Kavita Thesis PDF

STUDY OF COHERENCE EFFECTS IN MULTILEVEL ATOMIC
SYSTEMS
Ph.D. THESIS
by
KAVITA YADAV
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE – 247 667 (INDIA)
MAY, 2018
STUDY OF COHERENCE EFFECTS IN MULTILEVEL ATOMIC
SYSTEMS
A THESIS
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
PHYSICS
by
KAVITA YADAV
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
ROORKEE – 247 667 (INDIA)
MAY, 2018
©INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE, ROORKEE-2018
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ROORKEE
CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the thesis
entitled "STUDY OF COHERENCE EFFECTS IN MULTILEVEL ATOMIC SYSTEMS" in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
and submitted in the Department of Physics of the Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work carried out during a period
from July, 2013 to May, 2018 under the supervision of Dr. A. Wasan, Associate
Professor, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee.
The matter presented in this thesis has not been submitted by me for the award of
any other degree of this or any other Institution.
(K. YADAV)
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the
best of my knowledge.
(A. Wasan)
Supervisor
The Ph. D. Viva-Voce Examination of ..............................................., Research Scholar,

has been held on ............................................
Chairman, SRC Signature of External Examiner
This is to certify that the student has made all the corrections in the thesis.
Signature of Supervisor (s) Head of the Department

Date:……………..
Dedicated to My Family
A BSTRACT
Electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) causes the cancellation of the absorption

of a weak probe field in the presence of a strong control field for a medium composed of a
multilevel system. Therefore, the optical response of the medium can be manipulated ow-
ing to the ability to induce coherence using the laser fields. EIT transparency is associated
with a normal dispersion while enhanced absorption results in an anomalous dispersion
at the line center. This thesis concentrates on the various factors affecting the EIT reso-
nances in multilevel systems for Rubidium atom. The effect of wavelength mismatching
is explored in an inverted-Y type system with mismatching factor varying up to two or-
ders of magnitude. In an inverted-Y type system, composed of Ξ and Λ subsystems, the
mixing of Doppler-free Λ system and Doppler-broadened Ξ system cause splitting of EIT
transparency window and enhanced absorption is observed on both sides of the line cen-
ter. Thus both type of light propagation behavior, sub- as well super-luminal is observed
for mismatched states. On slightly detuning the system, switching from sub- to super-
luminal light propagation is observed. A four-level Ξ − Λ type system is examined to
study coherence effects and EIT along with electromagnetically induced absorption (EIA)
phenomena are elucidated. In the inverted-Y type system, absorption vanishes at the line
center. However, in the Ξ−Λ system enhanced absorption is observed at the line center. In
iii
Ξ−Λ system, transparