though to illuminate and enlighten; rajas as something that
varying degrees. Only negative Prakriti can directly can build momentum; and tamas as something that
engender objects, with the positive Purusha playing can inhibit and curb.
a collaborative role. The Samkhya school offered The school maintained that the three gunas were
several arguments to prove the existence of Prakriti subject to mutual inhibition, interdependence,
and Purusha. mutual generation and interaction, and in different
Concerning the existence of Prakriti, the No. 15 things there might be different compositions of gunas
of Samkhya-karika explained that “everything in at work, with a particular guna playing a dominant
the world has a limit, for which there must be a role. Prakriti also contains three gunas: when the
fundamental cause. Things are different, but they three gunas are balanced, Prakriti will remain latent,
share a commonality that stems from the same but once such a balance is upset, Prakriti will give
cause. Everything that can be generated must be rise to all kinds of worldly phenomena. The upsetting
attributable to a relevant cause. Cause is different of balance among the three gunas is directly related
from effect. All the different objects in the world to the impact of Purusha on Prakriti.
are the "effect", from which can be deduced a The “three gunas” theory adopted by the Samkhya
different "cause". All things must be attributable to school, which uses conflict and interaction between
a fundamental cause, which ultimately makes them different constituents of an object to explain the
the same thing. Thus, for all these reasons, it can creation and development of object, serve a uniquely
be established with certainty that there exists the distinctive philosophical approach in ancient India.
fundamental Prakriti”. A large number of philosophical sub-theories fall
Concerning the existence of Purusha, the No. 17 within the theoretical framework of “dualism and
of Samkhya-karika explained that “all things gather 25 tattvas”, with the most representative ones being
up for the sake of a user that differ markedly from the “pre-existence of effect in cause” (Satkaryavada)
them — Purusha”. The Samkhya school held that theory, the pramāṇa (means of valid knowledge)
all things in the world were composed of three theory and the reincarnation theory.
gunas: sattva, rajas and tamas, which need one “Pre-existence of Effect in Cause” Theory
“commander” that can impart consciousness into (Satkaryavada) - The Samkhya school upheld
them, and it is Purusha. The body needs something a “transformation” theory with regard to the
to rely on, and it is Purusha; and things in the world creation of the world, claiming that all things and
are like food waiting to be eaten, and the eater is phenomena in the world can be attributed to a
Purusha. The school claimed that the world was full fundamental cause. And accordingly, in terms of
of pain and suffering, and when “liberated” and causation, it espoused a “pre-existence of effect in
delivered, one would feel something separating cause” theory (Satkaryavada), which posits that all
from him and it is “Purusha”. things in the world bear the quality of “effect”, with
The Samkhya school maintained that for objects to all “effects” being merely the transformations of
be created and life phenomena to occur, “Prakriti” “causes”. The effect has already existed in the cause,
and “Purusha” must be combined. To illustrate with cause and effect being the explicit and implicit
this point, No. 21 of Samkhya-karika analogously states of the same substance. To illustrate this with
explained that “‘Prakriti’ is like a lame person who a revealing analogy: as fruit comes from seed, seed
can see but cannot walk, while ‘Purusha’ is like a shall be the “cause” and fruit the “effect”. According
blind person who can walk but cannot see. Only by to the Samkhya school, however, they are actually
letting the lame person ride on the back of the blind the same thing, with seed being only the latent

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condition of fruit and fruit the patent condition infer rain. śeṣvat anumāna (antecedent inference) –
of seed. Seed, before it geminates and grows and when you see muddy water flowing down a river,
develops into fruit, already contains fruit (pre- you infer a torrential rain upstream. Sāmānyato
existence of effect in cause). By extension, it may dṛṣta (analogous inference) – when you see a tree
be postulated that all things in the world are some blooming in one place, you infer another such tree
kind of “effect” as transformed from a fundamental is flowering in another place.
“cause”, in which all phenomena have already Śabda means opinions from reliable people,
existed long before they actually occur. luminary and scriptures. In Samkhya school, Śabda
The Samkhya school also made persuasive means precept or opinions from the founder of
arguments for the “pre-existence of effect in cause” the school and philosophers of previous generation
theory (Satkaryavada). For instance, the No. nine of in fact.
Samkhya-karika lists five basic arguments for this The Samkhya Pramāṇas Theory and the Pramāṇas
premise: the first argument, asadakaranat, states Theory espoused by Buddhism, Nyāya and Jainism
that the effect exists in its material cause before its have both noticeable similarities and distinct
production because no one can produce an effect differences. For instance, the Samkhya school’s
from a material cause in which that effect does not analysis of Anumāna is not as nearly as complicated
exist. For example, no one can press oil without as that by Buddhism and Nyāya, while in categorising
sesame. The second argument is upadanagrahanat, Pramāṇa, Samkhya’s theory is rather similar to that
which states that because there is an invariable of Jainism.
relationship between cause and effect, material Reincarnation and Liberation - Like the majority
cause can produce only that effect with which it of Indian philosophical schools, the Samkhya
is causally related. Only milk can produce yogurt school also espoused the theory of “reincarnation
because milk alone is materially related to yogurt. and liberation”. According to samkhya philosophy,
The third argument, sarvasambhavabhavat, which the universe is full of pain and misery. It divided
states that there is a fixed rule for the production the state of reincarnation into three realms: demi-
or manifestation of things. A certain thing can be god realm, animal realm, and human realm. The
produced only by a certain other thing; it cannot school believed that things stuck in reincarnation
be produced from just anything or anywhere. For cannot rid themselves of pain and misery, and life
example, it is impossible to produce gold and silver has three kinds of pain: Adhatmika; Adibhoutika;
from grass. The fourth argument, saktasya-sakya- and Adhidaivika.
karanat, states that an effect exists in its cause in Adhatmika: pain due to intra-organic
an unmanifested form before it is produced. For psychophysical which includes all mental and
example, potters can manufacture a bottle from physical suffering. For example, bodily suffering
clay. The fifth argument, karanabhavat, states due to wind-heat discomfort and mental suffering
that if the effect does not exist in the cause, then due to love and hate.
that which was non-existent would be coming Adibhoutika: extra-organic natural causes like
into existence out of nothing. For example, malt is human suffering due to hurt from beasts or landslide.
generated from seed. Adhidaivika: supernatural causes like
With a heavy emphasis on the inner relationships human suffering due to cold, hot, windy, rainy and
of object during its development process, this stormy weather.
particular causation theory as espoused by the According to Samkhya school, liberation means
Samkhya school neglects to address the differences complete cessation of all suffering. Supposedly there
between cause and effect, thus making it a frequent are numerous ways to achieve liberation, but some
target of criticism by other schools of philosophy in are far from effective or even downright ineffective.
ancient India, including Buddhism, which had made Samkhya states that true liberation can be achieved
a continuous effort to repudiate Satkaryavada. only through the correct discriminative knowledge
"Three Pramāṇas Theory" - The Samkhya school of reality. Samkhyans believe the key to mokṣa is
attached great importance to means of obtaining differentiating from Puruṣha and Prakṛiti using vivek
knowledge, which was called Pramāṇa in ancient (discrimination) by gaining a thorough insight into
Indian philosophy. According to the school, the theory of “dualism and 25 tattvas”, which in
there are three Pramāṇas, ie Pratyakşa, Anumāna, turn would lead to renunciation and indifference
and Śabda. to material creation, thus ending the cycle of
Pratyakşa means direct sense perception; Anumāna reincarnation and obliterating the possibilities
means logical inference and can be further divided for pain and thereby, achieving true liberation.
into three kinds. Purvavat anumāna (subsequent Therefore, it can be said that the Samkhyan
inference) – is that which has an antecedent, a literation theory is wisdom-based, as in Samkhya,
cause, just as, on account of the dark clouds, you the highest wisdom is “dualism and 25 tattvas”, and

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was born in the rainy season, with the followers

called “rain congregation.” Tianzhu Sanskrit
is “Monk Qu She Sa Tan Luo”, called “Shulun”
in Chinese (meaning: number theory), namely
“wisdom number theory” also known as “wisdom
number”; as “numbers” create everything in the
world, with “theory” developed from and creating
the “numbers”, it is also known as “number theory.”
Buddhist Master Puguang also offered a brief
overview of the Samkhya theories in volume 11 of
his “Commentary on Abhidharma-kosa”, with focus
Vijnapti-matrata-siddhi-sastra placed on the school’s 25 tattvas. “The Samkhya
clan developed a “25 tattvas”. The first tattva, I (ie
only by acquiring this kind of wisdom can liberation Sanskrit), also known as “normal me” with thinking
be finally attained. as the body, instinct is just a bear rather than
There is an intimate relationship between the initiator. The other 24 tattvas talk about those bears
Samkhya school and Yoga school. Many Samkhya or used by me (ie Sanskrit).
practices are heavily yogic, while the Yoga school The “Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi” translated by Hsüan-
draws upon the Samkhya theory of “dualism and tsang also contains parts repudiating the theories
25 tattvas” in establishing its own philosophical of the Samkhya school, in which Yogacara thinkers
system. The main differences between the two declared Samkhya theories invalid. For instance,
schools lie in that Samkhya put an emphasis on chapter one of the book states that “if 23 tattvas
the transformation theory, while the Yoga school are composed of three gunas, then they shall
attached importance to a religious way of practice. have no “prakriti” whatsoever, just like woods, as
In addition, the Yoga school also enshrines Shiva as composed of many trees, or armies, as composed
the Supreme Lord, while the early Samkhya school of many soldiers, have no prakriti”. In addition,
didn’t have a creator-god concept at all. the book also reasoned that “if the 23 tattvas are
Spread and Influence in China - The theories substantial, they shall be independent of each other,
of the Samkhya school were spread to China along just like the three gunas; and if the three gunas are
with Buddhism and exerted some influence on 23 tattvas, they shall be composed of three gunas
the intellectual scene of ancient China. It’s worth too. According to this logic, both the 23 tattvas
noting that the spread of the school in China was and the three gunas are made of multiple elements,
mostly related to Buddhism. The school had been and according to commonly held philosophical
violently criticised by Buddhism in its native India, views, things composed of multiple elements have
with Samkhya thoughts widely cited in Indian no prakriti”. The book also challenged Samkhya’s
Buddhist scriptures. These Indian Buddhist records “three gunas” theory as unreasonable or invalid,
were later translated into Chinese and introduced to with volume one arguing that “if things are all
China. Some of the major Samkhya texts were also made of three gunas according to Samkhyans, then
brought to China by Buddhist monks and translated there shall not be differences between objects,
into Chinese, including the Samkhya-karika and the there shall not be differences between karma,
Suvarṇasaptati (translated by Master Zhen Di), the cognitive object, cognitive way, material elements
latter of which had also been incorporated into the and various organs, with one single cognitive organ
Chinese Buddhist Canon, a phenomenon rarely seen sufficient enough to understand everything, and
among Indian philosophical literature, allowing there shall be no differences between sattva and
Chinese people to gain a systematic understanding tamas, cleanness and dirtiness, and Pratyakşa and
of the theoretical framework and characteristics of Anumāna”. According to “Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi”,
the Samkhya school. the viewpoint from Samkhya is absurd, the so-
Chinese Buddhist scriptures also contain extensive called substance is a product of false ponder and it
references to the founders of the Samkhya school should be refuted.
and their theories. For instance, in his “Great These dedicated parts in Chinese Buddhist
Commentary on the Nyayapravesa”, Kuiji gave a scriptures, either recounting or repudiating
genealogical account of the Samkhya school, with Samkhya theories, along with the Suvarṇasaptati
its “founding fathers” listed one by one, starting translated by Master Zhen Di, have allowed
with Kapila, who, according to the book, “is a divine Chinese people some important insights into the
figure with yellow-reddish skin”. Indian Samkhya school.
“His disciple, a leader in the 18 groups of disciples, The Samkhya theories also received a lot of
is named Varsya, which means”rain” because he scholarly attention in modern China, with the

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Samkhya-karika translated entirely into Chinese

and the Samkhya-sutra partially translated into
Chinese. Many modern Chinese scholars focus
on the study of the Samkhya school, with some
dealing specifically with the philosophical system
of the school, others concentrating on a particular
theory of the school and still others studying
the relationship between Samkhya theories and
Buddhist theories. Relevant papers have been
frequently published in Chinese scholarly journals
or included in professional proceedings. There are
also chapters dedicated to the Samkhya school in
Chinese books about oriental philosophy.
In Indian philosophy courses offered in Chinese
universities or research institutions, the theories of
the Samkhya school are also extensively mentioned.
Some courses specially deal with Samkhya classics, Patanjali
while others focus on particular Samkhya subjects.
In addition, some masters’ theses focussed on the contained references or information about the yoga
samkhya philosophy, and in some professional school. Its ways of practice have long been adopted
conferences or symposiums held in China, and the by many other Indian schools of philosophy.
theories of the school or papers published on the However, religious practices of yoga were concluded
school were also discussed with great interest. and summarised, then became an independent
(Yao Weiqun) religious and philosophical school with systematic
theories of its own at a much later date.
Yoga It is generally acknowledged that Patanjali was the
As one of the major philosophical schools of creator of Yoga and the school’s earliest foundation
Brahmanism, Yoga has a long history in India, and text is the Yoga-sūtra by Patanjali. Containing
can trace its roots back to the early civilisations in additional parts incorporated later, the extant
the Indian subcontinent. Some of the most ancient version of the sutra was compiled between 300 CE
Indian literatures contain information on the and 500 CE. There was an Indian grammarian active
practice of Yoga. It came into its own and became around 150 BCE who was also named Patanjali. If
an independent school of philosophy around the this grammarian and the author of the Yoga-sūtra
mid-2nd century BCE. The theories and ways of were the same person, then we can establish with
practice of Yoga have long been a subject of wide certainty that the early version of the sutra first
interest among all Indian schools of thought. As a appeared around 2nd century BCE.
highly influential school of philosophy in India, it After the Yoga-sūtra, classic texts of the yoga school
spread to China along with the Buddhism. were mainly comprised of commentaries on the sutra
Historical Evolution and Foundational Text - including the Yoga-sūtra-bhasya by Vyasa (around 6th
The word “Yoga” comes from Sanskrit and originally century CE), the Tattva-vaisarabi (commentaries on
means “union” or “conjunction”, and by extension, “Yoga-sūtra-bhasya”) by Vacaspati misra (around
“conformity with the mento-emotional energy”. 9th century CE), the Rajamartanda by Bhoja (11th
As a religious practice, the Yoga school took its century CE) and Yoga-varttika (commentaries on
rudimentary form as early as the period of the Indus Yoga-sūtra-bhasya) and Yoga-sara-samgraha (direct
Valley civilisations. At two representative Indus exposition on the theory of this school) by Vijnana-
ruins sites, Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the Dead) bhiksu (16th century CE).
and Harappa, thousands of small seals have been Following the appearance of Yoga-sūtra and
unearthed, which were mainly used at the time as commentaries thereon, the Yoga School saw
clan emblems, lucky charms, or identity indicators. its influence steadily growing. Some new Yoga
A few of them even reflect the religious beliefs classics such as the new upanishads also emerged,
practiced then. Some show deities seated in a posture which mainly dwell upon the relationship between
consistent with the popular Yoga posture we become deity, soul and body. In addition, the theories and
familiar with today. Therefore, it can be established ways of practice of yoga were also assimilated and
that the practice of Yoga originated from the period improved by many other Indian schools of thought.
of the Indus Valley civilisations ie 2500 BCE. Except for the Lokayata School, all major schools
Such ancient Indian classics as the Upanishads, of philosophy popular in ancient India have Yoga
Arthasastra and Sanskrit epic Mahabharata all elements of their own.

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The Yoga elements inherent in the various Indian Ghose also incorporated some new connotations
schools of thought partly derive from the ancient into its traditional concept by propounding such
Indian Yoga traditions, and partly from the Yoga concepts as “The Life Divine” and “Integral Yoga”,
school. Each school was generally influenced by both all of which were never mentioned or discussed in
aspects. The Yoga school organised and improved ancient yoga literature such as Yoga-sūtra. So it is
the traditional Yoga practices and theories which fair to say that the Yoga theories had undergone
helped promote the formation of religious practice significant new developments in later years.
theories of many Indian religious and philosophical The ancient Yoga school also exerted important
schools that arose still later. influence on Neo-Platonism in the west and religions
The theories and ways of practice of Yoga exerted in Iran, China, and Japan, which further extended to
an influence on both Brahmanism (orthodox school) still other parts of the world in contemporary times.
and Buddhism (non-orthodox school). For instance, there are now many yoga research
The Vedānta School of the Brahmanism absorbed centers in Europe and the United States, with yoga’s
a lot of Yoga elements. Many Vedānta thinkers positive role in the field of general healthcare and
borrowed extensively from Yoga practices, and fitness also gaining increasing attention.
considered the “imported” Yoga elements highly
instrumental in helping them grasp the Brahman. Theory and Practice of Yoga
The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied According to Yoga-sūtra and most commentaries
with the Samkhya school. There was no concept of thereon, the theoretical system of the yoga school
creator-deity in the early-day Samkhya school, but is primarily comprised of the following concepts:
over time, due to the influence of the Yoga school, mind activities; Samadhi; seer and the seen; eight
the later-day Samkhya school started to accept the limbs; and siddhis.
concept of creator-deity in its philosophical system.
The literature of the Vaiśesika school and Nyāya
school also contains elements of Yoga practices.
Although said two schools never addressed these
Yoga elements as their main subject of interest, they
mentioned them frequently in discussing their own
epistemological concepts or principles.
An important practice of Buddhism, meditation
owes its origin to the ancient Yoga practices. After
the Yoga school emerged, Mahayana Buddhism was
also heavily influenced by the school.
In addition to influencing other schools of Aurobindo Ghose
thought, the yoga school was also influenced by
other philosophical schools and absorbed some of Mind Activities (vrttayah)
their ideas and theories. Buddhism, for instance, Yoga-sūtra defines Yoga as “the mastery of the
has been a huge source of influence. The fourth activities of the mind-field”, positing that there are
chapter of the Yoga-sūtra was widely deemed to be five mind activities: correct perception, incorrect
added later, in which a lot of Buddhist elements perception, imagination, sleep and memory.
were adopted. Therefore, it can be claimed that the Correct perception means accurate, truthful general
Yoga school and Buddhism have exerted mutual information in daily life, and may be acquired by
influence upon each other throughout the course of partyaksa, anumana and agama directly.
their development. Incorrect perception is based on false information
The influence of the theories and practices of the and on perception of what is not the true form.
yoga school still lingered strongly in contemporary Imagination is verbal information which can
Indian society. Many contemporary Indian thinkers distinguish or divide things and is followed by
or philosophers advocated, to varying extents, the concepts which are devoid of reality.
practice of Yoga, including Dayananda Saraswati Sleep is the mind-consciousness mode which is
(1824~1883), Svāmi Vivekananda (1863~1902), supported by the absence of objective awareness.
and Aurobindo Ghose (1872~1950). Memory is the retained impression of experienced
It must be pointed out that the concept of "yoga" objects.
in contemporary India had differed greatly from its According to the definition of yoga contained
ancient concept. For instance, the “yoga” mentioned in the Yoga-sūtra, it is concerned with attaining a
by Svāmi Vivekānanda actually refers to all major state of tranquil abiding (Samadhi) free of external
aspects of his teachings, including religious beliefs, influences, because the five mind activities
ethics, and philosophical doctrines. Aurobindo are actually the product of external influences

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of external things, namely to get rid of worldly

pleasures and special, transcendental pleasures
(such as heavenly pleasures). Through “practice”
and “abandonment of desires” one can finally attain
the blessed state of “Samadhi”.
Samadhi - The “samadhi” concept adopted by the
Yoga school means the collectedness of the mind on
a single object through calming and/or increasing
mental activities, also sometimes referred to as
“Samāpatti” in the Yoga-sūtra.
The Yoga-sūtra divides “samadhi” into two types:
“Savikalpa Samadhi” and “Nirvikalpa Samadhi”.
Savikalpa Samadhi: A state of consciousness in
which one knows one’s own consciousness but
remains in a subject-object relationship with the
world.
Nirvikalpa Samadhi: The highest, transcendent
state of consciousness in which there is selflessness,
no-mind, non-duality and the subject-object
relationship momentarily disappears. It is the
A Yoga practitioner, rock carving highest samadhi-state of non-dual union with one’s
own consciousness.
(“Xiang”). Both correct perception and incorrect The Yoga-sūtra also discusses the means to
perception are reflection of external objects and attaining “Nirvikalpa Samadhi”. The author held that
manifestation of people’s consciousness with one must rely on confidence, stamina, introspective
regards to their interaction with the external memory, concentration force and profound insight
world. The “correct perception” mentioned here to reach this blessed state. In addition, “Nirvikalpa
refers to a mind activity that correctly reflects the Samadhi” can also be achieved by the method of
worldly characteristics of external objects, while profound religious meditation upon the Supreme
the “incorrect perception” is a mind activity that Lord. The Supreme Lord is that special person who
incorrectly reflects the worldly characteristics is not affected by troubles, actions, developments or
of external objects; “imagination” is a mind by subconscious motivations. “Of Him, the sacred
activity that arises out of differentiating external syllable āum (om) is the designation. That sound
objects; “sleep” is a mind activity that is actually is repeated, murmured constantly for realising
spawned from sleepers’ interaction with external its meaning. As a result there is inwardness of
objects when he or she is awake; and “memory” the sense consciousness and the disappearance of
is also a mind activity that stems from external obstacles to progress.” These obstacles are disease,
objects, since it is mainly a product of recollection idleness, doubt, inattentiveness, lack of energy and
of external objects. All in all, these five mind prone to sensuality, mistaken views, not being able
activities cannot exist apart from external objects, to maintain the progress attained, unsteadiness in
and what external objects manifest is mainly of progression, scattered mental and emotional energy.
an insubstantial, illusive nature, which can only Distress, depression, nervousness and laboured
harass and disturb. In the opinion of yogis, only breathing are the symptoms of a distracted state
by isolating oneself from the influences of illusive, of mind. For the removal of the obstacles, there
unreal external objects can one truly attain a state should be the practice of a standard method used
of physical and mental tranquility. in the pursuit of the reality (tattva). The abstract
Although among the five activities there are both meditation resulting from the serenity of the mento-
correct ones and incorrect ones, the Yoga school held emotional energy comes about by friendliness,
that they all posed hindrances to the attainment of compassion, cheerfulness and non-responsiveness to
the highest state of wisdom, and therefore should be happiness, distress, virtue and vice or by regulating
suppressed, or put specifically, “eliminated” through the exhalation and inhalation or by fixing the
long periods of “practice” and “abandonment of mento-emotional energy on someone who is without
desires”. “Practice” means to make continuous craving; or by conduct Dhyana (meditation) on any
efforts to achieve mental tranquility, which requires random object.
the deepest absorption and great exertions to fend When called “samāpatti”, “samadhi” can be
off the external influences; and “abandonment of divided into four categories: savitarkā-samāpatti,
desires” refers to the efforts to abandon the pursuit nirvitarka-samāpatti, savicāra-samāpatti and nirvicāra-

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samāpatti which in their respective order, represent reincarnation is a process of change with a lot of
a progressive process. differential things, therefore, all differential things
Savitarkā-samāpatti is when the unity, word, belong to affliction. In the opinion of Yoga school,
purpose, knowledge and imagination completely the generation of reincarnation is related to the two
mixed. entities. The Yoga-sūtra states that, “The cause of
Nirvitarka-samāpatti is when the memory is what is to be warded off, is the absorption of the
completely purified and the essential inquiring Seer in the Seen.” And the “seer” and “the seen”
nature disappears. here refer to the “prakriti” and “purusha” directly
Savicāra-samāpatti and nirvicāra-samāpatti relating to the reincarnation, respectively.
depends on the yogi’s interest in particular subtle It is widely acknowledged that the yoga school
phenomena, approaching to reality of an object. borrowed extensively from the Samkhya school,
Though by progressing through the four samāpattis which held that reincarnation results from the
mentioned above the yogi can achieve a fairly combination of “prakriti” and “purusha”. In the
high level of dhyana, the Yoga school maintained philosophical system of the yoga school, the
that these four samāpattis are “seeded Samadhi”, two entities are called “the seer” and “the seen”,
meaning that although the yogi has gradually respectively. Both schools believed that “purusha”
expunged those distractions or impressions, he or is a spiritual or positive entity, while “prakriti”
she has not yet completely eliminated the lingering is a material or negative entity. When “purusha”
latent force (seed) resulting from his or her past affects “prakriti”, the two will combine, generating
karmas. If he or she can go one step further and all things or all kinds of life phenomena and giving
eliminate or at least effectively suppress the latent rise to reincarnation. During this process, “purusha”
force inherent in the “seeded samadhi”, the blessed can be called “the seer”, while “prakriti” may be
state of “seedless samadhi” may finally be achieved. referred to as “the seen”.
The Yoga School held that the dynamic kriyā yoga The Yoga school believed that the “Seer” is pure
practices which make for union with the Soul are: vision; and “the seen” have manifestation, action,
austerity, spiritual reading, and complete obedience inertia as their property. They are formed by the
to the Master. “Austerity” is an act to purify one’s elements and the sense-powers. They make for
mind; “spiritual reading” refers to the reciting of experience and for liberation. The very essence of
pure words (such as Om) again and again; and things seen is that they exist for the Seer.
“complete obedience to the Master” means to The school held that the cause for association
dedicate everything to the Supreme Lord. of the Seer with things seen is the darkness of
The Yoga-sūtra specifies five hindrances: the unwisdom. If the darkness of unwisdom were
darkness of unwisdom, self-assertion, lust, hate, eliminated, the combination could not exist. In order
attachment. The darkness of ignorance is the field of to eliminate the darkness of unwisdom and make
the others. It is exhibited when what is temporary, the Seer get rid of the Seen, we must obtain the help
impure, distressful and mundane, is identified as of discrimination (viveka-khyati). One significant
being eternal, pure, joyful and spiritual, respectively. commentary on the Yoga-sūtra by Vyasa states
Self-assertion comes from thinking of the Seer and that “viveka-khyati is a perception of the different
the instrument of vision as forming one self. Lust nature of ‘prakriti’ and ‘purusha’”. As soon as the
is the results from the sense of enjoyment. Hate is differences between the seer and the seen can be
the results from the sense of pain. Attachment is the perceived, the combination of the two will come to
desire toward life, even in the wise, carried forward an end, terminating reincarnation, thereby allowing
by its own energy. people to escape sorrow and pain. Therefore, it is
The Yoga school maintained that asaya (latent of vital importance to acquire “viveka-khyati”,
force) produced by one’s behaviour was rooted in
klesa. From this root there grow and ripen the fruits
of birth, of the life-span, of all that is tasted in life.
As long as people remain in this state, they cannot
escape from sorrow and pain.
Seer and the Seen - The Yoga School held that
sorrow is an integral part of reincarnation, and
therefore, to discuss the reason for reincarnation is
to discuss the reason for the generation of sorrow,
which concerns the basic philosophical theories
held by the Yoga school. The school maintained that
fruits of rejoicing or affliction are sprung from holy
or unholy works done in the past during the process
of human survival. Changes belong to affliction and Yoga asana

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Pratyahara refers to the withdrawal of the five

senses from external objects, so as to prevent the
mind from getting distracted by the external world.
Dharana is the fixing of the mind in a single spot
(any chosen object).
Dhyana is a progression of dharana, ie sustained
concentration on the meditated object.
Samadhi is the highest state of wisdom for yogi
practitioners, wherein only the “object” shines
forth in the mind, with the consciousness and the
object become fused together; even self-awareness
disappears in the state of samadhi.
The Yoga school called the first five levels “external
aids to yoga” (bahiranga sadhana), and the last three
“internal aids to Yoga (antaranga sadhana). The
external aids to Yoga, aka bahiranga sadhana, focus
on moral, ethical and physical disciplines; and the
internal aids to Yoga, aka antaranga sadhana (Raja
Yoga), focus on spiritual practices.
The Yoga school attached great importance to the
Indian miniature painting of a Hindu ascetic internal aids to Yoga (antaranga sadhana), believing
them to be “more interior” than the other five. The
according to the philosophies of the Samkhya school three levels of the antaranga sadhana are also called
and the Yoga school, the latter of which claimed samyama, by acquiring which one can finally reach
that to acquire the “viveka-khyati” one will need an enlightened state.
to rely on a particular set of yoga practices, ie The Siddhis - Yoga school held that certain types of
Eight Limbs of Yoga. miraculous force can be obtained through samyama.
The Eight Limbs of Yoga form the structural This kind of miraculous force is in essence a
framework for yoga practice. They are: the
commandments, rules, right poise, right control of
the life-force, withdrawal, attention, meditation and
contemplation.
There are five commandments that must be
obeyed by the yogi: non-injury, truthfulness,
abstaining from stealing, from impurity and from
covetousness.
The “rules” or “fixed observances” include:
cleanliness, contentment, austerity, study and
persevering devotion to God. From purity follows
a withdrawal from enchantment over one’s own
body as well as a cessation of desire for physical
contact with others. Supreme happiness is gained
via contentment. Impurities can be removed
and special powers can be received in the body
through austerity. By studying and reading, we
can communicate with the Lord. “Samadhi” can be
realised by the persevering devotion to God.
Right poise must be firm and without strain. Right Samadhi of Completion: Secret Tibetan Yoga Illuminations from
poise is to be gained by steady and temperate effort the Qing Court
and by setting the heart upon the everlasting. The
fruit of right poise is the strength to resist the shocks supernormal power, aka siddhis. The force differs
of infatuation or sorrow. depending on the specific objects of samyama. The
There follows the right guidance of the life- Yoga-sūtra mentioned many types of siddhis, which
currents, the control of the incoming and outgoing refer primarily to certain knowledge or abilities
breath. It is regulated according to place, time and normal people could rarely acquire. For instance,
number. Energy-control which goes beyond the through samyama on one’s body, one can become
sphere of external and internal is also vital. invisible; via samyama on differences between

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asaya (latent force or momentum) but only a karma

that is “neither white nor black,” which is similar
to “avipāka-karma” in Buddhism. According to
the Yoga-sūtra and other relevant literature, if the
yogi can perceive the difference between the seer
and the seen and acquire the “viveka-khyati”,
and rid themselves of fixation, karma, sorrow and
dirtiness, he may finally achieve the samadhi of
the “dharma-meghah-s” type, in which the “seeds”
will be destroyed, enabling one to break out of
reincarnation cycles, escape pain and get delivered.
Influence in China - The Yoga school made
some improvements and also some systematisation
efforts on the ancient Indian yoga practices which
had exerted a noticeable influence on many popular
schools of religious philosophy in ancient India. For
An illustration from Samadhi of Completion: Secret instance, Buddhism absorbed a lot of elements from
Tibetan Yoga Illuminations from the Qing Court
the school. Therefore, when Buddhism spread to
China, the theories and ways of practice of the Yoga
speeches and objects, one can understand animals’ school were also brought to China and went on to
sounds; through samyama on perception, one can make a noteworthy impact in the country.
read minds; through samyama on behaviour and The Yoga school emphasised the suppression
consequences thereof, one can gain valuable insights of the modifications of the mind which bears
into death; via samyama on the latent force, one can considerable similarity to the Buddhist meditation.
acquire knowledge about his or her former life; and, Chinese Zen emphasised that meditation shall be
through samyama on animals, the sun, the moon, separated from appearance externally and mind
the stars, body organs and functions thereof, etc shall not be influenced internally. In fact, this is the
one can accordingly obtain a wealth of supernatural modifications of the mind required by the yoga school
knowledge and miraculous ability. In addition, one and generated from the suppression on influence
may also acquire the viveka-khyati to distinguish by external unreal things. Besides, such concepts
between sattva (prakriti) and purusa (purusha). as the eight limbs, samadhi and siddhis advocated
Once the yogis achieve this particular “viveka- by the yoga school also exist in Indian and Chinese
khyati”, he can gain a mastery over all existences Buddhism in varying forms. The Buddhist essential
and infinite knowledge. If yogi went further and got Threefold Training in discipline, meditation and
rid of “viveka-khyati”, he could destroy the seeds of wisdom also overlaps to a large extent with relevant
evil and entre into an absolute independent state. practices of the Yoga school. The first two of the
In this state, sattva (prakriti) and purusa (purusha) eight limbs of Yoga school prescribe rules similar
have the same nature of cleanness. Both of them
exist independently without combination. Thus
there is no basic condition for reincarnation, which
makes suffering elimination possible. This is a state
pursued by the Samkhya school and the Yoga school.
The Yoga-sūtra also discussed the means to
achieving “siddhis”, claiming that there are five
sources where it derives: firstly, people are born
with it; those who are born with siddhis must have
practiced Yoga in their past lives; secondly, people
acquired it with the help of medicine or herbs;
thirdly, people can achieve it through spells or
incantations; fourthly, people can acquire it through
austerities; and fifthly, people can acquire it via the
samadhi, ie threefold power of attention, meditation
and contemplation.
Among the five sources mentioned above, the
Yoga school put the greatest emphasis on the
fifth one. It maintained that by achieving siddhis An illustration from Samadhi of Completion: Secret Tibetan
through samadhi, the yogi never left behind any Yoga Illuminations from the Qing Court

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to those contained in Buddhist precepts. The state originally proposed by the sage Kaṇāda (or Kana-
of “samadhi” pursued by the yoga school is also bhuk, literally, atom-eater) around 2nd century
close to the Buddhist Dhyāna. The highest wisdom BCE, who was also extensively referred to as
or truth sought by the school is also highly similar to “Youloujia” in Chinese Buddhist records. Most of
the Buddhist “wisdom”. Many such yoga elements the information about him contained in existing
were mixed with relevant Buddhist concepts and records is of a legendary, even mythical, proportion.
enjoyed wide popularity in ancient China. For instance, Bailun Shu (“Commentary on the Shata
The classic texts and theories of the Yoga school Shastra”) describes the legendary figure as “Uluka,
have also received widespread scholarly attention in
modern China. The Yoga-sūtra has been translated
into Chinese, with the theories of the school being
extensively studied by Chinese scholars. A large
number of research papers are being published
every year on the Yoga-sūtra or yoga theories. There
are also many Chinese books that specifically deal
with the yoga school. Some Chinese universities
also offer Indian philosophy or religion courses
that contain information on the yoga school. Some
Masters or PhD candidates in relevant Chinese
universities or research institutions also chose yoga A Commentary on Śata-śāstra
theories as their thesis or dissertation topic. Besides,
in some professional conferences or symposiums aka immortal of barred owlet, having been born 800
held in China, the theories of the school or papers years earlier than Śākyamuni” and “fond of lecturing
published on the school were also discussed with during the day and travelling at night. If you want
great interest. to keep one, you must feed it in the night and it will
Among Chinese people, Yoga elements are adopted eat with its family dependents”.
primarily with the purpose of boosting physical Historical Evolution and Foundational Text
wellness, with the practice of Yoga becoming - Widely considered the foundational text of the
increasingly popular in the country. Throughout Vaiśeṣik (Vaisheshika) school of philosophy, the
China, Yoga training programmes or classes are original version of the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra was created
offered to dedicated and enthusiastic fans. around 2nd century BCE by Kaṇāda. Containing
(Yao Weiqun) additional parts incorporated still later, the extant
version of Vaiśeṣika-sūtra was created around
Vaisheshika 2nd century CE. Having established some of the
As one of the major philosophical schools of fundamental theories of Vaiśeṣik, the sutra laid the
Brahmanism, Vaiśeṣika, or the Vaisheshika school, theoretical groundwork for the school.
was formed around 2nd century BCE. With a Around 6th century CE, there emerged a
significant philosophical influence in India, it spread significant commentary on the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra,
to China along with Buddhism, where it attracted the Padartha-dharma-samgraha (commentary on
great attention from some of the major thinkers in Kanada’s Vaisesika sutra) by Prasastapada, which is
ancient China. the only extant Vaisheshika literature in India that
Theoretical Sources and Relevant Legends - offers a systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika
The word “Vaiśeṣika”, which is the Sanskrit name school. Appearing much later than the sutra, it
for Vaisheshika, is derived from “Vishesa,” which offers a clearer and richer picture of the theories
means “distinction,” or “distinguishing feature,” or of the Vaisheshika school and also proposes a
“particularity.” This school was also transliterated more complete theoretical framework, having been
into “feishishijia” and “pishishi” in ancient China. widely recognised as the most representative extant
In Chinese Buddhist scriptures, it is often referred to Vaisheshika literature except the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra.
as “Sheng Zong” or “Shenglun Waidao”. During roughly the same period, another
Some of the basic theories of the Vaisheshika important Vaisheshika work also appeared, which
school were covered by certain key philosophical is the Daśapadārthaśāstra by Maticandra. The
treatises in ancient India such as the “Brāhmaṇa” and original text of the book has been lost, with the
the “Upanishad”. However, what had contributed extant version being one Chinese translated by
directly to the formation of this particular Hsuan Tsang. Created close to the Padartha-dharma-
philosophical school were the thoughts and ideas of samgraha in time, this book contains descriptive
some Shramana thinkers active in ancient India. information about the Vaisheshika system that
It is generally acknowledged that this school was differs substantially with that recorded in extant

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Sanskrit literature of the school, and has long such directions as east, south, west, north, up and
been a subject of great interest among researchers down. Atman (self) refers to the inner self or soul,
and scholars. whose existence can be confirmed by inference from
After the 10th century CE, the Vaisheshika school the perception of feelings, breathing and desire.
began to merge with the Nyāya school, with a Manas (mind) is the real sense organ behind the five
large body of significant new works emerging, senses. When the five senses come in contact with
including: Kiranavali by Udayana (10th century the external world, perception can (or cannot) be
CE), Nyayakandali by Sridhara (10th century CE), achieved sometimes, This is the reason why manas
Saptapadarthi by Sivaditya (around 10th- 11th century exists.
CE), Upaskara by Sankara Misra (15th century CE), Guṇa (quality): The Vaiśeṣika-sūtra mentions 17
Tarka-Kaumudi by Laugaksi Bhaskara (17th century guṇas (qualities), to which Praśastapāda added
CE) and Bhasapariccheda and Siddhanta-muktavali another seven. The original 17 guṇas (qualities)
by Visvanatha (17th century CE). are, rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell),
Since its inception, the Vaisheshika school sparśa (touch), saṁkhyā (number), parimāṇa (size/
has been an important influence in the Indian dimension/quantity), pṛthaktva (individuality),
philosophical scene, and figured largely in both saṁyoga (conjunction/accompaniments), vibhāga
Buddhism and the dominant philosophical schools (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva
of Brahmanism. Many Vedānta and Buddhist texts (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure),
discuss or refute the theories of the Vaisheshika duḥkha (pain), icchā (desire), dveṣa (aversion) and
school, and therefore constitute valuable sources prayatna (effort). To these, Praśastapāda added
of information instrumental in helping people gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha
understand Vaiśeṣika and its philosophical system. (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit),
Major Philosophical Theories - The basic śabda (sound) and saṁkāsra (faculty). While a
philosophical system of the Vaisheshika school substance is capable of existing independently by
is built around the concept of “Padartha”, which itself, a guṇa (quality) cannot exist so.
means “worldly matter corresponding to concepts”, Karman (action or motion): Motion is of five
with “Pada” meaning “words, speech or concepts”, types – upward and downward motion, contraction
and “artha” meaning “things or objects”. Vaisesika and expansion and locomotion.
is a system of pluralistic realism, which emphasises Samanya (universal) is generality. It refers to
that reality consists in difference. It classifies all nature for the existence of substances.
objects of experience or phenomena into several Visesa (ultimate particularity) is the extreme
padartha, or categories. Different Vaisheshika works opposite of the universal (samanya). It refers to the
tend to adopt different padartha systems, with the ultimate differences of substances.
two most widely known ones being the Six Padartha Samavaya (inherence) is a relation by which
theory and the Ten Padartha theory. Most of the types are held together while maintaining their
specific philosophical ideas of the school fall under own identities, often defined as the relation
the theoretical framework of “padartha”. between cause and effect. Each padartha shall be
Six Padartha Theory - Major Vaisheshika works distinguished from concept. However, they should
such as the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and the Padartha-dharma- be unified in substance (reality). It is Samavaya that
samgraha (commentary on Kanada’s Vaisesika sutra) can produce this inseparable relationship between
proposed that there are six padarthas (categories): one’s own identity and property.
dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), karma (activity), Ten Padartha Theory - According to the
sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa (particularity) and “Daśapadārthaśāstra”, there are 10 padarthas:
samavāya (inherence). dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), karma (activity),
Dravya means substance or entity, and the sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa (particularity),
substances are conceived as nine in number. They samavāya (inherence), “śakti”, “aśakti”, “sadrsya”,
are, pṛthvī (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vāyu and “abhāva”. The first six padarthas are similar to
(air), ākaśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space), ātman those proposed by the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and Padartha-
(self) and manas (mind). earth, water, fire and air dharma-samgraha, and the newly added four
constitute material elements and are composed of padarthas are defined as follows:
atoms. Ether often means space (sometimes, elements “Śakti” refers to a padartha wherein the innate
too) according to Upanishads, but in Vaisheshika it interrelationship among dravya, guṇa and karma
primarily refers to a particular element on which enables them to collectively or individually give rise
sound relies. Time is a real entity according to the to particular results. “Aśakti” refers to a padartha
Vaisheshika school and all activities, changes or wherein the innate interrelationship among dravya,
modifications can be achieved only through time. guṇa and karma enables them not to collectively or
Space is a real entity through which one perceives individually give rise to particular results.

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The Atomic Theory - Atom (Anu) is the smallest

unit of matter postulated by some philosophers in
ancient India. This concept exists in the theories of
many Indian schools of thought, with the atomic
theory espoused by the Vaisheshika school being the
most representative. The Vaiśeṣikas attached great
importance to “fundamental cause” for the creation
of objects, but instead of the prevalent theory of
“single cause”, upheld a “multiple causes” theory,
positing that all objects in the world (the effect)
don’t stem from any single cause, but multiple ones.
It claimed that objects are all composed of small
indivisible “atoms”. In dravya, four bhūtas, ie pṛthvī
(earth), ap (water), tejas (fire) and vāyu (air) are
made of indivisible atoms. The four bhūtas further
‘Daśapadārthaśāstra (Sheng zong shiju yilun)’ fall under two categories: atoms as the smallest unit;
and combination of atoms. All objects in the world
“Sadrsya” specifically addresses objects’ relative are made of the four bhūtas in infinite combinations.
universality and particularity. Sāmānya is limited to The Vaisheshika school believed that atoms exist
existence and viśeṣa is limited to ultimate differences, and there is no smaller “cause” than the atoms;
while other generalities and particularities shall they cannot be destroyed for they are ever-present,
constitute an independent padartha. The Vaiśeṣika- permanent and eternal. All tangible objects that
sūtra and “Padartha-dharma-samgraha” both believe have forms are the “effect” composed of “atoms”.
that “universality” and “particularity” are only The existence of the “effect” is a mark indicating the
relative concepts and tend to change depending on existence of atoms as the “cause”. Effect exists only
the specific perspective people take. Some concepts because of the existence of cause. Non-eternal is a
may be deemed as “universal” under certain special “opposite” of eternal.
circumstances but might be considered “particular” The school also held that atoms are essentially
under other circumstances. For example, for the of four kinds: Earth, Water, Fire and Air, the
concept of padartha, substance is considered as combination of which can form all kinds of objects
“particular” because it is a kind of padartha, but for in the world. Atoms are not created, but ever-
earth, water, fire and air, it shall be considered as present and eternal. There is nothing smaller
“universal” because the four elements are substances. than the atom. Indivisible and indestructible, it
This kind of relativity was never properly addressed constitutes the “ultimate cause” for the creation
in either the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra or “Padartha-dharma- of objects. It is spherical in shape and reflects the
samgraha”. By contrast, “Daśapadārthaśāstra” ultimate difference between objects. By contrast,
restricts viśeṣa (particularity) only to the ultimate objects formed through a combination of atoms
differences between objects (“Bian Yi’), and sāmānya can be created; they are non-eternal, degradable,
(generality) only to the existence of objects (“You”). destructible, and not spherical in shape, with no
In other words, the book singles out the relativity ultimate differences exhibited.
of viśeṣa (particularity) and sāmānya (generality) In addition, the Vaisheshika school also postulated
and makes it into a separate, independent padartha an “invisible force (Adrsta)” theory in analysing the
(ie “sadrsya”). momentum in the material world and the occurrence
“Abhāva” refers to an objects’ state of nonexistence, of many natural phenomena. For instance, the
and there are five types of “nonexistence”: literatures of Vaiśeṣika points out such phenomena
antecedent non-existence (non-existence of objects as fire burning up, wind blowing sideways, sap
that are yet to be created); subsequent non-existence circulating in trees and earthquakes striking can
(non-existence of objects that have been destroyed); all be attributed to “invisible force”. Actually the
reciprocal non-existence (non-existence of objects Vaisheshika school tended to attribute all inexplicable
that, if in existence, will contradict existing ones); natural phenomena at the time to “invisible force”.
absolute non-existence (non-existence of objects Invisible force (Adrsta) can be seen as a result of
that will never appear); and natural non-existence one’s own actions, evil or good, and in this sense
(non-existence of nature of one object in another). is not unlike the Buddhist concept of Karma. The
Important theories proposed by the Vaisheshika Vaisheshika school posited that it is always the
school include: the atomic theory; “non-preexistence invisible force that starts the atoms in motion.
of effect in cause” theory; and the pramāṇa (means The atomic theory of the Vaisheshika school
of valid knowledge) theory. served as an important approach in ancient India

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to understanding the occurrence and dynamics of any effect coming out of a single cause, only the
natural phenomena, and as such, was once a highly combining of multiple causes can produce effect.
influential theory that held considerable sway over The “cause” mentioned by the Vaisheshika school
other schools of thought, leading the latter to also actually refers to the constituent parts that make up
form a habit of discussing this issue extensively. the whole, while the “effect” refers to the whole or
For instance, some works of the Vedānta school the combined. Thus, the school held that the process
analysed the atomic theory and eventually “proved” of “generation” or “creation” means the combining
it invalid. Many other Indian philosophical schools of multiple elements (cause), and to consider cause
also expressed their views on the “atom” concept. and effect to be the same simply could not explain
“Non-preexistence of Effect in Cause” Theory the creation of things. In their opinion, the process
- Like many schools of philosophy in ancient India, of “generation” must produce an effect distinct from
the Vaisheshika school also put a special emphasis the cause. In the theoretical system of Vaisheshika,
on the theory of causationism, with the Vaiśeṣika- all things are made of multiple elements, ie the
sūtra discussing it extensively. Vaisheshika school formation of everything in the world is a process
opposed the general view that cause and result are of forming one new thing through combining
inseparable from each other. For instance, the sutra independent elements, and the created things
states, “there won’t be an effect without a cause, but (effect) never pre-exist in those elements (cause),
there might be a cause without an effect”, setting out hence the “no effect in cause” theory.
to emphasise that effect cannot exist without cause,
but cause can exist without effect.” For instance, a
table (the effect) cannot exist apart from wood (the
cause), but we cannot say the wood does not exist if
there is no table.
The Vaisheshika school once proved, “Non-
preexistence of Effect in Cause” Theory, and they
believed that there is a fundamental difference
between cause and effect. According to literatures
from other schools, the Vaisheshika school espoused
the idea that “there is no effect in cause, and cause
is different from effect” for the following seven
reasons: firstly, cause and effect are easily perceived
to be starkly distinct from each other: nobody would
take the thread (the cause) to be the cloth (the
effect), just as nobody would mistake the clay pot A Commentary on Vijnapti-matrata-siddhi-sastra
(the effect) for the clay (the cause). Secondly, cause
and effect are named differently: nobody would call Bold and audacious, this theory made waves in
thread cloth, or call cloth thread. Thirdly, the same the philosophical scene in ancient India, causing a
cause may give rise to different effects: thread can lot of Vedānta and Buddhist thinkers to violently
be used to make not just clothes, but other things react to it.
too, like rope; fourthly, cause comes before effect Pratyaksha and Anumana - Thoughts of
at all times. Fifthly, cause and effect differ in form: Vaisheshika school in epistemology are included in the
clay (the cause) has a form of block while the clay theory of pratyaksha and anumana to a large extent.
pot (the effect) has a form of ampulla with a wide Pratyaksha means sense perception. The Vaiśeṣika-
base. Sixthly, cause and effect differ in quantity: sūtra further classified pratyaksha into two kinds:
a single piece of cloth (the effect) is composed of regular partyaksha; and Yogi-pratyaksha. They were
many threads (the cause); and seventhly, if cause also named as earthly pratyaksha and non-earthly
and effect are the same thing, then there shall be pratyaksha by later generations. The former only
only one cause, ie there shall not be a lot of causes covers the ordinary things in the world, while the
such as material constituting effect and maker latter covers such diverse metaphysical dimensions
manufacturing effect. such as ego, emptiness, space, mind, etc. The
Vaisheshika espoused the idea of “no effect “Daśapadārthaśāstra” doesn’t distinguish between
in cause”, which may be attributed to its basic regular partyaksha and Yogi-pratyaksha, but analyses
philosophical system. In explaining the creation of the major factors contributing to the generation
things in the world, this school upheld a “multiple of perception, postulating that the generation of
causes” theory (anamabhavada), positing that all perception normally relies on four factors: “Jing”,
objects in the world (the effect) don’t stem from literally “environment”, referring to the surrounding
any single cause, but multiple ones. There won’t be objects that can be perceived by five senses; “Gen”,

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ancient China, exerting a pervasive influence on the

country’s philosophical scene.
One particular Vaiśeṣika work was translated
into Chinese in its entirety in ancient China, ie
the “Daśapadārthaśāstra” as translated by Hsuan-
tsang. Different from the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra, the
Padartha-dharma-samgraha (commentary on
Kanada’s Vaisesika sutra) in a substantial way, the
book proposes 10 Padarthas. Some of the Buddhist
monks or scholars in ancient China noticed and
discussed these differences. As a “heretical” work,
A Commentary on Vijnapti-matrata-siddhi-sastra the “Daśapadārthaśāstra” was incorporated in
its entirety into the Chinese Dazangjing (“Great
literally “root”, referring to one’s five senses; “Yi”, Treasury of Sūtras”), which was extremely rare
literally “mind”, referring to the link between five throughout the long history of Buddhist literature
senses and “self”; and “Wo”, literally “self”, referring compilation, indicating the high level of attention
to the one who perceives. And according to the book the Vaiśeṣika work had received in ancient China.
and other Vaisheshika works, the normal process In relevant Buddhist scriptures, the theories of the
of generation of perception can be described as Vaisheshika school were extensively criticised and
follows: firstly, one’s “Gen” (five senses) come in decisively repudiated. And in refuting the Vaiśeṣika
contact with “Jing” (external environment), giving theories, Buddhist records also gave a brief account
rising to impressions, which will soon be picked up of Vaiśeṣika and quoted its representative thoughts,
by “Yi”, which is not an element of consciousness some of which were translated into Chinese when
but a material one. It is extremely small in size, and Buddhism spread to China. Some Buddhist monks in
can move very fast within the body. And when the ancient China once expounded or analysed relevant
information gathered by five senses is transmitted thoughts or theories of the Vaisheshika school, as
to “self”, perception occurs. However, according to evidenced by relevant expositions widely present in
the Vaisheshika school, for perception to occur, it is Buddhist literature compiled in ancient China.
not necessary to have all four factors at once. Two, The “Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi” translated and
“Wo” and “Yi”, or three, “Wo”, “Gen”, “Yi”, of the compiled by Hsuan-tsang contains parts specifically
four may be sufficient to generate perception. dedicated to repudiating the Vaiśeṣika theories,
Anumana mainly refers to inference. The Vaiśeṣika- arguing that the Padarthas considered “eternal and
sūtra specifies five circumstances of anumana: firstly permanent” by Vaiśeṣika cannot be eternal and
to infer cause from effect, (e.g., fire can be deducted permanent if they can generate effect. For instance,
from seeing smoke); secondly to deduce effect from if the atoms of earth, water, fire, and air in the
cause, (e.g., sound can be deducted by a deaf from Dravya-padārtha can be combined to create “effect”,
special relation for drumsticks drumming). Thirdly, they must be non-eternal and impermanent, because
to infer one from the known other, provided that the they have functions and therefore are subject to
two are in conjunction with each other (e.g., touch changes. As for those “eternal” Padarthas that don’t
organ can be deducted from seeing an animal). generate “effect”, such as kāla (time), dik (space),
Fourthly to infer one from the know other, provided sāmānya (generality) and samavāya (inherence),
that the two are in conflict with each other (e.g., they are like such non-existent things as rabbit horns,
food for snakes can be deducted behind the tree having no “prakriti” apart from consciousness.
from restless performance of a snake); and to infer And those Padarthas considered “non-eternal
one from the known other, provided that one is and impermanent”, if blocked, will be like such
inherent in the other (e.g., water can be deducted things as armies and woods, having no “prakriti”
having been boiled from hot water). whatsoever; and if unblocked, they will be like
Although Vaiśeṣika, traditionally recognised as consciousness or manifestations thereof, having no
a Brahman school, adopts the social class system concrete “vehicle” and thus, no “prakriti” apart from
of Brahmanism and believes too in reincarnation consciousness. In addition, the book also challenged
and deliverance, it is less adherent than the other the rationality of categorising pṛthvī (earth), ap
“orthodox” schools of philosophy in ancient India. (water) and tejas (fire) into Dravya (substance) and
With its theoretical focus on natural philosophy, rūpa (colour) into Guṇa (quality), arguing that they
it deviates materially from the other mainstream are all subject to the control of body organs, and
Brahman schools dominant then. therefore should be put under the same category.
Spread and Influence in China - The theories The “Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi” also argued that there
of the Vaisheshika school were also spread to is no need for the sāmānya-padārtha as proposed

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by Vaiśeṣika, because according to the school’s scholars studying oriental culture in contemporary
own theory, the Dravya-padārtha shall exist of its China, the Vaiśeṣika theories remain a familiar
own accord, without having to depending on the topic. Besides, in some professional conferences
sāmānya-padārtha to verify its existence. For these or symposiums held in China, the theories of the
reasons, the “Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi” concludes that school or papers published on the school were also
the padārtha theory of the Vaisheshika school is discussed with great interest.
self-contradictory, and therefore is not valid. (Yao Weiqun)
Kuiji also mentioned the Vaisheshika school in
his “Commentary on Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi”, which Nyaya
contains descriptions like “Vaiśeṣika proposed Nyaya (Nyāya) is one of the main factions of
the brilliant Six Padartha Theory, which is an Brahmanism philosophy in ancient Indian and also
unparalleled feat among its philosophical peers. the earliest ideological faction who systematically
Still later, a Vaiśeṣika disciple named Huiyue put discussed about logic and debate rules. It emerged
forth a Ten Padartha Theory.” roughly around the 1st century CE. After it was
Puguang also stated in volume 5 of his “Jushe introduced to China, it had an important influence
Lunji” that “the Vaiśeṣika masters proposed six on the development and prevalence of hetuvidya of
Padarthas, ie dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), Chinese Han and Tibetan.
karma (activity), sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa Historical development and primary literature
(particularity) and samavāya (inherence); later, - The ideological origins of Nyaya faction could be
a master named Huiyue proposed a Ten Padartha traced back to the debate and reasoning specified
Theory”. for early Brahmanism sacrifice in ancient India. In
There are actually many such descriptions some of the ancient codes and records of the early
contained in Chinese Buddhist records (especially times of Mimamsa, Buddhism, Jainism and the epic
Mādhyamika commentaries), either recounting or Mahabharata, there were contents discussing the
repudiating the Vaiśeṣika thoughts. debate methods, inference rules and other aspects
In ancient China, many non-Buddhist thinkers also related with Nyaya ideology.
paid a fair amount of attention to the Vaisheshika The Sanskrit word for “Nyaya” is “Nyāya”. Its
school. For instance, Lv Cai, a thinker in China’s original meaning was “a conclusion could be
Tang Dynasty, was once attacked by his adversary conducted with the aid of its ideology”, and later
for adopting in his philosophical thinking a certain became a faction name specialised in research on
theory rather similar to the atomic theory espoused reasoning and debate in Indian philosophy.
by the Vaisheshika school. According to legend, the founder of this faction
In refuting his adversaries, Zhang Taiyan, a was Gautama or Gotama, around the 1st century
famous thinker in contemporary China, also cited CE. Regarding the life experience of Gotama,
the theory for earth, water, fire, air and the atomic considerable components of the available materials
theory of the Vaisheshika school. people now can see have legend features, so
The Vaiśeṣika theories also received a lot of generally it is not very clear. There are many
scholarly attention in modern China, with the viewpoints about his era. The academic world often
Vaiśeṣika-sūtra translated entirely into Chinese and compares the contents of his writings with contents
the Padartha-dharma-samgraha partially translated of writings of other factions in order to speculate the
into Chinese. In books published in contemporary approximate period of Gotama.
China about Indian religious philosophy, there The first fundamental classic of Nyaya was
are dedicated chapters describing the evolution Gotama’s Nyaya Sutra (Nyāya-sūtra). Today’s Nyaya
of the Vaisheshika school and its major theories. Sutra people can see contains the added ingredients
Quite many research papers on the Vaisheshika by descendants; it was completed in its form around
school have also been published in some Chinese 3rd and 4th century CE. After Nyaya Sutra, the
scholarly journals. major ancient codes and records of Nyaya faction
On higher-education front in China, quite some were the annotation and re-annotation on Nyaya
masters’ theses focussed on the “Daśapadārthaśāstra”, Sutra and so on. Among which, they mainly include:
while many PhD dissertations mentioned the Vatsyqyana’s (around 4th-5th century) “Nyaya-
Vaiśeṣika theories. sutra-bhasya”, Uddyotakara’s (in 6th century CE)
Vaiśeṣika is also mentioned in the oriental “Nyaya-varthika”, Vacaspati misra’s (in 9th century
philosophy courses offered in modern Chinese CE) “N.-v.-tatparya-tika”, Udayana’s (in 10th
universities, with some courses focussing on the century CE) “N.-v.-tatparay-parisuddhi” and “N.-
study of classic texts of the Vaisheshika school and kusumanjali” and so on.
others aiming to give an account of the evolution Around the 12th century CE, the new Nyaya was
of the school and its basic theories. Among the formed. Meanwhile, Nyaya also gradually mixed

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Drstanta is the case towards which the common

people and authority share the same understanding,
that is, the fact or truth recognised by everyone.
This plays a very important role in reasoning.
Siddhanta refers to the proposals established
according to the authority, assumptions, etc of one
faction, which is the main idea or arguments of the
side that put forward the proposals.
Avayava refers to the syllogism of pañca-avayava-
vākya, which consists of pratijñā (proposition),
hetu (cause), udāharana (illustration), upanaya
(application) and nigamana (conclusion). It is the
rightful inferential mode praised by Nyaya faction.
Tarka refers to when the true nature of matter is
The Nyaya Sutra of Gotama (front cover) not known, the consideration of knowing the truth by
assuming. This is a thinking process during reasoning.
with Vaisheshika. The main representative of New Nirnaya refers to considering the arguments of
Nyaya was Gangesa (12th century CE), he wrote both sides and make a decision on an issue.
the book of Tattvacintamani. After Nyaya was mixed Vada refers to adopting correct ways of
with Vaisheshika, the important figures and their understanding or pañca-avayava-vākya during
works include: Varadaraja’s (12th century CE) debate, and requiring it not contradictory with
Tarkikaraksa, Kesava misra’s (13th century CE) siddhanta.
Tarkabhasa and Annam Bhatta’s (16th century CE) Jalpa means though in the debate, setting up
Tarkasamgraha and so on. the above syllogistic, however winning by using of
Ideological system and logical debate doctrine sophistry and other improper means.
- The basic ideology of Nyaya faction is the Vitanda refers to the debate action that only
theoretical framework of its “Sodasa-tattva”. In this destroying the opponent’s arguments, not establish
framework, Nyaya faction discussed in details their argument on own side.
doctrines about logical theories, debates rules and Hetvabhasa refers to the specious basis or reasons
other aspects. used in reasoning process.
Sodasa-tattva Chala refers to the improper selection of the
According to Nyaya Sutra and its ancient meaning not meant by the opposite side from the
annotation, Nyaya regarded “Sodasa-tattva” as the words said.
basic system of its doctrine. The so-called “tattva” Jati refers to raising objections against the
refers to reality. Nyaya proposed 16 basic concepts opposite side solely according to similarities and
or categories while exploring logic, debate and other differences of matters ie false criticism.
issues, these concepts or categories and related Nigrahasthana refers to the various realities
explanation appear to be real and correct for this of debates failure of misunderstanding or not
faction, therefore called “tattva”. understanding, etc.
Sodasa-tattva includes: pramana, prameya, In Nyaya faction’s theoretical system of “Sodasa-
samsaya, prayojana, drstanta, siddhanta, avayava, tattva”, it dealt with many problems, which mainly
tarka, nirnaya, vada, jalpa, vitanda, hetvabhasa, include: classification of four kinds of quantity, basic
chala, jati and nigrahasthana. syllogism of pañca-avayava-vākya, performance and
Pramana refers to the way or method of obtaining reasons of reasoning failure and debate failure, etc.
a correct understanding. “Nyaya Sutra” divided it Four kinds of quantity
into four categories: pratyaksa, anumana, upamana Similar to many ancient Indian philosophical
and Zabda. factions, Nyaya faction had great concern of how to
Prameya refers to the object to be comprehended. obtain correct understanding. This faction believed
It is divided specifically into 12 kinds: I, body, root, that the so-called “quantity” (the way or method to
condition, feeling, mind, karma, negligence, rebirth, get a correct understanding), mainly included four
retribution, bitterness and liberation. kinds, namely pratyaksa, anumana, upamana and
Samsaya is a judgment conflicting with the zabda.
exact nature of matter, that is, a confused state of Pratyaksa refers to the consciousness arising
mind. Only with confusion, people would seek for from the contact of sensory organs with the
reasoning or start debates. objects. While defining pratyaksa, Nyaya Sutra
Prayojana refers to the purpose of taking an said: “pratyaksa is the cognition generated while
action, that is, the purpose of reasoning or debate. the root and condition are consistent, which are

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ineffable, correct and definite.” This definition Pratijñā: sound is impermanent.

indicates Nyaya faction’s viewpoints about several Hetu: because it is produced.
basic characteristics of Pratyaksa: first, pratyaksa Sādharmya: all those produced matters are
comes from the contact between sensory organs and impermanent, like plate, tray and so on,
external objects; second, it should be ineffable, that Upanaya: sound is in this way, and is produced.
is the consciousness produced by is not mixed with Nigamana: so the sound is impermanent.
concept and analysis; third, pratyaksa should be Examples of pañca-avayava-vākya containing
correct, that is, it is generated really after contact vaidharmya:
with objects; finally, pratyaksa must be definite, Pratijñā: sound is impermanent.
without any doubt or hallucinations. Hetu: because it is produced.
Anumana refers to reasoning; Nyaya faction Vaidharmya: all those not produced are
divided it into three kinds: “Pūrv-avat”, “Cesavat” permanent, like ātman, etc.
and “Samanyatsdrstam”. Pūrv-avat means to infer Upanaya: sound is not in this way, not belong to
results from causes, like when seeing dark clouds be not-produced matter.
we infer it would rain; “Cesavat” means to infer Nigamana: so the sound is impermanent.
causes from results, like when seeing the river is There are substantial similarities between Nyaya
full of turbidity, we infer there’s rain in the river’s faction’s pañca-avayava-vākya and general formal
upstream; Samanyatsdrstam refers to analogy, logic syllogism. Although there are five parts in
like when a kind of tree blossoms in one country, this syllogism, among which only three components
we infer the same tree in another country would play the major roles in the practical reasoning,
blossom as well. namely minor terms, middle terms and major
Upamana refers to understanding the unknown terms. In the above example of pañca-avayava-
things according to the similarity between the vākya containing sādharmya, the “sound” is a
unknown and the known. While discussing upamana, minor term, “impermanent” is a major term, and
Nyaya Sutra said: “upamana is to get knowledge of ”produced” is a middle term. Reasoning process is
the unknown based on the similarity between the through the middle term to connect the minor term
unknown and matters previously known.” with the major term. As “all those produced matters
Zabda, also known as Sabha, āgama or Śabda, are impermanent” is a universally acknowledged
refers to the teachings of trustworthy persons. While fact, therefore just say “the sound is produced”
discussing zabda, “Nyaya Sutra” said: “zabda is the and the conclusion could be launched “sound is
teachings of trustworthy person, it has two kinds: impermanent”.
zabda made according to the visible matter and If seen simply from the point of view to reach the
zabda made according to invisible matter.” Here, reasoning target, there’re obvious repeated elements
the so-called “visible matter” refers to common in pañca-avayava-vākya. But pañca-avayava-vākya
things that could be felt; the so-called “invisible was founded by Nyaya faction from the debate
matter” refers to sacrifices, going to heaven and across the country in ancient India. The purpose for
other things. Nyaya faction’s using this syllogism was not only
Among the four quantities discussed by Nyaya for general reasoning, it also needed to demonstrate
faction, most discussions or the richest part of the correctness of their own viewpoints to the
content were for its anumana theory, because the people during the debate, to most effectively win
syllogistic part and analysis part of reasoning failure the debate and win over followers. Though the five
and debate failure in the theoretical system of main components in the syllogism were repetitive,
Nyaya faction were all further in-depth discussion however repetition was an important technique to
of anumana. The logic theory of this faction is emphasise the correctness of their own viewpoints.
mainly reflected in its viewpoints about anumana. This was the important reason for Nyaya to put
Pañca-avayava-vākya forward this pañca-avayava-vākya.
The characteristic feature of Nyaya faction Performance and reasons of reasoning failure and
in logical deduction is its syllogistic method of debate failure
“pañca-avayava-vākya”. This faction believes When Nyaya faction discussed about the issues
that the correct syllogism should be composed of of reasoning and debate, it analysed in detailed of
five parts, namely: pratijñā (proposition), hetu the various performances and causes of faults and
(cause), udāharana (case or illustration, divided in debate failure. These analyses generally could be
two kinds: sādharmya and vaidharmya), upanaya summarised into: five hetvabhasas, three chalas, 24
(application) and nigamana (conclusion). Specific jatis and 22 nigrahasthanas.
application cases were recorded in “Nyaya Sutra” Five hetvabhasa refer to indefinite reason,
and its annotations. Examples of pañca-avayava- contradictory reason, proposition alike reason, un-
vākya containing sādharmya: proved reason and outdated reason.

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“Indefinite reason” refers to the given reason may “Misinterpretation of category” refers to
lead to more than one conclusion. For example: “the extending the specific meaning of something to
sound is permanent, as it is could not be touched.” be the meaning of a category in debate, by doing
Here, matters could not be touched might be this judge the possible thing to be impossible. For
permanent, might be impermanent. Therefore, this example one person says: “This Brahmins is learned
“reason” could not lead to conclusion doubtlessly, and virtuous,” while the one who misinterprets
therefore the reasoning fails. would say: “how could this person be inferred to be
“Contradictory reason” refers to the reason learned and virtuous because he is Brahman? Some
contradictory with the proposition. For example say: boys are Brahmins, but not knowledgeable nor
“The pottery pot is produced, because it is eternal.” virtuous.” Here, the misinterpreting person extends
Here, the mentioned reason is in contradiction with a special meaning of Brahmins to the entire meaning
the proposition, because eternal things could not of Brahmin (category).
be produced. Thus this reason could not prove the “Misinterpretation of metaphor” means in the
correctness of the pratijñā. debate when the opposite side uses metaphor
“Proposition alike reason” refers to the given words, the one who misinterprets would deny the
reason is similar to the proposition, which is the correctness of the opponent’s words according to
case of tautology, and not adding new content to the words’ literal meaning. For example one person
specifically prove the proposition. For example say: says: “The platform is calling,” but the one who
“Sound is non-eternal, because it does not have misinterprets would say: “Platform could not call
eternal nature.” Such reasons cannot achieve the because it is not biological.” Here, the former so-
purpose of reasoning. called “platform” actually means “people on the
“Un-proved reason” refers to the proposed reason platform,” but the latter misinterprets this rhetoric
itself needs to be proved like the proposition. For (metaphor).
example say: “The shadow is an entity, because it All these three misinterpretation used in debate
has movement.” Here, whether there is movement were improper practices, and according to Nyaya
of shadow needs to be proved itself, thus could faction’s view, need to be denied.
not be used as reason to justify the pratijñā. The Twenty-four jatis include same method similarity,
inference could not be established. different method similarity, increase similarity,
“Outdated reason” also known as wrong time decrease similarity, primary evidence similarity,
reason, means the given reasons is not applicable in non-primary evidence similarity, difference
terms of time, thus could not prove the proposition. similarity, proposition similarity, arrival similarity,
For example say: “Sound is persistent, because like non-arrival similarity, infinite similarity, anti-
the colour it could be displayed through combining.” metaphor similarity, no-life similarity, doubt
Here, the reason proposed is not applicable in time, similarity, question similarity, no-cause similarity,
because the colour of an object exists no matter arthapatti similarity, no difference similarity,
before or after it contacts with light source (such possibility similarity, attainable similarity, non-
as a lamp). Therefore colour is persistent. But the attainable similarity, impermanent similarity,
sound is showing up after the object striking (like permanent similarity, conclusion similarity. Though
wood hammer beat drums), that is, the mentioned there’s a multitude of names of these jatis, the basic
reason is wrong in time and could not prove the contents are the various situations or instances in
pratijñā. Therefore the inference fails. the debate of opponent’s wrong approval of the part
These five hetvabhasa are the typical cases of who establishes the proposition.
reasoning failure due to wrong reasons. For example, among them the “same method
Three chalas refer to the three cases of similarity” refers to when opposing the opponent’s
distorting opponent’s meaning in debate, that is, proposition (pratijñā), use the case in opponent’s
misinterpretation of words, misinterpretation of “different metaphor”, but the “cause” proposed
category and misinterpretation of metaphor. could not prove his own proposition. For example,
“Misinterpretation of words” refers to when the party who set up the proposition says: “Sound
the word used by the opponent have two or more is impermanent, because it is produced; all those
different meanings, interpret the word differently produced are impermanent, like pot.” The opponent
from what the opponent means. Such as Sanskrit said: “The sound is permanent, because it is
“nava” has the two meanings of “new” and “nine”. invisible. All invisible things are permanent, like the
When the opposite side said: “This boy has a new sky.” Here, the “cause” and “metaphor” mentioned
blanket”, in the debate the one who misinterpreted by the opponent could not prove the proposition
would say: “This boy does not have nine blankets, (pratijñā). Because intangible things can be both
he has only one.” In this way, the meaning of “new” permanent and impermanent, this could not lead to
was misinterpreted to be “nine”. an inevitable conclusion.

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Again, among them the “infinite similarity” the outside world environment, and also all status
refers to while opposing the opponent, take the of life phenomena of human. Although Nyaya made
opponent’s “metaphor” (cited thing) not proved analysis of natural phenomena, it did not make
by a series of “cause” as basis. For example the detailed distinction like Vaisheshika faction, who
party who set up the proposition says: “Sound is in detail analysed with sentence meaning theory.
impermanent, because it is produced, like pot.” The This faction focuses on logic, debate and other
opponent would say: “If the impermanent of sound aspects. This is the important difference of it from
is demonstrated by the impermanent of pot, then Vaisheshika faction.
what would prove the impermanent of the pot? If In religious ideas, same as most philosophical
the impermanent of the pot is proved by the other factions of Brahmanism, Nyaya faction also adopts
thing, then the impermanent of this thing needs to the content of reincarnation and liberation, and also
be proved by another impermanent thing, it would believes there is a subject “me” in life phenomenon.
be an endless process.” This situation is one of error In reincarnation, man is full of pain. The reason why
disapprovals in reasoning debate. man enters into the reincarnation cycle is because
The specific contents of these jatis are extremely he could not understand the essence of matters.
in big volume, they are essentially all incorrect If man wants to get out of reincarnation cycle
reasoning performances. Nyaya believed that if and get rid of the pain, he must gain the highest
these jatis appeared, we could know the relative
reasoning was wrong, it should be considered the
relevant argument or debate as unsuccessful.
The 22 nigrahasthanas refer to various failure
situations in debate, specifically including
destroying proposition, different from proposition,
contradictory with proposition, abandoning
proposition, different cause, different meaning, no
meaning, non-understandable meaning, missing
of meaning, not arriving time, decrease, increase,
repetition, could not be cited, not knowing, not
skillful, avoiding and escaping, admit the opponent’s
jati, neglecting the points to blame, disapproval
of the non-claimable, away from the proposition The Tripitaka Holy Doctrine of the
meaning and hetvabhasa. Though there are a lot of Great Tang, Zhao Cheng Jin edition

nigrahasthana names, they are all description of the

unsuccessful or failure situation in debate. wisdom. That is, to hold the idea of achieving
For example, among which the “abandoning liberation through wisdom. And for Nyaya faction,
proposition” means when the proposition of one the so-called wisdom, mainly refers to this faction’s
party is denied, the party would withdraw the “Sodasa-tattva” In Nyaya Sutra, it said: “Perfection
viewpoints narrated before. Among which the comes from the knowledge of 16 truths of pramana,
“different meaning” refers to during the reasoning, prameya, samsaya, prayojana, drstanta, siddhanta,
introduce the meaning which has nothing to do avayava, tarka, nirnaya, vada, jalpa, vitanda,
with the original meaning of the proposition. The hetvabhasa, chala, jati and nigrahasthana. When the
“non-understandable meaning” refers to if being understanding of bitterness, life, behaviour, fault
said three times, it is still could not be understood and mistake were eliminated one by one, liberation
by the audience and debate opponents. The would be obtained due to the continuing eradication
“avoiding and escaping” means in the process of of these ideas. Vatsyayana, the commentator of
debating, one party terminates the argumentation Nyaya Sutra said: “When the true knowledge is
with an excuse of being engaged in other things. gained, the wrong understanding would disappear,
When these cases appear, according to Nyaya when the wrong understanding disappears, the
faction, the relative party could be directly judged fault would disappear, when the fault disappears,
as failing in the debate. the behaviour would disappear, when there is no
View of nature and religious ideas behaviour, life would not exist. When there is no
Nyaya views of natural phenomena are consistent life, the bitterness would end. With the bitterness
with Vaisheshika faction. They believed the variety disappearing, the final liberation would be attained,
of tangible objects in the world is constituted by this is the perfection.” In addition, although Nyaya
paramanu, which is the smallest unit of matter. faction explains the formation of matters in the world
The contents of twelve items in prameya of Nyaya with paramanu, however there’s concept of divinity
faction not only include body and mind, but also in its system, using divinity to explain the origin of

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matters. But this kind of religious component takes śāstra are similar with “jatis” in Nyaya Sutra. There
small proportion in “Nyaya Sutra”. The core idea of are also many contents about “nigrahasthana” in
Nyaya faction is in epistemology. Upāya-Kauśalya-hṛdaya śāstra, though not identical
Nyaya theory occupies an important position in with the 22 nigrahasthanas in “Nyaya Sutra”,
the development history of Indian philosophy. It’s the basic contents are the same, they are all the
a relatively complete doctrine system of logic and expressions of the failure condition in debate.
debate, originally formed in ancient India. Nyaya In Āryavācāprakaraṇa-śāstra, there are many
faction’s logic and debate theory raised the concerns contents about Hetuvidya, similar with the ideology
from other Indian factions on issues of this aspect. of Nyaya Sutra. Such as in Āryavācāprakaraṇa-
Among which the most prominent was Buddhism. śāstra, it mentioned eight kinds of “success
Buddhism was inspired by Nyaya faction’s doctrine, method” - establishment of pratijñā, differentiation
made further theoretical innovation and established of reasons, allusions, same category, different
its grand ideological system of Hetuvidya. category, pratyaksa, anumana, Zabda. Among
Nyaya doctrine is still having an important influence which establishing pratijñā, differentiating reasons,
in modern India. Some modern Indian thinkers once allusions, same category, different category
compared and analysed Nyaya faction’s reasoning correspond with the main components of pañca-
and debate ideology with Western logistics. The avayava-vākya in Nyaya faction. Pratyaksa,
ideology of this faction, as a typical representative of anumana and Zabda are also the main contents of
ideas with Indian characteristics, has gained people’s Nyaya faction’s pramana.
attention in the world. Reality Theory is most close to Nyaya Sutra in
Dissemination and influence in China reasoning and debate ideology. The discussions
Nyaya theory was also introduced to China in about syllogism and errors in debate are basically
ancient times. This dissemination was realised with the same as the related discussion in Nyaya Sutra.
the development of Buddhist Hetuvidyā in China. Reality Theory proposed “five divisions” syllogism.
When Buddhism emerged, it did not have significant Among the five divisions, the establishment of
concerns about logic and debate issues. But along proposition word, reason word, metaphor word,
with the stronger and stronger ideological fighting conforming metaphor word, conclusion word
between different ideological factions in ancient is basically the “Five divisions” of Nyaya Sutra.
India, logical reasoning and argumentation skills The sixteen kinds of error disapproval proposed
gradually become an important means for various in “Reality Theory” are similar to the “jati” in
factions to win over followers and expand their Nyaya Sutra. The 22 “nigrahasthanas” proposed in
influences. Nyaya’s theoretical specialty in this area “Reality Theory” are basically the same as the 22
gained Buddhist concern. Thus Buddhism began to nigrahasthanas” in “Nyaya Sutra”.
attach importance to studying logic and debating After these works were translated into Chinese,
skills. Buddhist Hetuvidya was set up under this the logic and debate ideas proposed in Nyaya Sutra
background. Buddhism had developed its own witnessed an important dissemination in Chinese
logical and debated skills theory by taking reference ideological realms.
of Nyaya’s relevant ideas. In addition to the writings in Chinese language,
Buddhism Hetuvidya is divided into ancient and the writings of Indian Buddhist Hetuvidya were also
new Hetuvidya. The theory of ancient Hetuvidya is translated into Tibetan in large volumes. The ideas
set up based on the absorption and transformation of Nyaya faction contained in these writings were
of the logical reasoning and debate rules of Nyaya also circulated in Chinese Tibet.
faction’s theory. The dissemination of Nyaya theory In modern China, the academia also attaches great
in China was originally attached to the Buddhism importance to the study of Nyaya ideology. The
ancient Hetuvidya theories. complete Nyaya Sutra in Sanskrit version has been
Among Buddhist writings of ancient Hetuvidya, translated into Chinese language. Special discussions
the typical literature absorbing Nyaya’s on ideology of Nyaya Sutra have been actively
ideologies are “Upāya-Kauśalya-hṛdaya śāstra”, carried out in Chinese academic circles. The related
“Āryavācāprakaraṇa-śāstra” and “Reality Theory” research papers are published in Chinese academic
and other works. journals. In Chinese colleges and universities, there
“Four knowledge and visions” discussed in are post graduate student’s papers set Nyaya Sutra
Upāya-Kauśalya-hṛdaya śāstra are actually the four as the subject. In the courses on Eastern philosophy
quantities mentioned in Nyaya Sutra. There are opened by China’s teaching and research institutions,
many contents in “hetvabhasa” discussed in Upāya- there are contents of Nyaya Sutra or Nyaya faction.
Kauśalya-hṛdaya śāstra identical with “hetvabhasa” In some Chinese Symposium there’s also academic
mentioned in Nyaya Sutra. Many contents of the exchange about Nyaya ideology.
twenty “jatis” discussed in Upāya-Kauśalya-hṛdaya (Yao Weiqun)

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Mimamsa
One of the six schools of Brahmanistic philosophy
in ancient India is Mimamsa. The Chinese term弥曼
差for it is a transliteration from Sanskrit Mīmāṃsā,
a word meaning “investigation”. It became an
independent philosophical school in ca 2nd century
BCE. It was introduced into China along with
Buddhism and had exerted a certain influence upon
ancient Chinese thinking circles.
Origin and Development
The school of Mimamsa mainly focused upon
the studies of sacrifices and the related rules of
the rituals of Brahmanism. Ancient Indians prized
Vedic literature such as Brahmana and specialised
in various practices in sacrifice. Such researchers
gradually formed a school known as Pūrva Mīmāṃsā Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini (front cover)
(“prior” inquiry), or Karma-Mīmāṃsā. It was later
called Mimamsa for short. man-made, everlasting and absolutely right. Words
Jaimini flourishing in ca 2nd century BCE is and concepts in general are manifestation of and
believed to be the founder of the Mimamsa school. rooted in sabda. It asserts that words denote classes
His Mimamsa Sutra summed up the general rules in and not individuals; individuals may perish, but
use. The extant Mimamsa Sutra was finalised in ca words can be eternal. If words were not eternal,
1st century CE and later mimamsakas made some but were destroyed as soon as they were uttered,
notable contributions. human beings would be unable to speak to one
Sabara-bhasya, a major commentary on Mimamsa another normally, and listeners would be unable to
Sutra, was composed by Sabara in ca the 5th century understand the meaning of speakers. Sabda-nityata-
CE. The school reached its height with thinkers vadin is a kernel concept used by the Mimamsa
Kumarila Bhaṭṭa and Prabhakara flourishing in ca school to prove that the Vedic revelations are
7th-8th century CE. Both of them had written extensive eternal and absolutely right, thus asserting that the
commentaries on Sabara’s Mīmāṃsāsūtrabhāṣyam. Mimamsa school holds a significant status among
Kumārila Bhaṭṭa wrote Slokavarttika, Tantra-varttika various schools of Indian philosophy.
and Tuptika, and Prabhakara wrote Brhati and Laghri Pramana is the right way or approach to obtain
on the Bhasya of Sabara. They formed two factions correct cognitions. Most ancient Indian schools have
of the Mimamsa school. Their commentaries added their own pramanas, centering on how to obtain
some new concepts to the theory contained in correct cognition or prajna regarding objects in
Mimamsa Sutra. Both of them and their followers concern.
exerted substantial influence in the history of Indian Vrttikara, a commentator of Mimamsa Sutra,
thought and became two representative doctrines of mentions six pramanas: perception, inference,
Uttara Mīmāṃsā. Madhava expounded the thinking comparison, verbal testimony, implication, and
of the Mimamsa school in the 14th century CE. non-apprehension. His ideas are learned from the
Appaya Diksita and Apadeva were two important Sabara-bhasya, and are recognised and developed
figures of Uttara Mimamsa school in the 16th-17th by later Mimamsa scholars. Perception proceeds
century CE. directly from sense-contact with an external object
The influence of the Mimamsa school was not in the world and therefore is direct apprehension.
very apparent in modern India. The sacrificial Inference is knowledge gained through the
practices it had advocated was absorbed into some knowledge of invariable concomitance of two
rituals of Hinduism. entities. The relation was based upon inference
Major Doctrines that must be unfailing, true and permanent, such
The main theory of the Mimamsa school includes as that which subsists between the cause and its
sabda-nityata-vadin and pramanas in Mimamsa effect, whole and part, substance and quality, class
Sutra and its commentaries. After the 7th century CE, and individuals. Inferential argument consists
some new doctrines were added, mainly epitomised of three parts: statement of the case; statement
by Kumarila Bhaṭṭa and Prabhakara’s padartha and of the cause; and the major premise, which gives
their refutation of theism. Sabda means language, the general rule with the corroborative instance.
conception or knowledge, the Vedic language or Comparison is knowledge gained through similarity
knowledge in particular. According to the Mimamsa between two objects. Verbal testimony, also named
school, concepts and knowledge were innate, not Vedic testimony, is knowledge gained from reliable

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and authoritative personalities. For the Mimamsa Vedic sacrifice, and prevent from any negation of the
school, the paramana of the Vedas is the only source effectiveness of Vedic sacrifice because of admitting
of knowledge of dharma, and only Vedic sentences God’s creative function. While criticising theism, the
should be considered as pramana. But others think Mimamsa school also denied the doctrine that the
that even in conventional usage we have knowledge world was maya or unreal, holding that maya-vada
from words. The Vedas and Upanisads are called or sunya-vada was groundless.
Shruti because they are eternal and without any Dissemination and Influence in China
human author. They were directly revealed to the The thinking of the Mimamsa school was
Rishis who were seers of the truth. Verbal cognition introduced into China along with Buddhism. The
is defined as the cognition of something not ideas of this school, called jnana-vada or vidya-
present to the senses, produced by the knowledge vada, are often intermingled with Vedic or Vedantic
of words. Implication is knowledge gained through thought in Chinese Buddhist scriptures, for both the
incompatibility of two facts without adding a Mimamsa and Vedantic schools were of orthodox
third one. The facts observed remain inconsistent Brahmanism or philosophic system in addition to
or doubtful until the assumption of another the fact that all those doctrines were rooted in Vedic
thing is made. Non-apprehension is admitted by literature. When discussing the mode of inference,
Kumarila, after Vrttikara, as an independent source Buddhist Hetuvidya often took the sabda-nityata-
of knowledge. It is a means of knowledge with vadin or sabda-anityata-vadin of the Mimamsa
reference to the object negated. school for cases, and thereby actually disseminated
Padartha Mimamsa ideas to the Chinese.
The doctrines of the Mimamsa school were In modern China, the academic circles have
enriched to a certain extent after the 7th century CE, also attached importance to the Mimamsa school.
for it has absorbed some theories of other schools. Some related works such as Mimamsa Sutra and
The influence mainly came from padartha. The Pūrva Slokavarttika have been translated into Chinese
Mīmāṃsā school did not put forth considerable in abridged versions. In works regarding Indian
perspectives upon types or forms of things in the philosophy by Chinese scholars, the Mimamsa school
world. Starting from Kumarila and Prabhakara, is generally discussed. A couple of universities in
the Mimamsa school began to show interest in China have courses discussing the Mimamsa school.
the formation of things, accepted and transformed (Yao Weiqun)
the padartha of the Vaisesika school. According
to Kumarila, the phenomena of the world can be Vedanta
divided into five padarthas: dravya, guna, karma, Vedanta is one of the main schools of Brahmanism
samanya, abhava. Prabhakara believed that the philosophy in Ancient India. Its theory is the base of
phenomena of the world can be divided into eight ideological system of Hinduism, which is the school
padarthas. The division of padarthas by the Uttara with the greatest impact on the later generations of
Mimamsa school was not substantially different from Indian philosophy of religion. The absorption and
that of the Vaisesika school. The padartha theory development has been carried out in the Brahmanism
focuses upon phenomena in nature and formation mainstream ideology since Veda Upanishad, which
of things in the world, and is of importance in the is the main representative of Indian orthodox school
history of ancient Indian philosophy. philosophy. After its foundation, Vedanta theory
Criticism of Theism generally had the leading role in Indian history,
Theoretically, the Uttara Mimamsa school which has still played an important role in the
manifested obvious tendency of atheism. This was thought circle of India currently.
related with its apurva doctrine. The Mimamsa Thought origin and major development branch
school believed in the effect of sacrifice, trusting The Sanskrit of “Vedanta” is “ Vedānta “. Its literal
that sacrifice could bring about beneficial power to meaning is “the ending of Vedas”, which mainly
human beings. The power was named apurva which refers to the last part of the Veda in a broad sense,
had not been there before sacrifice. If one claimed namely the Upanishad. Because many theories
there was God, he had to admit God’s supernatural of this school are derived from Upanishad, it has
power and that it was not apurva but God who received the name.
played a role between sacrifice and effect, thus Although many theories of Vedanta are created
denied the effectiveness of sacrifice. Consequently, on the basis of Upanishad, the time for occurrence
the Mimamsa school was clearly opposed to the is later than other schools as an independent
concept that God was the maker of the world. philosophical school. It is generally acknowledged
Kumarila’s Slokavarttika is a typical work criticising that such a school has been founded by Badarayana
theism. The starting-point of the Mimamsa school’s in about 1st century CE. Some main thoughts of Veda
criticism of theism was to maintain the authority of Upanishad have been concluded by Badarayana in

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with the completely opposite explanation. When

Vedanta was rising, the philosopher was carrying
on the theory of “the unity of god and man” in
Upanishad. The problem that also occurred was -
how to deal with the relationship between Brahman
and Atman, which are absolutely the same without
any difference, or they are basically the same, with
a little difference; perhaps the identity is true and
the difference is visional. Consequently, numerous
branches have been taken shape by different answers
to the problem of relationship between Brahman
and Atman (phenomenal world).
The main types of the theory in the relationship
between Brahman and Atman are as follows:
“Bhedabheda”, “Advaita”, “Visista-advaita”,
“Dvaita-Vada”, “Dvaita-advaita”, “Suddha-advaita”,
“Sakti-visista-advaita” and “Acintya-bhedabheda”.
Among these theories, the theories with
more influence are as below: “Bhedabheda” by
Badarayana, “Advaita” by Shankara, “Visista-
advaita” by Ramanuja and “Dvaita-vada”
by Madhva.
Agama-sastra, Gaudapada Acarya (front cover)

theory to create the earliest fundamental and classic Badarayana and “Brahma-sutra”
“Brahma Sutra”, which has established the basic The production of “Brahma-sutra” by Badarayana is
ideas of Vedanta. the outstanding feature when Vedanta was viewed as
There are many famous ideologists in the an independent school. The life of Badarayana wasn’t
developments of Vedanta, such as Gaudapada quite clear, but his “Brahma-sutra” has become the
(about 7th century CE), Shankara (788-820), fundamental sutra of Vedanta, which has occupied
Vacaspati Misra (about 9th century CE), Bhaskara an important position in the intellectual history of
(about 9th-10th century CE), Ramanuja (about 11th- India. At present, the “Brahma-sutra” we have read
12th century CE), Sriharsa (about 12th century CE), is a supplementary, which had been finished about
Madhva (about 13th century CE), Vallabha (about the beginning of the 5th century CE.
13th century CE), Sripati (about 15th century CE) “Brahma-sutra” consists of 555 simple sentences,
and Baladeva (about 18th century CE). with four sections, and each section is divided
There are many similarities and differences in into four chapters. Section 1 is mainly to discuss
the theory of these ideologists, which have formed the outline of the whole book, emphasising
many branches. The foundation of each branch in that Brahman is the basis of things in the world.
such school is related to the understanding in the Section 2 is to criticise the doctrines of other
interrelated thesis of Upanishad by the thinkers. schools, such as Samkhya, Vaisesika, Buddhism and
When narrating the previous theory of Upanishad in Jainism, expounding the generation of the world.
Brahma Sutra, there is also the ambiguity. Therefore, The 3rd section explains the relationship between
there are some differences in the understanding of Brahman and small self (individual) and the state of
the previous traditional theory by the later Vedanta reincarnation, while section four focusses on man’s
ideologists; different branches have taken shape. meditation, behaviour retribution and liberation.
The core issue of Upanishad is the relationship There are many issues involved in “Brahma-
between “Brahman” and “Atman”. Many sutra” and the understandings of Brahman, but
philosophers have proposed “The unity of god the written language is very simple. The meaning
and man”. However, the obvious problem exists of many sentences in “Brahma-sutra” is understood
when discussing this theory, ie on one hand, by the related annotation. Generally speaking, the
Brahman and Atman are the same thing; on the relationship between Brahman and Atman is carried
other hand, distinction has been made between forward from Upanishad; while discussing Brahman
them, such as Brahman is unique, while Atman is or the supreme self as the base of all things on earth,
motley. Brahman is free and pure, but Atman is it is viewed as god.
constrained and unpurified. In this way, there are When expounding the relationship between
various understandings in Brahman and Atman to Brahman and Atman in “Brahma-sutra”, several
the same degree and the differential degree, or even main viewpoints have been mentioned by the

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Frog” and “Ode to Gaudapada”. Based on the related

idea of absorbing and reforming Upanishad and
“Brahma-sutra”, he first put forward the thinking
of “Advaita” between Brahman and Atman in
this school.
Gaudapada considered that Brahman or the greater
self is the foundation. All things are the eidolon of
Brahman or the greater self in essence, which are
false. There is no existence that is independent of
Brahman or the spiritual self. The small self is not a
part of Brahman, nor its variation. Their relationship
is like the small emptiness of bottle and the large
emptiness outside the bottle, ie the small emptiness
of the bottle and the big emptiness outside the bottle
Adi Shankaracharya preaching to disciples are the same thing, and they are distinct due to the
limitation of the bottle. Similar to this situation,
previous ideologists of Brahmanism. According to the countless small self and the spiritual self are
the annotation from 1, 4, 19－22 of “Brahma-sutra” the same thing as the phenomenon of life. They are
by Shankara, the standpoints to the relationship different because of the physical limitation, in fact,
between Brahman and Atman by three ideologists they are identical.
are stated in “Brahma-sutra” as below: Asmarathya In the age of Gaudapada, Mahayana has already been
believed that Brahman and Atman was the developed for a long time, which has the significant
relationship of “Bhedabheda”; Audulomi thought influence in an ideological circle. Gaudapada learnt
that Brahman and Atman was the relationship of a lot of Buddhist ideas to organise the Advaita
Satya-bheda; Kasakrtsna considered that Brahman doctrine of Vedanta. He especially focussed on the
and Atman was the relationship of Advaita with no concept of “Emptiness” of Mahayana to incorporate
difference. It was quite simple to Brahma-sutra. Some the theory of Vedanta that there is no real thing
discussions aren’t inconsistent from the beginning independent of Brahman. In “Agamasastra”, the
to end. So the viewpoint on the relationship between theory of Mahamaya (māyā, which is the unclear
Brahman and Atman was not clear sometimes by magic power) is related and analysed through the
Badarayana. Generally recognising, Badarayana length of an article by Gaudapada. It believes that
is inclined to “Bhedabheda” in the relationship universal is shown by people’s ignorance, just like
between Brahman and Atman. This theory thinks the way we dream in bed, which is to support the
that Brahman is different from its part, property idea of “Unity of dream and awakening”. This sense
or creature - Atman (phenomenal realm) as the was very popular in ancient India, yet its initiator,
creator or the cause in the world. However, Atman in addition to Mahayana, Gaudapada has also made
(phenomenal realm) has Brahman, and everything a brilliant achievement in this aspect.
cannot exist without Brahman. Brahman and Atman Although Gaudapada wasn’t the first ideologist
are the same. The relationship between them is who proposed Advaita, he was the person who
compared to the sun and its shadow reflected in demonstrated this theory earliest. His theory had
the water. a great impact on the foundation of systematised
“Brahma-sutra” also discusses reincarnation and thinking of Advaita philosophy by Shankara and
liberation, and represents the reincarnation process other thinkers. In Vedanta, it had the vital function
of the individual and how to acquire Brahman in the process of being mainstream faction in
through meditation. The sacrifice to Brahmanism is intellectual history of India.
helpful to know Brahman correctly. It has stressed Shankara’s Ideological System - Shankara was
if the individual is integrated with Brahman, we the philosopher with the greatest impact in Vedanta,
cannot be reborn in the world again. which was the ideologist with a higher position in
There are many glossographers of “Brahma-sutra” the whole Indian history. His theory has still played
in later ages. There are different sayings to the an important role in the Indian idea in modern
implication of some scriptures frequently, which is times, which is the thought core of Hinduism.
also a reason to facilitate Vedanta to form different Shankara was born in Southern India, with the
branches. family name of Brahman. In his early years, he had
Gaudapada’s Theory once learnt from Govinda, the ideologist of Vedanta.
Gaudapada is an ideologist of Vedanta with more He had an accomplishment in philosophic theory of
influence, with an unknown life. His main work is Brahmanism since Upanishad to create the most
“Agamasastra” (Āgama-śāstra, referred to as “Ode to representative doctrinal system of Vedanta. He had

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taken activities in many parts of India to take great importance to them. Additionally, such distinction
efforts in propagating theories of Brahmanism or has not been made to Brahman by all Upanishads.
Hinduism, and died in north India finally. Yet, the concepts of Para and Apara have been
There were many works related to philosophy served as the key concepts by Shankara. The real
of religion by Shankara, such as “Brahma-sutra- noumenon is stated clearly with Para by Shankara;
bhāsya”, “Upadeśasāhasri”, “Panci-karana prakriyā”, the false delusion appeared due to the incorrect
“Ātmabodha” and the annotations to “Bhagavad understanding of reality of thing as illustrated
Gīta” and “Brihadaranyaka Upanishad”. by Apara.
The relationship between Brahman and Atman Shankara viewed that the idea of epistemology
of Shankara was directly influenced by “Advaita” and theory of reality was closely related to each
doctrine of Gaudapada. Further transformation other. When discussing the reality of thing, he
and development have been made to Upanishad presented “Para” and “Apara”. Correspondingly,
and “Brahma-sutra” to build the most systematic “Aparavidya” and “Paravidya” have been put
“Advaita” doctrine in Vedanta, which has become forward in his epistemology. Shankara considered
the orthodoxy of Brahmanism or Hinduism that the inconsistent Brahman is viewed as Apara,
philosophy. which is uneducated, called “Aparavidya”. Brahman
Shankara viewed that Brahman is the only is thought as the sole and true Para, ie genuine
thing that was existing in the world among many knowledge or “Paravidya”. In his opinion, supreme
things. Brahman is the base of everything, and the and true cognition was acquired only by a variety
phenomenal world is a kind of illusion. Because the of false appearances, and was universal to know the
universal is rooted in Brahman, Brahman is also truth of Brahman (only the Para).
viewed as a power like the supreme god who is There are the origin relations with the
omnipotent. “Aparavidya” and “Paravidya” and the idea of some
Shankara also thought that, like other Upanishads Upanishads by Shankara. Such distinction has been
say, Brahman cannot be known by the common once made in 1, 1 and 4-5 of “Mundaka Up.” To think
means like general things adopted. Brahman can be that “Paravidya” is the knowledge of “Immortal”
really realised only by a ceaseless negation. Shankara while “Aparavidya” is related to the knowledge of
has the same opinion with that of Upanishad, using “Four Vedas”. When expounding “Aparavidya” and
“Neti, Neti” to describe Brahman. On one hand, “Paravidya”, Shankara expanded its deep meaning
what he did was to indicate Brahman’s supremacy, instead of just explaining the original sense of
which is incomparable; on the other hand, he Upanishad. There is something similar between
wanted to deny other things except Brahman. It was “Paravidya” and the primary meaning in “Mundaka
very popular in Ancient India to know or realise the Up.” The immortal of “Mundaka Up” means
foundation or reality of things by apoha. Brahman, but “Mundaka Up” doesn’t clearly say that
When Shankara lays stress on Brahman as the only the immortal is Para. There are more meanings in
and real entity, the independent truth of all kinds of “Aparavidya” as stated by Shankara than those in
things in the world has been denied, with detailed “Mundaka Up”. “Aparavidya” was discussed from
argumentation. He considered that the essence of Avidya or “Mahamaya” (Māyā, fantasy) to a large
Brahman is unique. There are two kinds of Brahman extent. “Quantity” of various factions in Indian
due to the understanding of it, and one is Apara, philosophy was also involved when Shankara was
also called “Saguna-Brahman” with limitation and discussing the theory. Three kinds of quantity have
property; another one is Para, also called “Nirguna- been referred to by Shankara, such as partyaksa,
Brahman”, which is to get rid of all condition factors anumana and agama. His later followers mentioned
with no difference and no property. Shankara more about the related information of quantity.
demonstrated that the difference between Para and However, the quantity mentioned by Shankara
Apara is only the product of human’s subjective was familiar with the general things in society
cognisance. In fact, there is only one Brahman. instead of knowing the supreme reality “Brahman”
There is the origin relation between the concept (Para). Therefore, the cognition obtained from
of Para and Apara, and the discussion of Upanishad. these quantities was concluded into the range of
In 5 and 2 of “Praśna Up”, this pair of concepts has Aparavidya. According to Advaita of Shankara,
been mentioned. In addition, “Tangible Brahman” the only reality was Brahman (Para), while other
and “Intangible Brahman” are also mentioned in things were imaginary. Due to man’s ignorance,
6 and 3 of “Maitri Up”, which are close or similar the imaginary things were viewed as real. Such
concepts. However, it is very clear that although kind of ignorance was so-called “Mahamaya” by
the thinkers of Upanishad have referred to the Gaudapada. The imaginary things could be regarded
concepts of Para and Apara, they haven’t elaborated as reality by Mahamaya, so it was a power (fantasy).
them intensively and deeply, nor without attaching When discussing Mahamaya that lead to the false

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cognition of things, the interpretation of Shankara “Brahma-sutra” instead of the theory of Buddhism.
was similar to that of Gaudapada. Shankara Moreover, some doctrines, which were usually
explained in 1, 4 and 22 of “Brahma-sutra-bhāsya”, viewed as independent theories of Buddhism, were
“The distinction between individual and supreme absorbed by Buddhism from references of ancient
self is caused the restrictive factors, such as the Brahmanism in fact, such as Veda Upanishad; or
body. Their (bodies) are consisted of the name and founded on the base of Brahmanism. Viewed from
form. Thus, the difference is not real.” This was this aspect, Advaita of Shankara mainly resulted
similar to that people’s view of small emptiness and from the transformation and improvement on the
big emptiness as two types of emptiness because development of Brahmanism. Its theoretic source is
of the bottle, the description of restricting factors. still the canon of ancient Brahmanism.
It should be mentioned that Shankara assimilated In Vedanta, there are many works that proposed
knowledge from Gaudapada in this aspect. Advaita. It had much to do with the core theory of
The philosophy theory and Shankara’s liberation Vedanta. This theory was mostly close to the core
theory are linked together. In ontology and theory of “Unity of god and man” in Brahmanism
epistemology, “Para” and “Apara”, “Aparavidya” of Upanishad.
and “Paravidya” were put forward. Similarly in Ramanuja’s Theory
liberation theory, liberation was divided into two Ramanuja was a famous philosopher of Vedanta
kinds. One is “Gradual liberation” and the other since Shankara, the ideological forerunner of pietist
is “Total liberation”. He deemed that gradual in India. He was born in a Brahman family. In
liberation was produced in the faith of Apara, which his early year, influenced by Shankara, he earned
has been obtained by “Aparavidya”. This liberation the Advaita from Shankara and his followers. But
believed that individual would go to the Brahman later, the new opinions between god and man were
world and lead a life of pleasure after man’s death, produced to create “Viśista-advaita”, the important
but it is not true or not total liberation. Complete theoretic branch of Vedanta.
liberation is generated from the faith of Para to There are many works by Ramanuja, such as Sri-
acquire from “Paravidya”. This liberation has no bhasya, the annotation of Brahma-sutra, Gita-bhasya
body because it has got rid of metempsychosis and Vedartha-samgraha.
without any body. Nevertheless, when analysing The theory of the relationship between god and
this liberation, Shankara also maintained that it man was proposed on the basis of the absorbing and
was beneficial to achieve liberation by complying changing of the canon of Brahmanism in early stage
with all provisions of Brahmanism and Hinduism, by Ramanuja. The base of his view was Brahman
and performing the duty of caste. However, to Monism of Upanishad and “Brahma-sutra”. Some
fulfill liberation, one should depend on supreme concepts of Advaita in Shankara’s theory have been
intelligence of Vedanta and insist in the viewpoint accepted by Ramanuja, but the vital revolution
of “Unity of god and man” and “Advaita”. Only in was carried out in the Advaita of Shankara. He was
this way could a person reach the uppermost realm opposed to Mahamaya theory by Gaudapada and
and be liberated completely. Shankara, denying that the phenomenal world was
During the process of creating the theory by illusory or with avidya product.
Shankara, some ideas of Buddhism have been Ramanuja considered that although Brahman
absorbed. A long time ago, Mahayana was very was the supreme entity, it had a few properties
popular in India. When discussing Advaita, Shankara and differences. As for the opinions by Shankara
more or less absorbed some theories of Buddhism, and other famous thinkers that there was not any
such as “Emptiness”, “True meaning” and “Samvrti- property or difference in the supreme substance, he
satya”, the method to control the reality of things said in 1, 1, 1 of “Brahmsatra-bhashya” as follows:
by Buddhism. Shankara has also been called “The people who proposed that there is no difference
“Pracchanna Buddha” in India’s history because he has no right to assert this or that a kind of entity
absorbed some Buddhism components in his theory. proven because all the correct ways of knowing
But it is obvious that the attitude to Buddhism by have the differential things as the objects.”
Shankara is different from that of Gaudapada. In the In Ramanuja’s view, the relationship between
degree of absorbing Buddhism theory, Gaudapada individual (phenomenal world) and supreme self
had more achievements than Shankara. Furthermore, (Brahman) was like the relationship between
when assimilating Buddhism theory, some ideas attribute and entity or the part and entirety. It was
of Buddhism was also criticised by Shankara. like light was a part of fire or the sun, or white
This is different from Gaudapada. In addition, the was the nature of the thing with colour. Although
foundation for Advaita formation of Shankara and the small self was close to the supreme self, they
Gaudapada was the doctrine of Ancient India canon were also different. Small self is the attribute or
in Brahmanism, especially the idea of Upanishad and part of the supreme self. Although property or part

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belongs to entity or entirety, we cannot think that

property and part are different. Similarly, although
the phenomenal world that serves as the property or
part belongs to the Brahman as the entity or entirety,
we cannot think that the phenomenal world is false.
The phenomenon in the world is not visional.
Although the diversity and distinctiveness of the
phenomenal world proposed by Ramanuja are true,
as the thinker of Vedanta, he also acknowledged
that only the supreme self or Brahman exists as the
reality of thing. Although the phenomenal world
(small self) is not meaningless, it is only the property
or part to limit the highest reality; the highest
reality of thing being “Consistent”. This relationship
between Brahman and Atman by Ramanuja was
called “Viśista-advaita”.
In epistemology, the theory of knowledge was
evolved by Ramanuja. He mentioned three types of
quantities: partyaksa, anumana and agama. These Statue of Adi Shankaracharya
quantities were viewed as the effective tool to obtain
correct understanding. These three quantities have developed some basic concepts in Upanishad and
a higher position than those of Shankara’s theory. “Brahma-sutra”. He admitted that Brahman is
Because Shankara asserted “Aparavidya”, the said the original cause of all things. He thought that
three quantities and the knowledge acquired belong Brahman was Vishnu who is powerful, omniscient
to the range of “Aparavidya”. Therefore, the three and omnipotent. God or Brahman owns the essence
quantities stated by both of them were different in of unadulterated spirit, which exists in all different
impact or position. things. Madhva, like other ideologists of Vedanta,
Ramanuja, like other Vedanta thinkers, pursued considered that Brahman, as the highest entity or
liberation. In this aspect, he specially laid stress supreme god, has the indescribability. Brahman
on belief and respect to god. In Ramanuja’s eye, exceeds the range that speech and ratiocination can
Brahman was god, especially to Vishnu who had reach. However, he opposed to the visible description
supreme position. Ramanuja emphasised to view of “Saguna-Brahman” (Apara) and the invisible and
god directly by remembrance and meditation, to indescribable views of “Nirguna-Brahman” (Para)
gain liberation. by some Vedanta thinkers of Advaita.
The religion theory of Ramanuja included In the relationship between “Brahman” and
ideology of equality, during the process of getting “Atman”, Madhva was opposed to the related ideas
rid of metempsychosis, even the lower caste like of Shankara and “Mahamaya”. In his eye, things in
Sudra could reach his goal. According to him, if we the world were not the products of avidya, without
can really respect god, we can achieve liberation approving “Advaita”, but supporting “Dvaita-vada”.
through sacrificing ourselves and returning He thought that Brahman was the foundation, but
to Vishnu. Brahman and Atman were not alike, but detached.
Madhva’s Theory In fact, he emphasised more on the substantiality of
Since Shankara, Madhva was another famous the small self and the differences between the small
thinker of this school. He was born in southern self and Brahman. In his “Brahmsatra-bhashya”,
India and accepted the education of traditional Madhva explicitly declared as follows: small self
ideology of Brahmanism. In his early years, the and Brahman were separated from each other,
relationship between Brahman and Atman by which were different. Because Madhva extremely
Shankara influenced him, but later there were some emphasised the double reality between god
new opinions in this aspect, and Madhva proposed (Brahman) and small self (phenomenal world), and
his theory. There are many works written by his theory was known as “Dvaita-vada”. This theory
Madhva, and he had the notes and commentaries to tends to confirm the factuality of things in the
the ancient canons of Brahmanism. The annotations world, which are obviously different from Advaita,
of “Brahma-sutra” were deeply influenced. He also the mainstream ideology of Vedanta.
concentrated on the ideas of some other schools of When demonstrating the relationship between
philosophy, absorbing the theories from Samkhya, “Brahman” and “Atman” in his “Dvaita-vada”,
Vaisesika, Nyāya and Jainism. Like great majority Madhva put forward five theories of basic
of ideologists of Vedanta, Madhva inherited and difference. He considered that there were eternal

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differences between god (Brahman) and small was basically the same, which was usually translated
self, god and material, one kind of substance and as “Doctrine of knowledge” and “Clear knowledge”.
another kind of substance, small self and small self, Brahman is frequently described as god or
small self and matter. Mahesvara by Vedanta. The school viewed that
The epistemology idea of Madhva was close to the fundamental cause of the world is Brahman
that of Ramanuja. He recognised the effectiveness of or Mahesvara. Mahesvara is the supreme reality
partyaksa, anumana and agama and the significance or god in all things, and all things on earth are
of gaining correct cognition of ancient canons created by him. Everything lies as the basis of
in Brahmanism like Upanishad. Additionally, he him in essence. The basic cause is identified as
also attached great importance to the sacrifice of real existence and ubiquity, which can produce
Brahmanism, viewing that sacrifice was important many methods. In some literatures, such concept
to acquire the right cognition. of Vedanta was argued by Buddhism. This kind of
Gaining the knowledge of this school and literature has also been translated into Chinese. The
liberation was directly connected to each other by first chapter of “Vijnaptimatratasiddhi-sastra” is as
Madhva. Anyone who wanted to reach liberation, he follows, “Somebody thinks that there is Mahesvara,
should rely on the intelligence of Vedanta. Madhva “Entity” exists in the world and can derive various
put a high value on worship to god. He considered kinds of “dharma”. The viewpoint kept by him
it vital to obtain liberation by dedication to Vishnu. was unreasonable. Why do we say so? If “dharma”
In addition to the theories for the relationship can be created, it must not be unchangeable.
of Brahman and Atman from the thinkers who However, the mortal is capriccioso, certainly with
had the brilliant achievements of Vedanta as no universality. Yet, the thing without generality
said above, there are also numerous bifurcation cannot exist in the world really. Since “Entity” is in
theories. Although there are varying degrees the universality of the world with many functions,
among these theories, the core of the discussion all “dharmas” can be derived in all places. If
by these branches focus on traditional problems “dharma” can be produced due to “Inspiration” or
like whether Brahman and small self (phenomenal “Reason”, theory of one cause is violated. Perhaps
world) is same or differentm and if the small self is “Inspiration” or “Reason” immediately appears
substantial or visional. due to methodicalness of all things on earth. In
Since the foundation of Vedanta, it has had an my opinion, Brahman, time, square, bhuta-koti,
extensive and powerful influence on the history void and self exist in the real world with various
of India. Many ideologists and social activists in functions, which produce all dharmas. All is such a
modern times in India have taken the theories of principle.” Some concepts of Vedanta orientated in
Vedanta as the base of the ideological system, and dominant ideas of Upanishad are included in this
then absorbed or changed the doctrine of Vedanta citation. “Mahesvara”, “Brahman” and “Self” are
to a varying extent. proposed by Vedanta. Such contents can be found
In modern and contemporary times, the theory of in the Chinese scripture as well. As a result, the
Vedanta not only kept the crucial influence on the idea of Vedanta was mainly related by Buddhism
development of social thought in India, but it also literature to become known by Chinese in
propagated many countries and territories. It has ancient times.
been researched by the international community In modern and contemporary times of China,
as the most representative theory of the traditional Vedanta has been attached great importance.
culture of India, which has been attached importance There is much contact between Indian and Chinese,
to various countries, playing an important role in which made the Chinese aware about Hinduism to
the development of Orientalism in the world. a certain degree. As the prevailing philosophy of
Transmission and Impact in China Indian culture, the idea of Hinduism has got a lot of
The idea of Vedanta was introduced to China attention from Chinese. There is a close relationship
with Buddhism in ancient times. This school was between the core ideology of philosophy in
indirectly recommended to the Chinese people Hinduism and Vedanta, and when the Chinese got
during the process of relating or criticising outer- in touch with Hinduism, they could also familiarise
course idea by Buddhist ideologists. The contents themselves with Vedanta.
about the idea of Vedanta in Buddhist Scripture with In the study of Indian philosophy of modern
Chinese translation have certain influence on the China, Vedanta is very important. When writing
thought circle in ancient China. The initial source thesis in the study of Indian philosophy, there
of Vedanta originated from Upanishad, the ancient are many Chinese scholars who have written on
canon in India. Many concepts are the same as those Vedanta philosophy as the subject. In modern China,
of Veda Upanishad. As a result, when discussing there are many treatises of Vedanta that have been
Vedanta in the theory of Chinese Buddhism, Veda published. In Chinese universities or the scientific

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research institutions, the courses of Vedanta are

established. In the related academic conferences,
there are seminars related to Vedanta.
(Yao Weiqun)

Six Stramana Masters

Liushi (Six Teachers) Six persons representing
non-Brahmin or anti-Brahmin thoughts formed
around the sixth century, contemporary with the
Buddhist founder Shakyamuni, who were referred
to as “Six non-Buddhist teachers” in Buddhist
texts, including Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala,
Ajita Kesakambala, Pakudha Kaccayana, Sanjaya
Belatthiputra and Nigantha Nataputta. Activities Six Tirthika Teachers, Dazu Rock Carvings, Chongqing, China
and thoughts of these six persons had a significant
influence on non-orthodox schools in ancient Indian particular reason or fate, as the Samyuktagama sutra
history, and constitute some characteristic theories represents in Book 3, “No cause and no fate, living
in Indian philosophy. beings are dirty; no cause and no fate, living beings are
Purana Kassapa, as tradition has it, was the son clean”.
of a slave, disputed with Buddha, and drowned In extant historical texts, ideas of Purana Kassapa
himself at Sravasti 16 years after the Buddha’s are often confused with those of Makkhali Gosala
Enlightenment. His teachings are recorded in and Pakudha Kaccayana, since they are usually
the Buddhist texts, including the one in Pali identified as teachers of Indian Ajivaka (or Ajivika).
Samannaphala Sutta, the one in Chinese Dirghagama- And so, their ideas were not clearly distinguished by
sutra and Samyuktagama sutra. later generations. Ajivika has been existent in India
There is not much information on his life and for about two thousand years. At the time of these
activities. The Samyuktagama sutra records in Book three persons, their doctrines were not hard to be
3, “Purana Kassapa is a preacher of heterodox known, but after they died, people easily forgot and
doctrines and surrounded by 500 non-orthodox confuse the doctrinal differences and similarities
followers, talking loudly about secular matters”, between these Ajivika predecessors. Besides, Pali
and in Book 5, “Purana Kassapa is a popular teacher texts and Chinese texts do not provide consistent
and followed by five hundred disciples, including relevant information.
the wise and the foolish. When he dies, no one can Makkhali Gosala, contemporaneous with
tell where he is.” Nigantha, the founder of Jainism, once acted
Purana Kassapa denies the theory on punishment together with Nigantha, but departed due to disputes
and reward. He holds, from good (bad) deeds and differences.
does not come reward (punishment). As the Pali Samaññaphala Sutta and Chinese Agamas
Dirghagama-sutra states in Book 17, “killing, theft, all contain concise information about his life. As
sexual indulgence, nonsense, burglary, arson and the Dirghagama-sutra states in Book 17, “Makkhali
blockade are not bad. Neither mass killing on the Gosala heads the masses, is learned, reputed,
south of the Ganges is punished, nor mass alms accepts everything just like a vast sea, and is
giving on the north of the Ganges is rewarded”. followed by many.”
Pali Samaññaphala Sutta reports similar in Book 17, Dirghagama-sutra provides clear information
Purana Kassapa is said to believe, “If with a razor- about his view, as Book 17 states, he asserts “no
edged disk one were to turn all the living beings on giving, no sacrifice, no good or bad law, no good
this earth to a single heap of flesh, a single pile of or bad reward, no this world and no afterworld.”
flesh, there would be no evil from that cause, no The Samyuktagama sutra (Book 5 and Book 35)
coming of evil… through generosity, self-control, also contain some relevant information. In fact, as
restraint, and truthful speech there is no merit from Pali texts shows, Makkhali Gosala holds that things
that cause, no coming of merit.” Purana Kassapa’s develop from its own living environment and its
theory negates that the rewards and punishments nature. Humans can do nothing to change it and
can be caused by people’s actions, which directly their life is not controlled by any specific cause. For
results a concept of the meaningless of morals. instance, the Samaññaphala Sutta (Book 20) states,
Purana Kassapa denies any reward or punishment “There is no cause, no requisite condition, for the
for either good or bad deeds, as he denied any defilement of beings. Beings are defiled without
cause-effect relationship. He holds the existence of cause, without requisite condition. Beings are
all living beings or feelings as natural and has no purified without cause, without requisite condition.

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There is nothing self-caused, nothing other-caused.” having directly known and realised it for themselves.
This is a kind of fatalism, and it denies the then Generosity is taught by idiots. The words of those
popular retribution, reward and punishment as well who speak of existence after death are false, empty
as the impact of human deeds on subsequent life. chatter. With the break-up of the body, the wise and
Historical texts often confuse Makkhali Gosala’s the foolish alike are annihilated, destroyed. They do
teachings with those of other “six teacher” Makkhali not exist after death.” These ideas are all based on
Gosala, Purana Kassapa and Pakudha Kaccayana four elements, since if four elements are the only
are all identified as early thinkers of Ajivika, but basis for all things, then afterworld, heaven, hell
Makkhali Gosala is considered to be the major and retribution will be unfounded, and karma will
contributor to early Ajivika thoughts. Therefore, not arise, alms giving, sacrifice and the like will be
many tend to deem Makkhali Gosala as the founder without meaning, and Brahmanic teachings will be
of the Ajivika movement. false and useless.
Ajita Kesakambala is an important representative Though not the earliest exponent, Ajita
of Lokayata, a philosophical school in ancient India. Kesakambala put forth explicit Lokayata thoughts
Systematic information on his life and activities is quite early. The Pali Samaññaphala Sutta and
no longer available, but there are many fragmentary Chinese versions of Amagas do not include all
discussions about him and Lokayata ideas. Texts Lokayata theories, and Buddhist texts also fail to
such as the Pali Samaññaphala Sutta, and Chinese fully present Lokayata’s ideas about the connection
versions of the Dirghagama-sutra and the Abhidharma- between consciousness and material and about
mahāvibhāsā-sastra all contain relevant information. hedonism, but some Brahmanic or Hindu texts (for
Most of extant Indian and Chinese texts on Lokayata example, the Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha and the
fail to distinguish ideas of Ajita Kesakambala and Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha) contain clear information
those of other Lokayata thinkers. Therefore, people about Lokayata. However, these texts do not indicate
cannot rely on Lokayata-related texts to find out the which can be attributed to Ajita Kesakambala.
teachings of Ajita Kesakambala. Clear information Pakudha Kaccayana Little is known about his
about his ideas can be found in Amagas and the Pali life. The Samyuktagama sutra in Book 5 also identifies
Samaññaphala Sutta. him as one of the heterodox teachers, and alleges
The Samyuktagama sutra and the Dirghagama- that “he is also surrounded by five hundred disciples”.
sutra contain some information about the life Pakudha Kaccayana holds a doctrine of “Seven
or activities of Ajita Kesakambala. For instance, Substances”. The Samannaphala Sutta (Book
the Samyuktagama sutra reports that “he is also 26) represents this view as follows: “There are
surrounded by 500 disciples like others of the Six these seven substances -- unmade, irreducible,
Teachers”. Another version of the Samyuktagama uncreated, without a creator, barren, stable as a
(Pinyin: Bie Yi Za A Han Jing) sutra states in Book 3, mountain-peak, standing firm like a pillar — that
“like others of the Six Teachers, he does not believe do not alter, do not change, do not interfere with
in anuttara-samyak-sambodhi”. The Dirghagama- one another, are incapable of causing one another
sutra in Book 17 represents him as “a popular pleasure, pain, or both pleasure and pain. Which
leader, learned and reputed”. seven? The earth-substance, liquid-substance, fire-
As for his teachings, the Dirghagama-sutra, in Book substance, wind-substance, pleasure, pain, and
17, states, Ajita Kesakambala holds, “When a man the soul as the seventh… that do not alter, do not
dies, his constituent four elements are gone and change, do not interfere with one another, and are
empty, with earth back to earth, water to water, incapable of causing one another pleasure, pain, or
fire to fire and wind to wind. Put a dead man and both pleasure and pain. And among them there is
his bed amid tombs, and burn and turn them into neither killer nor one who causes killing, no hearer
grey colour or ash. Be wise or foolish, a dead man nor one who causes hearing, no cogniser nor one
is nothing”. “Four elements” are the basis of his who causes cognition. When one cuts off [another
teachings, and in this respect, Ajita Kesakambala person’s] head, there is no one taking anyone’s life.
thinks that alms giving, sacrifice and offering are It is simply between the seven substances that the
meaningless, and there is no heaven and no hell. For sword passes.”
instance, According to the Pali Samaññaphala Sutta The Samyuktagama sutra, in Book 7, does
(Book 23), Ajita Kesakambala asserts that “there is not explicitly mention the name of Pakudha
nothing given, nothing offered, nothing sacrificed. Kaccayana, but has a description similar to the
There is no fruit or result of good or bad actions. Pali Samaññaphala Sutta, which, as a result, can be
There is no this world, no next world, no mother, no known to be the ideas of Pakudha Kaccayana. It
father, no spontaneously reborn beings; no priests says, “There are these seven substances are unmade,
or contemplatives who, faring rightly and practising not reduced, and do not kill, do not move, and are
rightly, proclaim this world and the next after firm. Which seven? The earth-substance, the liquid-

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substance, the fire-substance, the wind-substance,

pleasure, pain, and the fate as the seventh……that
are unmade, unreduced, do not kill, do not change,
do not move, do not interfere with one another, and
are incapable of causing good luck, bad luck or both
good luck and back luck or of causing one another
pleasure, pain, or both pleasure and pain. When
one’s head is cut off, it is simply seven substances
that the sword is directed to, and there is neither
killer nor killing”. Chinese texts are similar to Pali
ones. Actually, Pakudha Kaccayana proposes a Samyuktagama-sutra (Za Ahan Jing), Song edition
seven-element theory, and holds that all things or
phenomena are made up of these elements. Nigantha Nataputta A major founder of the
Pakudha Kaccayana also denies the causal Indian Jainism, Vardhamana is his childhood name,
relationship in human life. According to the and later he is called “Mahavira” by his followers.
Dirghagama-sutra represents (Book 17), “No cause He was born into a Ksatriya family in Vaishali, and
and no fate, living beings are defiled; no cause has stayed with Makkhali Gosala for several years,
and no fate, living beings are purified. All living but departed later on. He is said to have died at the
beings are powerless and un-free, and no enmity age of 72.
is predestined. ” Such disapproval of reward and Agamas contain many of his deeds or ideas.
punishment is popular among the Six Teachers. For instance, the Samyuktagama sutra in Book 31,
Pakudha Kaccayana’s ideas are very close to and mentions his opposition to killing, As Nigantha
therefore are often confused with those of Makkhali says, “Those who kill and keep killing frequently
Gosala in Buddhist texts. However, Makkhali are destined for naraka, and so are those who tell
Gosala represents the orthodox of the Ajivika, while lies.” According to Bie Yi Za A Han Jing, “Nigantha
Pakudha Kaccayana is considered by some scholars Nataputta often says: all those who take life are
as a heterodox sect. destined for a state of deprivation, are destined for
Sanjaya Belatthiputra A contemporary of the hell. All those who steal... All those who indulge in
Buddha, not much is known about his life. The illicit sex... All those who tell lies are destined for a
Samyuktagama sutra (Book 5) reports him “being state of deprivation, are destined for hell. Whatever
surrounded by five hundred disciples”. He is one keeps doing frequently, by that is one led to
said to have two major disciples, ie Sariputa and a state of rebirth”. One reaps what he sows. What
Maudgalyayana, who later on turn to Buddhism about religious practices? As the Dirghagama-sutra
together with many followers of Sanjaya (Book 17) states, someone asks Nigantha Nataputta,
Belatthiputra. “Great merit, like a man rides an elephant or
Both Pali and Chinese texts contain the teachings a horse and the like, now has retribution, will
of Sanjaya Belatthiputra. Some of his ideas are those that are now cultivating themselves have
close to Buddhism. For example, according to the retribution?” Nigantha replies, “I am omniscient
Samaññaphala Sutta (Book 32), he is said to have and know everything. Like walking, staying,
said, “If you ask me if there exists another world sitting and lying down, wisdom will arise when a
after death, if I thought that there exists another full knowledge is there.” He does not give a direct
world, would I declare that to you? I don’t think so. reply, and uses “omniscient” to answer the question
I don’t think in that way. I don’t think otherwise. I of retribution. The Ekottaragama-sutra, in Book 51,
don’t think not, and I don’t think not not.” When reports Nigantha as “persuasive, often deranged and
being asked whether there are retribution for unsettled”, and in Book 41, states that Nigantha has
good and bad and whether Buddha exists or not similar ideas as other teachers, and reports, “there
after death, he would not give an explicit answer, is an old man in Rājagriha, named Shi Li Jue,……
and indicate the answer cannot be no or yes or neglects Buddhist dharma but follows the heterodox
anything clear-cut. This is similar to Buddhism’s Nigantha. The King and ministers all know him.
10 or 14 Avyakrtas. The Dirghagama-sutra, in Book Then, non-orthodox Brahmans and Nigantha as well
17, also states, that when being asked whether as laymen and monks belittle Buddhism, including
human deeds and cultivation have retribution, he all Six Teachers.” This revealed some of Nigantha
replies, “There is retribution, there is no retribution, Nataputta’s features and his view on Buddhism.
there is not and there is not not”. This indicates “All those who take life are destined for a state
that he was skeptical of the then prevailing ideas, of deprivation, are destined for hell. All those who
and it was a popular approach then adopted to steal... All those who indulge in illicit sex... All those
oppose Brahmanism. who tell lies are destined for a state of deprivation,

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are destined for hell. Whatever one keeps doing the “Six Teachers” are often referred as main or
frequently, by that is one led [to a state of rebirth].” typical non-orthodox leaders of the Buddha period.
Nigantha Nataputta has also been mentioned in Their lives and teachings are nothing strange to
Pali texts. According to Samaññaphala Sutta (Book many ancient Chinese.
29), “Nigantha refrains from all cold water, follows In modern China, Buddhism scholars, especially
all restraints and avoid all evils”, shows some those that study early Indian Buddhism, all have a
characteristics of Nigantha Nataputta and later basic knowledge or discussion of “Six Teachers”.
Jainas. Restraint from cold water has something to Chinese scholars also publish treatises on the ideas
do with the Jain concept that atman exists in all of the “Six Teachers”, Chinese publications on
things (including earth, water, plants, etc.). Since Indian Buddhism or philosophy usually contain
water contains atman as well, drinking cold water chapters on the “Six Teachers”, and college courses
will kill atman in it, and killing is an violation of on Indian religion and philosophy also cover the
ordinances and has to be stopped. “Follow all “Six Teachers”.
restraints and avoid all evils” is also related to Jain (Yao Weiqun)
asceticism and other strict religious practices.
The Role in the History of Indian Thoughts Lokayata
In ancient India, Brahmanic or orthodox doctrines Lokayata is a school of ancient Indian philosophy
prevail, and the “Six Teachers” have an important and one of three non-orthodox schools of thought.
role in non-Brahman or anti-Brahman teachings It is popular mainly among lower classes. In ancient
around 6th century BCE, and their theories have Chinese text, it is also known as Lokaayatika,
a great contribution to the formation of the non- Carapace and the like. It has a very old origin and
orthodox schools. Many of their ideas directly began to exert an important influence around the 6th
oppose prevailing Brahmanism. For instance, century BCE.
Ajita Kesakambala’s four elements and Pakudha Evolution and Relevant Literature - Lokayata
Kaccayana’s seven elements deny the unitary Braham, dates back at least to the Vedic Age or earlier. Some
disagree that things are ruled by the Brahman or scholars think it is associated with the earliest Ganges
the Gods, and hold that all things are made up civilisation and primitive Indian folk beliefs. In the
of a variety of elements. These thoughts promote Vedas, we can see that some hymns are doubtful
the formation of the atomism that is influential in of the existence of Gods, and this is consistent
the history of Indian thinking. The “Six Teachers” with later atheism of Lokayata. In the Upanishads,
mostly deny reward and punishment, reincarnation material and element theories mentioned in some
and karma and reflect the ideas then prevailing texts are quite close to those of Lokayata.
among the lower classes, and a major representative Its important representative is Ajita Kesakambala,
of these ideas is Lokayata, which daringly opposes one of the “Six Teachers” who were active before and
various religious doctrines, including Brahmanism, after the birth of Buddhism, and this indicates that
and facilitates some scientific thoughts to grow and Lokayata then already enjoyed certain influence.
develop in ancient time. Lokayata is recorded or mentioned in a number
Dissemination and Influence in China The “Six of Buddhist texts. Beside Hinayana and Agama
Teachers” were born in the period around the birth sutras, Mahayana texts also contain Lokayata
of Buddhism, and they maintain frequent contacts discussion. According to Buddhist records, when at
with early missionary monks, and so are frequently the Nalanda, Xuanzang argued with non-Buddhist
mentioned in early Buddhist texts. These texts are schools, indicating that Lokayata was very active in
brought into China, and many of them are translated India in the 7th century CE.
into Chinese. Therefore, the Chinese Buddhist circle Hindu texts between the 8th and 13th century CE
has been familiar with the “Six Teachers” for long. also recorded Lokayata ideas, showing that Indians
When refuting or talking about heterodox schools, then were still familiar with Lokayata.
In the latter 19th century CE, several thousand of
a certain Sikh sect followed the same ideas with
Lokayata.
As a very special school, Lokayata opposes many
popular religious and philosophical thoughts in India
as well as dominating ideas in Indian society, and
therefore, as an antagonist, it’s extremely difficult
to disseminate, and this also affects the preservation
and circulation of its written texts.
Dirghagama Sutra (Chang Ahan Jing); early Ming supplementary No independent works on Lokayata can be found
edition of an earlier version from Song and Yuan periods now. The Brihaspati Sutra, an alleged classic text in

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the 7th century BCE, is already lost. In India, very

few Lokayata texts have been preserved. People
mainly depend on other Indian schools’ introduction
or criticism to find out the development and ideas
of Lokayata. Such extant texts include among
others: the Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha composed by
Samkara (788-820), the Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha
by Madhva (about 13th century CE), the Prabodha-
candrodaya by Krsna Mis′ra (about 12th century CE),
and the Saddār ana-samuccaya by Haribhandra Suri
(about the 8th century CE). Besides, Buddhist texts
and others also contain many but sporadic Lokayata
activities and ideas, and lack of any systematic
discussion. The two great Indian epics also contain Carvaka/Lokayata: An Anthology of Source
some information on Lokayata. Material and Some Recent Studies (front cover)
Main Ideas
Lokayata is materialistic and atheistic in many the exception of Lokayata. Lokayata holds that this
aspects. Its ideas on four elements, reincarnation and theory is unfounded, and heaven and hell do not
karma, consciousness as an outcome of elements, exist at all, sacrifice is meaningless, and various
means of valid knowledge and asceticism are eye- religious obligations or requirements are nothing
catching in ancient India. but falsehood.
Four Elements as the Basis of All Things Lokayata considers heaven and hell as false and
Lokayata holds a materialist opinion on the basis unreal. According to the Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha
of the world, and thinks, the world, in essence, is (Chapter 8), “There is no other world that is different
formed by four elements, that is, earth, water, fire from this world, no heaven and no hell, and places
and wind. Nothing exists except four elements. for sivas are fabricated by foolish swindlers of
Everything is made up of four elements, and human other schools.” Lokayata believes that the so called
body is also a mixture of four elements. As Samkara heaven and hell are only descriptions of real life.
explains in the Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha (Chapter The Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha (9.10) states, “The
1), “Lokayata considers four elements ie earth, water, joy of the heaven is: eat good, stay with young
fire and wind, as the eventual origin, which can be women, and enjoy requisite clothes, spice, garland
nothing else.” The Samyuktagama-sutra points out in and sandalwood, etc. The pain of the hell is troubles
Book 7, “A living being lives in this world and dies caused by enemies, weapons and diseases.”
with nothing. A body is made up of four elements, Lokayata denies reincarnation and liberation on
and when life expires, earth returns to earth, water the basis of common sense, as the Sarva-Darsana-
to water, fire to fire and wind to wind.” Samgraha states, “When once the body becomes
Lokayata holds that things are all made up of ashes, how can it ever return again?” The Sarva-
four elements, and denies any supernatural thing Siddhānta-Samgraha (Chapter 10) says, “Liberation
as a fundamental cause for the creation. In ancient is death and the end of life.”
India, many religious schools attribute this cause Directly related to reincarnation, “karma” for long
to the Gods, Brahma and the like, and think has been a popular concept for Indian religions and
that all things are created by this supernatural philosophies. Under this concept, a man’s deeds will
fundamental cause. In contrast, Lokayata insists produce a kind of force to affect his future life, and
that, there is no such a cause, master or creator, he will reap what he sows. Resolutely opposed to
and everything is born of the Nature. For instance, this idea, Lokayata denies karma. As for this, the
the Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha (5.3) relates Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha states, “Nor do the actions
Lokayata as follows: “Who decorates the peacock? of the four castes, orders, produce any real effect.”
Who makes the cuckoo sing? Nothing else but the Lokayata clearly negates any religious practice
Nature.” “Building temples, water houses, ponds, intended for good fruits.. According to the Sarva-
wells and rest places are praised by travelers Siddhānta-Samgraha (11.12), “The wise need not
only, not any other existent beings.” With such an bother about liberation, and only fools afflict
opinion, Lokayata, resolutely opposed to theism themselves with ascetic practice and hunger.
and attacked by many other schools, is extremely Chastity and other such ordinances are laid down
hard to develop itself in ancient India. by clever weaklings.”
Denial of Reincarnation and Karma - Lokayata denies any connection between joy &
Historically, major Indian philosophical schools pain and karma. The Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha
all agree with reincarnation and liberation, with (Chapter 4) says, “Do not imagine the existence of

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karma in light of happiness or pain, and man feels if it can be perceived, and does exist if it is never felt
joy or pain because of the Nature, and there is no through senses.” While emphasising the importance
other cause.” of perception, Lokayata also examines other means
Such denial of karma, heaven, hell, religious of knowledge, with a focus on reference. It deems
practice and the like is directly associated with inference as unreliable, since inference is based
Lokayata’s assertion of “four elements” as the only on necessary causation among things, while such
fundamental cause of the world. connection cannot be fully perceived.
Consciousness as an Outcome of Elements - Lokayata also examines testimony and
Lokayata holds, human consciousness cannot be comparison. It rejects the reliability of testimony,
separated from human body, and consciousness since testimony in itself relies on recognition of
exists when body exists, and disappears when a kind of language signs, and such language used
body is destroyed. Human body is an outcome by an old man when a kid appears. Comparison is
of the mixture of four elements, and therefore, also rejected as the means of the knowledge of the
consciousness, ultimately, is derived from elements. connection, since the objective of using comparison
Though an individual element may not be conscious is to establish a different kind of knowledge, ie the
in itself, yet, when combined in some way, that relation of a name to something so named.
is, when they form a body, consciousness will According to the Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha, the
show itself. The Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha describes Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha and other texts, Lokayata
Lokayata as follows, “In this school there are four dismisses inference and other means of knowledge
elements, earth, water, fire, and air; and from these as incredible and asserts perception as the only
four elements alone is intelligence produced, just like reliable source of valid knowledge. Yet, not all texts
the intoxicating power from the mixed ingredients say so, and some texts testifies, Lokayata does not
for wine making . When elements that constitute the deny inference indiscriminately, and it only denies
body dissolve, consciousness disappears instantly.” reference in respect of matters such as another
As the Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha (7) states, world.
“Consciousness arises from the change of soulless Disapproval of Asceticism
elements just as red color arises from the mixture of Lokayata suggests that everything is an outcome
betel nut and lime.” of the mixture of four elements, and there are no
For many Indian religious sects, man has heaven, no hell and no karma. And so, ethically, it
conscious, since he has a spiritual body, that is, denies the meaning of asceticism and urges people
atman (ie soul). When a man dies, his atman to see for a happy life in the real world.
(soul) is gone, and his body is dead and no longer For many Indian philosophical and religious
conscious. Lokayata disagrees, and it opposes an schools, the real world is filled with pains, and a
independent substance that masters or controls moment of delight or joy is always accompanied by
consciousness and denies consciousness being an pains and never lasts long. Man should free himself
attribute of atman. It asserts, if body dissolves, then from this world and not seek after pleasures in this
consciousness is non-existent, and no atman can world. Moreover, they also hold, ascetic practice in
go up to heaven and realize rebirth. For Lokayata, secular life will produce good fruits and help avoid
atman, as a subject of religion or consciousness, pains, while hedonism or sensual pleasures will
does not exist. If atman indeed exists, it is nothing produce evil fruits and pains. Lokayata disagrees,
but a mixture of four elements. This concept of no and asserts that only fools will refuse pleasure for
soul is similar to and yet also different from the the sake of its connection with pain. According to
Buddhist anatman. Buddhism asserts anatman, but the Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha, Lokayata holds that
does not oppose reincarnation and liberation, while “the only end of man is enjoyment produced by
Lokayata insists on non-existence of soul on the sensual pleasures. Nor may you say that such cannot
basis on denying reincarnation. Therefore, Lokayata be called the end of man as they are always mixed
is a more resolute opponent of atman. with some kind of pain, because it is our wisdom to
Perception to be the Only Valid Source of enjoy the pure pleasure as far as we can, and to avoid
Knowledge the pain which inevitably accompanies it; just as the
Lokayata is particularly concerned with man who desires fish takes the fish with their scales
perception. It is stated in many texts that, Lokayata and bones, and having taken as many as he wants,
considers perception as the only source of valid desists; or just as the man who desires rice, takes the
knowledge. For example, the Sarva-Darsana- rice, straw and all, and having taken as much as he
Samgraha states, “This school holds that perception wants, desists. Therefore for us, we should not reject
is the only source of knowledge and does not allow pleasure through a fear of pain… While life remains
inference, etc.” The Sarva-Siddhānta-Samgraha let a man live happily, let him feed on ghee even
(Chapter 2) also says, “it holds that an object exists though he runs in debt.” It is of the opinion, that

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ascetic practice cannot bring pleasure and avoid the Dissemination and Influence in China
pain, and so, is meaningless. Lokayata is also brought into China, and Chinese
In this respect, Lokayata is called by many as know it mainly through Buddhist texts. Due to its
“hedonism”. With original works on Lokayata no materialism and anti-religion stance, Buddhists
longer available, existing descriptions about it may considers it as heretical and something that should
be distortions. However, no matter whether these be refuted. As a result, it is rebuked in many of
descriptions are accurate or not, Lokayata has a ancient Chinese translations and works by ancient
clear stance, that is, it holds that man should seek Buddhist monks.
for a happy life or secular joy. This is rare in ancient Lokayata is directly mentioned, retold or criticised
thinking. Other religious and philosophical schools in many ancient Buddhist texts. For instance,
also call for happiness, which, however, mainly refers Agama translations refer to some Lokayata thinkers
to supreme happiness in a religious sense, realised and their ideas when refuting the ideas of the “Six
through wise liberation, that is, by recognising Teachers”. In the Madhyamaka Shastra, composed
that things are unreal, a man can eliminate his by Nagarjuna, translated by Kumarajiva and with
ignorance, stop pursuing external objects or secular commentary from Qing Mu, mentions the “birth
pleasures, and thus avoid pains arising from failure from inherent nature” or “elements” advocated
to obtain pleasures, and eliminate relevant karma by Lokayata. The Vijbaptimatratasiddhi, translated
and reincarnation. With a firm opposition to various by Xuanzang, also refutes Lokayata’s elements
religious doctrines, Lokayata calls for secular (atomism). Many ancient Chinese texts contain
direct discussion on Lokayata.
In modern China, Lokayata is attached great
importance. Due to its atheism and materialism,
it attracts attention from quite many Chinese
thinkers, and there are translations of Indian works
on Lokayata, while Chinese scholars also publish
their studies of Lokayata. Some works on Indian
philosophy have chapters dedicated to Lokayata,
and college courses on Indian philosophy also have
introduction or study of Lokayata.
(Yao Weiqun)

Ajivaka
Ajivaka or Ajivika, aka the “School of Wrong
Livelihood” or the “Non-Buddhist School of Wrong
Livelihood”, is a religious and philosophical school
in ancient India. Originated roughly between 5th
and 6th century BCE and initially comprised of a few
prominent Samana thinkers active shortly before or
after the birth of Buddhism, the school underwent
Lokayata: A study in Ancient Indian Materialism, some important transformations afterwards. Popular
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya, Chinese edition (front cover)
in India for over 2,000 years, it spread into China in
the wake of Buddhism.
happiness. This is directly related to the firmly No literature or written records directly
opposition against any other religious theories. Since attributable to the school survived. The existing
another world does not exist, the theory of karma records describing the activities and thoughts of
and reincarnation will be unfounded, and it will be the school are of Buddhist or Jainist origin. Such
ethical or rational for people to do the best to have a religious scriptures as the Chinese Agama Sutra, the
happy life in this world. Pali Samannaphala Sutta, and the Jainist “blessing
Lokayata survives, despite its consistent sutra” contain some inconsistent information about
opposition to ruling ideas and its being suppressed the school. Certain thoughts of the school were even
for thousands of years. But, compared with other contradictorily, classified in these scriptures.
philosophical schools, its influence in the history of Some of the “Six Samana Masters” were the early
India is limited. To be noted, a number of its ideas members of the Ajivaka school. According to relevant
are quite close to modern science and represent Buddhist and Jainist records, the thoughts of three
the thinking of ancient middle and lower classes in of the “Six Samana Masters”, ie Makkhali Gosala,
India. It makes the great ancient Indian civilisation Purana Kassapa, and Pakudha Kaccayana, formed
more diversified. the theoretical foundation of the school. And among

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the three thinkers, Makkhali Gosala was the most

influential, therefore he was also widely considered
the founder of the school. Still other historical
records, such as the Pali “Majjhima Nikaya” and
the Chinese translation of “Madhyam Agama”, also
mentioned some of the early representatives of the
school, such as Nanda Vaccha. However, most of the
information contained in existing records involving
the school was on the thoughts of the three “Samana
Masters” mentioned above.
Makkhali Gosala didn’t believe in such theories as
good/evil karma and reincarnation. In his opinion, Ekottaragama-sutra
good deeds, such as sacrifice-giving or almsgiving,
have no effect whatsoever. There is no “this life”, thought of the “emptiness” concept in the Buddhist
nor an “after life”. People’s living conditions won’t philosophy. Like the other two Samana masters,
be affected in any way by the karma of their acts Pakudha Kaccayana also repudiated the theory of
or behaviours. poetic justice or karma, believing in the spontaneity
Purana Kassapa was not a believer in good/evil of birth and change of things or lives. Because he
karma. He claimed that such evil deeds as killing, claimed that there was nothing one can do, he was
stealing, sexual misconduct or false speech wouldn’t considered somewhat fatalist. His thoughts bear a
bring about any bad karma, just like such good striking resemblance to those of Makkhali Gosala,
deeds or virtues as almsgivings, self-control or so much so that the two were often confused in
truth-telling wouldn’t bring about any good karma. Buddhist scriptures. Normally the theories of
The reason why he rejected the theory of poetic Makkhali Gosala were deemed the orthodox of the
justice or karma may be attributed to his denial of school, while those of Pakudha Kaccayana were
the law of cause and effect. He believed that the held to be heretic.
presence of creatures or emotions is only natural Generally, the theories of these early thinkers
and spontaneous, without any underlying “cause” of the Ajivaka school are distinctly different from
giving rise to them. Samyuktagama-sutra Volume the mainstream philosophy then. For instance, the
Three contained one of his trenchant observations, dominant Brahmanism and Buddhism both believe
which goes “people are dirty for no reason, just as in reincarnation and karma, while the Ajivaka
people are clean for no reason”. Meant at the time school rejected such beliefs. The mainstream
to subvert the dominant Brahmanism, this thought Brahmanist thoughts popular at the time held that
also ran counter to Buddhist theories. there is a Brahman or God, a being the Ajivaka
Pakudha Kaccayana was also a major thinker of thinkers claimed doesn’t exist. Buddhism espouses
the school. He espoused a “seven elements” theory, the concept of “emptiness”, claiming that things
claiming that all things and creatures in this world are “empty” and impermanent, while some Ajivaka
are composed of seven elements, ie earth, water, thinkers upheld pluralistic realism of element-based
fire, wind, hardship, happiness and life. These theory. Still other schools of thought in ancient
elements are all ever-present (non-working, non- India advocated specific moral and ethical ideas,
working for those need to be done, non-converting, what they claimed were also linked to the theory
non-converting for those need to be converted, of reincarnation or karma, while the Ajivaka school
non-killing, non-moving, non-transforming and generally repudiated such ideas or thoughts.
non-changing) and eternally changeless. Things During such periods as the Maurya Dynasty, the
like the human body are essentially made up of Gupta Dynasty and the Vardhana Dynasty, Ajivaka
them. Pakudha Kaccayana held that because of was moderately active but never dominant, exerting
the changelessness and constancy of these basic only a limited influence on society.
elements, a human body composed of them cannot The thoughts of the Ajivaka school were also
actually be harmed even if you cut it with a knife, spread to China, mainly through Buddhism. As it
because the basic elements cannot be destroyed. happens, large portions of Buddhist scripture were
The element is the smallest unit of matter that dedicated to criticising or refuting heretical ideas,
constitutes such things as the emotional human the various thoughts and different concepts before
body. Therefore, it cannot be divided and destroyed, or after the creation of Buddhism by Śākyamuni are
it is changeless. This kind of element-based theory the major contents of schools other than dominant in
was once very influential in ancient India. It differs ancient India. There are a lot of differences between
from such central Brahmanist concepts as the Atman the thoughts of Ajivaka and the theory of Buddhism.
or Brahman, and is also distinct from mainstream Many Buddhist records containing information

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this word is used in two meanings. One meaning

of “Atman” refers to self (individual), which is
used as the main part of many organs in human’s
body or the centre of vital movement, being the
so-called “individual”. Another sense of “Atman”
means “Brahman”. When discussing Brahman as
the noumenon of the world by many Upanishads,
Madhyama Agama “Atman” (I) is only applied instead of “Brahman”.
Such kind of “Atman” is the so-called “Collective
about such philosophical “conflicts” or “clashes” Self” or “Brahman”. The “Atman” in this kind of
had been translated into Chinese, allowing the Upanishad is the noumenon of everything, which
Chinese people have a rare glimpse into the school. has no difference as that of “Brahman” in its actual
In modern and contemporary China, historical meaning.
records concerning the Ajivaka school often In Upanishad or the Indian philosophy of religion
interested Chinese scholars who study the history in later generations, “I” or “Atman” is generally
of Buddhism and the intellectual history of ancient made use of the former meaning. If not otherwise
India. Some Chinese scholars who focus on heretical indicated, it means the subject-of-a-life or the master
thoughts also published research papers on the school of spirit and consciousness of person, being the main
in Chinese Academic Journals. In some Chinese body of eternal cycle of birth and death. In modern
books about the Indian religious philosophies, there times, “I” or “Atman” is frequently translated into
are also chapters or parts dedicated to the Ajivaka “soul”. There are many types of “Atman”, however
school. In addition, the school is also mentioned numerous forms of “Atman” are known as the
in the oriental philosophy courses offered in some phenomenal world.
Chinese universities. In Upanishad, many ideologists discuss the
(Yao Weiqun) relationship between Brahman and Atman, and the
predominant viewpoint is the so-called “Brahman is
Atman”. They consider that the noumenon of thing
Concepts (Brahman or the spiritual self) and the human’s main
part (Atman or individual) are the same at heart.
Brahmatmaikya “Brahman is Atman” has an important position
Brahman is “Atman” which is the core concept in in the development of Brahman later. The key
the Brahman philosophy of Ancient India. It appears reference or branch of Vedanta, which is mostly
first in some early Upanishads. It is later regarded as influenced in the Indian Philosophy, has this kind of
the main philosophical thought by the Vedanta. The thoughts. However, many ideologists of this school
Hinduism which is popular in the later ages of India have different attitudes towards the same degree
also takes it as its theoretical basis. or the actual relation to Brahman and Atman; thus,
Upanishad is a batch of Veda document in the diverse branches of Vedanta have been formed.
later ages which put forward large amount of Badarayana, the originator of Vedanta has a
clear philosophy theories earlier in India. The standpoint of “bhedābheda” in this main work
main content discussed in the documents is the named “Brahma-sutra”. He thinks that the creator of
relationship between Brahman and Atman. The so world or fundamental cause (Brahman) and Atman
called Brahman is the noumenon of all things. It is or the phenomenal world are different. Therefore,
the highest reality in the cosmos. The so-called “I” is Atman has the nature of Brahman. If all things
the transliteration of Atman. It usually refers to the cannot be existent in the world without Brahman,
subject and soul of biological phenomena. then Brahman and Atman is the same.
Many ideologists of Upanishad think that Gaudapada and Sankara, the thinkers of Vedanta,
Brahman is the highest reality without any specific think that Brahman and Atman have the relationship
property, and we cannot give a precise definition of “Advaita”. In their opinions, Brahman or
to Brahman by the general conceptual category. If the spiritual self is the universal foundation;
we are sure to know the true meaning of Brahman, everything is the image of Brahman or spiritual
we can only understand and realise it by various self without things other than being independent
negations. In Upanishad, Brahman is described as of Brahman or spiritual self. Individual is not
the supreme god by some thinkers. It is viewed as the part of Brahman, nor its variation. As the life
the fundamental cause or the creator for things in phenomenon, innumerable individual and spiritual
the world. self are the same thing, only due to the limitation
There are many meanings for “Atman” in Sanskrit, of the body, they are different; in fact, both of them
such as self, breath, nature, the whole body and the are the same things. Ramanuja, the ideologist of
highest noumenon of human life. In Upanishad,

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Vedanta, considers that Brahman and Atman have own theoretical system. The concept has also been
the relationship of “Visistadvaita”. In his opinion, introduced in China, and produced great influence
Atman (individual or phenomenal world) is the to Chinese culture.
property or part of Brahman (substance or entity). Samsara concept in Vedic Upanishad - In
Although the property or part attaches to substance the vedic period, Indians started to think where
or entity, we cannot think that the property and part they would go after death. ègveda mentions
are not complied with each other. The phenomenon of Death “Yama” and Western Pure Land, and
in the world is not visional. However, Ramanuja believed that people who do good will enter
is also acknowledging that the supreme Atman Western Pure Land after they die. ègveda says
that “reuniting with ancestor, meeting Yama, and
obtaining the returns of benevolence in Western
Pure Land”. In Vedic period, people believed that
the soul lasted forever, and death meant that
the soul could walk from one world to another.
Indian religions in later ages emphasised that
Samsara was directly related to a human’s behaviour.
Such contents were also mentioned in the Veda,
but the difference was that the latter stressed that
people doing good would ascend to heaven, but it
had not directly shown that people doing evil things
would go to hell.
The core thought of Indian philosophy of religion
was formed in the Upanishad period, when the
Upanishads: The Holy Spirit of Samsara concept gradually developed into a
Vedas (front cover) system. At this period, Samsara was directly related
to Vimukti, and closely connected with ethics.
or Brahman exists as noumenon. He deems that The famous theory of Samsara in Upanishad was
although the phenomenal world (individual) is not “five stages and two approaches”. “Five stages”
meaningless, it is only to limit the nature or part referred to the five Samsara stages from death
of the supreme entity. The supreme entities of an to rebirth, namely, a human is cremated after
object are same or identical. death, first enters the moon, then becomes the
In modern and contemporary times of India, rain, subsequently, turns into food after raining,
“Brahman is Atman” still has a great influence. sperm after eating food, finally enters the mother’s
Because the mainstream ideology of Vedanta, womb. The so-called “two approaches” referred to
“Advaita” has been mainly accepted by the great devayana and pitçyàna. Devayana is the road in
majority ideologists, while the origin of thought which humans cannot return to the original world
or the core ideology of “Advaita” originates from after death, while pitçyàna is the road in which
“Brahman is Atman” in Upanishad. humans can return to the original world following
“Brahman is Atman” has had its influence on the order of the five stages after death.
China. In ancient China, when some Chinese Ideologists of Upanishad have made a clear
Buddhist scriptures criticised the heterodox distinction between good and bad results of
ideology, the thought of Upanishad or Vedanta Samsara, and have had a definite concept of
had been related or demonstrated. In modern and karma. The good and bad results of Samsara were
contemporary times of China, the orthodoxy of considered to be related to a human’s behaviour
ancient philosophy in India has been given great (ie good or evil). Well-doing and evildoing produce
importance in the academic world, to do research on their corresponding karmas, which directly affects
Upanishad and Vedanta. There are many research the living pattern or state of the doer in life and
papers on “Brahman is Atman” in Chinese academic afterlife. Ideologists of Upanishad believe that
journals. The introduction to “Brahman is Atman” is people doing good will become saint, while doing
also published by China in the treatise or textbook evil will become villain. Well-doing mainly refers
about the Indian philosophy of religion. to compliance with various religious regulations of
(Yao Weiqun) Brahmanism and performance of various obligations.
Many ideologists of Upanishad clearly put forward
Samsara the subject of Samsara during discussion, that is “me”
Samsara is an important part of the ancient Indian or “Altman”, which is the producer of Karma, and the
philosophy of religion. Brahmanism, Buddhism and bearer of good and evil results in Samsara. Ideologists
Jainism regard it as the fundamental part of their of Upanishad believe that the state of Samsara is

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Samkhya, which thinks that everything in Samsara

is painful. If people want to jump out of it, it is
necessary to eliminate ignorance and practice yoga
to achieve liberation. Vaisesika believes that the
state of Samsara is the combination of “Atman” and
the body, which results from the ‘invisible force”.
Invisible force is generated by man’s good and evil
behaviour. If there is no invisible force, there is also
not the combination of “Atman” and the body; thus,
no body will appear, so it will annihilate Samsara.
Nyaya believes that the state of Samsara is “pain”.
Pain evolves from “rebirth”, rebirth from “behaviour”
(proper dharma and improper dharma), behaviour
from “negligence”, and negligence from mistaken
understanding. When people obtain the “correct
understanding”, the mistaken understanding will
disappear, thus, no mistaken understanding means
Wheel of Life painting no negligence, no negligence means no behaviour,
no behaviour means no rebirth, and finally, no
associated with pain. Therefore, people should jump rebirth means no pain. Nyaya holds that to get
out of Samsara to reach a state of liberation, and the correct understanding is key to get rid of pain.
to achieve this goal, the most fundamental point is Mistake and mistaken thought lead to Samsara,
to know the true nature of things, and obtain the and the way to correct it is to obtain the “correct
supreme wisdom of “Brahman and Atman are one”. understanding”, thereby eliminating negligence and
Samsara concept in Vedic Upanishad produces getting rid of Samsara.
enormous influence to the philosophy of religion of Samsara concept in Buddhism - The theoretical
later generations in India. system of early Buddhism absorbs the Samsara
Samsara concept in Astikya - About 300 BCE to concept in Vedic Upanishad. It thinks that life
early CE, Brahmanism developed “Astikya”, namely phenomenon is controlled by the karma of sentient
Sankhya, Yoga, Vaishesika, Nyaya, Mimamsa and beings, and believes that there is a circulation
Vedanta. In Samsara concept, Vedanta inherits process, namely, so-called Samsara, but denies
the core idea of ancient scripture of Brahmanism. that there is an eternal Samsara subject. Buddhism
Its famous ideologist Sankaracarya (788-820 CE) advocates the “theory of Anatman” (or theory of no
adhered to the thought that “Brahman and Atman subject), uses the idea of “destiny” to explain the
are one” in Upanishad, and thought that Brahman phenomena in the world or life, and thinks that
was same with the phenomenal world composed things and human are composed of many elements
of innumerable ego and related things in nature. or “destinies”, the changes in life phenomena of
Everything in the world is Brahman in nature, things or human are just the separation and reunion
and if people fail to realise it, they will get caught
into ignorance and Samsara. Mimamsa holds that
what makes people fall into the Samsara are proper
dharma and improper dharma, and what produces
proper dharma and improper dharma is behaviour
(karma). If people want to jump out of Samsara, they
should not hate the troubles confronted in the world,
and realise that happiness is always associated with
pain, and that they should give up enjoyment, so
no karma will be produced, and “Atman” will no
longer return to Samsara. According to Samkhya,
Samsara is the combination of two entities -
Prakriti and Purusha, divides Samsara into natural
law, animal law and humanity, and believes that
everything in Samsara is painful in nature. The way
to be free from pain is to eliminate the mistaken
understanding, make Prakriti and Purusha survive
alone, in this way, Samsara can be eliminated.
The Samsara concept of Yoga is similar to that of Wheel of Life painting, Tibetan Buddhism

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in life phenomenon, and that once the human body

is dead, the “spirit” is still alive, because it can
move to another body, which is a typical theory of
Atman. Hui Yuan advocating such theory is related
to the influence of the original traditional culture
in ancient China, (e.g., theory of Chuang tzu and
Yellow Emperor).
In the Northern and Southern Dynasties, a heated
debate about whether humans have an eternal
subject after death has ever been conducted. For
example, Fan Zhen in Qi and Liang Dynasties
struggles against the independent existence of
“spirit” (soul). He says in his Theory of Spiritual
Wheel of Life, Dazu Rock Carvings, Chongqing, China Perishability that, “the spirit and the body are
the same one. They are interdependent whether
of various elements or destinies, and the causality existence or destruction”. Fan Zhen does not fight
in life phenomena are correlative or interdependent against the theory of Atman on the basis of the
relationship of various elements or destinies. theory of Anatman of Buddhism, but against the
Early Buddhist scriptures put forward the Samsara theory of Samsara. However, in Northern and
of “five paths lam lnga” (heaven, hell, hungry ghost, Southern Dynasty, there are also many people who
human and animal). On the basis of five paths lam think that there exists a Samsara subject after death,
lnga, the later Buddhism schools add an “Asura”, such as Emperor Wu of Liang, Cao Siwen. They
forming “six-path metempsychosis”. In the division believe in the existence of Samsara from the point
of Samsara forms, Mahayana adds some paths of view of Buddhism. About the retribution forms
from Samsara to nirvana, namely, Sravakayana, in Samsara, Chinese Buddhism not only absorbs a
Pratyekabuddha, Bodhisattva and Buddhism, thus, lot of relevant contents from Indian Buddhism, but
there is a ten-path theory in Mahayana. also keeps its own characteristics. For instance, Hui
Samsara concept in Jainism - Jainism thinks Yuan in his Theory of Three Retributions puts forward
that the subject of Samsara phenomenon is “jãva” three forms of retribution: present-life retribution,
(soul), and jãva can be divided into two kinds - jãva next-life retribution and future-life retribution. After
being in Samsara and jãva achieving liberation. Jãva Sui and Tang Dynasty, there were many discussions
being in Samsara is divided into the immobile jãva on Samsara by some Chinese Buddhism sects such
and mobile jãva. The immobile jãva exists in land, as Tiantai Sect.
water and plants, while mobile jãva exists in animals Samsara concept also produces a huge impact
with more than two sense organs. Jainism argues on Chinese masses, and it is also reflected in
that material of karma produced by behaviour of Chinese literary and artistic works. The thought
body, words and thoughts flowing into “jãva” of Samsara and karma plays a role of restricting
will make people be bound and fall into Samsara.
Samsara concept in Indian history has been keeping
a wide range of effects, except for Lokayatika, all
sects of Indian philosophy of religion insist on this
theory until modern times.
The spread and influence in China - Samsara
concept was introduced in China with Buddhism.
In ancient China, the most famous representative
who advocates that there is a subject in Samsara is
Hui Yuan in the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He thinks that
“the body can be destroyed, but the spirit cannot
be”. In Disrespect of Sramana to King, he says that
“desire is the mother of life, while spirit is the root
of desire. Desire can change things from one form
to another, while spirit can also be transmitted
with it”, “firewood is burned to ashes, while fire
can spread from one firewood to another, never
extinguished Similarly, the body is destroyed, while
the spirit can move from one body to another”. Hui
Yuan thinks that there exists an immortal “spirit” Wheel of Life mural at Zhaohua temple, Hebei, China

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people’s behaviour. The thought of “the good will the Brahman (spiritual self) as the noumenon of
be rewarded with good and the evil with evil” is universe and the Atman (ego) as the individual are
deeply rooted in people’s minds. Many people do same in essence. Brahman is the root of everything,
good, pray to Buddha and worship Bodhisattva to and is the essence of the ego. The worldly people
get a good retribution or have a good end-result in regard Brahman and ego as different things, think
the afterlife. Considering karma, those who believe that only the ego is the root of human, and do not
in Samsara will actively do good and strictly avoid know Brahman, which is ignorance. Ignorance urges
evil to seek advantages and keep away from the people to pursue things that does not exist in fact,
disadvantages, which is of positive significance for which will need the concrete behaviour. People
social peace and stability. think that behaviour will produce a variety of
(Yao Weiqun) “karma”, promoting people to suffer in the Samsara.
Therefore, to get rid of the pain for achieving the
Vimukti Vimukti, people shall obtain the greatest wisdom,
Vimukti or vimokùa is an important part of the ancient and the wisdom is the cognition of “Brahman
Indian philosophy of religion. Many major religious and Atman are one”. In such state, people will no
sects also involve such content. Its early ideological longer pursue something outside the Brahman, and
form can be seen in Upanishad and other ancient no longer believe that there is difference between
Indian scriptures obviously. Brahmanism, Buddhism Brahman (spiritual self) and Atman (ego). People
and Jainism all take it as the ultimate goal that who have such cognition will no longer have the
everyone pursues. This concept is also introduced desire and behaviour, and no behaviour means no
into China, exerting an influence on Chinese religion. karma, then no karma means no Samsara, finally
Vimukti in Upanishad philosophy - Vimukti in Vimukti is achieved. One sentence in Brihadaranyaka
ancient India mainly refers to freeing people Upanishad is that “people understanding the
from pain. Indian religions think that the Brahman will go to heaven and achieve Vimukti
specific form of life is Samsara which is filled after they die.” The concept of Vimukti in Upanishad
with pain, while Vimukti is free from Samsara. produces some influence upon that of many schools
The concept of Vimukti can be found earliest in of philosophy of religion in India.
Upanishad in India. Upanishad philosophy thinks Vimukti in Astikya: Various philosophical schools
that Samsara is painful in nature, while Vimukti of Brahmanism appeared very early in India, about
is jumping out of the Samsara and getting rid of 300 BCE to early CE. There are six schools, namely,
the pain. There are two approaches in Upanishad: Sankhya, Yoga, Vaishesika, Nyaya, Mimamsa and
pitr·yāna and devayāna. Pitr·yāna is the road to Vedanta, being collectively called “Astikya”. These
Samsara, while devayāna is the road to Vimukti. schools have their own opinion on the Vimukti.
In the view of many ideologists of Upanishad, Vedanta directly inherits the Vimukti in Upanishad,
Vimukti in the highest level is directly related to and thinks that achieving the cognition of “Brahman
the understanding of the relationship between and Atman are one” is liberation. Sankaracarya, the
Brahman and Atman. Brahman is the core concept most influential ideologist of Vedanta, thinks that
of the Upanishad and even the entire Indian liberation can be divided into “gradual liberation”
philosophy. In Upanishad, Brahman is described as and “true liberation”. Gradual liberation means that
the noumenon of everything and the highest reality people’s ego will enter Brahmaloka for enjoyments
of the universe by most ideologists. Brahman is a after they die, which is not a complete liberation,
kind of consciousness in essence, but it is different while true liberation is achieved after eliminating
from those common ones in the world. Brahman ignorance, knowing spiritual self or Brahman,
cannot be understood as and described by common which is “non-body liberation”. Sankaracarya
concepts. Atman’s transliteration is Ateman, and it believes that human nature is pure, and true
is usually used with two meanings in Upanishad. liberation is to eliminate ignorance, know spiritual
One refers to “ego” or the individual soul, ie it is self or real Brahman. Two ideologists Prabhakara
taken as the subject of human’s body organs or the and Kumarila of Mimamsa in the 8th century or so
centre of human’s life activities for use, and the other had more discussions on liberation. They argue that
refers to Brahman. When discussing the Brahman liberation is that eliminating the proper dharma
as the noumenon of the world, many Upanishads and improper dharma according to the principle
will not use Brahman, but only use Atman, stipulated in Brahman’s scripture makes “Atman” is
and such “ego” is the so-called “spiritual self”. unable to return to the world of Samsara. Kumarila
Among the discussions in Upanishad on the thought that liberation is that “Atman” gets rid of
relationship between Brahman and Atman by many all the pains to reach the state of self-nature, also
ideologists, the dominant view is the so-called keeps the state of the destruction of body possessed
“Brahman and Atman are one”. They think that by “Atman” and unproduced body in the future.

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the world or life phenomena is nothing but the

separation and reunion of karma. With people
being in ignorance believe that there are everlasting
things, and pursue the eternal existence of self,
but finally fail to realise it, which is because that
everything is changeable, life is short, and there is
no eternal entity (Atman) in life phenomena. When
people pursue those things beyond their reach with
the ignorant opinion, they will confront all sorts of
troubles and pains. If people realise that everything
or life phenomena is preordained, changeable and
egoless, they will eliminate ignorance and not go
Statue of reclining Buddha, Nirvana Temple, Kushinagar for those that do not exist, thus, they will have no
greed. In this way, people can remove the trouble
Sankhya holds the opinion that Samsara is produced and pain, or reach nirvana or liberation.
by the combination of material entity - Prakriti and Hinayana thinks that if you want to reach nirvana,
spiritual entity - Purusha. Liberation is escaping it is necessary to become a monk and live the ascetic
from the world of Samsara full of pain. The way to life. It puts emphasis on individual liberation, not
be free from pain is to prevent their combination. on helping others for liberation. Directed against the
Yoga thinks that the process producing life or Vimukti in Hinayana, Mahayana puts forward the
everything in the Samsara is painful. The cause of concept of taking across sentient beings universally,
suffering is the combination of the observer and and it emphasises the unity of nirvana and world.
the observed. Achieving “Samadhi” through the Volume five of Saddharmapundarika-sutra writes that
practice of yoga can eradicate all troubles and “For taking across sentient beings universally and
ungodliness to obtain liberation. Vaisesika thought showing what nirvana will become after life ends, the
that Samsara is the combination of “Atman” and Bodhisattva will not conduct the real nirvana”. The
the body, which results from the ‘invisible force”. sutra is to show that nirvana is not isolated from the
Invisible force is generated by man’s good and evil world, instead, lives in the world, which is because of
behaviours. If there is no invisible force, there is also the reason that Bodhisattva need to moralise humans.
no combination of “Atman” and the body. When the Volume 4 of Madhyamika-sastra, the main works
Samsara is over, people will get liberated. Nyaya of Madhyamaka, writes that “there is no difference
believes that liberation is to get rid of the pain in between nirvana and world”. The sutra emphasises
Samsara. Samsara is the existence of life form. The that nirvana is a spiritual or cognitive state relating to
emergence of the form is connected with the karma the world. In this state, people realise that all dharmas
produced by human behaviour, and karma relates are atyanta-sunyata, and don’t persist in any prejudice.
to mistaken understanding. In order to eliminate Mahaparinirvana-sutra defines a new boundary
the mistaken understanding, people shall get the between nirvana and world, which maintains the
correct knowledge. In the view of Nyaya, the correct independence of Buddhist sangha to a certain extent.
knowledge is related to man’s appropriate reasoning But from the view of Buddhism going deep into the
and debate, as well as thinking method. And such secular society, it is not as convenient as the theory
knowledge mainly exists in the theoretical system of Madhyamika, because “reality nirvana” theory
of Nyaya’s “16 truths” (16 basic concepts involving of Madhyamika provides an important theoretical
rules of reasoning and debate). By knowing 16 truths, basis for Mahayana going deep into secular society
people can eliminate the mistaken understanding to for religious activities.
reach the state of “highest good”, namely, liberation. Vimukti in Jainism: Jainism argues that liberation
Vimukti in Buddhism: It is mainly manifested refers to the state that jãva (soul) as the subject of
in its “nirvana” theory. The original meaning human or life phenomena gets rid of the Samsara.
of Nirvana (nirvàõa in Sanskrit, nibbàna in Jainism thinks that jãva can be divided into two kinds
Pali) is “extinguishing”. In Buddhism, its main - jãva being in Samsara and jãva achieving liberation.
meaning is removing troubles to achieve the The former is bound, while the latter is unbound.
highest state without any troubles, ie to obtain The reason that jãva gets into Samsara and is bound
the supreme consciousness or liberation. is that the materials of karma produced by the
Although various schools of Buddhism all discuss behaviour of body, words and thoughts flow into it,
nirvana, the interpretations of nirvana are different. making jãva and material combine to form the body,
Buddhism believes that the world is full of pain, from birth to death. Such material flowing into jãva is
which is directly related to man’s greed or desire, called a 'leak'. For liberation, it is necessary to destroy
and desire comes from ignorance. Everything in the leak and make jãva free from the material. For

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ways to destroy the leak or to achieve liberation, the In modern China, India’s Vimukti still has some
main scripture of Jainism - Tattvarthadhigama thinks impacts on the Chinese public, and this concept in
that jãva can get rid of the yoke of the material to Buddhism still plays a major role. The Vimukti is
reach liberation by relying on “three treasures” of also attached great importance in modern Chinese
Jainism, namely - correct faith, correct wisdom and academic circle, and is given the special attention
correct behaviour. in study of Indian religious culture. Many papers
Spread and influence in China: Vimukti was on this aspect are often published in Chinese
introduced into China with Buddhism. Chinese academic journals, and China has even published the
translation of Mahaparinirvana-sutra and other monograph on such contents.
Buddhism scriptures provide direct discussions on (Yao Weiqun)
the concept of nirvana of Buddhism, and there are
also many discussions on nirvana or liberation in
Indian Buddhism. In China, Vimukti in Mahayana PERSONALITIES
is the most prevalent. The understanding of Indian
Vimukti by the Chinese mainly refers to being LaoZi
Buddha or enlightenment, which can be reflected Laozi's dates of birth and death have been hitherto
from some main sects of Buddhism in China. The debatable. His family name being Li, with given
dominant one among Chinese Buddhist sects is name of Er, and another version of his cognomen is
dhyana, and its Altar Sutra puts forward that, “The Lao Dan. He is creator of Taoism School of Learning,
Buddhadharma is here in the world, enlightenment and a great thinker of the Spring and Autumn Period.
is not apart from the world”, which shows the basic
opinion of Chinese Buddhism on liberation or being Brief biographic notes
Buddha, namely, enlightenment or liberation shall Based on Collected Biographies of Laozi and Han Fei
be conducted in the world. Pure land sect advocates of the Historical Records by Sima Qian, Laozi was
some Indian Buddhist scriptures, and takes the a native of Qurenli of the town of Lixiang, the Ku
rebirth in West Pure Land as the main content of County, the State of Chu (presnt-day Taiqinggong
liberation. Other Chinese Buddhist sects often take Town, Luyi County, He’nan Province). It is said
the realisation of greatest wisdom of Buddhist that at his birth date his hair was snow-white, and
scriptures as the state of liberation. These thoughts hence the cognomen of Laozi, an old man. He was
about liberation are widely spread in China and once the head of imperial archive and library of the
exert a profound influence on Chinese culture. Eastern Zhou Dynasty, in charge of state-collected
In addition to Buddhism, Indian thoughts introduced books, maps, archive and documents. Confucius
into China also include Brahmanism thought. These is known to ask him for advice on the rites of the
thoughts also include Vimukti. Some important Zhou Dynasty. Laozi had these to say to him: What
literatures (Hiran Yasaptati and Vais/es!ika-das/a- you asked about the man and the rites initiated by
pada^rtha-prakaran!a) of Samkhya and Vaisesika in him no longer exist, even his bones are decaying,
Brahmanism Astikya were translated into Chinese only his words still ring in our ears. If a man of
in ancient China, making the Chinese gain some honour’s fortune turns, he could get on cart to
knowledge of basic thoughts of Indian Brahmanism accept official appointment, but if he lives at the
philosophy about liberation. These thoughts and wrong time, then his lot is like a piece of fluffy grass
Buddhism thoughts produce influence on Chinese that would be gone with the wind. I’m told that
culture to some extent, and are the important contents a good businessman will stash and hide away his
of cultural exchange between ancient India and China. stock of goods, and only present to the outsiders
the facade of seemingly empty warehouse, so
is the man of honour’s way of doing things, who
possesses noble and gracious moral character with
modest appearance as if the dull and stupid. To
cast away your conceit and excessive desire, and
abandon your affected look and outgrown ambition
which would bring nothing good to yourself .That’s
all for what I can offer you as an advice. These
words reveal Laozi’s attainment of virtue, that is,
an advocate of being ready to make change for
adaptability and conservatively receding to have
fewer desires. Confucius highly admires nobility of
Laozi as he comments: Today I have a chance to see
Nagarjuna's theories Laozi, isn’t he a loong (means: king-size gentleman)

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foundation to create Change Sect, constructed

with “Dao” as core also by summing up his own
experiences. He attempted to sum up the unitarity
and essence of cosmic inventory, and cosmic
ontology existed not in the vast heaven and earth,
but resided in the minds of people. Dao as natural
property of cosmic inventory is antecedent to the
existence of Heaven and Earth as he said, “There
was something formless yet complete. They existed
earlier than Heaven and Earth. Silent and empty, it
relies on nothing, moving around forever. We may
regard it as the Mother of all things. I do not know its
name, so I name it as Dao.” ( Quoted from Chapter
25. And all quotations hereinafter are referred only
to the chapter number.) Universe is all evolved into
Laozi being through Dao, as he said, “Dao begets the One;
the One consists of Two in opposition - the Yin and
Historian Sima Qian also described him as a man Yang; the Two begets the Three; the Three begets all
of moral excellence and extensive learning but in things of the world,” (chapter XXXXII). Moreover,
low profile with fervent intent of not seeking to be Laozi considers Dao as general basis for the comic
known to the outside. After having stayed there for existence, believing all things within the Heaven
long and having witnessed declining of the Zhou and Earth take shape and grow through Dao. He has
House, Laozi finally decided to leave the capital. the connotation of objective laws, and everything
When he arrived at Hangu Pass, he was stopped in the universe and including social and human
and requested by the pass officer Yinxi to write a affairs are governed by Dao, as he said, “Man takes
book. That is the origin of the book of our having Earth as his model; Earth takes Heaven as its model;
today; it is in two parts, elaborating the concepts of Heaven takes Dao as its model; Dao takes what is
Dao and De totalling over 5,000 characters. After natural as its model,” (chapter XXV). Whereas, Dao
he completed and handed over his book, he was is beyond human’s vision and perception, “What
allowed to pass through Hangu Pass and hitherto cannot be seen is called ‘YI’ without colour; what
gone into reclusion, and his whereabouts have never cannot be heard is called ‘Xi’ without sound; what
been heard of since. In view of the above, Laozi cannot be touched is called ‘Wei’ without shape;
should have been Lao Dan who lived in the end these three things can be in no way defined, so
period of the Spring and Autumn, and was senior in they are combined into one,” (chapter XIV). Dao
age to Confucius. Although Sima Qian was inclined exists independently without being hooked on any
to this version, yet there has been no consensus of external things, and is moving perpetually without
this point. History after the Han Dynasty abounds let-up. “There is a thing formed in an integrated
with disputes on Laozi. The recent contemporaries manner, and born earlier than Heaven and Earth.
still believe Laozi actually is none other than Lao It is silent and empty. It relies on nothing, but it
Dan of the end period of Spring and Autumn, such is moving around forever. We may regard it as the
experts as Ma Xulun, Tang Lan and Guo Moruo. mother of all things,” (chapter XXV). In his mind’s
Whereas Fan Wenlan, Hou Wailu and others alleged eye, Dao features “nothingness” and “the shape
that Laozi should have lived in the Warring State without shape”, as Laozi defines in the Chapter 14:
Period. In short, there has been so far no firm and “It is categorised as Nothingness, and is called the
ascertained dates of Laozi’s birth and death while shape without shape as well as the image without
his life story is no more than brief record and substance. It is hence named as vague and dimly
narration highly scattered and fragmentary just visible,” which suggests Dao is the root of all things
like a swan’s footprints found on snow and mud; on earth and exists forever, but is so indistinct that is
nevertheless, description of his theoretical features beyond our visual perception, nor can be fathomed
by the scholars of later generations is, for the most or ascertained by our mental capacity.
part, highly similar. Laozi’s philosophy is rich in dialectics, believing
all things are in a perpetual process of motion and
Academic thoughts change, also contain mutually contradictory two
What it is prevalently referred to with regards to facets, putting forth the thought of interdependency
Laozi’s thoughts is the philosophical view reflected of two opposites, as he said, “Therefore Existence
in the Book of Lao Zi. His ideological system, by and Nothingness beget each other; long and short
inheriting the tradition of what it calls theory laying manifest themselves by comparison; High and low

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are inclined as well as opposed to each other; musical ruler ”(Chapter 75). Likewise, he views weapons
sound and singing voice harmonize each other; front as something ill omen (Chapter 31), opposes
and back follow each other,” (chapter II). And, he the provocation of war and creation of incident,
further considers that the both opposite’s sides can although he does not rule out all kinds of war
be mutually inclusive and mutually transforming, completely, yet he believes a stratagem of gaining
“Disaster hides itself behind good fortune; Good mastery by striking only after the enemy has struck
fortune leans against disaster,” (chapter LVIII). under the circumstances of “having no choice but
The law of motion for everything is to move and to use it”. He thinks that advancement of human’s
develop to the opposite direction, “Cycling is the knowledge level and improvement of material life is
movement of Dao” (chapter XXXX). He deems the an important root cause of disaster and crimes in the
movement of Dao as a circulating movement and world, “The more prohibitions there are, the poorer
ultimately will return to ontology of Dao, as he said, the people become. The more sharp weapons there
“All things, full of vitality, and finally return to their are, the more prevailing chaos thee is in the state.
own roots,” (Chapter 16). The more skills technique, the more cunning things
In epistemology, Laozi comes up with new ways are produced. The greater the number of statutes,
of understanding things, ie “deeper meditation”. the greater the number of thieves and brigands,”
He is aware of limitation of perceptual experience, (Chapter 57); “Banish wisdom, discard knowledge,
therefore he needs reliance of unique experiences to and the people shall profit a hundredfold; banish
experience Dao existence, and thereby he upholds love, discard justice, and the people shall recover
such an epistemology as it is rendered in this way, love of their kin; banish cunning, discard utility, and
“Block the openings of knowledge, and shut the door the thieves and brigands shall disappear,” (Chapter
of desires,”(Chapter 52), and “Know everything 19). He believes that abandoning knowledge and
without going out; and sees Dao of heaven without culture, virtue and morality, crafts and technique,
looking out of the window” (Chapter 47), and “I try human being shall be simple-minded and innocent,
my best to be in an extreme emptiness of mind; I and accordingly a great peace and order, stability
try to keep myself in a state of stillness. From the and happiness shall prevail. In social life, he made
vigorous growth of all things, I perceive the way criticism against reality in the end period of the
they move in endless cycles,” (Chapter 16). In short, State of Zhou, pointing out what was present then
we should calmly observe all unceasingly changing was dynamic process of retrogression, “Virtue
and moving things in the universe by getting rid comes after the loss of Dao; Benevolence comes
of human subjective consciousness, and placing after the loss of virtue; Justice comes after the loss
your body and mind in a void and empty realm; of benevolence; rites come after the loss of justice.
he so sticks to this view even so far as to put the Thus rites result from the lack of loyalty and good
understanding of specific matters to be antagonistic faith, and function as the beginning of the great
to the cognition of cosmic ontology, believing that - disorder” (Chapter 38). Such a retrogression process
“He who seeks learning must increase his knowledge is utterly detrimental to the humanistic cultivation
every day; he who seeks Dao must reduce his and social stability. It is true that Laozi also advocates
knowledge very day. He reduces and reduces until morality, but is differed quite distinctly from that
he reaches the state of inaction. When reaching the of Confucius and Mencius. The morality suggested
state of inaction, one can succeed in everything,” by Laozi prevailed before the benevolence and
(Chapter 48). justice, which is in a natural state. Confucius was
In political idea, Laozi stands for governing a born later than Laozi, and foundation of its theory
country by doing nothing that goes against nature is benevolence; Mencius, born even much later than
(ie governing through inaction, or non-interference, Confucius, further expounded benevolence and
or better still rendered in an English equivalent: justice; Xun Zi, the most posterior among the three,
Laissez-faire), and sees “small country both in terms attributed everything to the rituals; Han Fei and
of territory and population” as a typical ideal state. Li Si, the disciples of Xun Zi, revered law, cunning
The way of life he adores is a utopian dream, like tactics and power, from then on, crafty tricks and
“The dog’s barking and the cock’s crowing in one cheat have been surfaced openly, resulting in
state are heard in another; the people of one state confusion of people’s mind and social turmoil. In
will never have dealings with those of another, even this perspective, what Laozi says is true indeed.
if they get old and die” (Chapter 80). In political In his outlook on life, he believes, “No crime is
practice, he lashes out at rulers, pointing out , “The greater than greediness; no disaster is greater than
hunger on the part of the people is the result of the lack of contentment; thus the contentment of
exorbitant taxes on the part of the ruler, and making feeling content is an eternal contentment,” (Chapter
light of life on the part of the people is the result 46). Laozi loves the weak but supple, and disdains
of setting too much store by life on the part of the strong but brittle, believing only a man is open-

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but its influence still retained, as Wang Chong of

the Eastern Han Dynasty called his theory as the
one that though in violation of Confucianism, it
was still in line with sense of Emperor Huang and
Laozi doctrines. (Weigh in the Balance - Nature).
Taoism, combined later with folk belief, has become
a religion. The Taoism created by Zhang Ling in
his veneration to Laozi, as a local religion, keeps
surviving and stretching long and unbroken. Until
the times of Wei and Jin, Wang Bi and He Yan took
the approach of explaining Confucian classics with
theories of Laozi and Zhuang Zi, thereby assimilating
Statue of Laozi, Mt. Qingliang, Quanzhou, Fujian, China and giving play to the Taoist’s idea of Natural and
Inaction, integrating the Confucian ethical code
minded with moderate desires, could he be possible with the nature. Guo Xiang created new approach
to have easy survival and remain invincible, and he in the Chinese Ideological history - Metaphysics
uses metaphor of the property of grass and trees, by way of annotating the Book of Zhuang Zi. The
alleging, “While alive, a man’s body is supple; Annotation of the Book of Laozi by Wang Bi exerts
when dead, it becomes hard. While alive, grass and enormous influence on the later generations. After
trees are supple, when dead, they become dry and Buddhism made inroad into China, some scholars
stiff. Thus the hard and strong is of the dying sort; resorted to explaining and commenting Buddhism
that is why the army, having grown strong, will be with Taoist’s concept to make the dissemination
wiped out, and the tree, when grown up, will be of Buddhism easier. The disciples of Kumàrajãva
cut down. Thus the strong and big is inferior to the who was a famous Buddhist sutra translator were
weak and supple,” (Chapter 76). Therefore the way all versed in theories of Laozi and Zhuang Zi. In
to keep thing sustainably strong and prosperous accordance with the record contained in the third
is flexible with keeping low profile, as he said, volume of Dao Xuan’s Collection of Debate between
“Though knowing what is masculine, you are ready Buddhism and Taoism, it is quoted to the effect
to play the role of female,” (Chapter 28). that on his return from the trip of India and was
given interview by Emperor Taizong in the twenty
Profound impact to the later first year of Zhenguan Reign of the Tang dynasty
generations (647 CE), Li Yibiao was debriefed, reporting that
The Doctrine of Laozi, with profound and far- he had given introduction of The Book of Laozi
reaching influence, holds an important position in to King Kumàra in the State of Kàmaråpa (west
Chinese ideological history. Taoism was gradually region in Assam State, India at present) in ancient
taken shape after his death. Zhuang Zi said in India. The Emperor then gave edict to Monk
his works of Zhuang Zi - Cantos of Heaven, “Are Xuanzang to organise the translation of Lao Zi’s
they Guanyin, and Lao Dan? Aren’t they the cannon into Sanskrit together with over 30 experts
most erudite and great immortal in the ancient like Taoist priest Cai Huang and Chengying. They
times? Yes, indeed!” From the eulogy, it is clear read through the text five times, discussed elusive
that Zhuang Zi is addicted to Taoism, so after the key points, carefully researched into the Book
Han Dynasty, the doctrines of Laozi and Zhuang of Lao Zi, then Xuanzang began to translate Lao
Zi become prevalent hand in hand. The Interior, Zi’s classic only after thoroughly comprehending
the first and second volumes of Intention, and Pure the delicate and hidden connotations. About this
Mind of Guan Zi belong to this school of learning. grand translation event, real or just a legend, the
Tian Pian, Shen Dao and Huan Yuan who once answers given by different historical records are
visited, on their study tour, the royal school run by differed, but all records establish the truthfulness
the state of Qi may be the representative scholars of Emperor Taizong’s wish to the Book of Lao Zi
of this school of learning, and the famous legalist translated in Sanskrit by Monk Xuanzang in order
Han Fei was also influenced by their thoughts. In to have academic exchange with India. In the Song
the early Han Dynasty, the school of the Emperor Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, the Neo-Confucianism
Huang and Laozi prevailed and become the Court rejected both Buddhism and Taoism, but did not
Orthodoxy. Senior courtiers like Xiao He and Cao rejected intake of some elements from Taoism. For
Can are fervent lovers of this school of learning. example, Tai Ji Theory by Zhou Dunyi is the fruit
Then to the Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty when of partial assimilation of the thoughts from Taoist
Confucianism was made as an overwhelming Chen Po from Mt Huashan. Philosophy of Cosmic
Orthodox, Taoism had gradually been in decline, System Mathematics by Shao Yong is the hybrid of

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Confucianism and Taoism. That is why Cheng Hao zi, music from Changhong, and lyre from Shixiang.
described Shao Yong’s theories as the way of inner In the 25th year of Duke Lu Zhao (517 BCE) when
sageliness and outer kingliness, meaning both are the State of Lu was in great turmoil and Duke Zhao
sound in theory and practice. took refuge in the State of Qi, Confucius fled with
In allusion to the dissemination of Buddhism him to the State of Qi and became a retainer of Gao
in China, in the end period of the Eastern Han Zhaozi who was prime minister to Duke Jing of the
Dynasty, there had already existed the anecdote State of Qi, and thereby he could be able to be near
or legend about Lao Zi’s creation of Buddhism in Duke Jing of the State of Qi. When asked about the
India and enlightening the local habitants after he approach of how to govern a state by Duke Jing
had left Hangu Pass. To the times of Emperor Hui of of the State of Qi, Confucius answered, “Let the
the Jin Dynasty, there was a debate between Wang king be a king, the minister a minister, the father
Fu, libationer of Tianshi Daoism, and Shramana a father and the son a son.” And at the time when
Po Yuan about the supremacy of two religions, the Duke asked for his advice, the State of Qi was
from then on Wang Fu wrote the book about Lao in political quagmire and disorder characterised by
Zi’s creation of religion in alien land with the aim so-called the king being unlike a king, the minister
to belittle Shakyamuni. That book was expanded unlike a minister, with dejected human relations.
with additional 10 volumes by the posterities that As Confucius’ response hit his point, Duke of Jing
were used by the Taoists of various generations to intended to bestow the land of Nixi to Confucius to
elevate Taoism and belittle or discriminate against show his courteous reception, but was rebuffed and
Buddhism, and, was of cause bitterly opposed by aborted by Yan Ying, his prime minister. In the first
the Buddhists. In the times of Emperors Xianzhong year of Duke of Ding of the State of Lu (509 BCE)
and Shizu in Yuan Dynasty, there was a great debate when Ji, a clan member of the Duke, held dictatorial
on true and false of the book of Lao Zi, Creation of rule by overstepping his authority and followed by
Buddhism in Alien Land, followed by imperial court insurrection and usurping of power by Yanghu, a
ban of the Taoism books. And this book was on retainer to the Duke clan member, Confucius who
the top of the list of the books to be burned. And had already returned to the State of Lu, resigned
hence this book disappeared from history forever. from his office and concentrated himself in perusal
In the exchange between China and the West over of Classics of Odes, History (Collection of Deciphered
contemporary era, Lao Zi’s teaching has spread to Official Documentation of Earlier Dynasty) Rite and
European and Asiatic regions, arousing interests of Music and at the same time, was devoted himself
many scholars, thus furthering the development of to educational activities with great many followers
oriental and occidental philosophies. regarding him as tutorial master. In the ninth year
(Jiang Julang) of Duke Ding of the State of Lu when Confucius
was 51 years old, Gongsun Buniu intended to
Confucius rebel against Ji by virtue of City Fei and sent for
Confucius (551 BCE-479 BCE), with given name lobbying Confucius. Confucius would love to go,
of Qiu, also styled Zhongni, is a great thinker but did not make it. At the same year, Duke Ding
in the spring and autumn period and founder of appointed him the head of Zhongdu. He managed
Confucianism. administrative affairs with Virtue and Rite, making
all surviving spouse, orphanage and helpless people
Brief biographic notes there in their respective proper place, with social
His ancestors had been members of the ducal house morality much improved; in one year term of office,
of the State of Song, which was descended from the his performance attracted the neighboring localities’
royal house of Shang, the dynasty that had preceded governors to emulate his way of governance. He was
the Chou, and migrated to the State of Lu because of then promoted successively to the posts of Minister
political and social turmoil. His father, named Shu of Water Conservancy & Construction, and Minister
Liangho, was governor of Zou in State of Lu. His of Justice. In the 10th year of Duke Ding’s reign, he
mother’s family name was Yan. Confucius was born assisted Duke Ding to meet with Marquis of the Qi
in Zou Yi, Changpingxiang of State of Lu (Qufu, State at the place of Jiagu and tactfully reclaimed the
Shandong present-day) on lunar August 27, the 22nd lost territory of the Lu State. In the 12th year of Duke
year of Duke Lu Xiang (551 BCE). When he was a Ding’s reign, he recommended his disciple Zilu as
kid, he loved to hold make-believe temple rituals as head of clan members. In order to concentrate power
a game, and when he grew up, he once served the on family of prince, and consolidate prince’s ruling
State of Lu, on several occasions, as petty official of position for Duke Ding, he suggested enforcement of
the same category like master of ceremony, granary the policy of dismantling three cities’ wall of which
keeper and livestock tender. Later, he was on study the dimension and scale exceeded royal formality, ie
tour to other ducal states, learning rituals from Lao- the role-violating city walls of City Fei, City Cheng

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and City Hou, thus weakening the powers of the

three big families of Ji Sun Si, Meng Sun Si and
Shu Sun Si. Although his move was not completely
succeeded, yet it reclaimed the partial usurped
power from them, thus strengthening the authority
of prince family. In the 14th year of Duke Ding’s
Reign (496 BCE), Confucius held concurrently the
offices of Minister of Justice and Prime Minister,
and in an ensuing three months, the State of Lu
was put in great universal peace and order. Later,
resented from the domineering behavior of ruling
official Ji Huanzi, Confucius resigned from his posts
and toured around the other States of Wei, Song,
Chen, Cha and Chu. In transit to State of Kuang, he
was mistaken by the local people as Yanghu and
consequently besieged; in State of Song, he was
narrowly killed by Sima Huantui, the War Minister
of that State; and when he and his followers were Kongzi/Confucius
besieged and trapped in the place between the State
of Chen and the State of Cha, he almost starved to moral cultivation, and engaged in educating those
death. In spite of all sorts of hardships and perils, promising budding talents. Since then, it started
he always remained the mood of “seeking pleasure fashion of private teaching. It is reputed that he had
in order to free himself from care without knowing 3,000 disciples among whom 72 were sages versed
the insidious approach of old age”, which suggests in the Six Classics.
his mental cultivation of being content with what
one is, would never wear away even in his displaced His academic views
drifting life. In the 11th year of Duke Ai of the State Ancient Literati commentators said that what
of Lu (484 BCE) he returned to the State of Lu at Confucius did in his lifetime academic efforts was his
the age of 68. In ensuing years, he did not seek any editing and revising the Book of Odes and the Book
appointment in officialdom and began to annotate of History, finalising the Book of Rites and the Book
the Book of History (deciphered earlier dynasty of Music, annotation and commenting on the Book
documentation), revise and reform the Book of of Change and composing of the Spring and Autumn
Rites, edit and revise the Book of Odes and Music, Annals. He laid emphasis on study, once describing
and annotate and comment on the Book of Change. him as being studious never tired of learning, so he
In the 14th year of Duke Ai, the State of Lu hunted was a man of very extensive learning with solemn
and captured an animal known as unicorn. But and refined manners, and was referred to as sage
Confucius deemed it as a sign of unlucky omen and in his life time. After his death, his followers are
hereby lamented that this world had gone to the dogs divided into eight different schools and gradually
with declining moral code and prevalent heresy and evolved into the Confucian school, Confucianism,
tyrannical rules, which denied him a chance to fulfill exerting a profound influence on scholars of the
his political dream. And therefore he started his later generations.
writing of the Spring and Autumn Annals, lamenting There are two cardinal concepts in his theory:
that, “Is it only the Spring and Autumn Annals from one is benevolence (or, humane, or humanity,
which you all would understand me and at the same or goodness, etc.) while other is a rites and
time find fault with me?” The posterities deemed rituals. Whereas benevolence is at the root of his
his composition of the annals as king-making knowledge foundation, from which all his doctrines
enterprises and endeavours of king without crown are thus unfolded and converged. Among the most
or government. In April of the 16th year of Duke Ai basic comprehensions of benevolence, it means”
(479 BCE), Confucius passed away and was buried love your fellow men” (quoted from chapter 12
in the Capital north of the State of Lu. Although his of the Analects, Yan Hui, henceforth wherever it
disciples did not wear mourning gowns according is quoted, only referred to title of chapter), while
to the rituals, yet they, with sad and sorrowful definition of “the benevolent loves others” (The
sentiments, resided beside his tomb for three years Book of Rites - Doctrine of Mean) is made on
running to demonstrate their filial piety. Among his basis of regarding benevolence as intrinsic quality
disciples, Zigong didn’t leave his teacher’s tomb for of human being. Confucius believed that the rite
his whole life. Confucius influenced the moral code is formed by the ancient sage with its function to
of the times with his own words, deeds and high restrain human’s excessive human emotion and

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thus conventionalise human being conduct within the essence of his answers never go beyond “love
the confine of moral code of conduct. That is why and respect”. He said, “The person to his dear one
he said “to restrain oneself and observe the rituals would never ill-treat others; the person to respect his
constitute humaneness” (Yan Hui). Only complete dear one would never be rude and arrogant towards
correspondence of one’s words and deeds with the others”, (Chapter Son of Heaven, Classic of Filial
rituals could one accomplishes the requirement Piety). Sages from the ancient time to the present
of benevolence. However, benevolence cannot be made their offsprings aware of the virtue of respect
attained by simply acting according to the rituals, by right of patriarchal awe-inspiring and made
as he once said that - “What have the rituals got to people aware of the virtue of loving people by their
do with a person who is not humane?” (Eight Row own exemplary role. But Confucius did not consider
of Dancers), believing if a man lacks of kind virtue the custom of which sons must obey the order of
in his innermost mind, he cannot make rapport father as the only filial piety. He advocates the filial
with others; understanding of human nature is piety should proceed from righteousness, and in the
not enough to correctly handle the rituals and time of imperative, frank criticism of father’s faults
accordingly attain the standard of benevolence. He is also way to show filial piety, and in his words, “If
hence put forward a concept of Doctrine of Means, father is doing something disloyal or unjust, it is the
deeming “Going too far is just as bad as not going son’s duty to offer criticism to his father, so is the
far enough” (Those Who First Studied the Rituals duty for court official to do so towards sovereign”
and Music), and asserting not going too far but (Chapter Criticism, Classic of Filial Piety).
reasonably far enough. So Doctrine of Means is not Confucius’ Analects not just touches upon the
just a kind of methodology only, what is even more aspects of benevolence and filial piety, the most
so is a kind of virtue that could be internalised, important aspect that is elaborated is way of
asserting the virtue of Golden Means is the virtue governance. Confucius’ response to his disciples’
of heaven and earth, and believing that the human question in this aspect in Analects preserves his
beings could only attain the rule of Golden Means attitude and viewpoint toward politics. Confucius
by taking rituals as yardstick as he said that - “What said, “He who rules the country by virtue can be
does it mean by rituals? Rituals are employed compared to the Polestar which holds its own with
to restrain excessiveness and overstepping so as a multitude of stars revolving around it” (He Who
to keep the interpersonal contact at the centre Rules the Country), suggesting the virtue is the
of moderation” (The Rituals - Confucius Home foundation for becoming a good statesman, as he
and Living). However, rituals change with times, believed that the kernel of political governance lies
believing “It is possible to know the regulations and in cultivating morale of the people. When asked the
rituals which the Shang Dynasty inherited from the reason of his not becoming involved in government,
Xia Dynasty, including additions and omissions. In he answered, “The Book of Historical Documents
the same way, we come to know those of which says, ‘Piety means being filial to your parents and
the Zhou Dynasty inherited from Shang. Therefore, being fraternal to your brothers; spreading this idea
should there be a successor to the Zhou Dynasty, it will exert and influence upon the government.’ If
is also possible to know the regulations and rituals that is so, why must I take part in government?”
even a hundred generations from now” (He Who (Quoted from He Who Rules the Country), Confucius
Rules the Country). Which means that the rituals of believes that holding a key official position is not the
the Shang Dynasty differs from that of Xia Dynasty, only conduit of becoming a good statesman, actually
and the rituals of the Zhou Dynasty is not the same good governance skills and ethical conduct can be
as that of the Shang Dynasty, however, the basic acquired through daily practices and interaction
tenet of rituals remain unchanged. Rituals are within human relations. “Sweeping before your
within human’s cognition, and benevolence could own door” maxim can be practised in daily life
be attainable, which hinges on key of desirability whenever and wherever. Confucius emphasised,
and determination of putting the doctrines into “Let them know the way of virtue and keep them in
practice. So Confucius said: “Is humaneness really so line with regulations and rituals” (He Who Rules the
remote? I have only to wish for it and it will come to Country), also he emphasised that, “Tolerance wins
me” (I Transmit). In a final analysis, attainment of the hearts of many; generosity gives one authority
benevolence is through seeking the cause in oneself to use others” (Yang Huo) and his objection to
and engaging in self-examination. arbitrary punishment of kill. In his view, the law
Confucius attached great importance to filial piety, and order of a society and country could not be
as it is manifested in his comments in this field in maintained merely by law and regulations, nor
the legendary Classic of Filial Piety. In the Analects, sustained merely by posing criminal penalty, but
he was asked about filial piety by his disciples, his should be maintained by prevailing law-abiding
answers differed from person to person, however, populace which is induced and nurtured with

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of their aptitude”. He takes stock on an inductive

teaching approach, considering the need of student
in quest of problems, who, in this way, through
tutor’s elicitation and illumination, could be fruitful
in study. In Confucius’ own words, “I do not try to
enlighten my disciples until they have tried hard but
failed to understand something. I do not supply my
disciples with any new vocabulary or put their ideas
into words for them unless they have difficulty doing
so” (I Transmit but Do not Create), To students, he
Kongzi composing poetry laid stress on “Is it not a great pleasure to be able
to practice frequently what you have learned?” (Is
lavish bestowing virtue and magnanimity from the it not), and “he is able to acquire new idea through
state governor. Thus it can be seen that Confucius’ reviewing old knowledge” (He Who Rules the
political theory is benevolence-based. Country). The knowledge imparted from teacher
Confucius takes a positive attitude towards life, could only be truly grasped through self-fermentation
regarding comprehension of one’s destiny as the and digestion, and then it could have comprehension
important realm. Nevertheless, he is never blindly by analogy, so to speak, when hearing one thing, he
self-confident and self-righteous, stating “The man could thereby know 10; therefore it is imperative
of honour holds three things in awe - the mandate to combine study with pondering, and in Confucius’
of Heaven, people in high position and the words words, “Learning without reflection will end up in
of sages. The petty-minded man, being ignorant of confusion; reflection without learning will end up
the mandate of Heaven, does not stand in awe of in peril” (He Who Rules the Country). The learning
it. He treats people in high position with insolence attitude in a down-to-earth manner is indispensable,
and the words of the sages with disdain” (The as he believes, “Say you know when you know, and
Head of the Jisun Family). His outlook on heavenly say you don’t know when you don’t, that is true
mandate pre-determines his attitude of leaving the knowledge” (He Who Rules the Country). Regarding
question open towards ghosts and gods, so to speak, teacher, he attaches an importance on role model.
phenomenological reduction. Zilu asked about In the eye of his disciples, Confucius lives up to the
serving the ghosts and spirits. The Master said, image of “never making groundless speculation,
“Why should one worry about serving the ghosts never claiming absolute certainty, never being
and spirits when he is not even able to serve the inflexible and never being self-centered” (Master
living?”, Zilu went on, “May I ask about death?” The Seldom), ie never conjecture, never be subjectively
Master said, “How can one understand death when assertive, never stubbornly stick to one side of the
he does not even understand life?” (Those Who First matter, and never consider oneself always right.
Studied). But he pays great attention to worship and He demonstrates the significance of teaching by
sacrificial offering, as it is evident in passage of He example with his own words and deeds.
had Eight Rows of Dancers that “When the Master
offered sacrifices to the dead, he did so as if they Veneration by Posterity
were present. The same when he offered sacrifices Ever since Confucianism was established its position
to the gods”, advocating “respect given to the ghosts as an orthodoxy, emperors from various dynasties
and spirits but keeping a distance from them” granted numerous titles posthumously to Confucius
(Ranyong). Obviously, his altitude is cautious. in order to manifest their respective reverence
In education, he upholds education for all people towards him. Here are just a few names: Emperor
without discrimination as he said, “In teaching, Liu Kan of the Western Han Dynasty in the first year
I take disciples of all backgrounds without of reign of Yuanshi (the first year CE) bestowed to
discrimination” (Duke Ling of Wei), and “I have Confucius a title of Honourable Baochengxuan Duke
never refused to teach any disciples who offered me from Ni Mountain; Emperor Xiaowen Yuanhong of
10 strips of dried meat”, which means such a gift the Northern Wei Dynasty (492 CE), addressed him as
presented shows sincerity of student’s willingness Cultural Sage of Reverent Father from Ni Mountain;
to learn. Confucius divides the human being into Emperor Yangjian of the Sui Dynasty (581 CE)
three categories according to their intelligent quote, named him as Master of Earlier Generation; Emperor
ie acquiring knowledge which were “inborn”, Li Zhi of the Tang Dynasty (666 CE) presented him
“through learning” and “learning with clearer the title of Senior Grand Tutor; and Empress Wu
targets in difficulty”. Different teaching method to Zetian of the Tang Dynasty (690 CE) gave him the
different students, therefor it needs the tailored- title of Grand Moral Duke; Emperor Xuanzong of the
made approach of “teaching students in accordance Tang Dynasty (739 CE) gave him the title of King

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of Cultural Eminence; Emperor Chengzong of the Confucius is the greatest sage of sacrosanctity!” The
Yuan Dynasty (1307 CE) increase for him the title appraisal of Sima Qian reveals the lofty position of
of King of Cultural Eminence of Great Achievement Confucius as a towering mountain in the mind of
and Sacrosanctity; Emperor Shizong of the Ming then contemporary. Worship of him by common
Dynasty (1530 CE) gave him the title of the Earlier people is not out of power and influence but out of
Sacrosanctity Master; Emperor Shizu of the Qing his theory passed down to later generations, which
Dynasty (1645 CE) honored him as the Earlier Master is urging people to be benevolent and popular
of Cultural Eminence of Great Achievement and with and supported by the common people. And
Sacrosanctity; then in 1935, National Government thereby the posterities adopted his thoughts as
of KMT respected him as the Earlier Master of Great criterion for scholarly pursuit. Sima Qian showed
Achievement and Sacrosanctity. his particularly high regard for Confucius by
Confucius holds an important position in the choosing a particular stylistic rules and layout
Chinese and world cultural histories. He and his in his Record of History, ie placed the biography
philosophical theory were highly valued by his within the category of aristocratic family. After
contemporary. Confucianism has become one of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Confucianism
the influential scholastic and academic pursuits as was made as a single authoritative official doctrine,
early as in the Warring States Times. Zigong said, and since then, voices to praise him highly are too
“Other virtuous men are like low hills that can be numerous to mention. Zhu Xi of the Southern Song
surmounted. But Confucius is like the sun and moon Dynasty once said of him, “If heaven did not give
that are insurmountable. Even if someone wanted to us Confucius, eons would be in total eternal night”
alienate himself from them, that would not harm the which shows his high esteem towards Confucius.
sun and moon one bit. It would only serve to show Ma Yifu, a contemporary scholar, quoting from
that he did not know his own measure” (Zizhang), Record of Art and Culture - History of Han Dynasty
which shows Zigong has the greatest esteem for by saying that “the sublime words would be
his teacher Confucius, deeming the semblance of extinguished if Confucius did not exist”, considers
his good and honest virtue with the sun and moon. Confucius’ position irreplaceable since his times to
Mencius also evaluated Confucius by quoting eulogy the present days in that his wise thought and theory
made by Confucius’ disciples, thinking that he is the are profound and penetrating.
brightest among the multitude of mass populace, and Confucius’ thoughts have been enriched and
has been the greatest man of moral cultivation since modified ceaselessly through the ages since the
the emergence of human being. It is evident that his Han Dynasty, to the period of the Tang Dynasty
eminent virtue has long been woven into the social and Song Dynasty, his thoughts were fused with
fabric of Chinese civilisation. The comments and Indian Buddhism and gave birth to now schools
eulogy made by his disciples and scholars of later of learning of “Neo-Confucianism” and “the
generations are perhaps somehow exaggerated, but Philosophy of the Mind”, thus raising the Chinese
it is clearly evident that these comments and eulogy philosophical intellectual enquiries into a new high.
are expressed from the bottom of their hearts. That is because of the fact that in the process of
Sima Qian, the greatest historian of China of all replacement of Sanskrit by Chinese language in the
the times, who follows school of Master Zhuangzi in Buddhism Classics, the logical thinking assimilated
his formative years, nevertheless, made comments from the language also gradually intrudes into the
in the chapter Confucius Family of his works, The men of learning who took Confucian classic as basic
Historical Records: The Verse has a saying, “a lofty language context, and even further, the Buddhism
mountain inspires a great awe from the beholders concept translated from Sanskrit directly became
and great thoroughfare of virtue attracts people to core concept of the theoretical construct of Neo-
emulate.” Though an ordinary folk cannot reach Confucian classics, for instance, “the Subject and
such towering high, he is forever longing for it… Object of Knowledge”, and “Body And Function”,
there are so many kings and lords, even sages, and etc. Such a linguistic and ideological blending is
they used to be honored and venerated at their life possible as Confucius’ thoughts already contain
time, but too many sank into oblivion after their potential possibilities. Xu Fancheng, a modern
death. Whereas Confucius was just an ordinary scholar, is thus able to recount Confucius’ thoughts
commoner, but his thoughts and works have been represented by Lu-wang philosophical school of
passed down to a dozen generations, avidly followed the Ming Dynasty, by basing on the philosophical
by the later scholars. From the Son of the Heaven, thought of Sri Aurobindo, a thinker in the Indian
princes and marquises downwards, there are so modern times.
many who alleged to have perusal of the Six Classics, In early 17th century CE, Italian missionary Matteo
but only at the hands of Confucius, The Six Classics Ricci (Matthaeus Ricci, 1552 ~ 1610) and French
are finalised and enriched. One may well say that missionary Trigault (Nicolas Trigault, 1577 ~

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1628) introduced Confucius and his works to West He was greatly influenced by the Islamic modernity
in Latin and French, respectively. Confucius and movement simmering there.
his ideas began to attract the attention of Western In the spring of 1849, Ma returned to Kunming in
scholars. From the late 18th to the early 19th century Yunnan as a Hajji and became an Islamic scholar.
CE, there were several scholars studying Sinology. He not only received much prestige and honour for
Legge (James Legge, 1814 ~ 1897) translated the his accomplishments, but also commanded great
“Four Books”, “Five Classics” into English which influence over Muslim Yunnanese as a high priest.
were published from 1861 to 1886. In 1867, he Settled in the Linan district (a Ming dynasty Muslim
also published a monograph describing the life settlement in Jianxian county) in south Yunnan, he
and thoughts of Confucius. Soothill (William preached to a large Muslim congregation at the local
Edward Soothill, 1861 ~ 1935) had long been mosques and school. In the time when greater Han
and missionary and educator in China, having migration and the Qing’s ethnic policies had started
translated the “Analects of Confucius” into English to alienate Muslims, his strong religious orientation
(1906), besides which he authored “China’s Three arising out of developments in Arabia began to
Religions” (1913) and other works. Thereafter, politicise the populace.
English books on the life and thought of Confucius In 1853, conflicts between Han and Moslem
continued to be published. The Indian intellectual miners increased, which by 1855 finally took the
elite had ample opportunities to read these English shape of a local rebellion, known as the Panthey (or
books. For example, an eminent Indian Sinologist P Hui) Rebellion, under the charismatic leadership of
C Baghchi wrote a special section in his book India Du Wenxiu. Taking the title of Sultan Sulaiman and
and China to talk about Confucius and his ideas. establishing the Pingnan guo [Kingdom of Pacified
(Jiang Julang) South], Du ruled from his capital, Dali, until caught
and beheaded by the Qing in December 1872.
Ma Dexin Ma Dexin initially worked closely with Du in the
In Sino-Islamic intellectual tradition, Ma Dexin Rebellion as one of the leading religious and military
(1794-1874), also known as Yusuf Ma, is widely leaders. He later shifted his allegiance to the Qing
recognised along with Wang Daiyu and Li Chi as Government and played the role of a peacemaker
the three brightest scholars of pre-modern China. between the state and rebels, propagating a
All of them contributed greatly to the spread of harmonic integration of Islam into the Confucian
tenets of Islam through the translation of original order. Some of his best writings were produced
text into classical Chinese using the vocabulary during this time. He was however, still considered
of Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism. They a rebel by the state due to his early subversive
were aptly called ‘Islamic Confucian’ scholars who activities. Finally in January 1874, two years after
produced a collection of Islamic and Confucian texts the complete suppression of Rebellion, he was
as the religious Han Kitab. arrested and executed. Some accounts mention that
Born in 1794, Ma belonged to the Hui ethnic he was poisoned to death.
minority from Yunnan province of China. The Hui As the leading Islamic scholar of his time, Ma is
are Chinese speaking and have been culturally most famous for producing first authentic translation
similar to Han except for their religion, which is of the holy Qur’an in Chinese entitled, A Direct
mostly Islam. In fact, the Chinese character for Hui Explanation of the Treasured Mandate of the True
[回] also signifies Islam. The educated among the Scripture [Baoming Zhenjing Zhijie 宝明真经直解].
Yunnan Hui learned Arabic along with Chinese. Ma His other important works reflect his exposition of
is known to have acquired excellent proficiency in theoretical and theological basis for the coexistence
Arabic and Persian as well as in Islamic texts. of Islamic and Confucian culture, strong rejection
In 1841, Ma went to Mecca and Medina to perform of incorporation of Daoist and Buddhist elements
Hajj. As the traditional maritime route was disrupted in practising Islam, and a positive attitude towards
due to the Opium War, he accompanied a group of Tasawwuf or Sufi mysticism. Of his more than 30
Muslim merchants and travelled overland to the publications, the noteworthy are A Summary of the
south reaching Mandalay in Myanmar, and then took Great Transformation [Dahua zonggui 大化縂归],
a boat down the Irrawady River to arrive at Rangoon Essence of the Four Canons [Sidian Yaohui 四典要会],
(now Yangon). He then boarded a steamship for the Record of the Pilgrimage Journey [Chaojin Tuji 朝觐途
Arabian Peninsula. After conducting the Hajj, he 記], Completing the Path of the Way [Daoxing Jiujing
stayed in the region for another eight years studying 道行究竟], Essential Discourse on Returning to God
at the al-Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt which (Huigui Yaoyu 会归要語]. His Arabic works include
was famous for Islamic studies, as well as travelling Tahqiq al-Salat [The Verification of Prayer], Akadhib
widely to places connected with the Ottoman al-Nasara [Lies of the Christians], Mushtaq [Yearning],
Empire such as Alexandria, Istanbul, Jerusalem, etc. Munabbihat [Stimuli], al-Muhkam [The Definite] and

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Asrar al-Ma’ad [Secrets of the Return]. To the Sino- the example of India to buttress the arguments in
Islamic intellectual tradition, Ma Dexin thus made a support of his own political views at that time.
lasting contribution. Kang Youwei many times expressed his
(Kamal Sheel) admiration for India’s ancient civilisation, which
he considered as “the ancestor of the European and
Kang Youwei American civilisations”. However he bemoaned the
Kang Youwei 康有为 (19 March, 1858 – 31 March, decline of this civilisation to the point where “a
1927) was a famous Chinese scholar, philosopher British trading company worth just 1,20,000 taels
and reformer of the late Qing period. He is best ruined India.” “India,” he wrote, “that spans several
known for the leading role he played in the thousand kilometres, has been caged by the British
Hundred Days Reform Movement 戊戌变法 of like a bird.” Much of Kang’s writing on India was
1898, which sought to introduce major political devoted to trying to understand how India had come
and institutional reforms in China through the to this pass. Initially he analysed that it was due
patronage of the Guangxu emperor. He was the to conservatism and a reluctance to change. This
author of the famous work Da Tong Shu 大同书, in view was perhaps influenced by his own views on
which he envisioned a future utopia encompassing the pressing need for change and reform in China.
the whole world. This book was completed during In 1898, even before coming to India, he had
written: “A boundless nation like India perished
due to its reluctance to introduce political reform.”
He further expanded his analysis of the causes of
India’s subjugation to include the disunity among
its constituent parts. He wrote: “I lived in India for
a long time, glanced over its modern history, and
tried to get to the reason for its enslavement; I
found out that it was the independence of various
states.” He saw that the British were able to utilise
the differences among the princely states to extend
their own domination.
In his writings on India, Kang Youwei commented
From left: Kang Youwei, Commentary on the Analects of
Confucius (front cover)
on social issues as well. He condemned the caste
system, saying “how abominable and absurd it is
to divide people into valuable and worthless!” He
a period of exile he underwent in India after the also criticised the colonial system of education,
suppression of the reform movement which he had warning that if education in India was conducted
pioneered. Kang Youwei was one of the earliest in a foreign language, the indigenous customs and
and most influential Chinese intellectuals to traditions were in danger of disappearing. In one
analyse and write about modern India from first- of his writings he mentions having “discussed with
hand experience. Gandhi and others” the division of Indian society on
Kang Youwei lived in India from 1901 to 1903. caste and religious lines. It is probable that the two
Although based in the hill station Darjeeling in the met in December 1901 when Gandhi had come from
northeastern part of India, he travelled to different South Africa to attend the Calcutta session of the
parts of the country. He visited India again in 1909. Indian National Congress.
We find more than 200 references to India in his
writings, some derived from his direct observations
of India and the Indian people, while others were
based on earlier Chinese writing. One of his most
important essays on India was entitled “Essay for
fellow scholar Liang Qichao and others discussing
the destruction of India due to its fragmentation”,
written in 1902. As can be seen from the title of
this essay, Kang was mainly interested in analysing
India’s situation as a country under foreign
subjugation, as well as the causes for it, so that Family photo of Kang Youwei, Shanghai, 1921.
(Middle row, from right): Fifth wife Liao Dingzheng,
his own country would not suffer the same fate. fourth wife Shi Gang He zi, first wife Zhang Yunzhu,
Like many of his contemporaries among Chinese Kang Youwei, second wife Liang Suijue, sixth wife
Zhang Guang, daughter Tonghuan. (Front row, from
intellectuals, he categorised India as a wang guo right): Tongling, Tongjian. (Back row, from right):
亡國 or ‘ruined country’. He also wanted to use Daughter Tongfu, son-in-law Pan Qixuan

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Kang Youwei pondered many times over how He inherited the tradition of struggle of the people
Indians would be able to secure their freedom again, of Guangdong and always aspired to the cause of the
but given the time in which he wrote about India, it is Taiping Revolution. He spent his entire lifetime in
not surprising that he could not really envision how the effort to transform China from a poor, backward
this would come about. Nevertheless, his interest in feudal monarchy into forward thinking modern
and links with India represent an important milestone republic, leaving behind an indelible mark of his
in the process of Chinese and Indians learning afresh achievements on the annals of history and precious
about each other in the modern era. heritage for his political successors. He received his
(Madhavi Thampi) early education in his native village in the traditional
learning of the classics. However, at the age of 13, he
Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan) migrated to Honolulu along with his mother where
Sun Yat-sen, (November 12, 1866 – March 12, he completed his high school and college education
1925), is one of the most prominent figures not only studying Western science and Christianity.
in the modern Chinese political realm but also a After graduating in Honolulu, he returned to his
political leader of international renown. Although native village in 1882 briefly to be married which
Sun Yat-sen in his many sojourns abroad during was arranged by his family. He later shifted to Hong
his lifetime, never actually travelled to India, he Kong to pursue his education in medicine. After
completing his medical training Sun Yat-sen went to
Macau to practice medicine but unfortunately, was
denied permission to stay there by the Portuguese
authorities. Thus he returned to Hong Kong where he
was witness to the treachery, tyranny and rampant
corruption of the Qing government. By this time
his interest in politics overshadowed his interest in
medicine which led him to begin his crusade against
the corrupt Qing government and to formulate
a bourgeoisie political programme which would
completely transform Chinese political thought.
This was the beginning of his political career
where he often aired his anti-government views in
speeches and had intellectual exchanges with other
Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan) reform leaders of those times such as He Qi, Zheng
Guanying, etc., forming liaisons with anti-Qing
remains an extremely popular international figure secret societies and preparing to form revolutionary
in the minds of the Indian people. There is even a groups. In 1894 he wrote a letter to Li Hongzhang,
street in Kolkata named after him. He referred to the Governor of Zhili, a high official in the Beiyang
India a number of times in his writings and speeches. government, in which is urged for reforms. Sadly
He thought India’s problems were similar to the Sun’s appeal fell on deaf ears. In 1894, he returned
ones in China during the pre-independence days to Honolulu to organise the “Revive China Society”
when much of the country was ruled by warlords which promised to “expelling the Manchus and
and feudal lords. restoring China and forming a unified government.
He is credited with being the pioneer of the In February of the following year, the local patriotic
democratic revolution in modern China, the founder intellectuals of Hong Kong organised the “Fu Ren
of the Republic of China and the Chinese Nationalist Literary Society” which symbolised the Hong Kong
Party (Kuomintang Party KMT), and the main branch of the Revive China Society. A secret uprising
advocate of the revolutionary programme “San Min which was to be organised by the society on October
Zhu Yi” or “The Three Principles of the People” 10 of that year was leaked to authorities and thus
and the leader to raise the idea of putting an end failed. Sun Yat-sen was forced to flee abroad. This
to the 2,000 year old monarchy in China and bring set the pattern of his life which was punctuated
about republican rule which ultimately paved the with unorganised plots, failures, execution of
way for the unification of China. He is hailed as the coconspirators, overseas wanderings and financial
“Father of the Republic of China” by the Nationalist backing for further coups (hostile takeovers). Sun
Government of KMT and as the “great forerunner grew a moustache, donned Western-style clothes,
of modern democratic revolution by the Communist and, posing as a Japanese man, set out once again,
Party of China. first to Hawaii, then to San Francisco, and finally
Sun Yat-sen was born to a peasant family in to England to visit a former school instructor.
Xiangshan County of Guangzhou Province in China. Before leaving England, he often visited the reading

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room of the British Museum, where he became

acquainted with the writings of Karl Marx. While in
exile in London, he minutely studied the economic
and political conditions of Europe and USA, the
various schools of thought in political theory and
got in touch with several Europeans and Americans
who were progressive in their thought. During this
period he formulated his distinctive “theory of
people’s livelihood” and “the three principles of the
people”. In 1897, Sun reached Japan where he spent
the next 16 years in exile like several other leaders
of that time. After the Reform Movement, which
was led by prominent leaders such as Kang Youwei
and Liang Qichao, there were some attempts made Front row: Sun Zhongshan (third from left), Huang Xing (second
by Sun Yat-sen’s group to work in conjunction with from left), Dai Jitao (Back row: second from left) et al., with
Japanese industrialists at the Specie Bank, Shanghai, April 1913.
the reformists. But because the reformists continued
their support for the monarchy and were against the
revolution, Sun Yat-sen’s alliance with them could India which advocated armed struggle often sent
not bear fruit. missions to the far East to purchase arms. They often
Sun believed India became a colony solely sought his help. For example, Naren Bhattacharyya
because the English East India Co., “cunningly” (later M. N. Roy), who was a member of a secret
took advantage of the divisive state of Indian organisation in Bengal, and the special envoy of the
feudal society. His advice for India’s independence Ghadar Party in USA, Sachindra Sen (Sachindranath
was similar to that for his own country. He said Sanyal) and Vishnu Ganesh Pingle, had all met Sun
since India was crucial for Britain’s economy, “the Yat-sen in China. He did what he could in helping
British authorities would hold on to India with no them. When he was in Shanghai and Japan,
stone unturned even to the extent of sacrificing he helped Rash Bihari Bose (who had made an
everything else.” He also predicted that the Indian abortive assassination attempt on Governor General
revolutionary movement would not be smooth Hardinge in 1912, and had again engineered
sailing and urged the Indians to stay united and an armed uprising in Punjab and north India in
persevere in their struggle to end British rule. When February 1915 for which he was absconding) to
he founded the Zhongguo Tongmenghui (League escape arrest twice. He also maintained close
of China) in Tokyo, and started Minbao (People’s contacts and established cooperation with the well-
paper) as its mouth piece in 1905, he met several known Indian revolutionary Barkatullah. Indian
revolutionaries from India, discussed with them the revolutionaries greatly admired Sun Yat-sen. They
problems of anti-imperialist struggle and national also knew that he was an advocate for armed
liberation. He was the greatest inspiration for these struggle. It was but natural that they would seek
revolutionaries. These were the earliest contacts his help. Bose recorded the unforgettable memory
between the revolutionaries of the two countries. of how he had been helped by him in his book
At the beginning of the World War I, Indian entitled ‘The Revolutionary India’.
revolutionary organisations inside and outside When Mahatma Gandhi launched the non-
cooperation movement, Yet-sen had assumed
power in Guangzhou as the Extraordinary President
of the provisional government, ready to launch
his Northern Expedition against the war-lords. He
hailed Gandhi’s movement as the “awakening of
India”. In 1921, he said in a speech: “The Indians
have long been oppressed by the British. They have
now reacted with a change in their revolutionary
thinking... There is progress in their revolutionary
spirit; they will not be cowed down by Britain.”
He departed from his prepared text to specially
commend Gandhi’s doctrine of non-cooperation
while he was speaking and propounding the
doctrine of his own three people’s principles in
Sun Zhongshan and Song Qingling,
1924. He said: “What is non-cooperation? It is not
Guangzhou, July 1921 to supply what the British are wanting. It is not

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unification with all the oppressed people, especially

with India.
While Rabindranath Tagore was passing through
Hong Kong on the way to his visit to China in 1924,
Sun Yat-sen sent a person from Guangzhou to pay
him a visit and convey that owing to his illness he
would not be able to meet him in Guangzhou or
Hong Kong. However, he expressed the hope that
he might be able to meet him in Beijing, saying,
“Beijing is the life centre of China, the work of the
Indian representatives must begin from Beijing. I
will meet there at the first available opportunity.”
However, it was very unfortunate that he and
Sun Zhongshan and Song Qingling with naval sailors and officers
on the Yongfeng ship on August 14, 1923. Tagore - the two towering literary personalities who
bore special significance for their respective nations
to accept what the British are eager to supply. If - could not finally meet.
the British need workers, no Indian would work The Wuchang Uprising broke out on October
for them; if the British bring up a lot of imported 10, 1911 which soon spread to several other
goods for the Indian consumption, the Indians provinces. Sun Yat-sen who was in the United
should refuse to use them, and only consume their States of America at the time, returned to China in
native products. In the beginning, the British had December after hearing the news of the uprising.
taken this idea lightly. Through the passage of time On arrival, he was elected as the provisional
non-cooperation organisations had mushroomed in
India, and this greatly hurt the British economy,
hence, the British Government throws Gandhi into
prison.” He, then, called upon the Chinese people
to emulate the Indian example, become united and
act, “sever economic ties” with the imperialists.
He continued: “If all Chinese could emulate the
Indian example of non-cooperation... we will not
be cowed down even if the foreign powers resort
to the suppression of armed forces, economic
measures, and the presence of their people.”
Apparently it looked strange that a champion
of armed revolution like Sun Yat-sen would be Sun Zhongshan Memorial hall
favourably disposed for a non-violent and non-
cooperation movement. But he had a wide vision President by representatives of 17 provinces to set
to look at the strategies and tactics of the national up the provisional government of the Republic of
struggle from various angles. He dwelt upon the China. On January 1, 1912 he was proclaimed as
active and passive ways in fighting imperialism: the provisional President of the Republic of China
active, like awakening the national spirit, seeking in Nanjing. The abdication of the Qing emperor
the solutions of people’s power and livelihood, and Pu Yi was announced on February 2, 1912 ending
face-to-face against foreign aggression: passive, ie the more than 2,000-year old absolute monarchy
“non-cooperation, to weaken the role of imperialists, in China.
hence safeguarding the national position, avoiding Sun Yat-sen as the President of the Republic
the fate of total extinction.” While he thought that formulated and issued a series decrees designed for
the non-cooperation movement was an effective the systemic reform and progress of China. On March
economic weapon in fighting the foreign rule the 11, the provisional Constitution of the Republic of
people will have to resort to armed struggle to China was promulgated. However, soon due to the
overthrow it. Sun Yat-sen also advocated India- forces of imperialism and centuries of feudalism as
China unification. He wrote in 1923 that “All the well as the lax and weak revolutionary party itself,
oppressed peoples should unify their efforts to fight Sun Yat-sen was forced to resign from the post of the
against the tyranny of foreign aggressors.” “India Provisional President of the Republic on February
and China are the backbone of the oppressed peoples 13, 1912 to give way to Yuan Shikai. In the next
in Asia.” In deference to his wishes, the Guangdong year, he actively promoted people’s livelihood,
revolutionary government and the Kuomintang called for the adoption of equal land rights, and
Party adopted as one of their foreign policies the the promotion of industrial projects, personally

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Some of his important writings on India are to be

found in the 20th issue of Minbao in April 1908,
under the heading “Methods for the Chinese Indian
Alliance (支那印度聯合之法)”.
Some of his earliest comments on India appeared
in a discussion of the views expressed by his
contemporary, the famous reformer Kang Youwei.
He argued that the Indians had been preconditioned
to accept the British rule by their experience of
subjugation of other foreign rulers, particularly,
the Mughals. He wrote: “By the time the Mughals
unified the land, the Indian people had already
pledged their allegiance to different people. To be
owned by the Mughals and then be owned by the
British, what difference did it make to them?”
At that time, there was an extensive literature
in China on the wangguo 亡国 or ruined countries,
which sought to understand the reason for the
Oath taken by Sun Zhongshan on assuming the
office of the provisional president. apparent decline of countries like India. Like Kang
Youwei, Zhang Taiyan tried to ascribe responsibility
undertook the supervision of the national railways for certain qualities of the Indian people, which had
and making all efforts to borrow foreign capital for led to their subjugation, to their environment. As he
the construction of railway lines. But, as the power puts it - “Various objects quickly rot in the heat, and
of governance lay in Yuan Shikai’s hands, his efforts so the (Indian) people have little idea of ownership…
were of no avail. Precisely because they lack the idea of ownership,
With prompting from Russia, Sun Yat-sen arranged they think that everything is impermanent and
an alliance between China’s Nationalist and they cannot hold on to anything… Since their idea
Communist parties in 1923 to fight the remaining of possession is weak, Indians have generally not
colonial powers and work towards reunification. cared if their national territory is lost or if their race
The great legacy of this move was the cementing of declines.” At this stage, Zhang was convinced that
his role as the father of modern China in the eyes of
both the Nationalists and Communists. He still plays
an important role in the creation myth of today’s
Chinese Communist Party.
In 1924, he was diagnosed with cancer after
months of deteriorating health. He spent his final
days urging his followers to hold true the goals of
revolution through to victory. He died on March 12,
1925 in Beijing was accorded a state funeral.
(Sabaree Mitra)

Zhang Binglin
(Zhang Taiyan)
Zhang Binglin 章炳麟 also known as Zhang Taiyan Zhang Binglin
章太炎 (December 25, 1868 – June 14, 1936) was
a well-known Chinese scholar, philosopher and the Chinese people did not share such weaknesses,
revolutionary nationalist of the early 20th century. and hence, China was not in imminent danger of
He was known for his radical political views and becoming one of the wangguo in spite of the many
outspokenness, which got him into trouble with troubles that it faced at that time.
the authorities both at the end of the Qing dynasty A major change in Zhang Taiyan’s attitude
and after the establishment of the Republic of towards India seems to have occurred as a result of
China. As a writer and contributor to several his serious study of Buddhism while imprisoned by
papers, among them the Shiwubao and Minbao, he the Qing authorities from 1903 to 1906. In Zhang’s
wrote several pieces analysing the condition of writings, India is identified repeatedly as the home
India. During his exile in Japan, he appears to have of Buddhism, and Indians as Buddhists. In the essay
maintained contact with some Indians studying in entitled, “Method for a Chinese-Indian alliance (支那
Japan who influenced his views on India and Asia. 印度聯合之法)”, he wrote: “There are only two great

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Asian nations: the Han scholars in the East and the modern era, his importance lies mainly in his role
Buddhist scholars in the West… the world of the Han as the host of the Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore
owe a great debt to the exchanges across the Congling during his visit to China in 1924.
(Pamir) mountains.” In another piece on “The Indian There are two phases in Liang Qichao’s
people’s discussion of National Essence (印度人之論 understanding of India, which correspond to the
國粹)”, he recounts having had a discussion with an different phases of his thinking about the nature
Indian friend in Japan whom he identifies as “Dai”, of Western civilisation, and the challenge posed to
in which both expressed very similar views about countries like China and India by the West. In the
the importance of historical thinking to bring out early years of the 20th century, Liang was an admirer
the national essence of the people. He wrote that of Western civilisation. At this time there was
"When I heard my Buddhist friend say this, I knew extensive discussion among Chinese intellectuals
that the Han and Fan (梵) (Buddhist) peoples shared about the ‘ruined countries’ (wangguo亡国), which
the same feelings, and I was secretly overwhelmed had been completely subjugated or extinguished by
with joy (竊沾沾自欣幸).” external powers, and about how China could avoid a
After his prison term, Zhang Taiyan left for Japan,
where he associated himself with the Revolutionary
Alliance or ‘Tongmenhui’同盟會led by Sun Yat-sen.
In Japan, he recorded his impressions of a meeting
he attended there in April 1907 organised by some
Indian students to commemorate the 16th century
Indian ruler Shivaji. While in Japan his pan-Asianist
ideas also began to develop. However, Zhang Taiyan
was critical of what he saw as a growing trend of
Japanese hegemonism and gravitated towards the
idea of a Chinese-Indian alliance.
He expressed his support for the struggle of the
Indian people for liberation from British rule, which
he saw as part of their struggle to rediscover their
national essence. He wrote that - “if only the Indian Liang Qichao
people gained independence through one war, then
they would already surpass the level of British similar fate. India was considered as one of the most
culture, but they would not necessarily surpass the prominent examples of a ‘ruined country’, whose
level of culture of their own past." weaknesses had allowed it to come completely under
Although Zhang Taiyan did not have the the domination of a ‘handful’ of British. That Liang
opportunity to visit India, unlike his contemporary Qichao was a participant in this discussion can be
Kang Youwei, he was one of the prominent seen from the fact that his mentor Kang Youwei, who
intellectuals of early 20th century China who did had spent a couple of years in exile in India, titled one
interact with Indians and tried to understand and of his notable pieces of writing on India as “Essay for
analyse their views, particularly on the subjects Fellow Scholar Liang Qichao and others Discussing
of nationalism and Asianism. He was one of the the Destruction of India due to its Fragmentation”.
early intellectuals of modern China to espouse the However, later in his life, and particularly after
idea of a special bond between India and China witnessing the terrible destruction wrought by
that went beyond their traditional relations, based World War I, Liang Qichao became disillusioned
on Buddhism. about Western civilisation and what he saw as its
(Madhavi Thampi) emphasis on material progress at the cost of great
destruction and of spiritual wellbeing. He wrote
Liang Qichao that “of the methods of relieving spiritual famine,
Liang Qichao 梁启超 (February 23, 1873 – I recognise the Eastern – Chinese and Indian – to
January 19, 1929) was one of the most influential be, in comparison, the best.” His changed stance
intellectuals of early 20th century China. A disciple brought him into conflict with many young
of the famous late Qing reformer, Kang Youwei, he Chinese intellectuals of the May Fourth generation
later parted ways with his mentor on the path for (participants in May 4, 1919 demonstrations and
the political advancement of China. He was a multi- the radical New Culture movement of the time).
faceted personality and a man of many talents, who This formed the background to Liang Qichao’s role
can be considered as the father of both modern during Rabindranath Tagore’s visit to China.
journalism and modern historiography in China. In As President of the Beijing Lecture Association
the history of India-China cultural contacts in the (Jiangxueshe 讲学社), Liang formally invited

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love, which recognised inseparability between

all beings.” Elaborating what China had learned
from India in various spheres of art and culture,
literature, science and medicine, and religion and
philosophy, Liang concluded that “Indian thought
has been entirely assimilated into our own world of
experience and has become an inalienable part of
our consciousness.”
Liang Qichao is also credited with having given
the Indian poet his Chinese name Zhu Zhendan
Rabindranath Tagore (2nd from left) and
Liang Qichao (2nd from right) at Beihai Park, on his 64th birthday. Explaining the significance
Beijing in 1924 of the Chinese characters which made up this
name, Liang went on to say: “I wish the revival
Tagore to China to deliver a series of lectures. of the old friendship between the Indian and the
As his host, Liang accompanied Tagore during Chinese people in this person whose name is Zhu
much of his visit. His speech welcoming Tagore Zhendan.” Liang’s warm sentiments for Tagore and
provides one of the most eloquent statements his wholehearted avowal of the virtues of Indian
by a Chinese intellectual in modern times of the civilisation were sharply attacked by several other
spiritual and cultural debt that China owed to intellectuals at the time. Nevertheless, he gave
its ‘nearest and dearest brother’ India. Liang eloquent expression to the idea of the ancient
said: “Across our south-western boundary, there spiritual and cultural ties between India and China.
was a great and cultured country, India. Both in (Madhavi Thampi)
character and geography, India and China are like
twin brothers. Before most of the civilised races Swami Vivekananda
became active, we two brothers had already begun Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902 CE) was an
to study the great problems that concern the whole Indian modern philosopher, religious reformer,
of mankind. We had already accomplished much and pioneer of Indian nationalism. His name was
in the interests of humanity. India was ahead of paraphrased to be “Identification of Joy” and
us and we, little brother, followed behind. But transliterated as Swami Vivekananda. He was
nature had not been kind. She had placed between born in the Kshatriya caste in Calcutta in 1883.
us a vast area of unfeeling desert and two great He graduated from Calcutta Provincial Academy,
ranges of cruel snowy peaks, which separated and in the following year he was transferred to
us for thousands of years. It was not until 2,000 the City College of Calcutta, where continued his
studies in law. In college, Vivekananda once had
keen interest in Western philosophy and had read
the works of Hegel, Kant, Descartes, Spencer and
others. After graduation, due to social influence, he
gave up his dream of being a judge and followed
Ramakrishna, the Hinduism reformer, as his guide
and was determined to throw himself into the
Indian religious reform movement. Since 1888, he
spent five years in the identity of mendicant monk,
Liang Qichao roaming all over India and extensively contacting
the masses to understand their needs. In 1893, he
years ago that we were given gradually to know broke the canon of Hinduism forbidding Hindus
that we had a very good elder brother on the travelling overseas and went alone to Chicago,in
earth.” In a similarly lyrical vein, he went on to the United States of America. Here, he attended
say: “India has taught us to embrace the idea of the World Conference of Religions. At the meeting,
absolute freedom, that fundamental freedom of his excellent speeches won the attention of the
mind, which enables us to shake off all fetters of meeting attendants on this young Hinduism scholar.
past traditions and habits as well as the present After the meeting, he was employed by Harvard
customs of a particular age. India also taught us University, Columbia University as a lecturer of
the idea of absolute love, that pure love towards Eastern philosophy and made dozens of speeches
all human beings which eliminates all obsessions regarding Indian Vedanta philosophy throughout
of jealousy, anger, impatience and disgust, which the United States of America, which were popular
expresses itself in deep pity and sympathy for the in the American intellectual circles. Here, he also
foolish, the wicked and the sinful, that absolute published a number of papers on Indian philosophy,

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position, quantity and quality. It is the basis of

the entire universe, any phenomena in the world,
regardless of the nature, human society or human
thinking activity, are all Bráhman’s manifestations.
While expounding the issue of the formation of
the world, Vivekananda advocated that Bráhman
manifested (or created) the world through the
media of time, space and causality. Time, space and
causality were like a mirror. Bráhman manifested
all things in the world with the aid of reflections
in this mirror. The universe includes not only
the physical world, but also the mental world or
spiritual world. The relationship between material
world and spiritual world was not the relationship
between primary and secondary, but a parallel and
juxtaposed relationship, of which both originated
from Bráhman. Here, he had changed the concept
of “Maya” in traditional Vedanta. The traditional
Vedanta usually regarded “Maya” as a kind of magic
Swami Vivekananda power, so the world manifested through “Maya”
was an illusory world. However, Vivekananda
such as Vedanta Philosophy, Karma Yoga, Raja Yoga, believed “Maya” was not a magic force or magician,
and so on. In 1896, he established in New York a but the real time, space and causality. The time,
“Vedanta Society” and began to spread Vedanta space and causality were real existences, thus the
thought to the United States of America. In the same world manifested through the media of time, space
year, he paid a visit to Europe, England, Germany, and causality by Bráhman was bound to be true. His
Switzerland and other countries, and had speaking interpretation of “Maya” enabled his new Vedanta
tour. In 1897, he returned to his motherland and philosophy to step out from the dilemma of the
welcomed by all circles in India. On May 1st of the traditional Advaita Vedanta, which believed the
same year, he founded in Calcutta Ramakrishna world was illusory, and could explain all kinds of
Mission Association named after his teacher. phenomena in the world in more scientific ways.
This organisation later became one of the most While explaining the material world, Vivekananda
influential religious reform communities in India. also changed the view of Vedanta and proposed a
In 1899, Vivekananda created at the foothills of lot of materialistic viewpoints by absorbing a lot of
Himalaya an “Advaita Vedanta Academy”, with the contents of materialism and natural science from
purpose to study and reform the traditional Vedanta Western philosophy. He believed that the world
philosophy. In June of the same year, he again went composed of constantly changing matter, things
abroad to the United States and gave academic differing in thousands of ways were all manifestations
lectures, then went to France to participate in the of matter. The whole universe was like an ocean
World Religions History Conference. Vivekananda of matter, all matters were in the state of flowing
died in 1902 at the age of 39. changes. Matter constantly developed and changed,
nothing was immutable, and kept on condensing
New Vedanta Doctrine or dispersing forever. He also emphasised that the
Vivekananda devoted his life to research and changes of all things in nature followed laws and
spreading of Indian Vedanta philosophy, he was moved in accordance with its own laws, there was
the first scholar who had promoted innovation of no exception. This view of Vivekananda broke the
traditional Vedanta, therefore he was known as negation of the material world of ancient Vedanta,
the initiator of New Vedanta philosophy. He took changed the direction of traditional Vedanta and
advantage of viewpoints of Western philosophy manifested the features of new Vedanta philosophy.
and natural science, made a completely new Vivekananda’s philosophy contains many
interpretation of traditional Vedanta. First, he elements of dialectics. He often talked about the
criticised Sankara’s “Illusory World” theory, unity of opposites and contradictions of matter,
advocated everything in the world were not illusory while he analysed the various natural and social
but manifestations of Bráhman. He believed that phenomena. He believed that all things felt by man’s
the world’s highest noumenon was Bráhman, also sense organ or imagined by man’s mind included the
known as “Cosmic Rationality.” Bráhman is a pure two forces of action and reaction, one force working
existence and has no differences of attributes, on another force, resulting in a complex and mixed

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man’s correct understanding came from social

practice and experience; there would be no correct
understanding without practice and experience. But
on the other hand, as a religious scholar, he also
often discussed about this issue from the viewpoint
of religious understanding. He believed that human
beings also had a gifted cognitive ability, which
was called “self-explanatory quality”; man could
take advantage of this natural “self-explanatory
quality”, through introspection or intuition to gain
religious truth, which could not be understood
through scientific methods, like the understanding
of the truth of “Bráhman”, the highest noumenon of
the universe or “Brahman is Atman”, and so on. He
Raja Yoga, Swami Vivekananda (front cover) believed that Hindus were the people with this kind
of 'self-explanatory quality', they could be finally
phenomenon. These opposing forces took the forms enlightened and recognise their inner “I’ were
in the external world of attractive and repulsive identical to Bráhman, the noumenon of universe,
force or centripetal and centrifugal force; take the thus came to realise the supreme truth of “Brahman
forms in the inner world of love and hatred, good is Atman” through intuition and meditation in a
and bad, and so on. The opposite phenomena were variety of yoga practices.
only the different manifestations of the same thing Regarding the issue of man, Vivekananda opposed
seen from different standpoints; they were two against the pessimistic view of traditional Vedanta,
forms of a whole. Regarding the topic of dialectics, and fully affirmed the role of man and the value
Vivekananda offered a lot of vivid exposition: of life. He did not regard man’s body as opposite
good and bad were not two separate and discrete to “I”, the essence of spirit, but complementary
existences, a phenomenon manifested as good to “I”. In his view, the ability of man’s body
now, tomorrow it might be bad; same thing might is much greater than that of any other living
produce pain for a man, while for another man beings. Although there are many animals stronger
might be happiness; fire could burn the child, but than man, also many animals are more sensitive
could also cook a good meal for a hungry man. The than man, however in the overall capacity, man
same nerve might produce a painful feeling, but also surpasses them a lot. He believed that because the
might bring the feeling of happiness. Life or death aspects of human body (including his physical,
and bitter or sweet could not exist alone, because psychological and thinking ability, etc.) were
some aspects inside them were just the different more organically organised together than that of
manifestations of the same thing. The concept of animals and showed a strong unity. Man’s reaction
life had already contained the concept of death; the to external stimuli is not like that of other living
concept of happiness also contained the concept beings, which is simply intuitive or mechanical
of suffering, and so on. Although Vivekananda response. All actions taken by man to react on the
discussed a lot about the phenomena of the unity external environment always follow a plan, with a
of opposites and transformation of contradictions of strong sense of purpose and selectivity. Man also
relative things, he concluded that contradiction and has a self-transcendence capability and can reach
transformation between the two contradicted sides beyond himself through his own efforts to achieve
were only relative, temporary, and their harmony a high spiritual realm. In addition, the emergence
and unity were absolute and eternal. of human brain and thinking system in a man’s
Regarding epistemological issue, Vivekananda body made a fundamental distinction between
believed there were two ways of gaining knowledge: man and animals and put man at a special position
one was through experience, another was through in the world. In his view, the human body is the
introspection or intuition. Human knowledge greatest body in the universe, a human’s existence
arises from experience, which we call rational is the greatest one in the universe; human is
understanding, ie the understanding is gained from above all animals, also above all angels, nothing is
the partial to the general or from the general to the greater than human. In order to emphasise the role
partial, also based on experience. Without experience of human, Vivekananda even regarded the man’s
nothing can be understood. Scientific research is inner “I” or soul as “God” or “Divinity”, regarded
an understanding based on man’s experiences. In the man’s body as a “temple of God.” He pointed
this regard, there were materialistic components out that it was impossible to find God outside of
in Vivekananda’s epistemology, he affirmed that our body. Our own internal soul represented all

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divinity outside of our body and our body was the differences and disagreements between the various
temple of the greatest God. religions. In 1893, Vivekananda proposed the ideal
The greatest contribution of Vivekananda in new of establishment of a “universal religion” at the
Vedanta philosophy was his opposition against Conference of World Religions in Chicago, with
pessimistic and reclusive view of life of traditional the purpose to eliminate the differences between
Vedanta, and fully affirmed the value of life, and different religions and to realise harmony and unity
encouraged people to act positively and realise between the world’s different religions. His view
the dreams of life through their own efforts. He gained praise and attention from the attendants. In
argued that every individual could improve his own his opinion, all religions believe in the divinity they
humanity to divinity, but this must go through their worship, though the divinities are in different names,
own hard work. Through practical action, more they are the same supreme eternal entity. Like God
good deeds and selflessly serving the community, for Christian, Allah for Islam, Buddha for Buddhism,
the humanity of a man can be transformed and Vishnu and Shiva for Hinduism, and so on, though
spiritual liberation could be achieved. If you want to these divine names are different, they are essentially
find God, first you need to serve the society; if you the manifestations of the same omnipresent,
want to gain strength, it is necessary to serve your omniscient divinity. Although different religions
fellow citizens. He asked his disciples to eliminate have different ways of worship and the liberation
selfish desires, do more good deeds and called on is achieved through different ways as well, however
them to the countryside to help poor farmers. To their ultimate goal to achieve is the same. The
realise one’s good, it can be only through doing ultimate goal of all religions is to make people free
from sufferings and to achieve universal human
love, harmony and unity between people. Although
the precepts implemented by various religions are
different, they all require their followers to do good
things and love others, have mutual tolerance and
help others. Vivekananda believed that the various
religions in the world had these commonness
or universality, which laid the foundation for
establishing a “universal religion”. He therefore
appealed to the followers of different religion
sects to break the restrictions set by the name of
religion and to eliminate the religious sectarianism,
to promote exchanges and cooperation between
different religions. He also called on people to break
the sectarian prejudices, without denominational
restrictions they could voluntarily worship and pray
to the divinities in the temple of any religions. He
also emphasised that “universal religion” is also an
Swami Vivekananda “action religion”, although this religion could help
one’s humanity to be raised to divinity, it required
more good things for others; to realise liberation, each person’s continuous efforts. Everyone must
only through guiding the others to the road of realise their human transformation through their
liberation. Vivekananda’s philosophy affirming the own actions and selfless work for the community,
value of life and encouraging people to positively to achieve their union with divinity. Regarding
act and devote selflessly is also known as the “Action the contradictions and conflict between Hindus
Vedanta Theory.” and Muslims in India, Vivekananda strongly urged
Hindus and Muslims to eliminate differences and
Religious Reform Thought prejudices and unite as soon as possible. He pointed
Based on the inherited Ramakrishna’s idea of out that to make our Motherland be stronger, India’s
“human religion”, Vivekananda further proposed only hope was the combination of the two systems
the thought of “Universal Religion”. The so- of Hinduism and Islam.
called “universal religion” took Hindu Vedanta
philosophy as the theoretical basis and was Nationalism Theory
created as a new type of religion which could be Vivekananda’s nationalism theory is one of the most
accepted by any religious sects all over the world, influential nationalist theories in early India. First,
as it integrated the commonness and advantages of he boldly exposed the hideous disasters brought
various religions in the world and was beyond the by the British colonial rule to the Indian people

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examination system. “(Complete Works of Swami

Vivekananda, volume 5, page 129)
Chinese people have started understanding and
researching about Vivekananda since the 1940s.
In 1946, Jin Kemu opened the course of Indian
philosophy for the Philosophy Department of
Wuhan University; he once offered the students
lectures about Vivekananda philosophy. In 1948, he
went to teach Indian philosophy in the Philosophy
Department of Peking University and also taught
Vivekananda’s new Vedanta thoughts. In 1979,
Swami Vivekananda Huang Xinchuan published his scholarly monograph
Research of Modern Indian Philosopher Vivekananda,
and actively promoted patriotism. He felt very which comprehensively introduced Vivekananda’s
sad when he saw the “slave-like weakness” shown life and biographies and discussed his philosophical,
by many intellectuals in India under the colonial social and political thoughts, and also analysed
rule, and advocated Indians need “iron muscles”, his role in the history of Indian philosophy and
“ steel nerves”, “giant’s will” and dare to resist the Indian national independence movement. In
any enemy. He proposed a programme of national another book written by Huang Xinchuan, Indian
rejuvenation, the core of which was “action religion Modern Philosophy, there was also a chapter
and unity of India.” He advocated that all nations dedicated to discuss Vivekananda’s philosophy and
and religions in India should unite on the basis of religious reform theory. In 1991, Zhu Mingzhong
Indian spirit, break the sectarian opposition and translated Indian philosopher Basant Kumar Lal’s
caste segregation, improve the labour and living book Contemporary Indian Philosophy (1991),
conditions of masses, improve the social status and the book included a chapter fully expounding
rights of women, popularise modern education and Vivekananda’s philosophy and Yoga ideology, so the
scientific knowledge, promote national culture, understanding of Vivekananda by Chinese people
develop industry and commerce to revitalise India goes further. In addition, there are also introduction
as soon as possible. He also designed a beautiful about Vivekananda in the Encyclopedia of Chinese
blueprint for the future of India. He believed that Philosophy Volume (1987) and the Dictionary of South
Indian spiritual philosophy and religious culture Asia (1998).
were the best in the world, the European science The main works of Vivekananda include: Vedanta
and technology, production methods and liberal Philosophy, Spirit of Vedanta and Its Influence, Practical
democratic political system were also models for Vedanta, Buddhism and Vedanta, Vedanta Philosophy
other countries to learn, so the best social model and Christianity, Reason and Religion, Religion and
in the future should be a combination of these two, Science, Indian Religion, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga and
namely the society combined by “Indian religion” Bhakti Yoga and so on.
and “European production mode and liberal (Zhu Mingzhong)
democratic system”. Vivekananda’s nationalism
theory had exerted a significant influence on the Aurobindo
later Indian nationalist movement. Aurobindo Ghose (1872 ~ 1950), Indian modern
philosopher and the early Indian national
Chinese Study on Vivekananda independence movement leader, was born in an
In 1893, Vivekananda had been to China on his honourable family in the suburb of Calcutta, with
way to Chicago to attend the World Religions Brahmin caste. His grandfather was a knowledgeable
Conference. He visited Guangzhou, Hong Kong scholar, his father was a famous doctor in local and
and other places and had certain understanding of his maternal grandfather La Narayan Bose was a
China. In addition, he was very concerned about famous scholar and enlightenment thinker. At the
the history and current situation of China, there age of seven, Aurobindo Ghose went to UK to study,
were many discussions about China in his works, at first he studied at the tutor’s home, and then was
like he said, “Though today’s China seems like an enrolled in the St. Paul’s School in London and King’s
unorganised group, however in her great prime College of Cambridge University studying literature.
period, she had the most enviable organisation not He had a good command of Latin, Greek, English,
known to any country. A lot of skills and creation French, German and other languages and read a lot
which we may call as modern have been carried of Western classical and modern masterpieces of
out centuries or even thousands of years ago in philosophy and literature. When Aurobindo Ghose
China. One example is the competitive imperial was in Cambridge University, he once participated

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in an Indian student organisation with patriotic known as the “Spiritual Evolution”) in the world.
thoughts, and was influenced deeply by the ideology Here the meaning of “integral” is “comprehensive”,
of Hindu nationalism. In 1893, Aurobindo Ghose the so-called “Integral Vedanta” was in the
returned to India and was appointed as a professor succession of the “tat tvam asi” principle of Advaita
by the University of Baroda to teach English and in ancient Vedanta, Aurobindo at the same time
French literature, later he was promoted to be integrated a variety of Vedanta doctrines together,
the vice president. During his teaching career, eliminated the differences between them and
he actively participated in the activities of the reconciled the essence in a whole. In addition, he
Congress Party, and wrote articles criticising the also reconciled various opposite concepts in the
moderate improvement route proposed by the ancient Vedanta philosophy, such as the Bráhman
leaders of the Congress Party. In 1905, when India’s and the world, one and more, clear and avidya
national independence movement reached a climax, etc., so they become the different grades or levels
Aurobindo Ghose resolutely resigned from his of the highest noumenon Bráhman. From the
professorship in University of Baroda and returned perspective of modern philosophy, people also
to his hometown - Calcutta, where he actively led call “Integral Vedanta” the “Spiritual Evolution.”
the people of Bangladesh in the “anti-separation Since Darwin’s theory of biological evolution was
struggle”. He organised demonstrations of patriotic published in the mid-19th century, the world has
masses, carried out Swadeshi movement, founded witnessed a variety of evolutionary theories to
the patriotic newspaper Salute to our Motherland to explain the development laws of nature and human
publicise radical nationalism ideology, and became society. Aurobindo’s “Spiritual Evolution” was a
the chief leader in Bengal National Movement and product of this trend. Although he had absorbed
the leader of radicals in the Congress Party. During some elements of Darwin’s theory of evolution, he
1907 ~ 1908, Aurobindo Ghose was arrested and thought this doctrine was ill-structured as it only
imprisoned twice by the colonial authorities. In explained the phenomena “existing on the ground”,
1910, he migrated to Pondicherry which was in without mentioning the existence in “heaven”
and “eternal”. Therefore, Aurobindo tried to use
the highest spiritual noumenon - the Bráhman of
India Vedanta philosophy, through the “spiritual
evolution” approach to link up the existences “on
the ground” and existences in the “eternal heaven”,
thus integrated the natural phenomena and super-
natural phenomena in a whole. The fundamental
characteristic of Aurobindo’s philosophy is, it’s
based on the inheritance of ancient Vedanta
philosophy, absorbs a lot of contents from Western
philosophy and modern science, and reconciles the
Sri Aurobindo Eastern and Western philosophy, materialism and
idealism, religion and science together.
India’s southeast seashore and reigned by French.
During 1914 ~ 1922, he sponsored the English Spiritual Evolution
monthly Aryan in Pondicherry; in 1926, he founded Aurobindo’s “spiritual evolution” (ie “Integral
the Aurobindo ashram. Aurobindo Ghose lived in Vedanta”) argues that Bráhman, the highest
Pondicherry for 40 years from 1910 until his death noumenon of the universe is a supernatural spiritual
in 1950. Here, Aurobindo was divorced from the entity and is called “Bráhman”, also known as the
mass’s struggle against the British, began to devote “cosmic spirit” or “cosmic consciousness.” Bráhman
himself to writing scholarly works, and contributed transcends time, space, quantity and quality, is a
plenty of works on philosophy, yoga, social spiritual entity unspeakable. Bráhman is the basis
development, literature and culture. He created the of the universe, the origin of everything in the
famous New Vedanta Doctrine - Integral Vedanta world. All the phenomena in the world, tangible
and Integral Yoga, and trained many disciples in the or intangible, animate or inanimate, rational or
monastery, through them vigorously promoted his non-rational are originated from this entity, exist
doctrines of spiritual evolution and social evolution in this entity and return to this entity. In his view,
to India and even the world, thus his ideology was everything in the world is the manifestation of
widely spread. Bráhman, and the manifestations of Bráhman;
Aurobindo occupies an important position in Bráhman is not only the origins of everything, but
the history of Indian modern philosophy. He was also the final destination of all things, that is, that
famous for his “Integral Vedanta” philosophy (also everything will finally return to Bráhman.

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down to matter. The descending process is a self-

deny for Bráhman, as it’s a process from the pure
spirit state differentiated to all things in the world.
In the nature, Bráhman is covered with a variety
of substances appearing and become the “potential
consciousness” or “potential spirit” with wrapping
shell. This “potential spirit” is hidden among all
things and has a strong demand for restoring of its
true existing, thus promote everything to evolve to
the pure spirit state. The rising or evolution of all
things is opposite to the descending of Bráhman, but
it’s also from one level to the higher level one by one.
The evolution starts from the matter, life is evolved
from the matter, mind is evolved from life, and then
super mind is evolved from mind, finally through
Aurobindo family: Aurobindo Ghose (front row,
the media of super mind evolved to Bráhman, which
1st from right) with parents and siblings, 1879 is reaching the highest spiritual level.
In Aurobindo’s view, the evolution of the whole
In the process of analysing the universe evolution, world is the self-descending and self-rising of the
Aurobindo regarded Bráhman as a “cosmic spirit” spiritual entity Bráhman, which is the process from
(briefly referred to as “Spirit”), this “spirit” is the pure spirit state transformed to be matter, then
divided into five levels or grades, from the senior from matter restored to pure spirit state. Aurobindo’s
to the lower level the sequence is Bráhman, super description of the process of Bráhman’s descending
mind, mind, life and matter. Matter, life and mind to the nature is quite similar to the process of
belong to the natural world (the phenomenal “absolute spirit” transforming from a logical phase to
world), while the super mind and Bráhman belong the natural phase in Hegel’s philosophy. For Hegel,
to super nature (noumenon level). Matter refers the “absolute spirit” is externalised or transformed
to various inorganic matters, ie all inanimate to be nature, in nature the “absolute spirit” wears
phenomena, which belongs to the lowest form of the material covering set by itself, and becomes
the “spirit”. Life means all living phenomena, such the thought or concept with a wrapping shell, it is
as plants, animals and so on. Mind refers to the hidden behind a natural matter but manipulates the
psychological and mental activity of human being; change and development of natural phenomena.
it represents human beings with thinking ability. In For Aurobindo, Bráhman, as a “cosmic spirit”,
Aurobindo’s view, the natural evolution seems that,
life is evolved from matter and human beings are
evolved from life. As the highest level of “spirit”,
Bráhman belongs to the supernatural; it is not only
the origin of everything, but also the end of the
evolution, the highest and the most satisfactory
state of everything. Super mind, refers to a special
spirit or consciousness transcending human being’s
thinking ability (actually, it refers to some kind of
mystical states of consciousness reached by those
who had a long yoga practice). The super mind can Statue of Sri Aurobindo
connect with people’s mind on one hand; it also can
be interlinked with Bráhman of the highest spiritual descends from higher level to lower level one by one
level, so it becomes a bridge connecting the nature to the natural world, also puts on the coverings of
and the supernatural world. How to connect the matter, life and mind in the nature and becomes a
natural world to the super nature through evolution? “potential consciousness” with a wrapping shell. It
Aurobindo believes there are two processes of the is hidden in the nature but promotes and controls
universe evolution: first through the media of super- the development and changes of all things.
mind, Bráhman descends or appears as all things in Aurobindo designed this evolution model of the
the world, then through the super mind, all things of world to provide the theoretical basis for spiritual
the world evolve up to be Bráhman. The descending evolution of human beings, and ultimately to find
of Bráhman is from higher level to lower level one a way to get rid of sufferings and obtain unlimited
by one, first Bráhman descends to mind from super freedom and happiness. He believed that the evolution
mind, then from mind down to life, finally from life of the universe had not stopped after humans

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appeared on the planet; humans with the “mind” of increasing knowledge, Karma Yoga emphasised
still had to evolve to be humans with “super-mind”. the importance of selfless acts while Bhakti Yoga
In his view, since all things are the manifestations of emphasised the importance of the devotional
Bráhman, then human is not an exception; human is attitudes and feelings toward God. Though the wide
also the manifestation of Bráhman. Thus Bráhman variety of yoga focused on the different aspects,
is also hidden in the existence of human in the they pursued the same targets and results, that is,
form of “potential consciousness”, and become the to combine the internal human spirit with Bráhman
to realise spiritual liberation. Therefore, Aurobindo
argued that the various yoga should be integrated,
absorbed the essence of every kind of yoga and
created a new yoga, which is “Integral Yoga.” His
integral yoga is, based on the principle of realising
man’s spiritual evolution, specifically, through a
variety of yoga practice, to wake up the internal
soul or spiritual nature of man, give full play of the
role of spiritual nature to realise the progressively
spiritual evolution of man’s body, life and mind, and
Sri Aurobindo presiding over a meeting of ultimately realise the man’s overall transformation,
the Nationalists, 1907
and become a man with “super-mind consciousness”.
When everyone has a “super-mind consciousness”,
spiritual essence of human. Although the bodies
between people are different, the inner spiritual
nature is the same. This spiritual nature has the
features of unity, harmony, love and joy. The reason
why man is selfish, painful and split is because of
his ignorance, failure in recognising and revealing
his inner, unified spiritual nature. The evolution of
man is through the introspective and intuitive yoga
ways to make his life and the others lives, even the
whole social life reach a unity and harmony, such
a man is called “superman” or “spiritualised man”.
The existence of a “superman” is still isolated and
his perfection could not be guaranteed. Therefore,
he must use his own wisdom and strength to help
and inspire others to have spiritual evolution. It’s
like using the first torch to light the second torch,
the second one to light the third one, and so on,
thus to realise the whole human being’s spiritual
evolution. At that time, people will get rid of the
shackles of ignorance, consider himself and others
same in essence, people will coordinate with each
other based on the same spirit and live equally and Aurobindo Ghose's home in London,
harmoniously. There will be an ideal state in the 1884–1887
world without pain, only blessings, joys, harmony
and perfectness. Aurobindo called this state as the relationship between individuals and between
“divine life”. groups will be in harmony, they will respect each
other and live harmoniously, the whole society will
Integral Yoga become a “holy family.”
To realise the spiritual evolution of man, Aurobindo
also proposed “Integral Yoga” theory. He believed Social Evolution
that although there were many kinds of Indian Aurobindo’s social evolution theory is the extension
traditional yoga, none of them were perfect, as and application of his “spiritual evolution”
they all emphasised the aspect of improving the philosophy in history field. His view of history is
body, while ignored the other aspects. For example, individual-centered and believes that the individual
Hathayoga focused only on the physical practice, Raja is the basis of society and the components of a
Yoga focused on inhibition of man’s psychological society, state or society is a community composed
activity, Jnana Yoga emphasised the importance of countless individuals. Therefore, the evolution

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is a further development of his “spiritual evolution”

doctrine. His so-called “improve ourselves through
internal free development” in fact, is introspecting
“soul” and experiencing the “spirit”, it’s a process of
revealing the potential spirit of nature. He believes
that social evolution, firstly is to gain self-perfection
through the internal development of the individuals
and the countries composing the society, then try
to help and promote the others or other countries
to perfect. On this basis, between individuals
and between countries, the real unity and good
coordination will be achieved on the same spiritual
basis; the whole society will become a “holy family.”

Chinese studies on Aurobindo

Aurobindo’s spiritual evolution theory and social
evolution theory exerted great influences not only
in India but also in the world. Many Philosophy
English Heritage blue plaque at Aurobindo Ghose's home in London. Departments of European and American Universities
open lectures on the Aurobindo’s philosophy. In
of the state and society is same as the individual 1960s, the Philosophy Departments in Chinese
evolution (behind the state and society there’s also a universities also began to study and teach Aurobindo’s
“spiritual nature”), that is, through the way of self- philosophy. Huang Xinchuan from Department
improvement to enable the inner spiritual nature be of Philosophy in Peking University set courses for
fully revealed. He believes that despite historical graduate students on Aurobindo’s philosophy, later
development is affected by the economic factors, he incorporated the relevant lecture notes into India
but in the final analysis it is decided by human’s Modern Philosophy (1989). The book introduces
rationality. Accordance to the development level of Aurobindo’s life and biography, and expounded
human rationality, he divided the human history
into five stages: symbolic era, typical era, agreement
era, individualistic and spiritual era. He predicted
that the ultimate goal of social development is
the spiritualised age or spiritualised society. In
the spiritualised society, people will realise the
unity on the basis of a common spirit and live a
harmonious and satisfying life; the unity between
countries based on the same spirit will be achieved
as well, different nations will respect each other and
interact equally and harmoniously. At that time, the
dream of uniting the human beings will be realised.
In order to promote the social development,
Aurobindo proposed a “social development law”.
In his view, society is composed by the three ‘Indian Modern Philosophy’, Huang
timeless factors of individuals, nations, and human, Xinchuan (front cover)

the evolution of a society must make sure these

three factors are satisfactorily developed. For his philosophy and social thought. In 1980s, Xu
individuals concerned, it is through the internal Fancheng, who went to India to study and practiced
free development to perfect their personality, at many years in Aurobindo monastery, returned to
the same time respect and help others to gain same China and was specialised in the research work on
development. For the countries concerned, it is also Aurobindo philosophy. He translated a lot of books
through its internal free development to perfect related with Aurobindo’s philosophy and yoga,
itself, and respect and help other countries to which included the Aurobindo’s representative
develop. For humankind, it will take full advantages philosophical masterpiece The Life Divine (1984),
of the free development and achievements of On Yoga (1988), Integral Yoga (2005), Yoga Basics
all individuals, countries and social groups, and (2005), Yoga Proverbs (2005), Yoga Letter Set (2005)
continue to evolve upward, until human unity is and so on. The translation of these writings made
realised. His “social development law”, in essence, Aurobindo’s philosophy and yoga thought widely

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spread in China. In addition, Chinese scholars also praises from scholars both in domestic and
studied Aurobindo philosophy. Zhu Mingzhong foreign countries, thus Dasgupta’s name became
has published many papers and books related with wellknown. History of Indian Philosophy was written
Aurobindo’s philosophy, such as Aurobindo’s Social in English, divided in five volumes, with total 38
Darwinism (Philosophical Researches 1983 No. 3), chapters. It was first published in 1922, and was
Aurobindo’s Spiritual Evolution Philosophy (Social later constantly reprinted. Till 2009, the 7th edition
Science Front Bimonthly 1983 No. 2), monograph had been published. He advocated digging raw data
Aurobindo Ghose (1994), Master Essentials - Aurobindo of India in depth, systematically sorted out national
(2009) and so on. cultural heritages in order to study the development
Aurobindo’s main works include The Life Divine, history of Indian philosophy from the nationalist
Social Darwinism, Ideal of Human Unity, Foundation point of view. Thus, in his book, History of Indian
of Indian Culture, Superman, Revealing of Super Mind Philosophy, he collected and collated a lot of original
in the World, On Yoga, Integral Yoga and Yoga Basics data in Sanskrit, Pali and local dialects, used these
and so on. data systematically to discuss the germination,
(Zhu Mingzhong) emergence and development of Indian philosophy.
This philosophy history covered a large time span,
Surendranath Dasgupta from the Vedic era of 15th century BCE till 16th
Surendranath Dasgupta (1885-1952 CE), an Indian century CE, about 3,000 years of history. This book
modern philosopher and pundit, was born in a not only described the philosophy in Vedas and
Sanskrit scholarly family in Bengal Kushtia. He Sanskrit books, Upanishad philosophy, Buddhist
received education in his early life at the school philosophy, Jainadharma philosophy, the six schools
established by Krishna Gal Society. Later he of Hinduism philosophy: - Samkhya, yoga theory,
went to Cambridge University to study Western Vaisesika, Nyāya, Mimamsa theory, Vedanta theory
philosophy. He devoted his life to philosophy and - but also discussed the philosophy of Bhagavad
the teaching of Sanskrit, and also the research Gita, and a variety of reformist philosophy emerging
of Indian philosophy history. Dasgupta had been during the medieval pietistic reform movement,
the professor at Chittagong College, head of such as Vallabha school, Chanitaniya school, brave
Department of Philosophy at Calcutta Provincial Shiva school (also known as Lingayat), Agama
and so on. It not only discussed the theories and
doctrines of the various philosophical schools in
India, but also discussed the ideological differences
and struggles between the various schools. History
of Indian Philosophy has important academic value
for the study of ancient Indian philosophy and its
research methods also had a profound impact on
later philosophers. In addition, his other important
book, Indian Idealism reflected his own philosophical
thoughts and perspectives.
Regarding Dasgupta’s philosophical thoughts,
there are introductions and interpretations in many
S. Dasgupta dictionaries and books published in China, such as
Encyclopedia of China - Philosophy Volume (1987),
College, college principal of Calcutta National South Asia Dictionary (1998) and so on. History of
Sanskrit College, professor of Philosophy at the Indian Philosophy (English version) is collected
University of Calcutta and professor of Sanskrit by major libraries in China, such as the National
at the University of Edinburgh, etc. Due to his Library, Library of Peking University, and Library of
outstanding achievements in Sanskrit and research Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.
on the history of Indian philosophy, he was invited (Zhu Mingzhong)
by Western universities and went abroad to give
lectures many times. He had been to the United Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
States of America, France, Germany, Italy, Poland Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975 CE) was
and other countries to teach Indian philosophy. He an Indian modern philosopher, social activist and
also attended international Philosophy conferences politician. He was born in a Brahmin family in the
as a representative of Indian philosophers. city of Madras (now Chennai) in south India and
Dasgupta occupies an important position in received education in a Christian school from his
Indian modern philosophy history. After publishing early life. In 1909, he graduated from Christian
his book History of Indian Philosophy, he received College in Madras. After graduation, he taught

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philosophy in Madras Provincial College. In 1921, noumenon of the universe to be “Bráhman”, also
he was employed as a professor with the highest known as “absolute.” Like Vedanta followers, he
professorship of King George V in Department of believed that “Bráhman” was the “only” existence of
Philosophy, University of Calcutta. While teaching universe; also like an absolute idealist, he believed
here, he completed a book Indian Philosophy (two that everything in the world were products of
volumes), which re-interpreted and evaluated the “only one”. In his opinion, Bráhman is “pure
Indian traditional philosophy with the methods and consciousness, pure freedom and with unlimited
terminology of western philosophy. In 1925, on possibilities.” Bráhman is the infinite and eternal
the initiative and organisation of Radhakrishnan, pure spiritual entity; it contains infinite possibilities,
“Indian Philosophy Conference” - the Indian not subject to any restrictions and interference and
national philosophy organisation was founded, could create endless things freely. The world we live
which was held every year since then in India in is a creation of Bráhman. He opposed Advaita
Vedanta’s “Illusory World Theory,” and argued
the material world has a real existence. All things
in the world have three features, ie materiality,
temporality and spatiality. The existence of matter
is not the single existence of one feature, but the
combination and unity of the three features. The
material world develops and changes continuously,
and there are certain law for the changes.
On the issue of life, he opposed the pessimistic
views of ancient Vedanta and affirmed the meaning
and value of life. He divided man into two aspects:
the limited aspect and the limitless aspect. The
S. Radhakrishnan limited aspect refers to man’s body and physiology,
limitless aspect is the “spirit”, also known as “self”
and continues till now. Since 1926, he had been or “soul” inside a man, which is in harmony with
invited to Oxford University for many times to Bráhman, the supreme noumenon of the universe.
offer philosophical lectures every year for Upton He affirmed the value of physical life and believed
Lectures. He also visited the United States of that flesh was part of man’s inner “spirit”, which
America and taught comparative religion in Haskell did not cut the link with physical life; otherwise,
Lectures of the University of Chicago. The main
content of his lectures offered in Europe and in
America were Vedanta philosophy and philosophy
of life of Hinduism, as well as comparative studies
on Eastern and Western philosophy. In 1931, due
to his outstanding achievements in the comparative
study on Eastern and Western philosophy, he was
honoured with knighthood by British King George
V. Since 1931, he had served as a member of the
International Committee of Cultural Cooperation. From right to left: Rajendra Prasad, Zhou Enlai,
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Jawaharlal
In 1946, he served as the head of Indian delegation Nehru, New Delhi in June 1954.
to UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organisation). In 1949, he took the the integrity of human life would be undermined.
post of the first Indian ambassador in Soviet Russia. He even argued that the body was “divine temple of
In 1952, he was elected to be the Vice President spirit”. He believed that a man could be enlightened
of the Republic of India. In the same year, in the with inherent “spirit” and recognise the truth of
seventh Conference of UNESCO, he was elected to be “Brahman is Atman” only through an intuitive
chairman of the conference. In 1962, Radhakrishnan way. Once recognised ““Brahman is Atman”
served as the President of the Republic of India truth, he would be able to unite with the outside
(1962 to 1967). world, and seek harmony with the entire society.
Radhakrishnan was a representative of new Radhakrishnan argued that the purpose of life was
Vedanta philosophy and occupied an important to achieve liberation. Liberation is to be enlightened
position in the history of Indian modern philosophy. with the inner “spirit” of every man to achieve the
The characteristics of his philosophy were the combination between “I” and “Bráhman”. On this
integration of Indian Advaita Vedanta with basis, he further proposed the concept of “universal
Western absolute idealism. He named the supreme liberation”, that people could obtain it in the

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living state, those have gained liberation continue Radhakrishnan’s philosophy, religion, life, ethics, as
to live in this world. One man’s liberation is still well as his achievements in comparison research on
imperfect, also not sustainable. Thus, when a man Eastern and Western philosophy, his contributions
is liberated, he still needs to continue working to the development of Indian philosophy and so on.
hard to help and inspire others around him to Radhakrishnan’s main works include: Indian
gain liberation. Only when all men in the world Philosophy, Hinduism View of Life, Idealism View of
have gained liberation, there would be harmony Life, Eastern Religions and Western Thoughts, Religious
and unity in the whole society, thus human beings Influence in Modern Philosophy, and so on.
could be free from suffering and distress. In order (Zhu Mingzhong)
to realise the ideal of “universal liberation”, he also
actively proposed a kind of “spiritual religion.” The Debiprasad
so-called “spiritual religion”, is the religion based Chattopadhyaya
Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (1918~) is an Indian
modern philosopher and historian. He was once
awarded an honourary doctorate by USSR Academy
of Sciences and an academician title by German
Democratic Republic Academy of Sciences. After
1959, he has served as an editor for Indian philosophy
Quarterly, Indian Studies: Past and Present.
Chattopadhyaya proved the development history
of ancient Indian philosophy with the approaches of
dialectical materialism and historical materialism,
Mao Zedong meeting Dr Sarvepalli criticised the views hold by European and American
Radhakrishnan, Vice President of India
scholars that Indian philosophy had been the
on Vedanta philosophy, through the “spiritual hometown of idealism and mysticism from ancient
enlightenment” and “spiritual experience” to times, and also proved that the entire history of
achieve “spiritual unity” between people. In the Indian philosophy not only included the religious
process of “spiritual enlightenment”, people must tradition of idealism and mysticism, but also
overcome ignorance, blindness and selfish desires, contained a wealth of materialism, rationalism,
and treat all people with a spirit of “universal love”. secularism, optimism and atheism traditions. In
This kind of spiritual religion based on “universal Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism and
love” in essence is the product of the combination of Indian Atheism, he proved materialistic thinking had
Western humanitarian and Eastern religions. emerged in the early Vedic times, the world view
Radhakrishnan’s thoughts had been introduced held by the ancient Indian ancestors had already
to China very early and exerted certain impacts on reflected the pursuit of material interests and
the country. He had some in-depth understanding optimistic attitudes towards life. He also discussed
about Chinese philosophy and religion, while he in the Indian philosophical traditions, Lokayata was
was studying Western philosophy. During May not the only school holding the idea of materialism
6-21, 1944 (during Chinese Anti-Japanese War) he and atheism, many other schools, like Samkhya,
was invited by the Sino-Indian Association to offer Vaisesika, Mimamsa, Jainadharma and some
lectures in China. He gave 12 consecutive lectures and schools of Buddhism were also bearing materialism
the lecture notes were compiled into a book entitled and atheism thoughts in varying degrees. In these
with India and China and published in Mumbai schools with materialist ideology, besides Lokayata,
in the same year. The book was divided into six although some schools were idealistic in view of the
chapters, expounding Chinese concept of education, world, however they somewhat negated the role of
China’s religions - Confucianism and Taoism, divinity. Chattopadhyaya not only explained the
relationship between India and China, as well as continuity and universality of the development of
war and world security and other issues. Regarding Indian Materialism tradition, but also illustrated
Radhakrishnan’s philosophical thoughts, Chinese that Indian materialism had launched a long-term,
scholars have also made researches. In 1993, Zhu continuous struggle against religious idealism since
Mingzhong published the paper “Radhakrishnan’s its generation.
Biography and Thoughts” in the Yearbook of World In dealing with the heritage of Indian philosophy,
Philosophy. In 1994, Zhu Mingzhong published Chattopadhyaya also put forward his own
the paper of “S· Radhakrishnan’s Philosophical viewpoints. In What is Living and What is Dead in
Thoughts" in the first issue of South Asia Studies. In Indian Philosophy he pointed out that philosophical
1996, Gong Jing published a scholarly monograph thoughts were ultimately for promoting social
Radhakrishnan, which comprehensively expounded progress and development of rationality and

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science. Inside the heritage of ancient Indian the various materialistic thoughts of ancient India.
philosophy, the ideas and concepts as long as Chattopadhyaya’s main works include: Lokayata: A
they could promote today’s social progress and Study in Ancient Indian Materialism (1959), Indian
development of rationalism and science, were Philosophy - A Popular Introduction (1964), Indian
alive and valuable. On the contrary, all the ideas Atheism (1969), What is Living and What is Dead
and concepts that would hinder social progress in Indian Philosophy (1976), Science and Society in
and development of rationalism and science Ancient India (1977) and so on.
were dead, worthless. Indian ancient philosophy (Zhu Mingzhong)
is a huge treasure house with a variety of ideas,
these ideas are entangled in a complex, even
opposite-to-each-other relationship. They had WORKS
played different roles in the development of
history, thus also had a different meaning in Lao Zi
today’s social development. In traditional Indian The Book of Lao Zi is the principal classic of
philosophy, there were a lot of ideas and thoughts Taoism, also known as The Book of Dao De Jing.
of obscurantism, mysticism and anti-science, but The currently circulated edition is divided into 81
there were also many ideas and thoughts against chapters, totaling 5,056 Chinese characters.
these decadent ideas which were helpful for The authorship and year of Book final completion
social progress and development of rationalism have always been subject to controversy. Master
and science, showing people’s pursuit of freedom Han Fei thought its author was Lao Zi (namely, Lao
and equality. Therefore, he appealed to today’s Dan) while historian Sima Qian suspiciously alleged
Indian philosophical workers they should carry the author was court historian Dan of the Warring
out critical distinction on a variety of traditional States Period. Moreover, there’s someone believes
philosophical concepts and ideas, must abandon that the classic is actually the wills and teachings
dead concepts and ideas of past philosophy, of from Lao Zi recorded and written down by Huan
and vigorously dig and promote those ideas and Yuan, a thinker in the Warring States Period, and
concepts promoting today’s social progress and someone even deduced that the classic might had
development of science and democracy. been completed during the period between Qin and
Chattopadhyaya has also made great achievements Han dynasties. However, this argument of the Book
in the study of comparative philosophy. He completion at the early Han Dynasty was refuted by
believed that the idea of dialectics in Western the silk manuscript edition of The Book of Lao Zi
philosophy was first proposed by the ancient unearthed from Tomb at Mawangdui of Changsha
Greek philosopher Heraclitus. This dialectics was city, Hu’nan province in 1972. The prevalent view
built on the basis of materialism; later, Hegel’s
idealist dialectics replaced the original materialism
dialectics. Following that, Marx and Engels set the
dialectics free from the illusion of Hegel’s idealism,
restored its materialistic face and enabled it to rise
to a new level. He pointed out that the intellectual
movement starting from the beginning of the 19th
century CE was “the history of development from
metaphysics to the dialectics, and from idealism
to materialism”. Since then, dialectics had become
the most powerful ideological weapon of human,
not only for illustrating the history, but also for
creating history.
Chattopadhyaya’s thoughts have gained
increasing attentions from philosophy circles in
China, many of his philosophical works have been
translated into Chinese. In 1980, Huang Baosheng
and Guo Liangyun translated Chattopadhyaya’s
Indian Philosophy into Chinese. In 1992, Wang
Shian translated Lokayata: A Study in Ancient
Indian Materialism into Chinese. The translation
and publication of these two books had deepened
Chinese scholars’ understanding of ancient Indian
philosophy and made Chinese people understand Dao De Jing, Hindi edition (front cover)

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of majority scholars at the present tend to believe Ming, totaling forty one. Experts to eliminate doubt
the Book might be completed in the Warring States and explain Lao Zi’s text in past dynasties are no less
Period, might not be later than the publication than a thousand, among them the most famous are
of Mencius and Zhuangzi, as it is evident by Lao as follows: Master Han fei’s Uncoiling Lao Zi and
Dan’s thought in the late Spring and Autumn Period Explaining Lao Zi in the late Warring States Period,
contained in The Book of Laozi, with diction with the Han Dynasty He Shang Gong’s Lao Zi’ Chapters,
literary style of the Warring States Period. Wang Bi’s Annotation of the Book of Lao Zi in Wei
The current version of The Book of Lao Zi consists and Jin dynasties, He Yan’s Discussion of Lao Zi’ Dao
of part one and part two, or the Book of Dao and and De, Qiang Siqi’s Compilation of Quintessence
the Book of De, respectively. In He Shang Gong of Lao Zi’s Classic, Song Dynasty Taoist Cheng
annotated version, Wang Bi annotated version and Jingyuan’s Profound Explanation of Lao Zi’ Cannon,
Fu Yi final edited and revised version, the part one Song Dynasty Wang Anshi’s Annotation of the Book
and part two are all referred to, respectively, as of Lao Zi (has been lost), Ming Dynasty Jiao Hong’s
the Book of Dao and Book of De. However, in the Annotation of The Book of Lao Zi, Qing Dynasty Bi
silk manuscript version of the Book, the Book of De Yuan’s Editing and Proofreading of The Book of Lao
is placed ahead of the Book of Dao, which is the
most ancient transcript version that could be found
so far. The currently circulated version is divided
into 81 chapters, even though some currently
circulated editions consist of 72 or 68 chapters. But
the unearthed silk manuscript version is not divided
into chapters.
Contents expounded in The Book of Lao Zi is quite
extensive, involving multiple of fields such as nature,
society, human anecdotes, philosophy, politics,
ethic, military affairs and culture. It contains rich
philosophical thoughts, ie apart from the abstract
subject like probing of ontology and unitarity of
the universe, it also includes various exposition, Dao De Jing, Laozi
argumentation and original thesis in the fields of
epistemology, conception of history, outlook on Zi; in modern and contemporary times, what are
life, cultural perspective, etc. The Confucianists prominent are Collation and Annotation of The Book
and legalists all have assimilated to varying degrees of Lao Zi by Zhu Qianzhi, Authentic Expounding of
Lao Zi’s thoughts; even phenomenology of modern The Book of Lao Zi by Gao Heng, Unraveling The
Western world has also been influenced to some Book of Lao Zi by Ren Jiyu (attached with English
extent by its thoughts. Taoism reveres The Book translated version), Lao Zi at Ancient and Modern
of Lao Zi as the principal canon. There have been Times by Liao Xiaogan, etc. Internationally, The
circulated many editions of the book throughout Book of Lao Zi has been translated into many
history, such as 14 stone inscription editions among languages both in the Western and Eastern Worlds.
which Yu Shinan’ edited and scribal edition in Tang Among the multitude of foreign language
Dynasty under the reign of Emperor Taizong is the translated versions, the so-called Sanskrit version
oldest, and the next ancient edition is seen on the reputedly translated by the most famous monk
stone tablet of Dao De Jing erected in Long Xing Xuanzang calls widespread attention. In accordance
Temple in Yi Prefecture in the second year of Jing with the record contained in the third volume of Dao
Long reign of Tang Emperor Zhongzong. Besides, Xuan’s Collection of Debate between Buddhism and
considerably huge numbers of remnant paper of Taoism, it is quoted to the effect that on his return
hand-copied editions are widely scattered among from the trip of India and was given interview by
Dunhuang Scripture. As for the wood engraving Emperor Taizong in the 21st year of Zhenguan
edition, the earliest appeared is Lao Zi’s Dao De Reign of Tang Dynasty (647 CE), Li Yibiao returned
Jing Begun with Sentence of He Shang Gong that after a visit to India, reporting that he had given
was published in the Song Dynasty, now available introduction of The Book of Lao Zi to King Kumàra
in photocopy edition among the first compiled in the State of Kàmaråpa in ancient India (now the
Imperial Collection of Four published by the west regions in Assam, India). The Emperor Taizong
Commercial Press. The Orthodox Collected Taoist then gave edict to Monk Xuanzang to translate Lao
Scriptures collected the text of the Book of Dao-De- Zi’s cannon into Sanskrit, and “Xuanzang begins
Jing and annotated editions, respectively, published to translate Lao Zi’s classic only after thoroughly
in dynasties of Han, Wei, Tang, Song, Jin, Yuan and comprehending the delicate and hidden connotation

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of the classic by analysing the text sentence

by sentence and classifying the text in term of
meaning”. There all along exists a great controversy
on plausibility and availability of such a Sanskrit
version. However, modern people supported Dao
Xuan’s Record with two arguments. One is Lao Zi’
original name, according to legend, is Li Er, whom
Emperor Taizhong treated as ancient wise man of
his own clan. The second evidence can be found ‘Lun Yu (The Analects of Confucius)’, page fragments, Tang Dynasty
in Introduction of India-New Historical Book of
Tang, which has it to say, “The State of Kàmaråpa the gentleman), reflecting the compiler’s thoughts
offers exotic gifts and its atlas, but requests to be to cultivate oneself through learning and to become
given a Portrait of Lao Zi as return gift.” And Monk a saint. The Analects, with words and deeds of
Xuangzang once visited that country and used to be Confucius with his disciples as contents, and the
on good term with King Kumàra. The assumption of dialog of benevolence, filial piety, governance and
real existence of the Xuan Zang’s Sanskrit version differentiation between man of honour and petty-
should not be discarded, instead, should be kept as minded person as core, reveals the Confucian
one of the versions waiting to be certified by any school’s approach of scholarly pursuit and self-
evidence either on the ground or underground. cultivation characterised by rituals and music.
Hindi translated version of Tao Upanishad has Confucius gave different, but with the same essence,
appeared for a long time, and its influence is answers on the same inquiry to his disciples as he
gradually gaining momentum. believed his disciples’ aptitude differed, embodying
(Jiang Julang) consistency of the Confucian school of learning
of what it calls “Cherishing benevolence in one’s
Analects heart”. For instance, when Fan Chi asked about
The Analects, one of the classics of Confucian “humaneness”, Confucius replied, “The human being
school of thought, is a collection of scattered first of all thinks of overcoming the difficulties and
sayings of Confucius and his disciples which then of enjoying the benefits. That is humaneness.”
were recorded and compiled by the disciples of (Ranyong, The Analects, the quotations hereinafter
the second generation. The commonly circulated only refer to the title of volume). Perhaps as Fan
version of the Analects consists of 20 volumes Chi had shortcomings of indolence, Confucius
(chapters) that are sub-divided into 492 chapters admonished him to first overcome the difficulties
totaling 15900 Chinese characters. The period of and then enjoy the benefits. But in giving an answer
completion of this book is estimated to be the early to the same question of Yan Hui’ on “humaneness”,
period of the Warring States. Confucius, nevertheless, said, “To restrain oneself
The present version of the 20 volumes (chapters) and observe the rituals constitute humaneness.
Analects discovered in the State of Lu, another Once you have done these, the world will consider
version of the same 20 chapters discovered in the you humane. However, the practice of humaneness
State of Qi are found to be more accurate. It is depends on no one but yourself.” (Yan Hui) As
towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty that Yan Hui is his brightest student, Confucius’ answer
Zheng Xuan annotated the Qi version which is is straight to the point: Man of honour seeks the
handed down to the present days (20 volumes). cause in himself. About the question of government,
The Analects begins with study and ends with Confucius’ answer to Z Zhang was that “Never
the comprehension of the Decree of Heaven (by slacken your efforts at your post, show your loyalty
when carrying out government orders”. (Yan Hui)
As Confucius knows this student suspected to have
weakness of seeking fame but lacking tenacity and
endurance, so the Master exhorts him not to avoid
boredom but to do practical job in good faith.
Regarding the same question by Zi Xia, Confucius
said, “Do not make haste. Do not covet small
gains. Haste makes waste. Great tasks will not be
accomplished if you covet small gains.” (Zi Lu) As
Zi Xia has shortcomings of being easy to be content
but acting rashly, Confucius then advises him to
The Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu), Yuan
widen his horizon and make steady and sure efforts.
Dynasty edition The man of honour is mentioned in 107 separate

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occasions in the Analects, the core concepts are along with Buddhism, and had been attached great
mostly elaborated as “seek the cause in oneself”. importance by Chinese thinkers.
Ever since the times of Emperor Wu, Confucianism Literature Components and Main Categories
had gradually taken a domineering position in the Sanskrit “Veda” originally means “knowledge”,
realm of Chinese thought, and the Analects also especially about religion. It can be divided into two
exerted a wide ranging profound influence on categories. In a broad sense, it is a collection of some
the Chinese society. Zhu Xi of the Southern Song texts in northwest India, including the Samhitas,
Dynasty combined the Analects, the Great Learning, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads and
Doctrine of the Mean, and Mencius into The Four the like, while in a narrow sense, it only refers to
Books. And in the Yuan Dynasty, this collection of “Four Vedas”, ie Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and
books were taken as officially assigned required Atharvaveda.
book for students who intend to appear and pass The Samhitas are collections of hymns, mantras,
the imperial examination, thus further expanding songs of praise, spells and incantations about the
the influence of the Analects. As for annotation for Deities.
this classic, there were several annotators even in The Brahmaza are also known as Brahman or
the Han Dynasty, and more were on the increase in Brahmanas, consisting of texts for sacrificial rituals
the ensuing dynasties; out of them, the important mentioned in the Samhitas as well as comment on
and influential annotators are He Yan of the Three their origins, methods and associated legends.
Kingdoms Period, with works entitled Concentrated The Aranyakas, as an additional part of the
Explanation of Analects, Xing Bing of the Song Brahmanas, discuss some philosophical or meditative
Dynasty, with works entitled Paraphrasing Analects, issues as well as sacrificial purposes and methods.
Zhu Xi’s Concentrated Annotation of Analects, and The Upanishads, as an additional part of the
Liu Baonan’s Full Connotation of Analects. Aranyakas, are quite different from other Vedas.
(Jiang Julang) Besides religious and sacrificial content, they
also contain a lot of discussions on philosophical
Vedas or speculative issues, and are the earliest Indian
Veda is a large body of the oldest extant religious texts offering relatively systematic philosophical
and historical texts in ancient India produced orally thoughts.
by primitive Indians and collected together by later Moreover, some people also include the Srauta-
generations to form present written texts. It is a great sutra, Grhya-sutra and Dharma-sutra into the Vedas.
number of texts that had been produced within a In the Vedic period, India already had philosophical
lengthy span of time, and most texts originated in thoughts, which, strictly speaking, were embryonic,
about the 16th-9th century BCE. It mainly consists less abstract and hard to be classified as genuine and
of hymns on people’s lives and contains many systematic philosophical thinking. The Vedas are
religious thoughts as well as philosophical ideas more religious than philosophical, and the Samhitas,
in primitive India. Such thoughts not only have i,e., “Four Vedas”, are a typical representation of
important impacts on ancient Indian civilisation, Indian ideas in the Vedic period.
but also are a main source of thinking for modern The Rigveda is the oldest Vedic text, and some of
Indian civilisation. Its ideas were brought into China the oldest hymns can be dated back to about 1500
BCE. It mainly contains hymns used by primitive
Indians (supposed by many scholars to be the
Aryans) to praise the gods, and these hymns are
verses loudly chanted at sacrificial rituals to call
the deities. The Rigveda originally was produced
and preserved by oral tradition alone, and was not
written down until much later. The existing Rigveda
includes 10 volumes and a total of 1,017 hymns (if
11 hymns inserted into the volume 8 are included, it
will total 1,028). Given their inconsistency and lack
of coordination, obviously, these 10 volumes are
impossible to have been written by a single person
or co-authored by several persons.
The Samaveda, basically, is a collection of hymns
taken from the Rigveda, with melodies provided. Of
these hymns, all but 75 are taken from volume 8
and volume 9 of the Rigveda. Therefore, of the four
Veda, Sanskrit manuscript, 15th century CE Vedas, the Samaveda has the poorest independence,

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philosophical discussion. In the Atharvaveda, most

verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.
The Atharvaveda was composed about 1000 BCE,
very close to the date of the Yajurveda. Extant
Atharvaveda contains 20 volumes and a total of
730 verses, and a lot of them are taken from the
Rigveda, and generally, the last two volumes were
added in a later period.
In addition to religious topics, there are also signs
of philosophical thinking. These two aspects closely
relate to and yet differ from each other, and it is the
Upanishads that contains many philosophical ideas.
Main Religious Forms The Vedas, in the main,
is a mirror of the social life shortly after the
Yajurveda disintegration of primitive Indian society. Then,
given the poor state of social productivity and
but it has an important value for the study of the thinking, people generally could not arrive at a right
development of ancient Indian music. The extant understanding of various natural phenomena, and
Samaveda contains two volumes and a total of they were curious about and even fearful of natural
1,549 hymns. Volume 1 includes six chapters, and phenomena that had a direct and considerable
Volume 2 has nine chapters, with some overlapping impact on their life, but had to explain such things
with Volume 1 and the most contents being taken to themselves or their fellowmen. From such a need,
from the Rigveda. Volume 2 was formed later than the oldest religious ideas arose in ancient India
Volume 1. In the Vedas, polytheistic worship is the earliest
The Yajurveda, with contents much different from form of religion. For instance, hill, river, grass and
the Rigveda, narrates events in the central part of tree on the earth, wind, rain, thunder and lightning
north India. It mainly contains mantras needed to in the air, the moon, the sun and stars in the sky, and
perform sacrifices, and most of these mantras are the like, all were treated as deities. The following
in prose, while some are in verse, and they are to are some deities of Nature mentioned in the Vedas.
be lowly chanted at the sacrifices. Generally, the The Sun is deified by Vedic poets and became
Yajurveda is supposed to have close connection Surya, the Sun God. Surya is supposed to be a deity
with the Brahmanas, and might have been composed to observe all persons and creatures and to expel
between 1000- 800 BCE. Now, it has two versions, darkness and to bring the light. He is praised in many
one is called “Black Yajurveda” and the other is Vedic hymns. For instance, a hymn in the Rigveda
“White Yajurveda”. The Black Yajurveda consists of (7.63.4) says: “Golden, far-seeing, from the heaven
the texts of the Samhita and that of the Brahmana, he rises, far is his goal, he has on resplendent. Men,
which is difficult to be distinguished, that’s why it’s verily, inspirited by Surya speed to their aims and
called “black”. It also contains some commentaries. do their work.”
While the White Yajurveda separates the Samhita Ushas as the Goddess of the Dawn originates
from its Brahmanas clearly. The Yajurveda has 40 from Vedic poets’ marvel at the beautiful scene of
chapters, and 18 of them have an earlier origin, and the dawn. In the Vedic hymns, she is said to be
the rest might have been added into it later on. the mother or wife of Surya and to work to expel
The Atharvaveda tells very different things from the night and to awake persons and all kinds of
the above three. In ancient India, some schools of creatures. In the Rigveda (4.51.1), she is portrayed
religion or philosophy often called the first three as follows: “FORTH from the darkness in the region
as “Three Vedas”, or when mentioning the Vedas, eastward, this most abundant splendid light hath
considered that it had three components, and mounted. Now verily the far-refulgent Mornings,
did not consider the Atharvaveda as a part of the Daughters of Heaven, bring welfare to the people.”
Samhitas. Its contents are different indeed. The first Indra, the God of the Thunder, is also a product of
three Vedas chiefly include hymns, charms and Vedic poets. The Rigveda (2.12.2) states, “He fixes
mantras, while the Atharvaveda, in the main, is a fast and firms the earth that staggered, and sets at
collection of spells and incantations used to avoid rest the agitated mountains, Who measured out
disaster and to summon good luck. For example, the air’s wide middle region and gave the heaven
spells against enemy, disease, disaster, wild animal support, He, men, is Indra.” A lot of hymns in the
and alleged demons, and summon or pray for health, Vedas are about Indra, who seems to have been
long life, wealth, safe journey and domestic peace. attached great importance then. This has something
The Atharvaveda also contains some embryonic to do with climate. India often suffers from high

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temperature and little rain, while thunder may imagination (reforming a natural object in one’s
bring rain and have an important effect on people’s mind) or abstraction. These gods do not have any
lives. Besides thunder, whenever it appears, is direct equivalent in Nature, and include among
powerful and impressive. For this, Indra becomes an others Asura (God of demons or spirits), Raksa
important deity in the Vedas. (God of the un-righteous) and Yama (God of death).
Agni, the God of Fire, is a frequent topic in the There are also deities of confidence, love, language
Vedas as well, since fire is closely associated with and the like.
everyday life and is something that often can be Secondly, people move from polytheism to major
seen. A hymn in the Rigveda (1.1.3) represents him gods. In the early Vedic period, people gradually
as, “Through Agni man obtains wealth, yea, plenty narrow the scope of their worship, and begin
waxing day by day, Most rich in heroes, glorious.” to choose one or several dominating gods from
Fire is necessary for heating and cooking, and numerous deities; for example, Indra (the God
thunder and friction all could give rise to fire, of the Thunder, later often seen as a protector or
and so, Agni becomes one of the most important a god of war for brave tribes). People gradually
Vedic gods. become aware of so many gods, there is one that
Some other phenomena of nature are also deified, has a more powerful and fundamental role, not only
for example, wind, rain and river. Vayu, the deified affecting everyday life but also mastering or ruling
wind, works to facilitate growth and to bring luck other deities. The Vedic shift from polytheism has
and merit to posterity. Parjanya, the God of Rain, something to do with the then prevailing social
is to irrigate plants and to promote their growth. and historical development, and at that time, in
the South Asian Subcontinent, there occurred the
combination of tribes or nations and the formation
of many small kingdoms. This is more or less
reflected in the development of religious worship.
People in the Vedic period had a variety of ways
to worship deities, and sacrifice is an important
option. For Indians, sacrificial rituals are to win the
favour and obtain the blessing from the gods and
to realise benefits. Nevertheless, some tend to think
a sacrificial ritual has nothing to do with the gods
and can bring good by itself. The Vedas mentions a
great variety of sacrifices, for example, new moon
or full moon sacrifice (on the first and 15th day
A painting of ‘Primeval Purusha’ every month), fire sacrifice, horse sacrifice, human
sacrifice (with human beings or any alternative as
Sarasvati, representing rivers, can irrigate the land, an offering), etc.
bring harvest and help clean and wash dirt. In the Vedic period, sacrifices are deemed to be
The Vedas also mentions other gods, such as able to please the gods and bring good, and spells to
Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra and Marut, each representing work on the gods and to help people achieve their
a natural phenomenon that is deified. purpose. The Atharvaveda contains many relevant
Besides, some animals and plants are deified as contents, and the Yajurveda also have relevant
well, for example, horse, cow, sheep, snake, soma discussions. There are a variety of spells, such as the
grass, herb and tree. There are a great number of spell to remove disaster, to deal with and incapacitate
such deities. the devils, and there are also curses to invoke demons
These descriptions indicate, in the early Vedic to do harm to those being hated. There are also
period, objects or phenomena of Nature, being mantras for long life and peace. Then, people attach
powerful or impressive, are primary worship for importance to such spells and charms and use them
Indians. It is not complex to deify the Nature, to avoid disaster and to summon good luck.
animals or plants, and people just need to recognise Early Philosophical Thought The Vedas also
their marvelous superpower and to worship them contain the oldest philosophical thought in India.
accordingly. But, with the time going, people have These thoughts originate from some Vedic poets’
become more capable and begin to know more skepticism of the gods, and doubtful, people turn to
about Nature, and the form of their worship also explain various things outside the sphere of deities.
changes in the following two aspects: The Vedas has a number of “philosophical hymns”,
Firstly, deities are no longer confined to directly with the most famous including the Ka (Rigveda,
visible natural phenomena or objects, and instead, 10.121), the Purusha (Rigveda, 10.90) and the
there appear some gods that are created by human Creation (Rigveda, 10.82)

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The Creation states, “Then was not non-existent humans and creatures and is the earliest to advocate
or existent”. Deities arose after the creation of the the homogeneity of human nature and the nature
world. The concept of “tadekam” (that is, One of the world. In the Upanishads, this idea is further
Thing) is proposed, and there is nothing else other extended to dominate in Indian philosophy and to
than tadekam. Actually, “tadekam” is thought to be form the core of Indian Brahmanism or Hinduism.
the origin of the universe. This hymn shows, some The Visvakarman also put forth the concept of
Vedic poets tend to take the origin of the universe as “takedam”, which is thought to be the basis of and
something beyond secular existence or nonexistence, depended by all things, and have a special power
and such cause is something abstract and primary and is the name giver for all deities.
rather than the then popular deities. However, it In addition to the above concepts, the Vedas
is not ambiguous what “tadekam” is, and roughly also contains some quite philosophical terms, such
speaking, it is something of fundamental cause or as Rta, Sat and Brahman. Though not appeared in
an origin prior to the unfolding of all things. the Vedas for many times or frequently, these ideas
The Ka states, “In the beginning rose Hiranya have an important meaning for the later formation
garbha, Giver of vital breath, of power and vigor, he of systematic Indian philosophy, and represent
whose commandments all the Gods acknowledge, Indians’ earliest attempts to think philosophically.
Lord of men and Lord of cattle, earth’s Begetter ,the In the Vedas, philosophical and religious contents
heavens’ Creator. He is the God of gods, and none are mixed, and this gradually becomes an important
characteristic for the development of Indian
philosophy and religion, and in later generations,
Indian philosophy is also closely associated with the
development of Indian religion.
The Vedas has a special position in the development
of ancient Indian civilisation. Brahmanism or
Hinduism, as the mainstream in the history of Indian
thoughts, all take the Vedas as a fundamental canon.
It is on the basis of the attitude toward the Vedas
that the orthodox and the heterodox are divided.
Those recognising the authoritativeness of the Vedas
are orthodox, while the deniers are non-orthodox.
Moreover, the Vedas has an impact on the orthodox
Brahmanism as well as on non-orthodox schools.
Some non-orthodox schools in India, in fact, more
or less have absorbed some Vedic thoughts, though
such absorption is either adapted or not evident.
In modern India, the Vedas still has a significant
influence, and many religious ideas, rituals or
customs, and many well-known thinkers are
worshippers of the Vedas, and some even call for the
return to Vedic assertion, and consider the Vedas as
Rigveda a treasure of wisdom and religious truth.
Dissemination and Influence to China Vedic
beside him”. From “garbha” the concept of “anda” ideas, along with Buddhism, have been brought
evolves, suggesting that everything evolves from this into China for long, and ancient Chinese knew them
“anda”. Later on, “Garbha” or “anda” turns into a through Buddhist texts.
popular world or universe outlook in ancient India. In Chinese sutras, Veda is transliterated as
The Purusha takes “Purusha” as the universal basis, “Weituo” or “Weituo” (different characters in
and says, “This Puruṣa is all that yet hath been and Chinese) paraphrased as “Zhilun” or “Minglun”, and
all that is to be. The Brahman was his mouth, of both has been mentioned in a considerable Chinese texts.
his arms was the Rājanya made. His thighs became In the Matanga Sutra, translated in the Three
the Vaiśya, from his feet the Śūdra was produced. Kingdoms by Zhi Qian and Zhu Lvyan, the Volume
The Moon was gendered from his mind, and from 1 states that, “There once lived Brahma, who
his eye the Sun had birth; Indra and Agni from his practiced Zen, has great wisdom, and created a
mouth were born, and Vāyu from his breath. Forth Veda to preach, and later on, there is a god, named
from his navel came mid-air the sky was fashioned Svetasvatara, who created four Vedas to praise, to
from his head. Earth from his feet and from his ear sacrifice, to chant and to expel disaster”. This means
the regions.” This hymn considers and combines that the basics of the four Vedas were already known

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the second in quantity was for praising Vulcan Agni,

about 200 poems; the third was for the Bacchus
Soma, about 120 poems. All the gods have their own
roles and responsibilities and were in charge of the
triple realm of heaven, air and land separately.
In heaven, there is mainly the king of the
universe Varuna, who is the most powerful god
in heaven and in charge of the order and morality
of the universe, he keeps an eye on the offenses
in the world. Dyaus is the deification of sunlight,
also known as the heavenly Father and in the shape
of cattle. There are several other sun gods with
different functions: Surya, the god representing the
specific image of the sun, in the poetry he rode
a seven horse-drawn cart through the sky, drove
away the darkness and brought light; Savitri, the
incarnation of the sun in the morning and evening,
in the poetry he was described his whole body
was shining and rode a golden cart, pulled by two
glowing horses galloping in the heaven; Mitra is
the incarnation of radiant sun during daytime;
Usas represents the goddess of the dawn radiating
beautiful morning glow.
Matanga, painted by Zhang Daqian In the air realm, there’s mainly the God of
Thunder and Lightning Indra (Later was absorbed
in China in the Three Kingdoms period. It is also by Buddhism, and known as the “Sakka”), with tall
mentioned in Chinese sutras of Tang Dynasty. For body and infinite power, holding vajra, when angry
instance, the Volume 1 of the Vijāptimātratāsiddhi
translated by Xuanzang sates that, “Minglun can
explain things and should be non-eternal, as a
sound.” Here, “Minglun” means the Vedas.
In modern China, the Vedas is also well-known,
and those who are attentive to Indian scholars usually
know about the position of the Vedas in Indian
culture, and many Chinese scholars concentrate on
Vedic study. Some Vedic texts are translated, and
academic journals often publish articles on Vedic
thoughts. Books on Indian philosophy or culture
generally contain Vedic chapters, and university
courses on Indian culture also provide the study or
introduction of the Vedas.
(Yao Weiqun) Rigveda: Selected Hymns, Chinese
edition (front cover)

Rig Veda
Rig Veda - Rg-veda is the most ancient religious appearing piloerection, Indra is the most powerful
classics in India. It was produced approximately god in the air realm. Later, he gradually evolved from
between 1600 BCE and 1000 BCE. It is a poetry Thunder God to the God of War who can destroy the
anthology dedicated for praising the gods. enemy and symbolises victory. Storm God Rudra is
In ancient Chinese books it was translated as in charge of storm, his whole body is brown with
“Samaveda”. There are totally 10 volumes of the gold decoration, wearing braids and holding bows
anthology, collecting 1,028 hymns. These hymns and arrows, he appears very evil. Aeolus Vayu has
were also chanted by Brahmin priests for praising quick action and is a friend of Indra, they often ride
God while presiding over ritual ceremonies, and in the same cart pulled by a thousand horses, which
rich in primitive religious atmosphere. Each poem is extraordinarily swift and violent. There is also
contains several verses, where each verse is a “Rig.” Rain God Parjanya, the Water God Apas and so on.
In the anthology, most poems, about 250 poems, In the land realm, there’s mainly Vulcan Agni,
were praising the Thunder and Lightning God Indra; who can dispel the darkness and eliminate evils, is

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a more in-depth research on Rig Veda. Jin Kemu

in his History of Sanskrit Literature (1964) made a
profound statement regarding the literature value
and the position of Rig Veda in the history of world
literature: Rigveda Samhita, referred to as Rig Veda is
one of cultural treasures left from the ancient human
society. It is a collection of poems, emitting lights
in world literature, same as The Book of Songs the
poetry collection of our ancient society. Wu Baihui
translated a large number of poems of Rig Veda, and
offered detailed analysis on poems. His translation
works of Selections of Rigveda Sanskrit Philosophical
Poems and Selections of Rigveda Sanskrit Aesthetics
Rama and Sita
Poems were published in the book The Wisdom of
Moon Country (1997). Wu Baihui’s another book,
the most important god in the land realm. Bacchus Indian philosophy - exploring of the meaning of
Soma, is the deification of soma wine, which was the Vedas and analysis of Upanishads (2000) also
often used for rituals in ancient India, people conducted in-depth discussion on the philosophical
thought all gods enjoy the wine, as wine can make meaning of Rig Veda poetry.
gods excited, with courage and power multiplied. (Zhu Mingzhong)
In addition, there’re also the Earth Mother Goddess
Bolidipi, Alpheus Saraswati, Horse God Dadhikra Brahmanas
and so on. Brahmana is an ancient Indian Brahmanism Sutra,
In addition to a lot of hymns praising Gods, in the also known as “Brahman book” or “Brahmanas”,
Rig Veda there are also some poems speaking of the formed about between 1000 BCE and 700 BCE. It
origin of the universe. Vedic poets raised various is an important book of ancient codes and records,
different views about the generation of the universe further explaining the origin, purpose, meaning
through direct observation or subjective speculation and methods of sacrifice, based on the four Vedas.
Brahmana is a prosy scripture, its contents are
mainly in three aspects: ritual procedure, illustrating
the ritual details and a variety of specific provisions,
like the type of sacrifice, number of sacrificial fire
and priests, time and location of sacrifices, etc.;
interpretation, explaining the hidden meanings of
hymn, prayers and spell used in rituals, ultimate
implications, indicating the purpose and, meaning
and philosophy to be achieved of ritual.
There are 15 types of existing Brahmana; they are
all attached to the Vedas. Among which the most
important ones are: Aitareya Brahmana and Kausītāki
Brahmana attached to Rig Veda; Pañcavimśa Brahmana,
Sadvimsa Brahmana and Jaiminiya Brahmana
attached to Sama Veda; Satapatha Brahmana,
Caraka-Katha Brahmana and Taittiriya Brahmana
Infant Krishna (Balgopal) attached to Yajur Veda; and Gopatha Brahmana
attached to Arharva Veda and so on. Brahmana were
on the universe: some believed that the universe passed on from generation to generation by priests
was born by “The One”, some thought it was born of different schools in accordance with the master-
from “golden base”, and some hold the opinion that apprentice relationship, as during the teaching,
it was born from “Purusha”. Rig Veda not only has there formed different schools. Brahmana’s basic
the literature value, but also is the most important principle is to emphasize the role of ritual and the
historical documents for the study of ancient Indian position of priest, and provides the theoretical basis
religion and society. for Brahmanism which is guided by sacrifice. From
With the introduction of Buddhism, Rig Veda was the viewpoint of academic value, Brahmana is the
introduced to China very early, in many Chinese oldest and most valuable information for studying
translation of Buddhist scriptures there were records ancient Brahmanism religious rituals and social
of Rig Veda. In modern times, Chinese people had development status, through the provisions of these

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rituals, the construction details of sacrificial altar, texts, only a dozen or so are considered relatively
and the methods to decide sacrificial date, we can significant or influential:
learn the status of material production of that time, Some of the earliest significant Upanisads include
as well as the development level of astronomy, the Brhadāranyaka Upanishad, Chāndogya Upanishad,
mathematics, calendar and other natural sciences. Aitareya Upanishad, Taittiriya Upanishad, Kaushitaki
Indian Brahmana and a variety of related sacrificial Upanishad and Kena Upanishad, which were
rituals and procedures of ancient Brahmanism had generally believed to be composed between 800 BCE
been introduced to China long time ago together and 500 BCE. Those that emerged still later include
with Buddhism, thus Chinese people have a certain the Katha Upanishad, Isha Upanishad, Shvetashvatara
understanding of it. In many Chinese translated Upanishad, Mundaka Upanishad, Prashna Upanishad,
Buddhist scriptures and Buddhist classics written by Mandukya Upanishad, and Maitrayaniya Upanishad,
Chinese eminent monks, there were related records which were believed to be created between 500 BCE
as well. For example, in Sui Dynasty, the Chinese and 200 BCE.
eminent monk, Ji Zang in his book Illustration The Brhadāranyaka Upanishad is the oldest and
of Sata-sastra described horse sacrifice, the most longest of the Upanishads. It elaborates systematically
popular and largest ritual in ancient Brahmanism, on the central concept of the Brahmanist philosophy:
“therefore set the horse sacrifice, choose a white Brahman, including the essence of Brahman, the
horse, set it free for 100 days, or say three years, indescribability of Brahman, the two types of
then trace its footprint, at the cost of gold, with all Brahman, and the relationship between Brahman
means to take the horse and kill it, while killing the and Atman, while also covering a variety of other
horse they would sing: Vasu kills thee, the horses topics such as the creation of the world, life after
might go to heaven for its sacrifice.” death, ascetic austerities, abstinence and release.
(Zhu Mingzhong) The Chāndogya Upanishad mainly expounds its

Upanishad
The Upanishads are a collection of classic texts
that first proposed a host of brilliant philosophical
thoughts in ancient India that were later instrumental
in the formation of the key philosophical theories
of Brahmanism and Hinduism. The creation of the
Upanishads spanned an extremely long period of
time, with the first few Upanishad texts emerging
as early as 9th century BCE, as followed by a myriad
of other related texts over the ensuing centuries.
The latest among the Upanishad collection did not
come out until well after the start of the Common
Era. One of the most important books the world has
ever known, the Upanishads exerted considerable
influence on the development of Indian culture,
especially Indian philosophy, with numerous
philosophical schools in ancient India able to trace
the roots of their theories to the Upanishad texts and
many renowned thinkers of contemporary India also
profoundly exposed to the far-reaching sway of the
canon. The major ideas and theories contained in the Fifty Upanishads, translated by Xu Fancheng (front cover)
Upanishads spread to China along with Buddhism,
where they went on to make a notable impact on the Brahman-Atman unity theory, its theory on world
Chinese philosophical scene. creation, the relationship between man’s fate and
man’s actions in the past life, and man’s duties and
Major Upanishads and Issues Discussed obligations.
The Sanskrit term Upanishad translates to “sitting The Aitareya Upanishad focusses on such issues as
down near”, referring to the student sitting down life after death, world creation and primary cause
near the teacher while receiving esoteric knowledge. thereof.
There are over 200 Upanishads, which collectively The Taittiriya Upanishad pays special attention to
reflect some of the very basic theories of Indian the issue of ethics, and also examines certain issues
philosophy and religion as evolved over a lengthy concerning the understanding of Brahman and
period of time. Among this voluminous body of relevant practices.

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The Kaushitaki Upanishad explores such issues as central topic most Upanishads chose to discuss at
the “breath”, the “knower” and the “Known”. great length.
The Kena Upanishad reveals the real power behind The word “Brahman” was not first proposed by
the workings of the universe both external and the Upanishads. In pondering the primary cause or
internal, and describes the amazing qualities of supreme “lord” responsible for the creation of the
Brahman. world, besides “Brahmā”, the Brahmana and the
The Katha Upanishad focuses its critical lens on Aranyaka also mentioned the concept of “Brahman”,
the essentiality of Brahman. albeit rather ambiguously and infrequently.
The Isha Upanishad is the shortest of the And when the first Upanishad began to emerge,
Upanishads, and discusses, among other things, “Brahman” as an abstract philosophical concept
man’s understanding, actions, wisdom and essence also came to dominate the contemporary Indian
of Atman. philosophical debate.
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad examines some In the Upanishads, Brahman was depicted by most
samkhya and yoga thoughts, and also presents its thinkers as the essence of all things and the supreme
theories on the “Lord”; being of the universe. For instance, according to
The Mundaka Upanishad attaches great importance Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1, “All this is truly
to ascetic austerities, maintaining that ascetic Brahman”, and Shvetashvatara Upanishad 3.7 also
austerities can dispel ignorance; it also divides the states that “The Supreme Lord(Brahman) is higher
knowledge that leads to self realisation into two than Virat, beyond Hiranyagarbha”.
types: Para Vidya and Apara Vidya.
The Prashna Upanishad holds the Highest Self
(Brahman) to be the basis of everything, by
understanding which one can attain a sublime state
of immortality.
Despite its relatively short length, the Mandukya
Upanishad nonetheless garnered a great deal of
attention by proposing the famous Four States of
Consciousness, namely, waking, dreaming, deep
sleep and fourth, known as turiya, which is the
highest.
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad discusses the two
forms of Atman and the means to achieve Brahman-
Atman unity.
It’s fair to say that the abovementioned Upanishads, English edition
Upanishads shed revealing light on some of the most (front cover)

representative thoughts of the leading philosophers

and thinkers in ancient India. Some Upanishads also described Brahman, or the
“Supreme Being” equivalent to Brahman, as “Vijana”
Basic Theories (“Consciousness”). For instance, Aitareya Upanishad
Despite the expansive scope of the Upanishads, 3.1.3 states that “All this is guided by Vijana, is
encompassing the philosophical and religious supported by Vijana. The basis is Vijana.” It’s worth
viewpoints and ideas of a galaxy of thinkers in noting, however, that the “Vijana” concept in the
ancient India over a span of several hundred years, Upanishads is distinct from the regular concept of
it is not difficult for us to identify the few key points “consciousness”; it is not a concrete manifestation
of theoretical significance that commanded the of things, but rather, the fundamental basis of
most attention of those thinkers. The basic theories everything. Under most circumstances, Brahman is
of the Upanishads are primarily comprised of three considered to be above all concrete things.
ones: the Brahman-Atman unity (Brahmatmaikyam) The Upanishads thinkers believed that as a
theory; the reincarnation and release (Moksha) supreme state of being, Brahman adopts no concrete
theory; and the basic elements theory. form and exhibits no concrete attribute, or it will
Brahman-Atman unity theory (Brahmatmaikyam) be subject to the constraints or limitations that
The contributing thinkers to the Upanishads held come with concrete things, thus disqualifying it as
that the primary cause or absolute essence of all a “supreme” being. Brahman cannot be understood
phenomena in the world and human life is Brahman or expressed in regular, secular terms, for the
or Atman, and they paid the greatest attention to simple reason that anything that can be understood
the relationship between Brahman and Atman. As or expressed in concepts or words is limited, while
a matter of fact, Brahman-Atman relationship is a true Brahman shall be infinite. There is no way

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to accurately “define” Brahman using ordinary, understanding is of Atman; one’s meditation is of

worldly concepts. In order to grasp the true meaning Atman; one’s intelligence is of the self; one’s will
of Brahman, one must try and understand it from the is of Atman; one’s mind is of Atman; one’s speech
various negations thereof. The only valid attempt is of Atman; one’s name is of Atman; one’s mantras
to define Brahman is to use the famous phrase are of Atman; one’s actions are of Atman; all this
“neti-neti” (“not this - not this”). In other words, in is of Atman.” As we can see, the “Atman” used in
describing Brahman, we shall relinquish the notion the quoted verses refers to the fundamental essence
that Brahman have concrete attributes or forms and of everything, and therefore has virtually the same
focus instead on describing what Brahman is not, meaning as “Brahman”.
rather than what it is. As Kena Upanishad 2.3 puts it, In the Upanishads and later-day Indian religious
most brilliantly, “It is not known by those who know philosophy, the word “Atman” often adopts the first
It; It is known by those who do not know It.” meaning ie unless otherwise specified, “Atman”
The reason why many thinkers adopted the shall mean the owner of an individual life, the
“negative” approach to describe Brahman is that controller of one’s spirit and consciousness, or the
the supremacy or essentiality of Brahman can be reincarnated. Used in this sense, the word is often
highlighted in this way. Although the Upanishads translated as “soul” too.
also contain many passages directly addressing Among the various theories on Brahman-Atman
the characteristics and attributes of Brahman, on relationship as proposed in the Upanishads, there
the whole, their primary emphasis was invariably is a dominant one ie the Brahman-Atman unity
placed on the indescribability, formlessness and theory (Brahmatmaikyam). The proponents of
attributelessness of Brahman. This overarching the theory posited that Brahman and Atman are
belief held a tremendous sway over the later essentially one and the same, and “everything is
development of the Indian religious philosophy, nothing but Brahman”. In other words, everyone
exerting a notable influence not only on the has an individual self (“small self”), and others’
orthodox philosophical schools of Brahmanism, but “small self”, to one, are external objects, while one’s
also on some unorthodox schools of philosophy. “small self”, to others, is also an external object.
In Sanskrit, “Atman” has many meanings, Thus, countless “small selves” and related things in
including self, breathing, spirit, body, transcendent actuality constitute the myriad external phenomena
self, etc. In the Upanishads, however, the word is and objects. In illustrating this, Brhadāranyaka
normally used to denote the following two meanings: Upanishad 3.7.15 states that “He who, dwelling in
The first one is the individual self, a “small” kind all things, Yet is other than all things, Whom all
of self in the sense that it refers merely to the owner things do not know, Whose body all things are, Who
of body organs or the centre of life activities. As is controls all things from within, He is your soul, the
stated in Brhadāranyaka Upanishad 3.7.23, “he is thy inner controller - The immortal.” In here, one’s self
Self, the puller (ruler) within, the immortal; unseen, and the “inner controller” of all things are actually
but seeing; unheard, but hearing; unperceived, but one and the same. Verse 2 of Mandukya Upanishad
perceiving; unknown, but knowing. There is no puts it still more clearly: “All this, verily, is Brahman.
other seer but he, there is no other hearer but he, The Self is Brahman”.
there is no other perceiver but he, there is no other The Upanishad thinkers believed that, the
knower but he. This is thy Self (Atman), the ruler overwhelming multiplicity of “small selves” or
within, the immortal.” worldly things notwithstanding, only Brahman, as
The other meaning of “Atman” is “Brahman”. the highest and infinite being, is real. Anyone who
Instead of the word “Brahman”, many Upanishads treats Brahman and Atman as two separate things,
used the word “Atman” in describing Brahman as or only regards Atman as the fundamental essence of
the source and essence of the material world. And a person and fails to recognise the grand quality of
the “Atman” used for this purpose is the so-called Brahman, is bound to fall into an abyss of delusion
“(greater) Self”. Chāndogya Upanishad 6.9.4 states and agony. As Verse 7 of the Isha Upanishad puts it,
that “Now that which is the subtle essence, in it “He who has known that all beings have become one
all that exists has its True Self. It is Pure Being. with his own self, and he who has seen the oneness
It is Atman, and, O Svetaketu, That thou art.” of existence, what sorrow and what delusion can
Verse 7.26.1 of the same book also explains that overwhelm him?”
“When one sees this, thinks this, knows this, one’s Brahman-Atman unity theory (Brahmatmaikyam)
breath is of Atman; one’s hope is of Atman; one’s is the central theory of the Upanishads. It emphasises
memory is of Atman; one’s space is of Atman; one’s the unity and oneness between the nature and
fire is of Atman; one’s water are of Atman; one’s one’s true self. More importantly, it established
appearance and disappearance are of Atman; one’s the existence of a supreme being that controls and
food is of Atman; one’s strength is of Atman; one’s determines everything in the natural as well the

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human world - a notion of special importance to dead rises to the moon, then turns into rain, which
the ruling class of ancient India. The Indian caste becomes food after falling to the ground, which,
system first came into being as early as the Vedic once consumed, turns into semen, and from semen
period, and among the four main classes (also called are all these creatures born. The “Two Paths” refer
varnas), the Brahmins is the most superior, with the to the “Path of Gods” and the “Path of Ancestors”.
Brahmanism, a religion representing the interests “Path of gods”, also known as the “path of the
and beliefs of the Brahmins, enjoying a dominant sun”, is a path along which one entres Brahmaloká
status on the Indian philosophical scene. The after death without ever returning to the world
mainstream theory of the Brahmanist philosophy is he previously lived in; while “Path of ancestors”,
Brahmatmaikyam (Brahman-Atman unity), a notion aka the “path of the moon”, is a path along which
well-enshrined by the Brahmins caste because the dead one returns to the world he formerly
it conveniently lends credence to their assertion inhabited after going through the “Five Fires” in
that, since there is an eternal, supreme being their respective order.
that dominates the natural and human world, the In addition to the “five-fire-and-two-path” theory,
Brahmins, as the most superior among the varnas, a “three-path-and-four-way-of-birth” theory was also
shall too have a legitimate claim to, and a God-given upheld in certain Upanishads. The “Three Paths” refer
right of, enteral superiority and domination. The to the “Path of Gods”, the “Path of Ancestors”, and
“Brahman” concept in the Brahmanist philosophy the “Path of Animals”, while the “Four Ways of Birth”
actually corresponds to the caste of “Brahmins”. refer to womb-born (jalābuja); egg-born (aṇḍaja);
In consequence, the Brahman-Atman unity theory moisture-born (saṁsedaja); and seed-born (bījaja).
(Brahmatmaikyam) maintained a strong sway over The theory mainly covers the various physical
the Indian philosophical scene - as dominated by manifestations of reincarnation. According to quite
Brahmanism or Hinduism - in the ensuing centuries. a few Upanishads, whether one’s reincarnation will
be good or bad is determined by one’s prior actions.
Reincarnation and release theory As Brhadāranyaka Upanishad 3.2.13 enlightens, “one
Most schools of religious philosophy in ancient indeed becomes good through good work and evil
India had reincarnation and release theories of through evil work”. Chāndogya Upanishad 5.10.7 also
their own. Some rudiments of the theory can be stipulates in clear terms that “When one acts piously,
detected in Veda, but it was in the Upanishads he attains a good birth. He is born as a brahmana
that the notion first acquired a clearly-defined or a kshatriya or a vaisya. When one acts sinfully,
theoretical framework. he attains a sinful birth. He is born as a dog, a pig,
In the opinion of many Upanishadic thinkers, or an outcaste.” “Acting piously” means to abide by
reincarnation stems from people’s ignorance or the religious rules of Brahmanism, fulfill one’s caste
unwisdom. It occurs entirely because of people’s duties, study the doctrines of Brahmanism, and come
failure to realize the Brahman-Atman unity, to to fully understand the Brahman-Atman unity and
recognise that the countless “small selves” that oneness; while “acting sinfully” means failing to fulfill
constitute the world of phenomena are in essence one’s caste duties or acting in a way not befitting of
“Brahman”, and to acknowledge the soleness one’s caste status.
and realness of “Brahman”, leading to the wrong Although the Upanishads specified good
impression that besides Brahman (the only real reincarnation and bad reincarnation, it shall be
being), there are also a vast multiplicity of other pointed out that the good and bad here are only
real things in the world, which drives their futile relative. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as
pursuit of insubstantial objects. Predictably, these “good” reincarnation, because one is condemned to
pursuits almost never yield real or full satisfaction, pain and agony as long as he or she is still stuck in
thus giving rise to ceaseless pain and agony. the cycle of reincarnation. Therefore, according to
Such ill-advised human actions will also generate the basic belief upheld in the Upanishads, the truest
“Karma”, which in turn will exert a negative impact “good karma” shall mean exiting the reincarnation
on relevant people’s “Atman” (“small self”), causing cycle altogether and achieving ultimate release.
him or her to be stuck in a never ending cycle of To attain this goal, one must strive to eliminate
reincarnation and suffering. It’s worth noting ignorance or unwisdom. This is the only path
here that the systematisation of the reincarnation leading to the summum bonum.
theory in the Upanishads was a process of gradual, The reincarnation and release theory and the
progressive development. Brahman-Atman unity theory are in actuality closely
Some Upanishads proposed a “five-fire-and- related in the Upanishads. Many Upanishadic thinkers
two-path” theory to describe reincarnation. The believed that karma and reincarnation originate
so-called “Five Fires” refer to the five stages of from people’s desires and actions induced by said
the reincarnation process ie after cremation, the desires, which can be directly attributed to people’s

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ignorance or unwisdom. Complete release can only responsible for generating all kinds of concrete
be attained by acquiring wisdom on Brahman and phenomena in the world. According to Chāndogya
coming to fully understand the Brahman-Atman Upanishad 3.19.1-2, “In the beginning this universe
unity. Once one realises that everything is Brahman was non-existent. It became existent. It grew. It
and one’s true self is Brahman, he or she won’t turned into an egg (anda). The egg lay for the period
succumb to external temptation and futilely pursue of a year. Then it broke open. Of the two halves of
unreal objects anymore. No desires,no actions; no the egg-shell, one half was of silver, the other of
actions, no karma; no karma, no reincarnation, gold. That which was of silver became the earth;
thereby achieving the ultimate release. that which was of gold, heaven. What was the thick
Chāndogya Upanishad 7.25.2 states, “ The Self, membrane of the white became the mountains; the
indeed, is all this. Verily, he who sees this, reflects thin membrane of the yolk, the must and the clouds.
on this and understands this delights in the self The veins became the rivers; the fluid in the bladder,
sports with the self, rejoices in the self revels in the the ocean.”
Self. Even while living in the body he becomes a The so-called “annam” refers to matter, from
self-ruler. He wields unlimited freedom in all the which all things also stem. As Taittiriya Upanishads
worlds.” ‘‘But those who think differently from this 3.2.1 explains, “for from the annam, verily, are these
have others for their rulers they live in perishable beings born; by the annam, when born, do they live;
worlds. They have no freedom in all the worlds”. into the annam do they entre, do they merge.”
Brhadāranyaka Upanishad 4.4.8 also enlightens, Although these concepts don’t constitute any
“The sages - the knowers of Brahman - also go to particular material elements, they nonetheless
the heavenly sphere after the fall of the body, being boast a material nature, having exerted significant
freed even while living.” influence on certain schools of philosophy which
This approach to achieving total release as gained great popularity later in India.
prescribed by the Upanishads is essentially a On the whole, in the days of the Upanishads, the
wisdom-based approach, which was later widely basic elements theory was by no means a dominant
adopted and further improved by many schools of theory in comparison with the Brahman-Atman
religious philosophy in ancient India. However, it’s theory and the reincarnation theory. Moreover, the
worth noting that these schools tended to understand theory also tended to be mixed with the two other
and interpret “wisdom” differently. theories in the Upanishadic texts. For instance, when
mentioning “annam”, Taittiriya Upanishads 3.2.1 also
Basic elements theory claims that “annam is Brahman”. Such instances are
The Upanishadic thinkers’ viewpoints regarding not uncommon in the Upanishads, in which many
the primary cause for everything in the world are material concepts are considered equivalent to
mostly reflected in their theory on the Brahman- Brahman, which goes to show that the Upanishadic
Atman relationship. Besides the overarching thinkers were not thinking in a consistent way while
Brahman-Atman theory, there are also some related compiling the books, with many important notions
theories or ideas upheld in the Upanishads, the most expressed in an equivocal and ambiguous manner.
prominent one being the Upanishadic theory on the
world’s basic elements. The theory held that the Influences
world is composed of certain basic elements, which The Upanishads occupied a prominent position on the
are mainly material by nature. The Upanishads Indian philosophical scene. The theories contained in
contain the earliest descriptions of such material the book have played a vital role in the development
elements as earth, water, fire and wind, which of Indian culture, especially the development of
were frequently mentioned in the philosophical the later-day Indian religious philosophy and the
discourse in ancient India. Not a few Upanishadic formation of its basic characteristics. Varied and
thinkers even considered these elements to be the diverse in contents, the Upanishads upheld the
fundamental essence of the world. For instance, Brahmanist doctrines as its mainstream theories,
numerous chapters of the Chāndogya Upanishad wherein other non-Brahmanist ideas were also
contain references to such elements as water, earth incorporated. In addition to being revered by the
(food), air, fire, sky, and wind, regarding them Brahmanist school of philosophy, the Upanishadic
as the world’s foundational elements. In relevant texts also received its fair share of attention from
Upanishads, these elements were mentioned both Buddhism and numerous other schools of thought,
separately and collectively. with its theories having been extensively adsorbed
In addition, such concepts as “anda” and “annam” or borrowed by the majority of schools of thought in
were also mentioned in the Upanishads, which the history of Indian philosophy.
are also related to material elements. The so- The core theory enshrined in the Upanishads is
called “anda” is shaped like an egg, and is directly “Brahman-Atman unity”, an outstanding theory

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that was later inherited and further improved by translated by Bodhiruci during the Northern Wei
the Vedanta school. The latter’s “Advaita Vedanta dynasty. The book gave a graphic description of
theory” was actually evolved from the Upanishadic the egg (anda) concept as proposed by Chāndogya
“Brahman-Atman unity” theory. This philosophical Upanishad 3.19.1-2 (“In the beginning this universe
theory had wielded considerable influence on the was non-existent. It became existent. It grew. It
Indian philosophical scene well into contemporary turned into an egg (anda). The egg lay for the period
times. Many of the important issues discussed of a year. Then it broke open. Of the two halves of
by contemporary Indian philosophers originate the egg-shell, one half was of silver, the other of
from the Upanishads, or are otherwise related to gold. That which was of silver became the earth;
the canon. that which was of gold, heaven.”), showing that this
The Upanishadic “basic elements theory” helped particular Upanishadic concept had already been
incubate the later-day schools of natural philosophy very well-known in China at that time.
in India and their key theories, especially the Much attention has also been paid to the
“atomism”, a theory popular not just in Brahmanist Upanishads in modern China. Fully aware of the
schools of thought such as the Vaisheshika school great importance of the Upanishads in the Indian
and the Nyaya school, but also in non-Brahmanist intellectual history, Chinese scholars studying
systems, including Jainism and Buddhism. Although Indian culture, especially Indian philosophy, all
different schools of thought tended to interpret the show commendable, if not ardent, interest in the
roles and status of the elements differently, they all canon. Most of the Upanishads have been translated
associated the formation of the world with these into Chinese and published in China. Many research
elements, albeit in varying degrees. It is fair to say papers on the Upanishads have also been published
that they own their theories on the world creation in relevant Chinese scholarly journals. There are
to the Upanishads. also chapters dedicated to the Upanishads in books
The Upanishadic “reincarnation and release” published in China about Indian philosophy or
theory has also become a popular philosophical religions. In Indian philosophy courses offered in
concept among all major philosophical and Chinese universities or research institutions, the
religious schools in India. With the exception of the theories of the Upanishads are also extensively
Lokayata School, all Indian philosophical schools of mentioned.
significance have inherited and added to the theory (Yao Weiqun)
in varying degrees.
In examining, describing and analyzing Brahman, Yogasutra
the Upanishads adopted the famous “Zhequan” Created around 2nd century BCE by Patanjali, the
approach, a negation-based way of thinking. Yoga-sutra is a foundational classic text of the Yoga
Many Indian thinkers see as a fundamental way to school, an ancient and prominent philosophical
acquire the highest truth or reach the highest state school in India. Containing additional parts
of knowledge. Later adopted and further improved incorporated later, the extant version of the sutra
by the Vedanta school, this particular method was compiled between 300-500 CE.
also caught the attention of Buddhism, where After the Yoga-sūtra, classic texts of the Yoga
it was widely applied in the Buddhist scriptural school mainly comprised commentaries on the sutra,
commentaries, especially those of the Mahayana including “Yoga-s[tra-bhq2ya” by Vyqsa (around 6th
Buddhism, having become a popular and highly century CE), the “Tattva-vaisqrabi” by Vqcaspati
“Indian” way of thinking. mi1ra (around 9th century CE), the “Rqjamqrtqzfa”
by Bhoja (11th century CE), and the “Yoga-vqrttika”
Spread and Influence in China by Vij`qna-bhik2u (16th century CE).
The Upanishadic theories also spread to China, The Yoga-sutra summarised the theoretical
mainly through the country’s importation of conceptions of yoga practices popular in ancient
Buddhist texts. The Chinese versions of some India, and proposed for the very first time a
Buddhist scriptures contain references to the systematised theoretical framework for Yoga,
Upanishadic theories; however, the word helping cement Yoga’s position as a prominent
“Upanishad” itself never appeared in any of the philosophical system in the Indian cultural history.
Chinese Buddhist cannons, which normally don’t The Yoga-sūtra comprised four volumes, with
distinguish between the Upanishadic texts and the the fourth one generally believed to be composed
Vedas texts. Therefore, the “Vedas” referred to in much later than the former three ones, as it contains
Chinese Buddhist books also cover the Upanishads. portions reflecting the views and ideas of Mahāyāna
One Chinese Buddhist book that contains the Buddhism.
most Upanishadic elements is Típó púsà shì léngjiā Volume 1 of the Yoga-sūtra gives a definition
jīng zhōngwài dào xiǎochéng nièpán lùn, which was of Yoga, then goes on to expound extensively on

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themselves of fixation and acquire “viveka-khyati”

(“discriminating consciousness or wisdom”), he
may finally achieve the samddhi of the “Dharma-
megha” type, in which the “seeds” will be destroyed,
enabling one to break out of reincarnation cycles,
escape pain and get delivered.
The Yoga-sutra proposes the various overarching
concepts that primarily constitute the theoretical
system of the yoga school, providing extensive
elaboration on mind activities (vṛttayaḥ); Samadhi;
Seer and the Seen; Eight Limbs; and Siddhis.
Mind Activities (vṛttayaḥ) is a major component
of the theoretical framework laid down in the
Yoga-sutra, which defines Yoga as “the mastery of
the activities of the mind-field” in VolumeⅠand Ⅱ,
positing that there are five mind activities: correct
perception, incorrect perception, imagination,
sleep and memory, which in actuality cover the
majority of the spiritual or conscious activities
people normally exercise. Although among the five
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali - stray thoughts of Dr.
activities there are both correct and incorrect ones,
Jayadeva Yogendra & Hansaji (front cover) the yoga school held that they all posed hindrances
to the attainment of the highest state of wisdom, and
the types of Mind Activities (vṛttayaḥ), the three therefore should be suppressed, or put specifically,
ways of gaining correct knowledge (pramana), ie “eliminated” through long periods of “practice” and
Pratyaksha, Anumana and Aptavakya, the various “abandonment of desires”. “Practice” means to make
types of “samadhi”, and the four categories of continuous efforts to achieve mental tranquility,
“samāpatti”. In addition, the volume also covers the which requires the deepest absorption and great
state of Maheśvara and “scattered mental energy”, exertions to fend off the external influences; and
as well as certain philosophical concepts the Yoga “abandonment of desires” refers to the efforts to
school shares with the Samkhya school. abandon the pursuit of external things, namely to get
Voume 2 expounds on the so-called kriyā rid of worldly pleasures and special, transcendental
yoga, points out the reasons for reincarnation, pleasures (such as heavenly pleasures). Through
pinpoints the source of pain, analyses the various “practice” and “abandonment of desires” one can
manifestations of “darkness of unwisdom” or agony, finally attain the blessed state of “Samadhi”.
enumerates the Eight Limbs of Yoga, introduces the “Samadhi” refers to a sublime state of higher
main means of practising Yoga, and specifies the consciousness all yogis strive to achieve, which is
first five “limbs” of Yoga, ie Yamas, Niyamas, Yoga further broken down into various levels or categories
Asanas, Pranayama, and Pratyahara. in the Yoga-sutras, including: Savikalpa Samadhi;
Volume 3 elaborates on the last three of the Nirvikalpa Samadhi; Seeded Samāpatti; Seedless
“Eight Limbs of Yoga”, ie Dharana, Dhyana, and Samāpatti; and Dharma-megha. It is worth nothing,
Samadhi, maintaining that when these three are however, that these “samadhis”, in their respective
exercised at once, perfectly concentrated Meditation order, don’t represent a progressive process, but
(“sanyama”) can be attained, which will usher in rather, overlap or coincide to varying degrees.
a transcendent illumination of perception after Savikalpa Samadhi: A state of consciousness
recognising the difference of the prakrti and the in which one knows one’s own consciousness
purusha . (including imagination) but remains in a subject-
Volume 4 discusses the five means for achieving object relationship with the world.
“siddhis”, ie by birth; through medicine or herbs; Nirvikalpa Samadhi: The highest, transcendent
through spells or incantations; through austerities; state of consciousness in which there is selflessness,
and via the threefold power of Attention, Meditation no-mind, non-duality, and the subject-object
and Contemplation; positing that the karma of a yogi relationship momentarily disappears. It is the
is “neither white nor black,” while the karma of other highest, samadhi-state of non-dual union with one’s
people falls into one of the following three types: own consciousness.
black, white or black-and-white. The volume also Seeded Samāpatti is a state of limited and
emphasises the theory that if the yogi can perceive conditioned spiritual consciousness, where although
the difference between the prakrti and purusha, rid the yogi has gradually expunged many distractions

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latent force (seed) resulting from his or her past

karmas. If he or she can go one step further and
eliminate or at least effectively suppress the latent
force inherent in the “seeded Samadhi”, the blessed
state of “Seedless Samadhi” may finally be achieved.
There are close links between the theories of
the Yoga school and those of the Samkhya school.
A practitioner of Yoga The Samkhya school adopts the ways of practice
of the Yoga school, while the Yoga school accepts
or impressions, he or she has not yet completely the Samkhya’s basic theoretical “take” on worldly
eliminated the lingering latent force (seed) things. The Yoga-sutra holds that for a yogi to get
resulting from his or her past karmas, thereby truly delivered, a truthful understanding of the
condemning himself or herself to the endless cycle “Seer” and the “Seen” must be gained. The “Seer” is
of reincarnation. similar to “purusha” (“spirit”) in Samkhya, with the
Seedless Samāpatti refers to the blessed state “Seen” equivalent to “prakriti” (“nature”), which is
wherein the lingering latent force (seed) resulting also known as “matter” in the Yoga-sutra. The Yoga
from one’s past karmas has been eliminated or school maintained that reincarnation results from
sufficiently suppressed, leading the concerned yogi the combination of “prakriti”and “purusha”. The
to break out of the reincarnation cycle and get Yoga-sūtra (2, 17) states that, “The cause of what is
delivered. to be warded off is the absorption of the Seer in the
Dharma-megha refers to the heightened state of Seen”, meaning that to end the cycle of reincarnation
consciousness achieved by a yogi after he or she has and get delivered, efforts must be made to separate
acquired the permanent “viveka-khyati” on sattva the two, making them independent of each other.
(prakriti) and purusa (purusha), wherein both And to achieve this “separateness”, one must attain
karma and agony have been eliminated entirely, Seedless Samāpatti or Dharma-megha. In other words,
leaving no trace of latent force or momentum practices must be conducted in accordance with
(“seed”) whatsoever, culminating in a sublime state relevant mandates imposed by the Yoga school.
all yogis hope to attain. The Yoga-sutra describes the framework of yoga
Certain states of “Samadhi” are also called practices as consisted of the “Eight Limbs of Yoga”,
“samāpatti”, which is further divided into four ie Yamas, Niyamas, Yoga Asanas, Pranayama,
categories in the Yoga-sutras: savitarkā-samāpatti, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi.
nirvitarka-samāpatti, savichara-samāpatti and “Yamas” refers to a set of binding “laws”, principles
nirvicāra-samāpatti. or restraints that must be obeyed by a yogi;
“Savitarkā-samāpatti” depends on the yogi’s “Niyamas” refers to the moral “observances” that a
interest in particular gross phenomena, and yogi must uphold and exercise; “Yoga Asanas” refers
represents a state wherein the yogi still retains his to a steady, firm body position a yogi must adopt
or her subjective speech, conceptions, etc. and maintain while practising Yoga, which will help
“Nirvitarka-samāpatti” depends on the yogi’s them ward off external influences or distractions;
interest in particular gross phenomena, and “Pranayama” refers to a yogi’s regulating and
represents a state wherein the yogi’s memory is control of his or her breathing after practice is done;
completely purified and the essential inquiring “Withdrawal” refers to “Pratyahara” refers to the
nature disappears. withdrawal of the five senses from external objects,
“Savichara-samāpatti” depends on the yogi’s so as to prevent the mind from getting distracted
interest in particular subtle phenomena, and by the external world; “Dharana” is the fixing
represents a state wherein the dharmatā (intrinsic of the mind in a single spot (any chosen object);
nature) of things is gradually approximated. “Dhyana” is a progression of dharana, ie Sustained
“Nirvicāra-samāpatti” also depends on the yogi’s concentration on the chosen object; “Samadhi” is a
interest in particular subtle phenomena, and further progression of “Dhyana”, and is the highest
represents a state wherein the dharmatā (intrinsic state of wisdom for Yogi practitioners to attain.
nature) of things is even further approximated. “Siddhis”, aka “supernormal power”, can only
Though by progressing through the four samāpattis be gained by a yogi on the basis of the last three
mentioned above the yogi can achieve a fairly of the “Eight Limbs of Yoga”, ie Dharana, Dhyana,
high level of dhyana, the Yoga school maintained and Samadhi, which, collectively, are known as
that these four samāpattis are “seeded Samadhi”, “sanyama”. Different “Siddhis” can be achieved
meaning that although the yogi has gradually by exerting “sanyama” upon different objects. For
expunged those distractions or impressions, he or instance, through sanyama on animals, the sun,
she has not yet completely eliminated the lingering the moon, the stars, body organs and functions

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thereof, etc., one can accordingly obtain a wealth of Chinese universities also offer Indian philosophy
supernatural knowledge and miraculous ability. In or religion courses that contain information on
addition, one may also acquire the “viveka-khyati” the Yoga-sutras. And among Chinese people, yoga
to distinguish between sattva and purusha. Once the elements are adopted primarily with the purpose of
yogi achieves this particular discerning wisdom, he boosting physical wellness, with the practice of yoga
can gain a mastery over all existences and infinite becoming increasingly popular in the country.
knowledge. If the yogi can go one step further and (Yao Weiqun)
get rid of even the “viveka-khyati” itself, the “seed
of evil” will be destroyed, enabling him or her to Vaisheshika Sutra
attain absolute “independence” and “separateness” As one of the major philosophical schools of
and get delivered. Brahmanism, Vaiśeṣika, or the Vaisheshika school,
Since its compilation, the Yoga-sutra has exerted a was formed around 2nd century BCE. With a
considerable influence on the Indian philosophical significant philosophical influence in India, it spread
scene, in which Yoga practices that had been going to China along with Buddhism, where it attracted
on in the South Asian country since time immemorial great attention from some of the major thinkers in
were brilliantly theorised and systematised, leading ancient China.
to the formation of a dedicated “Yoga School” in Theoretical Sources and Relevant Legends
Brahmanism that specialised in yoga practices. The The word “Vaiśeṣika”, which is the Sanskrit name
theories contained in the Yoga-sutra underwent for Vaisheshika, is derived from “Vishesa,” which
further improvement thanks to the efforts of means “distinction,” or “distinguishing feature,” or
the school’s generations of later practitioners in “particularity.” This school was also transliterated
refining existing contents and adding new contents. into “feishishijia” and “pishishi” in ancient China. In
Numerous philosophical schools in ancient India Chinese Buddhist scriptures, it is often referred to as
incorporated Yoga practices into their systems, and “Sheng Zong” or “Shenglun Waidao”.
many famous thinkers in contemporary India also Some of the basic theories of the Vaisheshika
paid a great deal of attention to the practice of yoga. school were covered by certain key philosophical
The ideas and theories of the Yoga-sutra have treatises in ancient India such as the “Brāhmaṇa” and
since spread to a great many countries around the the “Upanishad”. However, what had contributed
world, including China, mainly via the introduction directly to the formation of this particular
of Buddhist literature into the country. The Chinese philosophical school were the thoughts and ideas of
translations of certain Buddhist scriptures contain some Shramana thinkers active in ancient India.
references to the Yoga-sutra where such subjects as It is generally acknowledged that this school was
meditation and yoga are touched upon. originally proposed by the sage Kaṇāda (or Kana-
The classic texts and theories of the Yoga-sutra bhuk, literally, atom-eater) around 2nd century
have also received widespread scholarly attention in BCE, who was also extensively referred to as
modern China. The Yoga-sūtra has been translated “Youloujia” in Chinese Buddhist records. Most of
into Chinese, with numerous versions of the the information about him contained in existing
sutra introduced and published in the country. In records is of a legendary, even mythical, proportion.
addition, a large number of research papers are For instance, Bailun Shu (Commentary on the Shata
being published every year on the Yoga-sūtra or Shastra) describes the legendary figure as “Uluka,
yoga theories. There are also many Chinese books aka immortal of barred owlet, having been born
that specifically deal with the Yoga-sutra. Some 800 years earlier than Śākyamuni” and “fond of
lecturing during the day and travelling at night. If
you want to keep one, you must feed it in the night
and it will eat with its family dependents”.
Historical Evolution and Foundational Text
- Widely considered the foundational text of the
Vaiśeṣik (Vaisheshika) school of philosophy, the
original version of the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra was created
around 2nd century BCE by Kaṇāda. Containing
additional parts incorporated still later, the extant
version of Vaiśeṣika-sūtra was created around
2nd century CE. Having established some of the
fundamental theories of Vaiśeṣik, the sutra laid the
theoretical groundwork for the school.
Around 6th century CE, there emerged a
A practitioner of Yoga significant commentary on the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra,

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the Padartha-dharma-samgraha (commentary on Six Padartha Theory

Kanada’s Vaisesika sutra) by Prasastapada, which is Major Vaisheshika works such as the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra
the only extant Vaisheshika literature in India that and the Padartha-dharma-samgraha (commentary on
offers a systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika Kanada’s Vaisesika sutra) proposed that there are six
school. Appearing much later than the sutra, it padarthas (categories): dravya (substance), guṇa
offers a clearer and richer picture of the theories (quality), karma (activity), sāmānya (generality),
of the Vaisheshika school and also proposes a viśeṣa (particularity) and samavāya (inherence).
more complete theoretical framework, having been Dravya: It means substance or entity, and the
widely recognised as the most representative extant substances are conceived as nine in number. They
Vaisheshika literature except the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra. are, pṛthvī (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire), vāyu
Around the same period, another important (air), ākaśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space), ātman
Vaisheshika work also appeared, which is the (self) and manas (mind). Earth, water, fire and air
“Daśapadārthaśāstra” by Maticandra. The original constitute material elements and are composed
text of the book has been lost, with the extant of atoms. Ether often means space (sometimes,
version being one Chinese translated by Hsuan elements too) according to the “Upanishad”, but
Tsang. Created close to the “Padartha-dharma- in Vaisheshika it primarily refers to a particular
samgraha” in time, this book contains descriptive element on which sound relies. Time is a real
information about the Vaisheshika system that entity according to the Vaisheshika school and all
differs substantially with that recorded in extant activities, changes or modifications can be achieved
Sanskrit literature of the school, and has long been only through time. Space is a real entity through
a subject of great interest among researchers and which one perceives such directions as east, south,
scholars. west, north, up and down. Atman (self) refers to the
After the 10th century CE, the Vaisheshika school inner self or soul, whose existence can be confirmed
began to merge with the Nyāya school, with a large by inference from the perception of feelings,
body of significant new works emerging, including: breathing and desire. Manas (mind) is the real sense
the “Kiranavali” by Udayana (10th century CE), organ behind the five senses. When the five senses
the “Nyayakandali” by Sridhara (10th century come in contact with the external world, perception
CE), the “Saptapadarthi” by Sivaditya (around can (or cannot) be achieved sometimes, This is the
10th- 11th century CE), the “Upaskara” by Sankara reason why manas exists.
Misra (15th century CE), the “Tarka-Kaumudi” Guṇa (quality): The Vaiśeṣika-sūtra mentions 17
by Laugaksi Bhaskara (17th century CE), and the guṇas (qualities), to which Praśastapāda added
“Bhasapariccheda” and “Siddhanta-muktavali” by another seven. The original 17 guṇas (qualities)
Visvanatha (17th century CE). are, rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell),
Since its inception, the Vaisheshika school sparśa (touch), saṁkhyā (number), parimāṇa (size/
has been an important influence in the Indian dimension/quantity), pṛthaktva (individuality),
philosophical scene, and figured largely in both saṁyoga (conjunction/accompaniments), vibhāga
Buddhism and the dominant philosophical schools (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva
of Brahmanism. Many Vedānta and Buddhist texts (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure),
discuss or refute the theories of the Vaisheshika duḥkha (pain), icchā (desire), dveṣa (aversion) and
school, and therefore constitute valuable sources prayatna (effort). To these, Praśastapāda added
of information instrumental in helping people gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha
understand Vaiśeṣika and its philosophical system. (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit),
Major Philosophical Theories śabda (sound) and saṁkāsra (faculty). While a
The basic philosophical system of the Vaisheshika substance is capable of existing independently by
school is built around the concept of “Padartha”, itself, a guṇa (quality) cannot exist so.
which means “worldly matter corresponding to Karman (action or motion): Motion is of five
concepts”, with “Pada” meaning “words, speech, or types – upward and downward motion, contraction
concepts”, and “artha” meaning “things or objects”. and expansion, and locomotion.
Vaisesika is a system of pluralistic realism, which Samanya (universal): It means is generality. It
emphasises that reality consists in difference. It refers to nature for the existence of substances.
classifies all objects of experience or phenomena into Visesa (ultimate particularity): It is the extreme
several padartha, or categories. Different Vaisheshika opposite of the universal (samanya). It refers to the
works tend to adopt different padartha systems, ultimate differences of substances.
with the two most widely known ones being the Six Samavaya (inherence) is a relation by which
Padartha theory and the Ten Padartha theory. Most types are held together while maintaining their own
of the specific philosophical ideas of the school fall identities, often defined as the relation between cause
under the theoretical framework of “padartha”. and effect. Each padartha shall be distinguished

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from concept, however in fact, they should be (non-existence of nature of one object in another).
unified in substance (reality). It is Samavaya that Important theories proposed by the Vaisheshika
can produce this inseparable relationship between school include: the atomic theory; “non-preexistence
one’s own identity and property. of effect in cause” theory; and the pramāṇa (means
Ten Padartha Theory of valid knowledge) theory.
According to the “Daśapadārthaśāstra”, there are The Atomic Theory - Atom (Anu) is the smallest
10 padarthas: dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), unit of matter postulated by some philosophers in
karma (activity), sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa ancient India. This concept exists in the theories of
(particularity), samavāya (inherence), “śakti”, many Indian schools of thought, with the atomic
“aśakti”, “sadrsya”, and “abhāva”. The first six theory espoused by the Vaisheshika school being the
padarthas are similar to those proposed by the most representative. The Vaiśeṣikas attached great
Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and Padartha-dharma-samgraha, and importance to “fundamental cause” for the creation
the newly added four padarthas are defined as of objects, but instead of the prevalent theory of
follows: “single cause”, upheld a “multiple causes” theory,
“Śakti” refers to a padartha wherein the innate positing that all objects in the world (the effect)
inter-relationship among dravya, guṇa and karma don’t stem from any single cause, but multiple ones.
enables them to collectively or individually give rise It claimed that objects are all composed of small
to particular results. indivisible “atoms”. In dravya, four bhūtas, ie pṛthvī
“Aśakti” refers to a padartha wherein the innate (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire) and vāyu (air) are
interrelationship among dravya, guṇa and karma made of indivisible atoms. The four bhūtas further
enables them not to collectively or individually give fall under two categories: atoms as the smallest unit;
rise to particular results. and combination of atoms. All objects in the world
“Sadrsya” specifically addresses objects’ relative are made of the four bhūtas in infinite combinations.
universality and particularity. Sāmānya is limited to The Vaisheshika school believed that atoms exist
existence and viśeṣa is limited to ultimate differences, and there is no smaller “cause” than the atoms;
while other generalities and particularities shall they cannot be destroyed for they are ever-present,
constitute an independent padartha. Vaiśeṣika-sūtra permanent and eternal. All tangible objects that
and the “Padartha-dharma-samgraha” both believe have forms are the “effect” composed of “atoms”.
that “universality” and “particularity” are only The existence of the “effect” is a mark indicating the
relative concepts, and tend to change depending on existence of atoms as the “cause”. Effect exists only
the specific perspective people take. Some concepts because of the existence of cause. Non-eternal is a
may be deemed as “universal” under certain special “opposite” of eternal.
circumstances, but might be considered “particular” The school also held that atoms are essentially
under other circumstances. For example, for the of four kinds: Earth, Water, Fire and Air, the
concept of padartha, substance is considered as combination of which can form all kinds of objects
“particular” because it is a kind of padartha, but in the world. Atoms are not created, but ever-
for earth, water, fire and air, it shall be considered present and eternal. There is nothing smaller
as “universal” because the four elements are than the atom. Indivisible and indestructible, it
substances. This kind of relativity was never constitutes the “ultimate cause” for the creation
properly addressed in either the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra or of objects. It is spherical in shape and reflects the
the “Padartha-dharma-samgraha”. By contrast, the ultimate difference between objects. By contrast,
“Daśapadārthaśāstra” restricts viśeṣa (particularity) objects formed through a combination of atoms
only to the ultimate differences between objects can be created; they are non-eternal, degradable,
(“Bian Yi’), and sāmānya (generality) only to the destructible, and not spherical in shape, with no
existence of objects (“You”). In other words, the book ultimate differences exhibited.
singles out the relativity of viśeṣa (particularity) and In addition, the Vaisheshika school also
sāmānya (generality) and makes it into a separate, postulated an “invisible force (Adrsta)” theory in
independent padartha (ie “sadrsya”). analysing the momentum in the material world
“Abhāva” refers to an objects’ state of nonexistence, and the occurrence of many natural phenomena.
and there are five types of “nonexistence”: For instance, the literatures of Vaiśeṣika points out
antecedent non-existence (non-existence of objects such phenomena as fire burning up, wind blowing
that are yet to be created); subsequent non-existence sideways, sap circulating in trees and earthquakes
(non-existence of objects that have been destroyed); striking can all be attributed to “invisible force”.
reciprocal non-existence (non-existence of objects Actually the Vaisheshika school tended to attribute
that, if in existence, will contradict existing ones); all inexplicable natural phenomena at the time to
absolute non-existence (non-existence of objects “invisible force”. Invisible force (Adrsta) can be
that will never appear); and natural non-existence seen as a result of one’s own actions, evil or good,

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and in this sense is not unlike the Buddhist concept its basic philosophical system. In explaining the
of Karma. The Vaisheshika school posited that it creation of things in the world, this school upheld a
is always the invisible force that starts the atoms “multiple causes” theory (anamabhavada), positing
in motion. that all objects in the world (the effect) don’t stem
The atomic theory of the Vaisheshika school from any single cause, but multiple ones. There
served as an important approach in ancient India won’t be any effect coming out of a single cause,
to understanding the occurrence and dynamics of only the combining of multiple causes can produce
natural phenomena, and as such, was once a highly effect. The “cause” mentioned by the Vaisheshika
influential theory that held considerable sway over school actually refers to the constituent parts that
other schools of thought, leading the latter to also make up the whole, while the “effect” refers to the
form a habit of discussing this issue extensively. whole or the combined. Thus, the school held that
For instance, some works of the Vedānta school the process of “generation” or “creation” means
analysed the atomic theory and eventually “proved” the combining of multiple elements (cause), and
it invalid. Many other Indian philosophical schools to consider cause and effect to be the same simply
also expressed their views on the “atom” concept. could not explain the creation of things. In their
“Non-pre-existence of Effect in Cause” Theory opinion, the process of “generation” must produce
- Like many schools of philosophy in ancient India, an effect distinct from the cause. In the theoretical
the Vaisheshika school also put a special emphasis system of Vaisheshika, all things are made of
on the theory of causationism, with the Vaiśeṣika- multiple elements, ie the formation of everything
sūtra discussing it extensively. Vaisheshika school in the world is a process of forming one new thing
opposed the general view that cause and result are through combining independent elements, and
inseparable from each other. For instance, the sutra the created things (effect) never pre-exist in those
states, “there won’t be an effect without a cause, but elements (cause), hence the “no effect in cause”
there might be a cause without an effect”, setting out theory.
to emphasise that effect cannot exist without cause, Bold and audacious, this theory made waves in
but cause can exist without effect.” For instance, a the philosophical scene in ancient India, causing a
table (the effect) cannot exist apart from wood (the lot of Vedānta and Buddhist thinkers to violently
cause), but we cannot say the wood does not exist if react to it.
there is no table. Pratyaksha and Anumana
The Vaisheshika school once proved, “Non- Thoughts of Vaisheshika school in epistemology
preexistence of Effect in Cause” Theory, and they are included in the theory of pratyaksha and
believed that there is a fundamental difference anumana to a large extent.
between cause and effect. According to literatures Pratyaksha means sense perception. The Vaiśeṣika-
from other schools, the Vaisheshika school espoused sūtra further classified pratyaksha into two kinds:
the idea that “there is no effect in cause, and cause regular partyaksha; and Yogi-pratyaksha. They
is different from effect” for the following seven were also named as earthly pratyaksha and non-
reasons: firstly, cause and effect are easily perceived earthly pratyaksha by later generations. The former
to be starkly distinct from each other: nobody would only covers the ordinary things in the world,
take the thread (the cause) to be the cloth (the while the latter covers such diverse metaphysical
effect), just as nobody would mistake the clay pot dimensions such as ego, emptiness, space, mind,
(the effect) for the clay (the cause). Secondly, cause etc. The “Daśapadārthaśāstra” doesn’t distinguish
and effect are named differently: nobody would call between regular partyaksha and Yogi-pratyaksha,
thread cloth, or call cloth thread. Thirdly, the same but analyses the major factors contributing to the
cause may give rise to different effects: thread can generation of perception, postulating that the
be used to make not just clothes, but other things generation of perception normally relies on four
too, like rope; fourthly, cause comes before effect factors: “Jing”, literally means “environment”,
at all times. Fifthly, cause and effect differ in form: referring to the surrounding objects that can be
clay (the cause) has a form of block while the clay perceived by five senses; “Gen”, literally means
pot (the effect) has a form of ampulla with a wide “root”, referring to one’s five senses; “Yi”, literally
base. Sixthly, cause and effect differ in quantity: means “mind”, referring to the link between five
a single piece of cloth (the effect) is composed of senses and “self”; and “Wo”, literally means “self”,
many threads (the cause); and seventhly, if cause referring to the one who perceives. And according to
and effect are the same thing, then there shall be the book and other Vaisheshika works, the normal
only one cause, ie there shall not be a lot of causes process of generation of perception can be described
such as material constituting effect and maker as follows: firstly, one’s “Gen” (five senses) come in
manufacturing effect. Vaisheshika espoused the idea contact with “Jing” (external environment), giving
of “no effect in cause”, which may be attributed to rising to impressions, which will soon be picked up

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by “Yi”, which is not an element of consciousness Buddhism spread to China. Some Buddhist monks in
but a material one. It is extremely small in size, and ancient China once expounded or analysed relevant
can move very fast within the body. And when the thoughts or theories of the Vaisheshika school, as
information gathered by five senses is transmitted evidenced by relevant expositions widely present in
to “self”, perception occurs. However, according to Buddhist literature compiled in ancient China.
the Vaisheshika school, for perception to occur, it is The “Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi” translated and
not necessary to have all four factors at once. Two, compiled by Hsuan-tsang contains parts specifically
“Wo” and “Yi”, or three, “Wo”, “Gen”, “Yi”, of the dedicated to repudiating the Vaiśeṣika theories,
four may be sufficient to generate perception. arguing that the Padarthas considered “eternal
Anumana mainly refers to inference. The Vaiśeṣika- and permanent” by Vaiśeṣika cannot be eternal
sūtra specifies five circumstances of anumana: firstly to and permanent if they can generate effect. For
infer cause from effect, (e.g., fire can be deducted from instance, if the atoms of earth, water, fire, and air
seeing smoke); secondly to deduce effect from cause, in the Dravya-padārtha can be combined to create
(e.g., sound can be deducted by a deaf from special “effect”, they must be non-eternal and impermanent,
relation for drumsticks drumming). Thirdly, to infer because they have functions and therefore are
one from the known other, provided that the two are subject to changes. As for those “eternal” Padarthas
in conjunction with each other (e.g., touch organ can that don’t generate “effect”, such as kāla (time),
be deducted from seeing an animal). Fourthly to infer dik (space), sāmānya (generality) and samavāya
one from the know other, provided that the two are in (inherence), they are like such non-existent things
conflict with each other (e.g., food for snakes can be as rabbit horns, having no “prakriti” apart from
deducted behind the tree from restless performance consciousness. And those Padarthas considered
of a snake); and to infer one from the known other, “non-eternal and impermanent”, if blocked, will
provided that one is inherent in the other (e.g., water be like such things as armies and woods, having
can be deducted having been boiled from hot water). no “prakriti” whatsoever; and if unblocked, they
Although Vaiśeṣika, traditionally recognised as will be like consciousness or manifestations
a Brahman school, adopts the social class system thereof, having no concrete “vehicle” and thus,
of Brahmanism and believes too in reincarnation no “prakriti” apart from consciousness. In
and deliverance, it is less adherent than the other addition, the book also challenged the rationality
“orthodox” schools of philosophy in ancient India. of categorising pṛthvī (earth), ap (water) and
With its theoretical focus on natural philosophy, tejas (fire) into Dravya (substance) and rūpa
it deviates materially from the other mainstream (colour) into Guṇa (quality), arguing that they
Brahman schools dominant then. are all subject to the control of body organs, and
Spread and Influence in China therefore should be put under the same category.
The theories of the Vaisheshika school were The “Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi” also argued that there
also spread to ancient China, exerting a pervasive is no need for the sāmānya-padārtha as proposed
influence on the country’s philosophical scene. by Vaiśeṣika, because according to the school’s
One particular Vaiśeṣika work was translated own theory, the Dravya-padārtha shall exist of its
into Chinese in its entirety in ancient China, ie own accord, without having to depending on the
the “Daśapadārthaśāstra” as translated by Hsuan- sāmānya-padārtha to verify its existence. For these
tsang. Different from the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra, the reasons, the “Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi” concludes
Padartha-dharma-samgraha (commentary on that the padārtha theory of the Vaisheshika school
Kanada’s Vaisesika sutra) in a substantial way, the is self-contradictory, and therefore is not valid.
book proposes 10 Padarthas. Some of the Buddhist Kuiji also mentioned the Vaisheshika school in
monks or scholars in ancient China noticed and his “Commentary on Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi”, which
discussed these differences. As a “heretical” work, contains descriptions like “Vaiśeṣika proposed
the “Daśapadārthaśāstra” was incorporated in the brilliant Six Padartha Theory, which is an
its entirety into the Chinese Dazangjing (“Great unparalleled feat among its philosophical peers. Still
Treasury of Sūtras”), which was extremely rare later, a Vaiśeṣika disciple named Huiyue put forth a
throughout the long history of Buddhist literature Ten Padartha Theory.”
compilation, indicating the high level of attention Puguang also stated in volume 5 of his “Jushe Lunji”
the Vaiśeṣika work had received in ancient China. that “the Vaiśeṣika masters proposed six Padarthas, ie
In relevant Buddhist scriptures, the theories of the dravya (substance), guṇa (quality), karma (activity),
Vaisheshika school were extensively criticised and sāmānya (generality), viśeṣa (particularity) and
decisively repudiated. And in refuting the Vaiśeṣika samavāya (inherence); later, a master named Huiyue
theories, Buddhist records also gave a brief account proposed a Ten Padartha Theory”.
of Vaiśeṣika and quoted its representative thoughts, There are actually many such descriptions
some of which were translated into Chinese when contained in Chinese Buddhist records (especially

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Mādhyamika commentaries), either recounting or

repudiating the Vaiśeṣika thoughts.
In ancient China, many non-Buddhist thinkers also
paid a fair amount of attention to the Vaisheshika
school. For instance, Lv Cai, a thinker in China’s
Tang Dynasty, was once attacked by his adversary
for adopting in his philosophical thinking a certain
theory rather similar to the atomic theory espoused
by the Vaisheshika school.
In refuting his adversaries, Zhang Taiyan, a
famous thinker in contemporary China, also cited
the theory for earth, water, fire, air and the atomic
theory of the Vaisheshika school.
The Vaiśeṣika theories also received a lot of scholarly
attention in modern China, with the Vaiśeṣika-sūtra
translated entirely into Chinese and the Padartha-
dharma-samgraha partially translated into Chinese. In
books published in contemporary China about Indian
religious philosophy, there are dedicated chapters
describing the evolution of the Vaisheshika school and The Nyaya Sutra: A New Commentary on an
Old Text, English edition (front cover)
its major theories. Quite many research papers on the
Vaisheshika school have also been published in some
Chinese scholarly journals. builds the theoretical framework of Nyaya. Nyaya
On higher education front in China, quite some Sutra is divided into five volumes, with each volume
masters’ theses focussed on the “Daśapadārthaśāstra”, having two chapters. Its main theoretical model is
while many PhD dissertations mentioned the “16 truths”, including pramana, prameya, doubt,
Vaiśeṣika theories. motivation, example, theory, discussions, thinking,
Vaiśeṣika is also mentioned in the oriental conclusion, reasoning, argumentation, no defense,
philosophy courses offered in modern Chinese uncertain reason, misinterpretation, opposition and
universities, with some courses focussing on the misunderstanding. It mainly discusses the thoughts
study of classic texts of the Vaisheshika school and about the logical reasoning and debate rules of
others aiming to give an account of the evolution Nyaya. Many theories of Nyaya are put forward or
of the school and its basic theories. Among the discussed during the interpretation of the 16 truths.
scholars studying oriental culture in contemporary The main theories put forward in Nyaya Sutra
China, the Vaiśeṣika theories remain a familiar include reasoning by five-part syllogism, reasons of
topic. Besides, in some professional conferences producing mistake in reasoning, behaviour of debate
or symposiums held in China, the theories of the failure, main methods to get correct understanding
school or papers published on the school were also and so on. Reasoning by five-part syllogism is
discussed with great interest. also called “five-branches-type argument”. It is a
(Yao Weiqun) relatively fixed basic mode of reasoning first put
forward in the history of Indian thought, and plays
Nyaya Sutra an important role in the formation and development
Nyaya Sutra is a fundamental scripture of Nyaya in of systematic logic theory in India. The theory
ancient Indian philosophy, and is the first literature holds that there are five basic elements during the
putting forward the systematic logical thought and reasoning, namely, the proposition, the reason, the
debate rules in India. It was written by Gautama in example, the application and the conclusion. “The
about the 1st century CE. The existing Nyaya Sutra proposition” is the proposition put forward in the
includes the additional contents added later, which reasoning,” the reason” is the reason to demonstrate
is finished at about 3rd - 4th century CE. proposition, “the example” is the specific example
The main and auxiliary annotations of Nyaya or evidence used to demonstrate proposition, “the
Sutra include Nyaya-Sutra-Bhasya by Vatsyayana application” is the application of reason and example
(about 4th-5th century CE), Nyaya-Varthika into the reasoning, and “the conclusion” is the
by Uddyotakara (in 6th century CE), Nyaya- conclusion drawn according to the final statement of
varttikatatparya-tika by Vācaspti mi ra (in 9th century one’s own proposition. Behaviour of debate failure is
CE), Nyaya-varttikatatparya-tātparya-parisuddhi an important analysis of Nyaya Sutra on debate, and
by Udayana (in 10th century CE) and so on. the theory on such aspect is mainly manifested in
Nyaya Sutra establishes some basic concepts and the conclusion of 22 misunderstandings. The main

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way to get the correct understanding actually is

the pramana theory. There are four pramana being
put forward in Nyaya Sutra, namely, Partyaksa-
pramana, Anumana-pramana, upama-pramana and
avavada-pramana.
Nyaya Sutra also connects its theories of reasoning
and debate with the religious issues. Nyaya Sutra
first emphasises that reaching the highest good
needs the knowledge of “16 truths”. The core theory
of 16 truths is about the knowledge of reasoning
and debate. Nyaya Sutra thinks that this kind of
knowledge is actually the supreme wisdom, and
that achieving them will eliminate ignorance, while
Vimukti relies on the elimination of ignorance.
Therefore, the knowledge of logical reasoning and ‘Prakaranasyavaca-sastra (Xianyang
debate is inseparable with Nyaya’s ultimate goal of sheng jiao lun)’
achieving the liberation by freeing from Samsara.
The thought of Nyaya Sutra plays a crucial role in syllogism being similar to the theory of five-branches-
the development of Indian philosophy. Many sects type argument in Nyaya Sutra.
have absorbed its logical and debate ideas. It is the In modern China, the thought of Nyaya Sutra
reference in the development of Buddhism. Many receives great attention from Chinese academic
thoughts in ancient Buddhist hetuvidya are built circle. Nyaya Sutra has been translated into Chinese
on the basis of the absorption and transformation in China, and many Chinese versions have been
of Nyaya’s relevant thoughts. The thought of Nyaya officially published or issued. Some research papers
Sutra still have significant influence in modern times on the theory of Nyaya Sutra have ever been issued
in India. Some famous Indian ideologists in modern in Chinese professional academic journals. Many
times compare the thought of Nyaya Sutra with the works about Indian philosophy published in China
western logic, integrate some ideas, and put forward also include some contents about the thought of
some new theoretical insights. Nyaya Sutra, and they also appears on the Indian
The thought of Nyaya Sutra is also introduced religion and philosophy courses opened in China’s
into China with the Buddhism in ancient time. The colleges and universities, even some academic
ancient Chinese understanding of Nyaya is largely dissertations of Chinese postgraduates are with the
from the Buddhist relevant literatures. These theme of Nyaya Sutra.
literatures are mainly those about hetuvidya theory, (Yao Weiqun)
especially the contents involving ancient hetuvidya
in the Buddhist scripture. Brahma Sutra
In Chinese Buddhist scriptures, there are also many Created by Baadarayana around the 1st century
contents about Nyaya Sutra. The representatives include CE, Brahma-sūtra is the foundational text of the
Upāya-Kauśalya-hrdaya-śāstra, Prakaraõàryavàcà- Vedānta school of philosophy. The current version
àstra, Mahàyànàbhidharma-samuccaya-vyàkhya of Brahma-sutra contains portions added still later
and Tarka-sastra. Upāya-Kauśalya-hrdaya-śāstra on and wasn’t fully completed until the 5th century
makes discussions on the theory of four pramana of CE. The sutra inherited and improved some of the
Nyaya Sutra, and such contents like uncertain reason, key philosophical ideas of Brahmanism contained in
opposition and misunderstanding. Tarka-sastra, the Upanishads, and its emergence marked the debut
Prakaraõàryavàcà-àstra and Mahàyànàbhidharma- of the Vedānta school as an independent school of
samuccaya-vyàkhya also make the discussions on philosophy on the Indian philosophical scene.
The Brahma-sūtra consists of 555 succinct sutras
or aphorisms, whose meanings sometimes can only
be determined by referring to relevant ancient
commentaries. The sutra spawned a large number of
commentaries, which tended to construe the text of
the Sūtra in different ways. Among the assortment
of commentaries, the most famous ones include the
commentaries by three prominent philosophers in
ancient India, ie Shankara (788-820 CE), Ramanuja
‘Prakaranasyavaca-sastra (Xianyang sheng jiao lun)’,
(around 11-12 century CE) and Madhava (around
Fangshan Stone Classics, Beijing 13 centry CE).

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The Brahma-sūtra is arranged in four chapters the sutra describes Brahman and Atman as being
(adhyāya), each chapter is divided into four quarters one and the same; on the other hand, it makes a
(pāda). Chapter one presents the overarching theme distinction between the two, a fact that also helps
of the whole sutra, explaining that Brahmanis is explain the branching out of the Vedānta school
the ultimate reality and the fundamental essence later on.
of everything in the world; chapter two discusses The key components of the Brahma-sutra include:
and refutes the possible objections to Vedānta interpretations on Brahman-Atman relationship; the
philosophy, and lays out relevant arguments on theory of bhedābheda (“identity and difference”;
such topics as the essence of the material world and repudiations of other schools of philosophy; and the
the world’s creation. Chapter three deals with the concept of reincarnation and release.
In describing the Brahman-Atman relationship,
the Brahma-sutra also mentions the different
viewpoints on the issue from various previous
thinkers. According to Bhaskara’s commentaries
on Brahma-sutra 1.4.19-22, the sutra discusses
the views of three thinkers: A-s′marathya upheld
the bhedābheda theory; Audulomi advocated the
satya-bheda theory; and Kqaktsna endorsed the
philosophy of Advaita Vedānta (non-dualism).
These views were further improved and developed
by several later Vedānta philosophers, with clearly-
defined theoretical frameworks being established.
Baadarayana, the original author of the Brahma-
sutra, tended to espouse the bhedābheda theory,
Brahma Sutras, English edition holding that as the creator or the fundamental cause
of the world, Brahman is distinct from Atman(sphere
relation between Brahman and Atman (self) and the of phenomena); Brahman and Atman are also a unity
concept of reincarnation. And Chapter four discusses in the sense that Atman or all phenomena bear the
issues such as meditation, karma and release. quality of Brahman and nothing can exist without
Many of the key issues the Brahma-sutra tackled Brahman, with the relationship between the two
had already been elaborated on in the Upanishads, likened to that between the sun and its reflection
with the sutra’s focus of inquiry primarily placed on on the water.
the Brahman-Atman relationship. The Upanishadic The Brahma-sutra repudiates the key theories
thinkers dwelled largely on the fundamental of certain schools of thought in ancient India.
cause for all worldly phenomena, both natural Despite the conciseness of the sutras, with the aid
and human, and proposed two basic concepts: of the commentaries thereon by such thinkers as
“Brahman” and “Atman”. “Brahman” is generally Shankara, we can nonetheless get a glimpse of the
considered as the fundamental cause or essence of various schools of thought and theories thereof the
everything in the world, and is sometimes referred sutra argues against.
to as the “Self”, while “Atman” is regarded as the He Brahma-sutra repudiates such Samkhya
main actors in life phenomena, and is sometimes concepts as Prakriti, Purusha and Gunas, rejecting
referred to as the “self”. It is the countless “selves” as false the theory that Prakriti is the fundamental
and related things that are believed to constitute cause of everything in the world, as unfounded the
the sphere of phenomena. Quite many Upanishadic theory that the combination of Prakriti and Purusha
thinkers maintained that the “self” and “self” of promotes the transformation of things in the
worldly phenomena are essentially the same thing, world, and as implausible the Sattva-Rajas-Tamas
hence the theory of “Brahman-Atman unity and relationship proposed by the Samkhya school.
oneness”; while some other Upanishadic thinkers In addition, the Brahma-sutra also rejected the
chose to draw a clear distinction between Brahman theories of the Vaisesika School as improbable,
and Atman while describing them, leading to the proclaiming as false such Vaisesika theories as the
fact that different Upanishads, or even different atomism, the “samavaya” theory and “invisible
parts of the same Upanishad, contain inconsistent, force” (adrsta). It argues against the proposition
even contradictory, interpretations on the Brahman- that things are composed of atomic elements and
Atman relationship. The problem turned out to have asserts that the atomism theory is inherently self-
exerted a huge influence on the ensuing generations contradictory. It also rejects the idea that adrsta
of Vedānta thinkers, causing the Brahma-sutra is related to movement of things and there is a
to suffer the same ambivalence: on the one hand, “samavaya” relationship between things, arguing

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that the Vaisesika “samavaya” is actually in one exit the reincarnation cycle and get released.
endless need of other “samavaya” and therefore is Since its emergence, the Brahma-sutra has exerted
not plausible. considerable influence on the Indian intellectual
The Brahma-sutra launched the fiercest “attacks” history. Major Vedanta thinkers all wrote
on Buddhism, renouncing the latter’s theories on commentaries on the sutra, wherein they expressed
the composition of man and things and rejecting as their brilliant viewpoints on relevant issues.
implausible the religion’s theory of five skandhas For instance, Shankara proposed the “Advaita
and atomism. It also repudiates the Buddhist Vedānta (non-dualism) theory, Rāmānuj proposed
Karma theory, arguing that it is impossible for the his “limited non-dualism” theory, and Madhva
12 laws of karma to mutually cause each other, as proposed the “dualism” theory. These theories
constitute the core components of Brahmanist
and Hindu philosophy and had played a positive
role on the Indian philosophical scene well into
contemporary times.
The theories contained in the Brahma-sutra, as
lumped in with the early-day Vedanta theories,
were introduced to China along with the Upanishads
via Buddhism. Most Chinese Buddhist works don’t
distinguish between the Brahman-sutra’s theories
and the Vedanta theories and generally classify
them all under the category of “Wei Tuo”, “Zhi Lun”
or “Ming Lun”. Chapter 1 of “Chengweishilun” by
Brahma Sutras Xuanzang mentions such concepts as “Maheśvara”,

each karma law is only the cause for the next one.
The Buddhist “Chana Shengmie” theory was also
rejected by the sutra as contradicting the Buddhist
Karma theory, and the Buddhist “Ze Mie” theory
was refuted as impossible too. The sutra also blasted
the Buddhist “Emptiness” theory, arguing that
conventional wisdom indicates that things cannot
stem from empties or nothing. In addition, the
Buddhist “dreaming-wakefulness oneness” theory
and the “Chitta-matra” theory were also disproved.
Finally, the sutra concludes that the various
Buddhist theories are all implausible.
The Brahma-sutra also attacked the Jain Essentials of Brahmasutra Bhasya,
theories, repudiating the Jain “seven-limbed English edition (front cover)
seven Vādavidhāna” as improbable, since wholly
contradictory judgments cannot exist in the same “maha-brahman” and “Atman”, all of which are core
thing. The sutra also renounced as false the Jain or basic concepts in the Upanishads, the Brahma-
theory that the Jiva expands and contracts depending sutra and commentaries thereon. The Chinese
on the size of the body it inhabits, arguing that as a Buddhist texts normally never specify the Indian
permanent substance, Jiva shall be of the same size scriptural source for such concepts.
at all times. In modern China, the Brahma-sutra has also
In addition, the Brahman-sutra also refuted the received a fair amount of scholarly attention,
Paśupati and Bhagvad Gita theories. with the Chinese translation of the sutra already
The Sutra’s reincarnation and release theory published in the country. Many Chinese scholars
is closely related to its Brahman-Atman theory. focus their research on the Vedanta school, and as
Although relevant viewpoints are scattered here a foundational Vedanta text, the Brahma-sutra has
and there throughout the text of the sutra, the main gained increasing importance among the Chinese
argument is clear: those who don’t have a correct scholars researching Vedanta, who all dedicate
understanding of Brahman-Atman relationship a chunk of their research time to examining and
and fall prey to ignorance will be condemned to studying the Brahma-sutra. Quite some research
an endless cycle of reincarnation. And only by papers on the Brahma-sutra and the Vedanta
gaining a truthful understanding of Brahman- school have also been published in relevant
Atman relationship and the essence of Brahman can Chinese scholarly journals. There are also chapters

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mentioning the Brahma-sutra in books published in

China about Indian philosophy. In Indian philosophy
courses offered in Chinese universities, the sutra’s
theories are also extensively mentioned.
(Yao Weiqun)

Bhagavadgita
Bhagavadgītā is an important classic of ancient
Hinduism; it is also known as Buddha Song; originally
it was a part of Bhismaparvam, the sixth chapter of the
great Indian epic Mahabharata, which later evolved
into an independent classic of Hinduism. The book
was formed during the time period between 2nd
and 3rd century CE. It is divided into 18 chapters,
with 700 odes in all. Bhagavadgītā is a collection Bhagavad Gita, an illustration
of poems, elaborating Hindu philosophy of life in
the form of a dialogue. The dialogue occurred in of life and ethical concepts. It is argued that a
the battlefield while the two armies of Pandavas believer must follow their own “Dharma” to act, and
and Kauravas were confronting each other. Prince should not consider personal gains or losses, honor
Arjuna (one of the younger brothers of Yudhishtira) or disgrace, only through action, he could achieve
of Pandavas commanded the army to encounter the the unity of his own soul “Atman” with “Bráhman”,
the supreme soul of the universe, finally to achieve
the highest purpose - liberation.
In order to achieve liberation, Bhagavadgītā also
strongly promotes three kinds of yoga as roads:
“Karma Yoga”, “Jnana Yoga” and “Bhakti Yoga”.
“Karma” refers to the behaviour or actions. The so-
called “Karma Yoga” is requiring its believers to fulfill
individual’s social obligations and responsibilities
in a detached attitude, do not do anything with a
personal desire or self-interest, and do not care about
the success or failures, gains or losses of actions,
finally through this way to achieve liberation.
“Jnana” in the Bhagavadgītā refers to the Upanishad’s
wisdom of life and wisdom of Samkhya Philosophy.
The so-called “Jnana Yoga” is requiring the believers
to study the wisdom of the Upanishads and Samkhya
Philosophy, and to behave under the guidance
of this wisdom to ultimately achieve liberation.
Krishna teaching flute The wisdom of the Upanishads refers to that the
human soul - “Atman” and the highest cosmic soul
army of Kauravas. Being confronted of the killing - “Bráhman” are essentially the same, once a man is
fight, he saw many relatives, friends and teachers enlightened with the truth of “Advaita Vedānta”, he
in the enemy camp. He was compassionate and he could achieve the highest ideal of life. The wisdom
was not ready to go to war with his own relatives. of Samkhya Philosophy, refers to that all physical
He had no intention for the battle. At that time, phenomena in the world have “three virtues” (three
Krishna, in the embodiment of Arjuna’s royal hand kinds of nature), human behaviour also has three
(ie the incarnation of Mahavisnu), started a serious natures, namely good action, fearful action and dark
dialogue with him and instructed him that he should action, Krishna in Bhagavadgītā instructed Arjuna to
not consider personal honour or disgrace, gains or constantly keep the purity of the soul, not subject to
losses. Only through unswervingly fulfilling his own the “three natures” of action, do not seek personal
mission, will be true loyalty to divinity and also the gain, not persistent with behavioral consequences,
noblest acts. Under Krishna’s instruction, Arjuna selflessly fulfill his social responsibilities. “Bhakti”,
finally abandoned personal affairs and followed the refers to the piety, reverence and faithfulness toward
principle of a warrior again and devoted himself into the divinity. The so-called “Bhakti Yoga” in the
the battle. Leaving aside the story, the fundamental Bhagavadgītā is requiring the believers to worship
idea of Bhagavadgītā is to promote Hindu philosophy Krishna devoutly, regard all their actions as devotions

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to Krishna. Though Bhagavadgītā emphasised the Indian national movement leader Mahatma Gandhi,
importance of Karma Yoga, it argued that to truly was incorporated in this book. The translation of
understand and implement Karma Yoga, it must be Bhagavadgītā into Chinese greatly promoted Chinese
combined with Jnana Yoga and Bhakti Yoga. Only people’s understanding on Hinduism and also helped
through the mutual coordination of the three yogas, Chinese scholars to study Indian culture.
the highest ideal of life - liberation could be achieved (Zhu Mingzhong)
as soon as possible.
Bhagavadgītā is well-known to all in India; it Hiran Yasaptati
occupies a high position and absolute authority Hiran Yasaptati is an important work of Sankhya
in the minds of Hindus. In modern times, many in ancient Indian philosophy and is one of the main
advanced Hindu thinkers, like national independence reference of Samkhya-karika which is the ancient
movement leader Tilak and Gandhi, etc., had made re- fundamental literature of Sankhya. It was written
interpretation of Bhagavadgītā, and praised it highly as around the 5th century CE, but the author is unknown,
the most important classic. They vigorously promoted and the original Indian Sanskrit cannot be found
the noble spirits in Bhagavadgītā to firmly fulfill their now. It was translated into Chinese by Paramartha
obligations (“Dharma”), abandon personal gains and master staying in China in the 6th century CE.
losses, and make selfless dedication. They took this The Chinese version is divided into three volumes,
classic as a spiritual weapon to mobilise the people namely, Volume I, Volume II and Volume III.
for anti-British struggle. Tilak called on the Indian Hiran Yasaptati is the more ancient reference among
people to follow the teachings of Bhagavadgītā, act the five existing references of Samkhya-karika,
positively, and make more contributions to society, and it is very important for people to understand
serving the society was also serving the divinity. the philosophy of ancient Sankhya. According to
its record, Samkhya-karika has 72 parts. In main
contents, it is consistent with other references, but
there are also some differences. In the explanation
of Sankhya thought, it is not completely the same
with other references. The main theory of Sankhya
is the two realities and 25 truths, the two realities
refer to Prakriti and Purusha, 25 truths refer to
Parinama-vada, causality, three-component theory
and reincarnation and liberation theory.
Samkhya-karika contained in Hiran Yasaptati and
its corresponding reference think that everything
in the world or life phenomenon is changed from
the interaction or combination of two entities.
These two entities are Prakriti and Purusha.
Prakriti, also known as “nature”, is the entity of
materiality. Purusha, also known as “Atman”, is
the entity of spirituality. Both are the fundamental
Dasavatara causes to create things, therefore they are called
as “two realities”. When Purusha acts on Prakriti,
The thoughts of Bhagavadgītā had been introduced Prakriti interior will begin to change and gradually
to China very early. In 1940s, Jin Kemu had develop a variety of phenomena in the world.
introduced the philosophy of Bhagavadgītā to students Prakriti first evolves consciousness (be equivalent
in the courses opened for Indian philosophy at Wuhan to the rationality or intellectuality which is
University and Peking University. However, the deterministic and crucial), then consciousness
actual translation work of Bhagavadgītā from Sanskrit evolves “me” (that is self-awareness or ego), and
into Chinese was made in 1980s. Today, there are on one hand, “me” evolves “eleven organs” (eye,
two versions of Chinese Bhagavadgītā, one version ear, nose, tongue, skin, voice, hand, foot, excretory
was translated by Zhang Baosheng (in 1989), another organ, reproductive organ and heart), on the other
one was translated by Huang Baosheng (in 2010). hand, it also evolves “five subtle elements” (sight,
These two versions have made a lot of comments sound, smell, taste and touch). Finally, “five subtle
on the original work, and made elaboration of elements” create five gross elements (earth, water,
the philosophy contained in it. Zhang Baosheng’s fire, wind and space). Thus, Prakriti, Purusha,
translation was republished in 2007, in this edition he consciousness, me, eleven organs, five subtle
added a new content, that is, Preface to the Translation elements and five gross elements form the so-called
of Bhagavadgītā which was written in 1929 by “twenty-five truths”.

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According to the Hiran Yasaptati, Prakriti interior literatures of Sankhya exert a great influence upon
evolved into the fundamental entities consists of the Indian intellectual history. Until the modern
three components, being called “trigunas”, namely, times, many Indian thinkers still refer to or adopt
Satta, Rajas and Tamas, and their respective the opinions of Sankhya in building the theoretical
characteristics are joy, pain and sloth. Purusha system.
represents the cripple who can only see the Hiran Yasaptati exerts certain influence on ancient
direction but cannot walk, while Prakriti represents Chinese ideology history, and receives many attention
the blind that can only walk but cannot see the from the Buddhists. The famous translator of Buddhist
direction. Only by the cooperation that the cripple scripture - Paramartha completes its translation. It
rides on the blind, can both go forward smoothly. is also brought into the Buddhist Tripitaka in later
generations. In the eyes of Buddhists, it is a complete
foreign literature, and receiving such attention in
ancient China is extremely rare.
Hiran Yasaptati also receives the attention of the
modern Chinese scholars. There are many scholars
studying it, and they have published many papers
on this aspect in Chinese academic journals. Many
Indian philosophy or religious writings published
in China also involve its study or introduction. And
it also appears in the Indian philosophy courses
opened in China’s colleges and universities.
(Yao Weiqun)

Dasapadarthasastra
Daśapadārthaśāstra is an important work of
Vaiśeṣika in ancient Indian philosophy. It was
likely written in the 6th century CE and authored
by Maticandra. Original Sanskrit version was failed
Annotated Hiranyasaptati to be handled down from past generations in India.
In the 7th century CE, it was translated into Chinese
Similarly, only combine the Prakriti which only in one volume by eminent Chinese Buddhist monk
have materiality with Purusha which only have Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty.
spirituality (Purusha plays an observation and Philosophy theories stated in Daśapadārthaśāstra
caring role on Prakriti), can they create twenty- are quite different from other two major Vaiśeṣika
three truths, that is, evolves the everything in the literatures stored in India which are Vaiśeṣika-sūtra
world or life phenomena. and Padārtha-dharma-saṁgraha.
The causality theory in Hiran Yasaptati holds that Since foundation, Vaiśeṣika devoted to discuss
“the cause contains the effect”. That is to say, the types and basic forms of natural phenomena. This
ever-changing things in the world have the nature school proposed the theory of padārthas (categories)
of the effect, and any effect is just the evolution from and believed that categories are solid materials
the cause. The effects have been contained in the relative to views or concepts. And things in the
causes of all things. The effect hides in the cause, world are constructed by several categories which
cause and effect are respectively the hidden state are the basic theory frame of Daśapadārthaśāstra. All
and visible state of the same thing, and the cause of the philosophy thoughts are contained in the ten
condition and effect condition of the same thing. categories.
As to the reincarnation, Hiran Yasaptati divides it Vaiśeṣika-sūtra, the original fundamental classic
into three categories, namely natural law, animal of Vaiśeṣika, believed that there are six basic
law and humanity. categories ie dravya-padārtha (substance), guna-
As to the liberation, Hiran Yasaptati holds that padārtha (attribute), karma-padārtha (action),
the fundamental way of shuffling off this suffering sāmānya-padārtha (universal), viśesa-padārtha
is to know the truth revealed by Sankhya. That is, (particularity), and samavāya-padārtha (inherence).
people can know the theory of “two realities and 25 However, Daśapadārthaśāstra thought that there
truths” of Sankhya by the learning and experience are 10 padārthas, adding four categories to six
of the truth of Sankhya philosophy to prevent the basic categories of Vaiśeṣika-sūtra, which are śakti-
integration of Prakriti and Purusha, thus, completely padārthas (potentiality), aśakti-padārthas (non-
annihilate Samsara to achieve the liberation. The potentiality), sādrśya-padārthas (commonness) and
theories put forward in Hiran Yasaptati and other abhāva-padārthas (non-existence).

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Karma-padārtha refers to action form of things.

There are five actions, which are action throwing
upward, action throwing downward, action
contracting, action expanding and action going.
Sāmānya-padārtha refers to generality or universality
among things. Universality in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra refers
to relative sameness among things and existence of
things. But universality in Daśapadārthaśāstra only
refers to existence. In Vaiśeṣika’s opinion, this quality
is shared by all existed things.
‘Daśapadārthaśāstra (Sheng zong shiju yilun)’, Dazheng edition Viśesa-padārtha refers to particularity or
otherness among things in Vaiśeṣika. In Vaiśeṣika-
Meanings of these 10 categories are as follow: sūtra, it refers to relatively different relations
Dravya-padārtha refers to substance of things. among things and final differences of things. But
Nine substances are Pṛthvī (earth), Ap (water), Tejas in Daśapadārthaśāstra, particularity, only refers to
(fire), Vāyu (wind), Ākaśa (ether), Kāla (time), Dik final differences of things. In Vaiśeṣika’s opinion,
(space), Ātman (self) and Manas (mind). Among everything has particularities to differentiate itself
these nine substances, the first four substances from other things.
(earth, water, fire and wind) are material elements Samavāya-padārtha refers to inseparable causality
which are formed by atoms and their compounds. related to substance and attribute of things. Inherence
The fifth substance (Ākaśa) refers to spaciousness is inner connection existed in things. In Vaiśeṣika’s
which is medium of sound transmission. Things opinion, differences of each category are concept.
could move in this substance. The sixth substance But in fact, they are all united in substances. It is
(Kāla) refers to time. And the reason why people inherence which generates the inseparable relation
realise the concept of present, past, synchronization, between substances and attributes.
non-synchronisation, slowness, and quickness is the Śakti-padārthas refers to the inherent connection
existence of this substance. The seventh substance in substances, attributes and actions. Potentiality
(Dik) refers to space or location. Because of the is indispensable for them to produce their own
existence of this substance, people could generate common effect co-operatively or their own
the concept of east, south, west, north, up, and down. particular effects independently. And it is related to
The eighth substance (Ātman) refers to individual generation or formation of things, which plays a part
spirit or subjectivity of consciousness. Different in generation of specific substance. This category
bodies have different selves, and the existence of could only be found in Daśapadārthaśāstra. There
selves is confirmed by many biological phenomena. is no such category in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and Padārtha-
The ninth substance (Manas) refers to the link (an dharma-saṁgraha.
internal sense) between self and several external Aśakti-padārthas refers to the inherent connection in
senses. When five senses get in touch with external substances, attributes and actions. Non-potentiality
environments, people sometimes generate cognition, is indispensable for them to prevent from producing
sometimes not. And this is the existence of minds. other effects co-operatively or independently. And
Guna-padārtha refers to static qualities or it is related to the matter that substance could not
attributes. There are 24 attributes, which are or will not be generated in specific condition. This
colour, taste, smell, touch, number, extension, category could only be found in Daśapadārthaśāstra.
individuality, conjunction, disjunction, priority, There is no such category in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and
posteriority, cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, Padārtha-dharma-saṁgraha.
aversion, effort, gravity, fluidity, viscidity, Sādrśya-padārthas refers to relative universalities
impression, merit, demerit, and sound. First four and particularities among things that universalities
attributes individually belong to earth, water, are limited to existence, particularities are limited to
fire, and wind. Fifth to 11th attributes are related final distinctiveness, and the rest relative universalities
to relations or forms of things. Twelfth to 17th and particularities are another category. Commonness
attributes are related to qualities or forms of life. could only be found in Daśapadārthaśāstra, however,
Eighteen to 20 attributes are related to modalities it is related to some contents in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and
of objects. Twenty-first to 23rd attributes are Padārtha-dharma-saṁgraha. Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and
related to potential force or usage of human Padārtha-dharma-saṁgraha believe that universalities
behaviours. Twenty-forth is the substance ether. and particularities are relative that they depend
The 24 attributes stated in Daśapadārthaśāstra are on the perspective human being considered. In
different from those in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra. There are some circumstance, some concepts are considered
only 17 attributes founded in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra. as universalities which would be considered as

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particularities in other circumstances. For instance, All ancient India philosophy schools discussed
substance-ness (substance) as a concept is different cognitions. There are two cognitions discussed in
from category, because it is merely one of the Daśapadārthaśāstra which are perception and inference.
categories. But it is universal to earth, water, fire It believed that there are three kinds of perceptions. The
and wind, because earth, water, fire and wind first perception is produced by contact of four (factors)
belong to substance. Relative universalities and that self, mind, sense-organs and objects are combined
particularities are not treated as an independent to produce perception. The second perception is
category in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and Padārtha-dharma- produced by contact of three (factors) that self, mind
saṁgraha. In Daśapadārthaśāstra, particularity only and sense-organs are combined to produce perception.
refers to final distinctiveness (ultimate particularity) The third perception is produced by contact of two
and universality only refers to the existence (status (factors) that self and mind are combined to produce
of being) of things. Daśapadārthaśāstra separates perception. Inference discussed in Daśapadārthaśāstra
relative universalities and particularities from the is of two kinds. The first one is inference from seeing a
category universality and the category particularity, common property. For instance, fire can be deducted
and founds the category commonness. from seeing smoke. In this case, smoke and fire exist
Abhāva-padārthas refers to the non-existence at the same time. The second one is inference form not
status. The five non-existences are antecedent non- seeing a common property. For instance, rain can be
existence, subsequent non-existence, reciprocal deducted by dark clouds. In this case, dark clouds and
non-existence, absolute non-existence, and natural rain cannot exist at the same time. Details of cognitions
non-existence. Antecedent non-existence refers to in Daśapadārthaśāstra are different from cognitions in
the non-existence status before effect is produced; Vaiśeṣika-sūtra.
subsequent non-existence refers to the non-existence Statements about universality and particularity,
status after things have been destroyed; reciprocal time and space, and actions in Daśapadārthaśāstra
non-existence refers to the non-existence status that are similar with related statements in Vaiśeṣika-
things are not mutually present in others; absolute sūtra. There are some differences in expression, but
non-existence refers to the non-existence status that they are the same in essence.
things cannot be produced in the past, the present, Daśapadārthaśāstra did not have much impact in
and the future; natural non-existence refers to the ancient India. But it was translated into Chinese
non-existence status that one thing would not abide by Xuanzang, and spread in China. It is a work of
in one another. This category could only be found India philosophy school, and it is not belonging
in Daśapadārthaśāstra. There is no such category to Buddhism. But it is included in Chinese
in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra, however, some statements in Tripiṭaka. Thus it can be seen that it was valued
Vaiśeṣika-sūtra are related to the category non- by Chinese Buddhist in the ancient times. The ten
existence. Vaiśeṣika-sūtra mentions some non- categories are always mentioned when Vaiśeṣika
existence status but not defining them as a category. is discussed in translated or Chinese Buddhism
Although Daśapadārthaśāstra contains more works. And they are considered as an important
categories than Vaiśeṣika-sūtra and Padārtha-dharma- Vaiśeṣika theory after Vaiśeṣika-sūtra. This theory
saṁgraha, practical matters discussed in these works is often reported and criticized in ancient Chinese
are similar. These categories refer to philosophy Buddhism works.
matters such as atoms, cognitions, universality and Daśapadārthaśāstra is highly emphasised in the
particularity, time and space, and actions. modern and contemporary history of China. There
Atoms are considered as the minimum unit of are papers about it in academic journals in modern
substance by Vaiśeṣika. In Daśapadārthaśāstra, The China. And contents on this subject could also be
four gross elements - earth, water, fire and wind of found in treatises or textbooks of India religious
substance are atoms and their compounds. Atoms of philosophy published in modern Chinese history.
different species have certain qualities, for instance, (Yao Weiqun)
earth has colour, taste, smell and touch; water has
colour, taste, touch, fluidity and viscidity; fire has
colour and touch; wind has touch. Original action EVENTS
of atoms is related to merit and demerit. Merit and
demerit is an invisible power which is called invisible Debate between Buddhism
force in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra. It can cause the action of atoms and Daoism
and the production of some natural phenomena. In ancient history of China, the Buddhists and
Atoms can create all kinds of species, however, atoms Daoists have ever conducted a long-term and
cannot be produced by other substances. And atoms continuous debate, which is involved in Theory of
are indestructible. Atoms in Daśapadārthaśāstra are Religions, and, at the same time, embodies secular
similar with atoms in Vaiśeṣika-sūtra. contradictions at different times.

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“benefit other countries while betraying our

own country, where is the so-called morality and
justice?”, and resisted dissemination of Buddhism. A
Daoist in Southern Qi entrusted Zhang Rong to write
Sanpolun, which stated: “Buddhism will destroy
a country, a family and even a person once it is
accepted”. Buddhists felt very angry and published
many works, such as Zhengwulun, as their response.
In their opinion, Buddhism was earlier than Daoism
and Lao Zi is the disciple of Buddha, so Buddhism
should be the orthodox religion. In addition, they
thought that Daoists were just “starting a rebellion”
and “confusing people with immoral religion”. Liu
Xie said: “introduction of Daoism just coincided
with rebellion of common people, so things remain
essentially the same. The rebellion started by Zhang
Jiao and Li Hong poisoned minds of ordinary
‘Scripture on Lao Zi Revealing Barbarians (Lao Zi hua hu jing)’ people; Lu Xun and Sun En harassed at the end of
Jin Dynasty. There are many people like them were
Buddhism is, originally, a foreign religion, but involved in these events.” In his opinion, troubled
becomes more and more popular with Chinese; times at the end of Han and Jin Dynasty were all
while Daoism is a local religion under gradual caused by Daoism. During the period of Emperor
improvement after introduction of Buddhism. In Xiaoming in the Northern Wei Dynasty (520), Jiang
the early times, both religions depended on each Bin, a Daoist in Qingtong Temple, and Tan Mozui, a
other, namely that Taoism absorbed a part of monk in Rongjue Temple, conducted a discussion on
doctrine from Buddhism, which, at the same time, “Lao Zi and Buddha” finally Jiang Bin was exiled to
took over the words used in Daoism. However, Mayi County for the rest of his life. During the period
with dissemination and generalisation of Buddhism of Emperor Wenxuan in Northern Qi Dynasty (555),
in China, conflict, which led to several times of Lu Xiujing, a Daoist, together with his disciples,
debates, occurred between Buddhism and Taoism. competed with people at higher level and masters.
Later, with further development of Buddhism and It is recorded in Buddhism-Daoism Balance from
Daoism, a trend of integration emerged. There are Ancient to Modern Times: “In September of the sixth
many important literatures collected in Buddhism- year of Tianbao, 10 Daoism and Buddhism scholars
Taoism Debate, including Hongmingji, Guang gathered to proofread the theory in person.” The
Hongmingji, Buddhism-Daoism Balance from Ancient debate was finally judged by the Emperor, and it was
to Modern Times, Theory for Smiting Evil, Beishan stated in the imperial edict that Daoism was “false”.
Record and Follow-up of Buddhism-Daoism Balance But common people had not been aware of the fact,
from Ancient to Modern Times. so he put a ban on Daoism. They had to follow
At the end of East Han, it was stated in Lihuolun, the Emperor’s order, and from then on, merely a
wrote by Mourong, that Buddhism was superior religion was allowed. Buddhism-Daoism Balance from
to Daoism. The book advocated: “Buddha is the Ancient to Modern Times is the Buddhism classics
ancestor of morality and spirit of gods; Daoism to in later ages, the processes recorded in it were not
Buddhism is what hill is to Huaheng and Juandu necessarily true, but results of the debate were facts.
is to Estuary Sea.” During the period of Emperor In the third year of Tianhe (568), Emperor Wu
Jinhui, Wang Fu, a Daoist, and Bo Yuan, a Buddhist, of Northern Zhou gave a speech in Book of Rites,
ever conducted a debate on which religion stands with more than one hundred officials, Daoists and
for justice and which represents evil. It was Wang monks as his audience. “In February of the fourth
Fu who, by virtue of Xiangkai’s word: “Lao Zi year of Tianhe, the Emperor gave a speech to more
came to barbarians as a Buddhist monk”, faked than one hundred officials, Daoists and monks.”
the Scripture on Lao Zi’s Revealing Barbarians and “In spring of Jiande (572), the Emperor came to
initiated the Buddhism-Daoism Debate. During Xuandu Temple for accepting the master’s revealing
the ninth year of Yuanjia in Southern Dynasty in secular suffering, and then returned to the palace.
(432), He Chengtian wrote an essay, Baoyingwen, In December of the second year, the Emperor,
for the purpose of questioning cause and effect, gave a speech in the three religions, Confucianism
and later, theory conflicts came to an official start first, then Daoism and finally Buddhism, to all his
between Buddhism and Daoism. Until the Southern officials, Daoists and monks”. Emperor Wu had ever
Qi Dynasty, Guhuan wrote Yixialun, which read: organised many times of Buddhism-Daoism Debate,

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with an initial purpose of resisting Buddhism and

advocating Daoism. However, drawbacks of Daoism
were fully revealed during these debates, so he
sent out an imperial edict: “considering that both
Buddhism and Daoism have many drawbacks, all
the monks and Daoists should resume secular life.”
From then on, Buddhism and Daoism had been loss
in both sides.
During the third year of Sui Dynasty, Emperor Wen
came to a Daoist Temple for watching the statue of
Lao Zi who was revealing the Northern barbarian
tribes. He felt very strange and then called on Zhang
Bin, a Daoist, and Yan Zong, a monk, to participate
in the discussion. Specific discussion process was
not recorded, but Yan Zong, in accordance with the
discussion, wrote Bianjiaolun to refute the saying of
“Lao Zi’s revealing the Northern barbarian tribes”.
During the 13th year of Zhenguan Period (639),
Huijing gave a lecture named Fahua, and Cai Huang,
a Daoist, upon receiving Emperor Gaozong’s order,
debate against Huijing. In early Tang Dynasty, Xiao Guang Hong Ming Ji
Yu, the crown prince of former Dynasty, “always
wrote his word but never went to the court”, and debate and Yin Qian, a Daoist, gave an incoherent
this annoyed Emperor Taizong, who, later, gave reply and unable to advance any further agreements
an edict, which pointed out that falling of Liang to justify himself. It was obvious that the debate was
Dynasty was resulted from Buddhism. Although no ended up with Daoism’s failure. According to New
ban was put on Buddhism, he explicitly stipulated: Book of Tang wrote by Zhixuan: “when Wuzong
“as for logical disclosure, Daoists and female Daoists governed the whole country, he originally believed
should be prior to Buddhist monks and nuns. If we in Buddhism, and later he, after listening to the
receive moralisation of our own religion, you will wrong people, ordered his officials to build a high
enjoy much more things; if we follow our ancestor’s platform in Mount Penglan to pray for immortality.
custom, we will benefit from it forevelar.” During All advices given by his officials could never change
the period of Emperor Zhongzong (reigned 705- his minds.” However, during the period of Emperor
710), Faming, a monk, went to Chang’an for visiting Wuzong (reigned 840-846), Wuzong believed in
eminent monks and got to know Buddhists and Daoism, and ever called on Daoists and monks
Daoists were appointed to judge the authenticity of to carry out a debate on the question: “can we
Scripture of Fahuchengfo. Faming did not participate cultivate immorality?” “Governing a country is like
in at first, but later found that conclusions cannot a cooking” was taken as debated topic. Zhixuan said:
be drawn, so he requested one of the Daoists: “now “moralisation is the root of governing a country,
that Lao Zi revealed the Northern barbarian tribes while the so-called immorality cultivation is the
to be Buddhists, did he speak Chinese or speak career taken up by hermits lived in woods, and it, at
Barbarian? If he spoke Chinese, the barbarian the same time, requires natural gifts to some extent.
could not understand; and if he spoke Barbarian, So it is not suitable for the King.” At that time,
the scripture must be translated. Have you checked Zhixuan was so eloquent in the debate and what
when the scripture was written, in which dynasty, he said shocked all the listeners, who thought that
who spoke the Barbarian, and who was the author? his words went against the Emperor’s order; and
After listening to these questions, the Daoist his neighbours, worried that he may be exiled and
had nothing to say in reply. During the period of thought it was a pity that his talents in debate may
Shenlong (705), Emperor Zhongzong gave an order be buried. However, under the support of Emperor
in September 14: “abolish the false scripture (refers Wuzong, Daoists won in the debate, and from then
to Scripture of Laozihuahu) and carve it on a stone on, “Exterminating Buddhism in Huichang” started.
in Baima Temple for use as reference in the future.” In August of the fifth year (845), the Emperor
Buddhism-Daoism Debate lasted until the flourishing gave orders to officially exterminate Buddhism.
Tang Dynasty. During the 18th year of Yuan Dynasty Later, more than 4,600 temples were pulled down,
(730), a debate on advantages and disadvantages 2,60,500 Buddhist monks and nuns resumed secular
of Buddhism and Daoism was conducted in Hua’e life, over 40,000 private temples and Buddhist
Building. Daoyin, a monk, was so eloquent in monasteries were abolished, approximately 10

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million qing of fertile farmland was confiscated, and convenience of generalisation, learned from Daoism
1,50,000 slaves and maid-servants were recorded and took it as initial approach to become a Buddhist
to double-tax family. Li Deyu, the prime minister, believer. However, debate between Buddhism and
offered his congratulations to the Emperor and Daoism never came to an end. During the fifth
criticised in Celebration on Demolishing Temples: year of Emperor Xianzong in Yuan Dynasty (1255),
“Buddhism poisons people’s mind, buries the Daoist Li Zhichang and Buddhist monk Fuyu had
principle taxes, and has degraded the country for ever conducted a debate in front of the palace hall,
more than a thousand years.” with the authenticity of Scripture of Laozihuahu and
During the period of Jin Dynasty and Yuan Eighty-one Huatu of Lao Zi as debated topic. This
Dynasty, Quanzhen Daoism actively learned from debate was also ended up with failure of Daoism,
Buddhist theory, and imitated Buddhism in many and the “false scripture” was burnt and 37 temples
were returned. During the period of Ming and Qing
Dynasty, there were few fierce debates between
Buddhism and Daoism, and integration of them, to
the contrary, was strengthened. Zhu Hong, Zhen
Ke, De Qing and Zhi Xu, the four eminent monks
in Ming Dynasty, promoted Buddhism with an idea
that the three religions were homologous; while
Daoists expounded Daoist’s theory with Buddhist’s
theory. Zhang San-feng said in Xuwupian: “nihility
is just the purpose of Buddhism”. The saying
that “in recent times, Buddhism is the spirit of
natural gifts, Daoism is the spirit of receives, and
Eighty-one Huatu of Lao Zi (Lao Zi bashiyi huatu) Quanzhen Daoism is for cultivation of both natural
gifts and receives” in Daomenshigui embodied the
aspects, including dogmata, doctrine, as well as characteristics of Buddhism-Daoism integration.
disciplines and monastic rules. Wang Chongyang Wu Shouyang, a Daoist in the Late Ming Dynasty,
even asserted: “Daoism and Buddhism was originally ever wrote the Xianfohezong, in which the method
from the same family, and whether viewing from for inner alchemy in Daoism was directly combined
the form and theory, they are the same”, and with mediation in Buddhism.
advised people to read Heart Sutra. Buddhists, for (Jiang Julang)

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VI
Linguistics

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Linguistics

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Linguistics
overview

Cultural exchange among people began with

their initial efforts to learn each other’s language.
In the early phase of contact between India and
China, both countries had, therefore, rightly taken
necessary steps and measures in their attempts to
understand each other’s language and script.
It may be noted that ancient Indian scholars
used to attach great importance to the study of
their language and exploring new knowledge on
linguistics. Their script belonged to the category
of alphabetic writing (phonetic script) and for
this reason, they focussed a great deal of attention
on the study of speech sounds. Their books on Kumarajiva, Understanding the Rhymes (Tong Yun), Dunhuang
grammar appeared in the pre-Christian era and Remnants S1344v2
they had also developed and arranged their
alphabets based on certain scientific study and from the 1st-6th century CE, according to the records
analysis. But unlike India, the Chinese in ancient in the Biographies of Eminent Monks, the Indian
times did not pay much attention to grammar or monks who visited China from 1st-3rd century CE, had
pronunciation though they had also conducted acquired a thorough understanding of the Chinese
useful research on scriptography (study of scripts). language, and were engaged in the translation
Hence, work on Chinese grammar began relatively of Buddhist scriptures of alphabetic writing with
later. However, with the spread of Buddhism to active assistance of Chinese monks. During the
China, the Indian linguistic scholars helped to 3rd and 4th centuries CE, there were several monks
promote the study of Chinese linguistics by the who were fluent in both Sanskrit and Chinese. For
Chinese and there was a great impact, particularly example, the Kapisa (present day Kashmir) monk,
in the area study of Chinese phonology, grammar Sanghadeva (Seng-jia-ti-po), after staying several
and lexicography. years in China, was able to 'have a thorough grasp
Before the Common era, no later than 2nd century of Sanskrit, and spoke the Jin dialects fluently'.
BCE, the people of China and India both knew each Faxian and Kumarajiva are outstanding examples of
other’s spoken and written languages but there is no monks who were quite proficient in both Sanskrit
clear evidence on record in this regard. However, and Chinese.
During this period, the Chinese scholars had
also developed some understanding of the Indian
phonology in the course of translation of the
Buddhist scriptures. Dharmaraksa (vide the entry)
had translated the Lalitavistara Sutra (Pu Yao jing)
in eight volumes in the second year of the reign of
Yong Jia ie, in 308 CE, and Jnanagupta (vide the
entry) translated the Sutra of Buddha’s Fundamental
Deeds in 60 volumes during the 7th to 12th year of
the reign of Kai Huang i.e., from 587-592 CE. It may
be noted that the account offered by them on the
'Sixty-four scripts (shu)' was actually a reference to
the 64 kinds of Chinese characters and it talks about
'Qin Shu' or the Qin script (written as 'Cina-lipi',
Kuchean (Tocharian) language manuscripts unearthed in Xinjiang, China namely the Chinese calligraphy). This shows that

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same in transcribing Chinese characters. Further, it

was during this early phase of the Sui Dynasty (581-
618 CE), that Lu Fayan, a descendant of an official
family, raised and discussed some concrete issues
on the transcription of the Chinese characters along
with Yan Zhitui (531-?) and eight other scholars
of his time. The results of this team work is to be
found in the compilation of the five volumes of “qie-
yun” under the leadership of Lu Fayan during the
reign of the Emperor Wen (personal name Yang
Jian) of the Sui Dynasty. This particular work of
Qie Yun, the rhyming dictionary, then proved to
be the most authoritative among various Chinese
linguistic works. It may be noted that the two more
rhyming dictionaries of much scholarly value such
as the 'Tang-yun' of Sun Mian of 8th century of the
Tang period and 'Guang-yun' of Chen Fengnian (961
Four Tones Three Questions (Si sheng san wen), Chen Yinque ～1017 CE）of the Song period were based on the
earlier 'Qie-yun' dictionary.
the ancient Indians had also, by that time, noticed
the unique features of the Chinese language and 7th-10th century CE
characters. Further, the 26th volume of Mahisasaka From the beginning of the 7th century, more
Vinaya (《Wu fen Lu》), which was translated knowledge and information on the Indian languages
during the first half of the 5th century CE, mentions was transmitted to China through the translations
the fundamentals of Sanskrit grammar, such as of Buddhist texts, and through the visit of a large
long and short vowels, the voiced and the voiceless number of Chinese monks to India in search of
features of the consonants, gender and number Buddhist scriptures. For example, the second volume
features of nouns and the tense aspects of the of Xuanzang’s Great Tang Records on the Western
verbs, etc. The fifth volume of Mahanirvana Sutra Region (《Da Tang Xi Yu ji》) introduces Panini’s
(《Da Nie Pan-jing》) further talks about Indian (vide the entry) 'phonology' 《Sheng Ming Lun》
grammar, the Vyakarana-sastra (《Pi jia luo lun》), (vide the entry). The third volume of the Greater
which had attracted much attention from Chinese Grace Temple Tripitaka Master (《Da Ci-en Si San-
scholars like Xie Lingyun (385-433 CE) and Shen zang Fashi Zhuan, vide the entry), mentions all the
Yue (441~513 CE). Both of these two scholars had grammar that Xuanzang had learnt when he travelled
thus, for the first time, made an intensive study on through India. Again, in the fourth volume of the
phonology and written much about this subject. Western School of Law and in Account of Buddhism
Their contribution towards the growth of Chinese Dispatched from the South Seas (《Nan hai ji-gui neifa
phonology is noteworthy and commendable. Zhuan》, vide the entry), there is a comprehensive
Commenting on Shen Yue’s linguistic works and
his acquaintance with and knowledge of Sanskrit
studies, the 14th volume of Dream Pool essays
(《Meng xi bi tan》) written by Shen Kuo (1031-
1095 CE) during the Song dynasty rightly says,
“The study of phonology and the discovery of the
four tones by Shen Yue is closely linked with the
introduction of Sanskrit learning in China. All the
linguistic scholars of China from Song Dynasty to
the Qing Dynasty believed in this theory, and even
the modern phonologists like Luo Changpei, Wang The ‘Records of the Siddham Script (Xitan ziji)’,
Li, etc, also uphold this view." mentions ‘letters of an alphabet’

As part of the phonological study, as many as five

to six Rhyming Dictionaries such as the Collection of description on ancient Indian grammar. The
Rhyming (yun-ji) by Lu Jing and the Brief Account influence of all these Indian written texts on China
on Rhmying by Xia Houyong were compiled during had thus become increasingly reflective, the most
the time of Western Jin to Southern and Northern typical example being the Tibetan script which took
Dynasty (265-589 CE). The Chinese people had then on its initial shape quite successfully imitating the
developed the 'fan-qie' method and started using the Sanskrit written text during this period.

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But it is to be admitted that although there was In 1271 CE before the establishment of the Yuan
frequent reference to the term 'phonology' in the Dynasty, Kublai Khan (vide the entry) had ordered
translations of the Sanskrit Buddhist sutras into the State Teacher Pagba (vide the entry) to create
Chinese, and both the Indian monks visiting China the Mongolian script along the lines of the Sanskrit
and the Chinese monks were well-acquainted with scripts, which were formalised in 1269 CE though
this term, yet the Chinese people failed to carry out the use of these were later discontinued
any substantial research on Chinese grammar before
the introduction of Sanskrit grammar in China. Compilation of Dictionaries
Another area in which the impact of Indian phonology
The concept of alphabet on the growth of Chinese linguistic works became
Around the 5th century CE, Chinese, people came increasingly known was that of lexicography. The
to know about the concept of 'letter' (alphabet) need and task of translating the Indian Buddhist
from the Buddhist scriptures, and it was termed literature in Sanskrit into Chinese led to the growth
'half word' by them in the beginning. Sometimes, of awareness among the scholars of the Chinese
it was also known as the 'knob'. By the 8th century, Buddhist community to have Sanskrit-Chinese
dictionaries. The Chinese monks compiled several
volumes of such dictionaries. Among these the
most important were the 25 volumes of Sounds and
Meanings of the Scriptures (Yiqie jing Yinyi) by Xuan
Ying (circa 7 CE, vide the entry) and 100 volumes
of Sounds and Meanings of the Scriptures by Hui Lin
(737-820 CE, vide the entry). Later, the former was
often referred to as Xuan Ying’s Sounds and Meanings
and the latter was known as Hui Lin’s Sounds and
Meanings, just to bring about the distinction between
the two. These are the two major reference books
which have played an important role in the history
of compilation of Chinese dictionaries.
The period from late 10th century to early 11th
century marked another period of resurgence of
Sanskrit Textbook, a hand-carved mimeograph, Peking University, 1979 translation of Buddhist scriptures in China and the

the Shaman Zhi Guang (vide the entry) acquired

understanding and knowledge about 'letter' (zi-
mu) while studying the Tuo-luo-ni Sutra (Dharani).
This was with the help of the South Indian monk
Prajnanabodhi, who mentioned the term “letter”
(zi-mu) in the Records of the Siddham (《Xi Tan
ziji》). A significant development in the history of
Chinese phonology was noted after this where a
Chinese monk named Shou Wen of the 10th century,
for the first time, formulated 30 Chinese alphabets.
Around the 11th century, six more alphabets were
added to the earlier 30 alphabets of Shou Wen
which thus became the very famous '36 letters'.
These 'letters' were used to represent the initials
of the Chinese characters and that helped in the
simplification and standardisation of the initials
of the Chinese syllables (characters). Many other Hundred Family Surnames in Phags-pa script
works concerning this, were brought out later
which had become very popular in facilitating the study of Indian grammar continued to influence
study and pronunciation of the Chinese characters Chinese phonology. The 14th and 15th volume of the
with some degree of uniformity. For instance, the Dream Pool Essays by Shen Kuo extensively talks
alphabets listed in the Yun Lue Yi Tong(韵略易 about the issues of Chinese and Sanskrit phonology
通) and Wu Fang Yuan Yin(五方元音) of the 15th which proved to be quite comprehensive and
and 16th centuries were very similar to the modern authoritative. As an impact of all this academic
Pinyin initials B, P, M, F, D, T, N, L and so on. interest in Indian grammar, many new dictionaries

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appeared during the 11th century of the Song Period. 1st-6th century CE: According to Lu Cheng
For example, the few that may be mentioned here (refer to Lu Cheng’s entry), An Shih-kao (refer
are: Tian zhu Zi Yuan (天竺字源) compiled by Fa Hu to An Shihkao’s entry) and Lokaksema (refer to
and Wei Jing in seven volumes, Xu Yiqie Jing Yinyi Lokaksema’s entry) must be considered as the
(续一切经音义) compiled by Xi Lin in 10 volumes, earliest translators in China. An Shih-kao was from
Long Kan Shou Jian (龙龛手鉴) by Xing Jun in four Parthia. His scriptures were altogether 39, which
volumes and Shi Shi Yao Lan (释氏要览) by Dao maintained righteous argumentation, fair and
Cheng in three volumes. proper writing, natural words, plain but not vulgar
The impact of Indian linguistic works on China letters. An Shih-kao’s writing set solid foundation
continued till the 18th century. In 1750, the for translators of later generations. Lokaksema
newly compiled set of Traditional Rhyme with Text was from Yuezhi and whatever he translated
(Tong Wen Yun Tong) caught the attention of from Sanskrit amounted to over 10 scriptures in
Emperor Qian Long (1711-1799). This book had translation. His translation was true to the original
an appendix including a comparison table which text and maintained a plain style. In the 2nd century
showed four kinds of sounds and the meanings of CE, there were Indian, central Asian and Chinese
the words in which the Sanskrit scripts were listed translators of the Buddhist scriptures and they often
in the beginning followed by Tibetan, Manchu and worked together. Their work could be divided into
Chinese scripts. three parts: Kou-xuan (reading the original text),
Chuan-yan (interpretation) and Bi-shou (writing
into texts).
Ancient Chinese It was found that the number of translators of
Translation Buddhist literature greatly increased during the
Like modern times, translation in ancient China 3rd century mainly represented by Zhi Qian (refer
was of two kinds: interpretation and translation. to Zhi Qian’s entry) and Dharmarakasha (refer to
Translation has played an important role in cultural Dharmarakasha’s entry). Zhi Qian translated 36
exchanges between India and China. Interpretation books and 48 volumes. His translation tried to fit
lacked documentary records, although it appeared into Chinese taste, thus relatively magnificent.
much earlier. Translation had rich data in spite of Dharmarakasha translated a good deal of Buddhist
its late appearance, especially with the spread of scriptures that mainly included 175 books and 354
Buddhism into China and the translation of Buddhist volumes. Yet most of his work didn’t come down.
scriptures, translatology in China developed His translation style was comparatively plain.
very early, both with theoretical summary and There were many translators in 4th century CE,
operational standard. mainly represented by Dao An (refer to Dao An’s
entry) and Kumarajiva (refer to Kumarajiva’s
entry). Dao An contributed to the task of translation
in many ways. He developed a theory of 'Wu Shi
Ben'(五失本); 'San Bu Yi'（三不易）. 'Wu Shi Ben'
meant that the translator would delete repeated,
trivial and cumbersome words to be found in the
original texts of Buddhism and make it fit into a
pattern and taste of Chinese expression. 'San Bu
Yi' refers to three different types of situations that
the translators usually encounter. This theory had
profound influence on the translation work of
later generations.
Kumarajiva occupies a very important place in the
history of Chinese translation. First, he translated
a great number of Buddhist scriptures including 74
books and 384 volumes (Catalogues of Kai Yuan
Buddhist Books - volume 4). Secondly, he paid full
attention to his predecessors’ success and failure
in translation. He treated translation carefully
and combined literal and free translation. Thirdly,
unlike former translators who substituted concepts
of Buddhist scriptures with metaphysical terms and
words, he tried to innovate new and simple ways of
Painting depicting translation of scriptures, Western Xia Period expressions. He invented Buddhist terminology for

515
 Cultural Contacts

successively as director. Another was in Luoyang,

with Dharmagupta (refer to Dharmagupta’s entry)
as director. Translation in those two organisations
involved such works as 'interpreting Sanskrit' (du-
yu), 'word recording' (bi-shou), 'auditing' (chong-
dui), 'sorting out literary content and finalising
(quanding)'. They had many people with careful
division of labour.
During the period starting from 7th to 10th centuries,
the translation of Buddhist scripture reached its
heyday. In the early 7th century, Prabhamitra, the
sramana in ancient middle India, arrived in Chang’an
Jianfu Temple at Xi’an was a translation centre during the Tang Dynasty and started organising translation work in Da Xing-
shan Temple in the third year of Zhenguan Period
translation more faithful to original texts. Fourthly, (629 CE). Prabhamitra died in the seventh year of
in order to be responsible, he started the rule to sign Zhenguan Period. Twelve years later, Xuanzang
the translator’s name at the front of the translation. returned to China and directed the translation work
Fifthly, his institution set some guidelines to in Hongfu Temple. After that Xuanzang translated
be followed by the government-run translation Buddhist scriptures in Ci’en Temple and Yuhua
organisations of later times. And sixthly, most of the Palace. From the 19th year of Zhenguan Period
Buddhist scripture translated by him were preserved (646 CE) to the first year of Linde Period (664
and had profound impact on posterity. CE), he translated 73 amounting to 1,330 chapters.
The translation of Chinese Buddhist scripture Xuanzang had unprecedented contribution in
flourished during the period from 5th and 6th translation history. Firstly, he set up a large scale
centuries to the early 7th century. Two points need to translation organisation and founded a complete set
be mentioned in the translation work of this period. of organisational system for it. Secondly, he used
The first is the theoretical issue, namely translation various translation skills that could be referred to
theory put forward by Yan Cong. The second is a by modern scholars even till today. Thirdly, he put
practical issue, namely, the organisational system forward important translation theories and enacted
and translation procedure of government-run 'five conditions that were appropriate to the
translation organisation of that time. Both issues principle of transliteration'. Fourthly, the Buddhist
were of great importance because they served as scriptures he translated took up over half of newly
preludes to the climax in the translation of scriptures translated Buddhist Scriptures in the Tang Dynasty.
during the Tang Dynasty. Yan Cong’s common Fifthly, he was the first Chinese in Chinese Buddhist
surname was Li and was from Zhao County. He scripture translation history that translated alone
came to Beijing in the 12th year of Kai-huang Period without the help of any Indian or other scholar of
(592 CE). In the second year of Ren-shou Period the Western Region. Sixthly, he had outstanding
(602 CE), he accepted the emperor’s command to achievements in translating Chinese into Sanskrit
compile Catalogue of Scriptures. and had translated 5,000 words of Lao Zi into
In the second year of Da Ye Period (606 CE), he Sanskrit. Seventhly, his professional ethics became
took charge of a royal translation organisation and a model for posterity.
translated 23 books and over 100 volumes. Yan After Xuanzang, Yijing and Amoghavajra served
Cong’s contribution in theory was the writing of the as director of the organisation of translation.
famous essay in the history of Chinese translation Amoghavajra was one of the 'four Buddhist scripture
named Syndrome Differentiation. In the book, he first translators (the other three were Kumarajiva,
approved Dao An’s theory of Wu Shi Ben, San Bu Yi Paramartha and Xuanzang)', he translated 110
and then he developed it into another theory of the books and 143 volumes of Buddhist Tantra Classics
Eight Requirements (ba-bei) to be followed by Buddhist and played a significant role in the spread of Tantra
translators. The theory included comprehensive in China.
requirements both in psychological quality like aim, Yijing also had significant contributions in
manner and style and in professional quality like translation. He possessed flexible translation
knowledge, scope and the nature of writing. methods and his translation organisation featured
In the Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE), the government exquisite division of labour. Yijing also compiled
organised and supported two translation A Thousand Sanskrit Words to Cultivate Buddhist
organisations. One was in Chang’an with Na Scripture Translator. The book has 1,000 Chinese
lian ti li ye she (refer to Na lian ti li ye’s entry) characters and is a Chinese-Sanskrit dictionary.
and Jnanagupta (refer to Jnanagupta’s entry) During this period of 10th–17th century, especially

516
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in the early Northern Song Dynasty, translation while in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, Buddhist
of Buddhist scripture in China reached another scripture translation appeared occasionally. But in
climax. In the seventh year of the Taiping Xingguo Tibet, large-scale translation of Buddhist scriptures
Period (982 CE), the emperor ordered to set up still continued.
a translation school and renamed it as Chuanfa (Xue Keqiao)
School the next year. The organisational scale and
ability of the translation work during Northern
Song was as big as that of the Tang Dynasty. It was Terms - Concepts
managed and supported by senior officials of the
government. They had a full-fledged organisation Shabdavidya
Shabdavidya was an ancient Indian subject dealing
with the study and knowledge of Sanskrit linguistics
that include research on pronunciation, grammar
and rhetoric and was reckoned as one of the five
sciences. According to free translation, the English
term, Sound is equivalent of the Sanskrit word
Shabda, and the whole term of shabda-vidya may
be rendered into English as “knowledge of sounds”.
Its corresponding transliteration forms in Chinese
language are 'She-tuo-bi-tuo'('摄拖苾驮' and '摄拕苾
驮'),' etc. There is an entry titled 'Learning Dharma
in the West' in the fourth volume of Yi Jing’s An
Account of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Sea

A Collection of Terms in Translation

(Fanyi mingyiji), Ming Period edition

including director of translation along with other

officials in-charge of other tasks like 'checking
the doctrine' (Zheng Fanyi), 'check the Sanskrit
terms and words' (Zheng Fanwen), 'recording'
(Bi Shou), arrange the text (Zhui Wen), take part
in discussion (Can Xiang). Until the fifth year of
Tian-sheng Period (1027 CE), they translated
over 500 volumes. Later, the translation work
was intermittent due to lack of new Buddhist
scriptures. This period lasted till the early Zhenghe
Period (1111 CE). Famous translators of Buddhist
scriptures included Fa Tian from India (refer to Fa
Tian’s entry) Tian Xizai (refer to Tian Xizai’s entry),
Danapala (refer to Danapala’s entry), Dhararaksa Selected Papers on the Languages of Ancient
India, Ji Xianlin (front cover)
(refer to Dhararaksa’s entry), Jin Zongchi (refer
to Jin Zongchi’s entry), and Buddhist Wei Jing
(refer to Buddhist Wei Jing’s entry) of the Chuanfa which says that the term 'sheng-ming' was derived
School. All these scholars translated about 284 from the Sanskrit word shabdavidya, in which the
books and 758 chapters. meaning of the term shabda was sound and that of
During the period of Renaissance of Tibetan Vidya was science. It was one of the five sciences.
Buddhism, people translated a large number of In the second volume of the Travelling Notes of
Buddhist scriptures. Those who were famous in the Western Regions of the Great Tang Dynasty (da-
the translation of Buddhist scripture in this period tang xi-you-ji), Xuanzang remarked that the term
included Buddhist Atisha (982-1054 CE) from India, Shabdavidya meant 'explaining the meaning of words
Buddhist Rinchen Zangpo (958-1055 CE) from Tibet, and their differences'. According to some Indian
Zhuomi Shijia Yixi (993-1074 CE) and E. Luodan myth, the earliest Shabdavidya work was created by
Xirao (1059-1109 CE). The translation of Buddhist heavenly god. As per the information available in
scriptures was basically suspended in Song Dynasty Volume 21 of the Records of the Yogacharya by Monk

517
 Cultural Contacts

Dun Lun’s titled Accounts of the Western Countries, Chinese scholars. The nature and content of these
the Shabdavidya Shastra with one million slokas was works showed that they were very much influenced
prepared by Brahman in the beginning of kalpa (a by Indian Shabdavidya science. It is worthwhile to
period of time) and Sakra (Indra) reduced its size to make an in-depth study on how much influence the
1,00,000 slokas. Thereafter, Fairy Gunabhadra again Indian linguistic works had on the history of Chinese
simplified it to 12,000 slokas. Fairy Panini created linguistic works. For instance, the Standardisation
Panini Sutra with 8,000 slokas afterwards. Master of Transliteration of the Western Regions compiled by
Dharmapāla created 3,000 slokas, and named them the Imperial Order during the Reign of Qian Long of
as Miscellaneous Treasure of Shabdavidya, which the Qing Dynasty had many chapters such as Indian
was popular in the world. All the major linguistics Alphabet Genealogy, Supplement to Indian Alphabet
works on Sanskrit such as those of the one million Genealogy, Indian Transliterated Word Genealogy,
slokas made by Brahman, one lakh made by Sakra, Supplement to Indian Transliterated Word Genealogy
8,000 slokas of Fairy Panini (Panini Sutra) and 2,500 and Chinese and Sanskrit Genealogy, etc, is proof of
slokas written by the Brahmins of South India have Chinese interest in Sanskrit. Some more works such
been listed in the third volume of A Biography of the the Sanskrit Dictionary translated by Su Manshu and
Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci'en Monastery of the Preface to Fundamental Sanskrit Dictionary by Zhang
Great Tang authored by two monks named Hui Li Taiyan in late Qing Dynasty reflected that Indian
and Yan Cong. These were reported to be the basic Sanskrit knowledge had been quite popular in some
works dealing with the 'sounds of the language of section of Chinese intelligentsia for a long time.
the Western Regions' and were popular in India and (Chen Ming)
its surrounding areas and 'people desirous to attain
scholarship in classical studies had to go through Siksa
them'. Later, all these works motivated other Siksa/ Shiksha (式叉论) was ancient Indian
scholars to produce works like Brief Shabdavidya phonetics and one of the six Vedas. This term can
Shastra with 1,000 slokas, Munduk scripts of 300 be found in ancient Chinese literature, especially
slokas, and Anudhatu with 800 slokas and they dealt in Buddhist sutras translated into Chinese. The
with the dhatu of the Sanskrit word, the basis of fourth volume of the Lalitavistara Sutra translated
the combination of the words and their ultimate by Indian monk, Dharmaraksa, in the Tang Dynasty
meaning etc. The valuable work titled A Biography described multiple subjects and techniques that
of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci' En Monastery Bodhisattva learned including Veda, Nirukta, Siksa,
of the Great Tang used the noun Purusha as an Vaisheshika, Atharvaveda, Ambhiri and Hetuvidya,
example listed different forms of 18 rhymes and 24 etc. During the Southern Dynasty, volume I of the
rhymes which were related to eight case endings, Samkhya classic Hiranyasaptati translated by Master
ie, 'explaining actors' (nominative case), 'explaining Paramārtha in the Chen Dynasty listed two kinds of
actions' (accusative case), 'explaining instruments' wisdom: external and internal, and the six branches
(instrumental case), 'explaining objectives' (dative of the Vedas were the subjects (disciplines) to
case) 'explaining reasons' (ablative case), 'explaining
genitive affairs' (genitive case), 'explaining location'
(locative case) and 'explaining vocative affairs'
(vocative case) as well as three different forms
including the male sound (masculine), the female
sound (feminine) and the non-male and non-female
sound (neutral).
From the time of the Wei and Jin dynasties to the
early Song Dynasty, all those Chinese monks who
went to India to seek dharma had to learn Shabdavidya
works. Master Xuanzang learnt the same twice at
Nalanda Monastery. The Shabdavidya science of India
had its influence on the study and analysis of ancient
Chinese language through the translation of the
Buddhist sutras into Chinese. In order to translate and
Books on Sanskrit-Chinese Comparative
read sutras, eminent foreign and local monks used Studies of Buddhist literature
works such as the miscellaneous names in Sanskrit,
thousand Sanskrit Words, Collections of Sanskrit Words external wisdom. The six Vedangas included Siksa,
in Tang, Collection of Terms in Translation, Sound and Vyakarana, Kalpa, Jyotisa, Chhanda and Nirukta. The
Meaning of All Sutras and Supplement to Sound and first article titled Abandoning of Sins and Blessings
Meaning of All Sutras, etc., edited by many eminent included in the first volume of Ji Zang’s Commentary

518
 Cultural Contacts

on One-Hundred-Verse of the Sui Dynasty quoted the Nirukta. The fourth volume of the Lalitavistara Sutra
same statement, and explained the six shastras (liu- translated by Divakara in the Tang Dynasty listed
lun). The statement was that 'the first was Siksa in many ancient Indian subjects such as Nirukta and
which one has to learn 64 different techniques and Siksa etc. According to certain available sources,
rules of grammar. The second was Vyakarana, which the most important work of Indian etymology in the
explained sounds and their etymology'. Further, early period was Nirukta written by Yaska which
the 10th volume of Explanations of Annotations on was finished in the 5th century BCE (or 7th century
Dharmagupta-vinaya, authored by Master Ding BCE), and is believed to have been prepared before
Bin of the Tang Dynasty offers an account on six the Panini-sutra. It was similar to the earliest ancient
Vedangas. It says that that the discipline of Shiksha Chinese exegesis of Er-ya (尔雅). The concerned
meant 'science' here. Actually, shiksha was an work of Nirukta has been divided into 12 chapters
ancient Indian discipline of phonetics. The task of and it mainly annotated large collection of words.
translation of sutra into Chinese by all those Chinese According to a highly valued opinion of Yaska, the
monks seeking Dharma (fa) necessarily required root of all the words can be traced in this book with
some knowledge on Sanskrit phonology and thus the etymological meanings of nouns and verbs. It has
influence of Sanskrit phonetics on identifying and been further remarked that 'Nirukta can explain the
discovering the four tones of Chinese is perceptible. causes of the names of all the objects'. However, it
The study of Sanskrit-Chinese transliteration and doesn’t have much more obvious influence in China
the comparison of both Sanskrit and Chinese sounds and Rao Zongyi’s Nirukta and Liu Xi’s 'Explanations
thus became an important means to study and learn on Names' are the only important research papers for
ancient Chinese phonetics. Chinese scholars to study and understand Nirukta.
(Chen Ming) (Chen Ming)

Nirukta Vyakarana
Nirukta (尼卢致论) is an ancient Indian Vyakarana (毗伽罗论) was the generic term of an
etymological work dealing with one of the six kinds ancient Indian grammar book and was one of six
of supplementary knowledge of Vedanga and a auxiliary disciplines of the Veda. Its Sanskrit name
compulsory subject to be studied by all the students was Vyakarana which had the meanings such as
of the Brahmin community in the early stage of 'grammatical method, grammar and treatise on
their education. The first volume of Hiranyasaptati grammar etc'. The first volume of Hiranyasaptati,
which was the Samkhya classic translated by Indian the Samkhya classic translated by Indian Tripitaka
Paramārtha in the Chen Dynasty says that the second
category of the six Vedangas was Vyakarana. The
21st volume of Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra
translated by Indian Tripitaka D ‎ harmaksema in
Northern Liang Dynasty listed the heretical sutras
that include the Four Vedas, Vyakarana, Vaisesika,
Samkhya and some works dealing with medical
science, etc. The 25th volume of the Great Treatise on
the Perfection of Wisdom written by Nagarjuna and
translated by Kumarajiva mentioned that Buddha
didn’t preach heretical sutras 'including the 18
great sutras such as Vyakarana, Samkhya and the
Vedas etc'. It has been recorded in the 13th volume
of the Other Translation of Samyuktagama Sutra that
a young Brahmin would be found to be proficient
in the Four Vedas, Paragandha Shastra, Treatise on
A Collection on Buddhism: Nirukta and Liu Xi’s Sound, Vyakarana, Natya Shastra, Vaisesika and was
‘Explanation of Names’ (Fanxue ji: Niluzhilun yu good at explaining grammar and the meanings of
Liu Xi de ‘Shiming’), Rao Zongyi
various texts. It can be seen that Vyakarana was
one of the basic classics for Brahmins to learn. The
Tripitaka Paramārtha during the Chen Dynasty, transliteration of Vyakarana’s in Chinese was 'bi-jia-
had the earliest reference of 'ni-lu-duo'( 尼祿多) for lan-na' ('弊迦兰那'). But the old Chinese transliteration
Nirukta in Chinese translation. The first volume of Ji of the term Vyakarana is reported to have been 'pi
Zang’s Commentary on One-Hundred-Verse completed jia luo lun' (毗伽罗论). Master Xuanzang thought
during the Sui Dynasty had another Chinese name the transliteration was not accurate and should have
ni-lu-duo (尼鹿多) for the same Indian term of been transliterated as 'pi ye jie la nan' (毗耶羯剌諵)

519
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It has been recorded in the 10th chapter titled

Displaying of Books of the fourth volume of Lalitavistara
Sutra that as per the knowledge of Bodhisattvas
there were then 64 scripts of different forms. The
concerned book has been translated by an Indian
monk, Divakara, in the middle of the Tang Dynasty.
The Brāhmī (fan-mei) lipi in Sanskrit was reckoned
as the first form of the script. Its transliteration
in Chinese was 'fan-mei' (梵寐). Another Indian
monk, Dharmaraksa, translated another version of
Lalitavistara Sutra during the western Jin dynasty.
The seventh chapter titled Appearing Books was to be
found in the third volume of the same Lalitavistara
Sutra, that recorded the names of 64 scripts and
the first kind of the 'Brahmana script' corresponded
'Account of Buddhism Dispatched from the South Seas with 'Brāhmī script'. There are two important
(Nanhai jigui neifa zhuan)', Dunhuang Remnants P2001

according to accurate Indian sounds and further

commented that the name in free translation should
be Lucid Treatise on Sounds as this book has an
extensive record of all things that could be explained.
Master Ding Bin of Tang dynasty, in his 10th volume of
Annotations on Dharmagupta-vinaya explained the six
Vedangas and said that Vyakarana meant A Treatise
on Grammar here. At the beginning of the kalpa (a
period of time), Brahma instructed Vyakarana to
heavenly people and because it was preached by
Brahma, it was also called Brahmana. It is said that
Vyakarana which was preached by Brahma was
really long and had over 10,00,000 gathas (sloka).
It has been further recorded in a chapter entitled
Learning Dharma in the West in fourth volume of Yi
Jing’s An Account of the Inner Law Sent Home from
the South Sea that the general term used in India in
reference to ancient secular books was Vyakarana-
'pi he jie la nu' (毗何羯喇拏). This included five
books, ie, Siddharastu, Sutra (Panini-sutra),
Dhatu, Khila and Vrttisutra which may be considered
to be equivalent to the five ancient Chinese
Confucian classics.
(Chen Ming)

Brahmi Script
Brāhmī lipi (梵寐书) was one of the earliest scripts Brahmi script on the Ashokan stone pillar
of ancient India to be found in Ashokan Pillar
inscriptions of 3rd century BCE. It had several sources that have reference to the names of Indian
varieties that evolved into other scripts such as speech sounds which must be mentioned. First, the
Siddham, Nagari and Devanagari which were concerned chapter titled Learning of Techniques in
then widely in use. The Arabian scholar Al-Biruni the 11th volume of Abhiniskramanasūtra translated
recorded in his book of India that multiple scripts by Indian Tripitaka master in the Sui Dynasty,
were used in different areas of India in the 11th listed the names of the 64 scripts and the book of
century CE. According to him, Brāhmī script was annotations titled the Present Brahmana preached by
then in use to write many languages and was Brahma covered all the sounds (pronunciation) of
popular on the Silk Road. The so-called Tocharian all the scripts in 14 words. Second, the biography of
and Khotan Saka language were written in Brāhmī Zhu Shihang found in Biographies of Eminent Monks
script of the middle Asian italic type. authored by Hui Jiao of the Liang dynasty records

520
 Cultural Contacts

that Zhu Shihang arrived in Khotan (Yutian) in the period of the Brāhmī script. This is now found to
5th year of Gan-lu of the Wei Dynasty (260 CE). have been engraved in stone inscriptions of Asoka
Another monk, Shi Sengyou, pointed out in the in the middle of the 3rd century BCE. In ancient
fourth chapter titled Records on Sound and Meaning Chinese literature, the script was variously called
of Sutras with similarities and difference that there – ‘Qu lou (佉楼)’, ‘Qu-lu-se-zha-shu-zi (佉卢瑟吒书
were three makers of scripts in ancient China and 字)’, ‘Qu-lu-shi-di (佉卢虱底)’ and ‘Qu-lu-shi-zha (佉
India. They were Brahma, Kharosthi and Cang Jie. 卢虱吒)’ etc, all of which were transliterated names
Brahma and Kharosthi lived in India and the scripts of the Sanskrit word, Kharosthi. According to free
created by them 'explained dharma in the Pure translation, their equivalent Chinese terms were: ‘lu-
Land', and were called Brahmi and Kharosthi script. chun-shu’ or ‘lu-chun wen’ which means ‘donkey lip
script’. It has been recorded on the basis of certain
legends and myths of ancient India in Volume
101 of Abhidharma-Jnanaprasthana-mahavibhasa-
sastra authored by 500 Arhats that the Kharosthi
script was made by one celestial being, Kharosthi.
This book has been translated by Xuanzang and is
available in China.
Another book titled Sutra on Causes and Effects of
the Past and Present translated by Indian Tripitaka
Gumarabhatha of the Song Dynasty mentions that
there were 64 scripts in ‘Jambu-dipa’ and the two
forefront scripts recorded there were the Brāhmī lipi
and Kharoùñhī lipi. Another scholar Shi Sengyou of
Liang Dynasty pointed out in chapter four titled
Dunhuang Brahmi script, fragment of Records on Similarities and Differences in Sounds and
‘Pratītya-samutpāda-sūtra (Yuan qi jing/Sutra
on Conditioned Arising)’ Meanings of Sutras to be found in the first volume
of the A Collection of Records on the Tripitaka that
Brahmi script meant Brāhmī lipi here and it was
written from left to right, while Kharosthi script was
from right to left. The two differed from Chinese
which was written from top to bottom. Further, the
volume numbering 51, Abhidharma-mahavibhasa-
sastra which was written by Kātyāyani-putra,
interpreted by 500 Arhats and translated by Indian
monk Buddhavarman and Dao Tai in the Northern
Liang Dynasty recorded that the Brāhmī script was
made by Govindara Brahman. The Book of the Sui
Dynasty: Records of Sutras gives reference about
'One Volume of Brahmi Script' which was the basic
teaching material to learn Sanskrit. Many relics
written in Brāhmī script have been transmitted to Fragment of Kharosthi Script found at Tarim Basin
the areas of north-west China. In 1943, Xiang Da encampments, preserved in Xinjiang Museum
found a piece of broken stone of sutra pillar of India
in Dunhuang area. The Indian scholar Professor Brahma and Kharosthi were two innovators of these
V V Gokhale thought that it was the fragment of two scripts of India. The concerned work has been
Pratītyasamutpādasūtra written in Brāhmī script translated from Sanskrit into Chinese. These two
in the middle of the 5th century. Similar relics or kinds of scripts, ie, Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts
literature related to the Brāhmī script had played a were regarded by Indian kingdoms as "heavenly
great role in the propagation of Indian language and scripts" (tian-shu). The Brahmi script is written
culture beyond the borders of the Western Region. from left to right whereas Kharosthi is written
(Chen Ming) from right to left. Further, the seventh chapter
titled Appearing Books found in the third volume
Kharosthi Script of the Lalitavistara Sutra in the beginning mentions
Kharosthi lipi was a common script of ancient India the names of 64 scripts and the second kind was
which came from the Aramaic script (alphabet) of Kharosthi script. This too has been translated by
West Asia. This was widely used in Gandhara of the Indian scholar monk, Dharmaraksa. Again,
northwest of India and it occurred in the similar in Tang dynasty, chapter 10 titled the Displaying

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Gandhari literature unearthed in Afghanistan region

in the late 1990s have great academic significance
for studies on important issues. Some of the issues
were the history of the growth of Buddhist classics
in the early period, gradual propagation of Indian
Buddhism in the eastern region and the history of
the exchange of Buddhism between India and China
during its early phase.
(Chen Ming)

Personalities
Xuanying
Tocharian, fragments of Maitri Simit (Mile huijian ji),
found in Xinjiang, China in 1957
Xuanying was a Buddhist monk and linguist of the
Scripts found in another version of Lalitavistara Sui and Tang Dynasty. His main work was Sound
Sutra (volume four) translated by another monk and Meaning of All Sutras. He compiled Annotations
named Divakara refers to 64 scripts as the first of Mahayana-samuparigraha-sastra, Annotations
type, and the second of its kind was the Kharoùñhī of Shastra on Determination of Mean and Extremes,
lipi corresponding to Kharosthi script. The 11th Annotations of Nyayadvaratarka-sastra etc. Xuanying
volume of Abhiniskramanasūtra translated by an made important contributions in the propagation
Indian monk during the Sui Dynasty lists names and understanding of Indian sutras in China and
of 64 scripts and the annotations made about this towards the exchange of linguistic science between
mentions Kharosthi lipi as the second type and it was the two nations.
termed as donkey lip (lu-chun) language of the Sui Xuanying lived during the Sui and Tang Dynasties
Dynasty. As for Fairy Saint Kharoùñhī mentioned and he joined the institution of translation run by
in volume 41 of Mahavaipulya-mahasanni-pata- Master Xuanzang after the 19th year of the reign of
sutra, it has been translated by Indian Tripitaka Zhenguan in the Great Tang Dynasty (645 CE) as 'the
Narendrayasas with an annotation on translation Eminent Monk of Lexicology'. He resided in Li-quan
talks of the donkey lip language of the Sui Dynasty. Temple, the Great Zong-chi Temple of the capital
This shows that the free translation of Kharosthi or and the Great Ci’en Temple etc. He was proficient
Kharoùñhī is donkey lip. It has been recorded in in lexicology, understood Sanskrit and Chinese and
volume 42 of the Abhidharma-mahavibhasa-sastra had profound knowledge in classical studies. As the
that Brāhmī script was ranked before Kharosthi only 'eminent monk of Lexicology' in Xuanzang’s
script and people usually learned the Kharosthi institution of translation, Xuanying was given a
script after studying the Brāhmī script. This work place of honour in the Buddhist text catalogue of the
has been written by Kātyāyani-putra with necessary Great Tang as the 'Master of Generation' and 'Unique
interpretation by 500 arhats and the same has been Talent in the Court' along with Dao Xuan who was
translated by Indian monk Buddhavarman and one of his contemporaries. Besides translating sutras,
Dao Tai of the Northern Liang Dynasty. Further Xuanying transliterated difficult words of sutra of
mention has been made in volume 67 of Hui Lin’s 465 volumes with large number of quotations from
Sounds and Meanings of All Sutras that it shall be many dictionaries and literary and historical works
called Kharoùñhī, meaning the script of broader of previous generations and compiled Xuanying’s
area people of the north. The entry of Kharosthi
in volume 5 of Fa Yun’s Collection of Terms offers
the same explanation saying that Kharoùñhī
or Kharosthi meant script of Bianchu people in
the north. The script was mainly used to spell
northwestern dialects such as Gandhari in India.
It was quite popular all throughout the Silk Road,
especially in the areas including Niya in Xinjiang
of China till the closing decades of the 6th century
CE. It was one of the common scripts on the Silk
Road at that time and was also used to spell the
languages such as Sanskrit and Tocharian.
The sutras unearthed in Yu-tian including Master Xuanying of Tang Dynasty, ‘Sound and Meaning of All Sutras
Dhammapada in Gandhari and several plethora of (Yiqiejing yinyi)’, Yuan Dynasty edition

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Sound and Meaning in the 5th year of Yong-hui

(654 CE). This book consisting of 25 volumes was
also named Sound and Meaning of Buddhist Sutras
and Sound and Meaning of All Sutras,etc. It may be
reckoned as the earliest extant work explaining
sounds and meanings of Buddhist sutras, and
provided paradigms and solid foundations for the
later generations to work on 'sounds and meanings of
Buddhist sutras' by Chinese scholars. The concerned
work, thus, with a large collection of Buddhist sutra
is also to be found in the form of Japanese transcript Master Huilin of Tang Dynasty, ‘Sound and Meaning of the Tripitaka
and in multiple fragments in Duanhuang and Tulufan (Yiqiejing yinyi)’
areas. According to statistics, Xuanying’s Sounds and
Meanings has a collection of over 9,400 entries in Shen, it has been further pointed out that Huilin
which over 850 entries are Sanskrit transliterated started writing all these books towards the end of
words. Xuanying not only explained pronunciations Jian-zhong (783 CE) era, and completed them in the
and meanings of words but also paid attention to second year of the Yuan-he (807 CE) period.
the connotations of those words in the context of The Sound and Meaning of the Tripitaka is also
multiple aspects of Indian culture and in actual otherwise known as Sound and Meaning of All Sutras
practice of Indian customs, convention and religion. and Sound and Meaning of Hui Lin, consisting of
For example, the entry of 'red pillow' in volume six about 100 volumes with plenty of quotations from
of Xuanying’s Sounds and Meanings pointed out that normal dictionaries and rhyming dictionaries such as
India didn’t have wooden pillows. Instead, they used Analytical Dictionary of Chinese Characters, Dictionary
red leather and cotton cloth for pillows in which of Characters, Uniform Characters, Category of Sounds,
Dou-luo cotton and feathers were put. They could Three Cangs, Essentials of Rhyming, Jade Chapters,
be used as pillows as well as back cushions, and the Ancient and Modern Standard Characters, Classical
colour was mostly vermilion. Similar explanations Dictionary of Characters and Kai-yuan Sounds and
of various words provided basic information for Meanings of Characters. It has also a lot of references
readers to understand Indian Buddhism and secular about many classical books, history and on many
culture. This work of Sounds and Meanings of All volumes of Sounds and Meanings of Sutras authored
Sutras of Xuanying is rated as one of the famous by eminent monks such as Xuanying, Hui Yuan, Yun
works in the field of study of 'sounds and meanings Gong and Kuiji of the previous generations. The same
of Buddhist sutras'. work of Huilin's too provides various annotations on
(Chen Ming) a large quantity of words and terms of more than
1,300 sutras translated into Chinese that amounts
Huilin to over 5,700 chapters. The Sounds and Meanings of
Huilin (慧琳737-820 CE) was a Buddhist monk All Sutras has been divided into many volumes with
and linguist of the Tang Dynasty. His family name many catalogues based on the contents of the sutra
was Pei (裴) and belonged to a place called 'Shu-le' and it is roughly the same as the order followed in
( 疏勒) of the Western Regions (Kashgar, Xinjiang compiling the Records of Sakyamuni's Teachings of
at present). All the deeds and achievements of his the Kaiyuan Period.
life have been described in the fifth volume of According to the statistical information provided
Biographies of Eminent Monks of the Song Dynasty and by Xu Shiyi, the Sounds and Meanings of All Sutras
in Biography of Hui Lin of the Xi-ming Temple of the actually annotated sounds of over 1,160 sutras of
Tang (dynasty) capital. Huilin took his lessons on the work of Maha-Prajnaparamita Sutra translated
classical studies from An-xi (安西) scholars in his by Xuanzang and those of another work titled
childhood and adopted a monastic life at the age Protection of Life and Release of Animals written by
of 20. Further, he also studied Buddhist classics the eminent monk Yi Jing of the Tang Dynasty.
with the Tripitaka Master Amoghavajra, an eminent The Sounds and Meanings of All Sutras has over
esoteric monk. He 'learned esoteric treasures 31,000 entries in which Huilin personally compiled
internally and studied Confucianism externally', over 21,200 entries. The entries offer answers
read sutras extensively and was proficient in Indian to various questions that are likely to be raised
Shabda-vidya (linguistics) and Chinese exegesis. He by the readers of Sutra. Further, the Sounds and
compiled 100 volumes of the Sound and Meaning of Meanings of All Sutras explained a lot of Sanskrit
the Tripitaka during the period from the fourth year transliterated words besides pointing out correct
of Zhen-yuan (788 CE) to the fifth year of Yuan-he Chinese characters and correct pronunciation of
(810 CE). In the preface to the book written by Jing the Sanskrit words. This book proves to be very

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helpful in understanding various facets of ancient Chapter, A-le-jia-luo Chapter, A-le-jia-po Chapter,
Indian culture and provided valuable information A-le-jia-mo Chapter, A-le-jia-na Chapter, Ang-jia
on the history of India-China cultural exchange. Chapter, Qi-li Chapter, A-suo-jia Chapter, Gu-
According to the contents of the sixth volume of he Chapter and so on. The Records of Siddham
Sound and Meaning of All Sutras, the word 'cane' Script had many words of annotation which was
means 'sarkara'. Explanations on Chinese characters of great help to understand the content of a text.
used to translate the term 'cane' mentioned that it Compared to Siddham Chapter of the Tang Dynasty,
was the name of 'a grass of good smell'. When the
juice of the cane is heated, it produces 'sugar' (sha-
tang). After the completion of Sounds and Meanings
of All Sutras, it has been carefully preserved in
Xi-ming Temple of Xi’an along with other sutra,
and is held in high esteem both by the Buddhists
and laymen of the capital. It became part of the
Tripitaka since the fifth year of Da-zhong (851
CE) reign and enjoyed much popularity in the
Buddhist world. After this book was circulated to
other places like Korea and Japan, it made great
contribution towards the propagation of Buddhist
culture in East Asia.
(Chen Ming)

Zhiguang
Zhiguang was a Buddhist monk and language
scholar of the Tang Dynasty. He is also the author
of a volume of Siddham Script but nothing much is ‘The Records of Siddham Script (Xitan
known about him in detail. The official title of this ziji)’, front cover
work is Records of the Shan-yin Buddhist monk Zhi
Guang of Tang Dynasty. According to the records the Records of Siddham Script was more close to the
of Yu Qing Lai Catalog written by Konghai (774- actual characteristic features of Sanskrit language.
835 CE), a Japanese Buddhist monk who came It has not been kept together along with other
to China during Tang Dynasty, one volume of literary works and was maintained separately
Siddham Script and one volume of Explanation of the with an independent existence of its own. Hence,
Siddham Script were introduced in Japan. Zhiguang it was widespread and popular and is regarded
probably lived during the time of Emperor Dezong as one of the most important works among other
of Tang (780-805 CE). The Siddham Script was such research works of Siddham script in China.
another record of the copy of the Siddham Chapter The Records of Siddham Script was introduced into
written by a South Indian Buddhist monk, Prajna- Japan and was named as the Eighteen Chapters of
bodhi. When Prajna-bodhi was young, he learned Southern India Prajna-bodhi Siddham. It was read
phonetics and linguistics based on the language and used by Kong Hai (Hong-fa master) An Ran
of South India from Prajna-ghoùa written by (the author of Siddham Collection), contributing to
Mahesvara. Prajna-bodhi came to China by sea further study and development of Siddham science
with a Sanskrit "Dharani". He paid religious in Japan.
homage to Mount Wutai and lived in a house built (Chen Ming)
on the mountain. Zhiguang learned about Siddham
script from Prajna-bodhi in Mount Wutai. Based on Shouwen
this information and understanding, he compiled Shouwen (守温) was a Buddhist monk and Chinese
this volume of Siddham Script. The Records of phonologist of the period of the Five Dynasties of
the Siddham Script included 47 fundamental the late Tang era. According to the information
letters and the book in its final form with further contained in the work of Jade Sea, 'Shouwen wrote
explanation turned out to be one of 18 chapters. a book entitled Chart of Thirty Six Alphabets, which
Each chapter took the first two letters or the first is also otherwise known as Shou Wen’s Thirty Six
letter combined with others as its name and the Alphabets. The original work of Shouwen is believed
names of all chapters are– Jia-jia Chapter, Zhi-ye- to have been lost long back. However, its fragments
zhi-ye Chapter, Jia-lue Chapter, Jia-luo Chapter, are still available in the Dunhuang cave. From page
Jia-po Chapter, Jia-mo Chapter, Jia-na Chapter, 2012 of the Dunhuang Collection, a text titled Records
A-le-jia Chapter, A-le-zhi-ye Chapter, A-le-jia-lue of Monk Shou Wen in the Southern Liang Dynasty has

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spread in ancient China based on the information

contained in Panini-sutra.
The earliest record of legend of Panini was in
volume two of Xuanzang’s Travelling Notes of the
Western Regions of the Great Tang Dynasty. He
was born in Salatura, Gandhara (Lahor/Lavor
near Ohind, Pakistan). He followed the classical
traditions of the Sanskrit grammar established by
Brahma and Sakra (Indra) and learned grammatical
knowledge from Shiva. He then wrote his famed
grammar book, Panini-sutra. This book was based
on his profound understanding of the relevant
Shouwen’s writing, Dunhuang Remnants P2012 literature of the ancient time which made him a
world-famous grammarian. Volume three of A
been discovered. The introduction of the fragments Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci en
of that record offers a list of the labial sounds (such as Monastery of the Great Tang recorded that Sanskrit
bu, fang, bing and ming), lingual sounds (duan, tou, grammar books expounded by Brahma had over
ding and ni were tongued sounds; zhi, che, cheng 1,000,000 slokas. Sakra simplified the size into
and ri as retroflex sounds), glottal sounds (such as 100,000 slokas, Fairy Gunabhadra further reduced
jian, jun, xi, qun, lai and ning, etc.), dental sounds it into 12,000 slokas, and Panini simplified it
(such as jing, qing and cong further sub-categorised into 8,000 slokas. In Indian tradition, Panini was
as tip-toothed sounds and shen, chuan, chan and also called Salaturiya. His alternative name was
zhao as conical-toothed sounds), and guttural sounds Daksiputra which may hint that his mother was
(such as xin, xie and xiao, further sub-classified as Daksi. According to the information contained in the
unvoiced guttural sounds and xia, yu and ying as opening chapter of Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagara,
voiced guttural sounds). These alphabets differed Panini was enlightened by Shiva, created a new
from the Thirty Six Alphabets of Shou Wen which were grammar book and beat the grammar system of the
seen in extant literature sparsely. Some scholars Indra school.
thought that the 'thirty six alphabets' of the Song The fourth volume of Yi Jing’s An Account of
Dynasty were the same as those of Shouwen’s '36 the Inner Law Sent Home from the South Sea titled
alphabets'. These alphabets were used to represent
the initials of the pronunciation of the Chinese
characters. Thus, the ideas and method to use some
representative characters to show different sound
categories was inspired by Sanskrit letters. However,
the work titled Shou Wen’s Fragments of Rhymes was
an important piece of literature to study phonology
of the Tang Dynasty which reflected information
on speech sounds of the northwestern part of Tang
rule. Although Shouwen was not the first scholar
to talk about letters (alphabets) in the comparative
context of the Sanskrit and Chinese languages yet his
contribution in the notation of Chinese characters
was immense, and the influence of Sanskrit linguistic
works on the growth of Chinese phonological study
has been quite significant.
(Chen Ming)

Panini
Panini was an ancient Indian grammarian and his
Chinese name was ‘Bo Nini (波你尼)’ or Bo Nini
(波腻尼). He was born in about 4th century BCE and
wrote Panini-sutra which turned out to be a famous
grammar book in Sanskrit. The legend of Panini
was recorded in Chinese literature including the
Travelling Notes of the Western Regions of the Great ‘Elementary Panini’s Grammar (Bo Nini yufa rumen)’, Duan
Tang Dynasty, and knowledge of Sanskrit grammar Qing; (front cover)

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Learning Dharma in the West says that Panini- segments of Katyayana’s Varttika. The fourth volume
sutra was the fundamental classic of all sounds of Yi Jing’s An Account of the Inner Law Sent Home
(linguistics), i.e., 'it was the fundamental sutras from the South Sea titled Learning Dharma in the West
of all sounds'. The book containing about 1,000 recorded explanations of Varttika-sutra, which was
slokas, explains the essential meanings of many named "Curni" which had been authored by the
words and expressions. Panini-sutra was also scholar Pantanjali. Patan-jali was his transliteration,
named Astadhyayi in about 4,000 sentences in all who was also claimed as Curnikrtor Curnikara, the
while adopting the form of sutra. Each sentence author of "Curni", while Curni meant ‘Mahabhasya’,
explained a rule so that a theory and grammar which provides new annotations to Pàõini-Såtra
system could be built based on the texts. The book and Varttika. Only those scholars with profound
explained the complex grammatical system of the academic background can master Mahabhasya after
Sanskrit language, and was regarded as the oldest having studied the same for three years. The book,
work dealing with the grammatical structure An Account of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South
of Sanskrit texts. Furthermore, it had three Sea also mentioned that the important annotation
appendices such as the Dhatupatha, Ganapatha of the book of Mahabhasya was Bhartrhari-tika,
and Unadi. Moreover, the later generations edited which was compiled by the great scholar Bhartrhari
three kinds of appendices including Paniniya-siksa, during the 6th and 7th centuries. This book had
Paribhasapatha and Linganusasana. Panini-sutra 25,000 slokas and is regarded as one of the important
was the most authoritative classical Sanskrit book grammar books.
and was held as a classic by later Sanskrit writers. It is generally believed that another important
It is also regarded as the oldest intact grammar book of Patanjali was Yoga-sutra. Some scholars
book in the world and was also claimed as 'one of thought that the author of Yoga-sutra was different
the greatest milestones of human wisdom'. from Mahabhasya. Yoga-sutra was the earliest book
Some ancient Chinese literature retained part of the Yoga school which was one of the six schools
of the original analysis of the Sanskrit grammar of ancient Indian philosophy and this continued
as found in Panini-sutra but there was no specific to exert profound influences on the later thought
edition of translation of Sanskrit grammar book. system of India. It had been translated into Arabic
The paper of Jin Kemu named Panini Sutra: An by Islamic scientist Al-Biruni in the 11th century
Overall Survey of Sanskrit Grammar was the first because of its deep and inherent cultural content.
paper of Chinese scholar studying Panini-sutra (Chen Ming)
which systematically explained the characteristics
of the system of Panini-sutra, and its important
significance in linguistic philosophy and history Dictionaries
of cultural thought. In 1996, Ji Xianlin, et. al.,
translated the book, An Introduction to the Sanskrit Sanskrit-Tibetan
Language, written by German scholar Adolf Dictionary
Fridrich Stenzler. In 2001, Duan Qing published a Tibetan: sgra bye brag brtogs byed chen mo; pinyin:
book Introduction to Panini Grammar: Explanations Fayi mingyi daji.
of Sarasiddhantakaumudi which used the Sanskrit This is one of the earliest dictionaries compiled
grammar series of Panini with the Sanskrit text of and used for reference in translating Buddhist
Sarasiddhantakaumudi as the basis of explanations. scriptures in China. The Chinese characters (翻译名
It offered an overall introduction to the grammar 义大集) for it mean A Great Collection of Sanskrit
system of Panini and has been rated as the first Terms with Definitions in Tibetan for Reference in
contemporary book devoted to the study of Sanskrit Translation. In early 9th century CE, Kride Zukzain,
grammar in China. then tsampo or king of Tibet, recruited Indian and
(Chen Ming) Tibetan Buddhist scholars to collate terms already
translated into Tibetan Buddhist scriptures and
Patanjali compiled a Sanskrit-Tibetan Buddhist vocabulary.
Patanjali was an ancient Indian grammarian and More than 9,000 entries divided into 285 categories
philosopher. He was born in the 2nd century BCE. were collected into the vocabulary which has
Not much is known about him. His main grammar since served as a standard dictionary in Buddhist
book was Mahabhasya and its full name was translation and studies. Later on, it was included into
Vyakaranamahabhasya. This book in its textual form the bostan gyur or the sastra section of the Tibetan
adopted the pattern of ‘one question and one answer’. tripitaka. In modern times, a separate edition of the
It revised and supplemented the earlier grammar dictionary was published by the Beijing Nationalities
book Pàõini-Såtra and retained parts of another Publishing House in 1992.
grammar book after Pàõini-Såtra, for example, (Kalsang gyal)

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translated by Xuanzang mentioned that “one word

had multiple meanings in Nighantu” written by
ancient wise men. Further, the fifth volume of
Explanations on Mahayana-samuparigraha-sastra
written by Sunyata Bodhisattva and translated
by Xuanzang mentioned that “one thing had
multiple names in Nighantu”. All this show that
Nighantu collected different names of synonyms.
The explanation was consistent with actual
conditions of which Nighantu was the earliest
extant book in India.
(Chen Ming)

Siddharastu
Siddharastu It was a set of ancient Indian teaching
materials for the beginners to learn Sanskrit,
explaining the grammatical knowledge of Sanskrit
phonetics and fundamentals such as Sanskrit
letters, combinations of initials and finals and some
newly formulated coherent words etc. It is said that
‘Siddharastu’ was made by Brahman. The Chinese
term ‘Xi-tan’（“悉昙”） is the transliteration of the
Sanskrit word Siddha and its other transliterations
in Chinese are– Xi tan (“悉檀”, “悉谈”) and Si tan
‘A Great Collection of Sanskrit Terms with Definitions in Tibetan for (“肆昙”) etc. The Sanskrit term Siddham means
Reference in Translation (Fanyi mingyi daji)’
achievement, attainment, auspiciousness and
peaceful abiding. It has been recorded in volume
Nighantu
Nighantu (ni-jian-tu尼揵荼) was an ancient work
on Indian lexicology which is equal to modern
synonym dictionary. Nighantu had multiple names
such as Ni-jian-tu ('尼揵荼') and Ni-jian-tu ('尼建图')
in Chinese translation with different characters for
the last syllable 'tu'. This work of Nighantu had five
chapters that generally include the list of synonyms,
homonyms and names of gods and deities etc. It
was one of the ancient linguistic works and was the
fundamental reference book for Brahmins to learn
Sanskrit. It has been recorded in the 54th volume of
A Treasury of Mahayana Sutras Selections (translated
by Xuanzang) that Brahmins were proficient in
linguistics, literature and other classics such as
Nighantu, Ketubha Shastra, Shastra of Classification,
Itihasa, and the Vyākarana of Five Attributes and
Lokayata Shastra etc. The fourth volume of the Sanskrit text of Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya/Heart Sūtra
Lalitavistara Sutra translated by Divakara in the (Bore xinjing) in Siddhaṃ script
Tang Dynasty listed various kinds of miscellaneous
techniques and talents that includes linguistic books two of the Traveling Notes of the Western Regions in
such as Nighantu, Nirukta and Siksa etc. the Great Tang Dynasty that the most useful materials
According to the information available about these for the Indians to learn Sanskrit were incorporated
two items of Nighantu and Ketubha Shastra recorded in chapter 12 of the book Siddharastu which also
in the 13th volume of the Sound and Meaning of All had an enlightened message. The fourth chapter
Sutras, both the above works (Nighantu and Ketubha titled Learning Dharma in the West of Yi Jing’s An
Shastra) were regarded as “secular and wise books Account of the Inner Law Sent Home from the South
of heretical nature”. Sea pointed out that Siddharastu occupies the first
The 15th volume of Abhidharma-Jnanaprasthana- place among the five main Shabdavidya (sheng-
mahavibhasa-sastra written by 500 Arhats and ming lun) works. The Chinese term Xi-tan-zhang

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（《悉谈章》）is also otherwise named Xi-di- sutra, propagation and learning of the Sanskrit
luo-su-du (《悉地罗窣覩》)– the transliteration words and development of Chinese characters.
of the Sanskrit book - Siddharastu. The title During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the merger of
also stands for the chapter to begin with and it the study of Siddharastu with Chinese phonology led
means "achievement" and "auspiciousness". It is to the research and compilation of famous works
a specialised book of 18 chapters containing 49 such as Zhao Huanguang’s An Account of Siddharastu
Sanskrit letters as the fundamental ones and large and Zhou Chun’s Profound Treatise on Siddharastu
number of words and vocabularies formed out of etc. Aside from its effect on the growth of Chinese
series of mutual combinations. It had over 300 phonology, Siddharastu also affected the growth of
slokas with over 10,000 words in total. Children rhythm of the poems and prose poems composed
of the age of six can finish reading Siddharastu by eminent scholars and poets of that period. After
within a time period of six months. Yi Jing the knowledge of Siddham studies (science) was
believed that this book was used by Maheśvara propagated by envoys (monks seeking Dharma) in
while teaching. Along with the spread and the Tang Dynasty into Japan, the Japanese monk An
propagation of Buddhism in China during late Ran in the Heian period (794-1185/1192 CE), wrote
Han Dynasty, Siddharastu and other relevant texts representative works of Siddham science named
were introduced to China, and the texts that was Siddham Treasure in Japan which further led to the
exposed earlier were all about the 14 Sanskrit expansion and popularity of ancient Indian culture
sounds (14 Sanskrit initials) and 42 syllables in different areas of east Asia.
(42 alphabets). Siddharastu propagated by Hui (Chen Ming)
Yuan was also known as Siddharastu of Script of
Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra which was quite Shabdavidya Sastra
popular in most of the areas of the land. Multiple Shabdavidya Shastra (Shengming lun声明论) was
transcripts (S.4583, P.2204, P.2212, P.3082 and an ancient Indian linguistic work that refers to
P.3099 etc.) of Siddharastu have been unearthed Pàõini-Såtra of Pàõini. The entry of “learning
in Dun Huang cave with different titles such dharma in the West” in the fourth volume of
as Popular Siddharastu and Chan Siddharastu of An Account of the Inner Law Sent Home from the
Lankavatara Sutra Preached by Buddha etc. Many South Sea recorded that the work of Vyakarana
monks and men of letters studied Siddharastu in consists of five categories of secular books in
the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhist masters such India, Siddharastu, Såtra (Pàõini-Såtra), Dhàtu,
as Xuanzang, Yi Jing, Buddhapālita and Kong Hai Tri-khila and Vçtti-såtra. These five books were
propagated Siddharastu and Indian monks including equal to the five Confucian classics and they were
Bao Yue and Nanda also orally propagated it. The actually the Indian linguistic works. Volume 3 in
Chinese monk Zhi Guangshi learned Siddharastu A Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great
from South Indian Tripitaka Prajna-bodhi and wrote
a book named Records of the Siddham Script.
Yi Jing in the preface to his work titled One
Thousand Sanskrit Words said that people can
begin to translate Buddhist sutras after learning
Siddharastu, the One Thousand Sanskrit Words and
few other Sanskrit lessons. After the introduction
of Siddharastu into China, Chinese scholars mixed
language, religion and cultural knowledge of
China and India, and brought out some integrated
philosophical works that included some Buddhist
doctrines on the basis of their linguistic study. All
this led to the growth of a unique field of study and
research that came to be known as the Siddham
Studies (Siddham Science). The Chinese Siddham
Studies (science) can be regarded as a new paradigm
with marked innovations that were considerably
influenced by Indian culture. The growth and
propagation of Siddham Studies in China was not
only closely linked to the local Buddhist schools
such as Fa-xiang School, Hua-yan School, Tantrism,
Tian-tai School and Chan School etc, but it exerted
considerable influence on translation of the Buddhist ‘Sound and Meaning of All Sutras (Yiqiejing yinyi)’, Xuanying

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 Cultural Contacts

Ci'en Monastery of the Great Tang translated the be a very important fundamental grammar book.
book’s name of Vyàkaraõa into Treatise on Sounds Vàrttika-Såtra needed annotation books itself, Cårõi
and the Structure of Sanskrit which could explain with 24,000 slokas by the scholar Pantanjali was
all things comprehensively. Thus, it was named such a book, Cårõi was Vyàkaraõamahàbhàùya
Treatise on Sounds and the Structure of Sanskrit. and its function was equal to Spring and Autumn
In Indian Shabdavidya works, Dhàtu discussed on Annals and Book of Changes. The annotation books
meta character specifically, verb root or dhàtu. Tri- of Cårõi included Mahàbhàùya-ñãka (Mahàbhàùya-
khila meant three kinds of appendices and included dãpikà) of the great scholar Bhartçhari which
Aùñadhàtu with 1,000 slokas which was also named had 25,000 slokas. Moreover, Vàkyapadãya made
Treatise on Eight Cycles; Muõóa with 1,000 slokas; by Bhartçhari had 700 gathas of slokas and 7,000
Uõàdi-dhàtu with 1,000 slokas (Uõàdi). The main gathas of explanations. Gathas of Prakãrnaka had
grammar contents explained “seven cases” (seven 3,000 slokas which was written by Bhartçhari; its
change forms of noun) and “la-kara” (10 changes explanations had 14,000 gathas which were written
of Sanskrit verb), and “eighteen verb endings” (18 by Dharmakathika Dharmapàla. Prakãrnaka was
verb endings in Sanskrit), “twenty one changes” regarded as a famous grammar book in Sanskrit
(21 changes singular, dual and plural changes of which “could solve various riddles of the language.”
noun declension) and so on. A 10-year-old boy Ancient Indians could read from Siddharastu to
could understand meanings after having diligently Prakãrnaka and be proficient in this series of
studied these three kinds of appendices for three linguistic books, so that they could thus claim to
years. Vàrttika-Såtra with 18,000 slokas was the be the “masters of shabdavidya” which could be
annotation book of Pàõini-Såtra. A 15-year-old boy compared to “successful candidates in Imperial
could also understand profound meanings after Examination” after reading “the nine classics”,
having studied these for five years. After studying including Rites of the Zhou Dynasty and classics of
Vàrttika-Såtra, Chinese monks seeking dharma 100 Schools of Thought.
could read other Indian classics, thus making it to (Chen Ming)

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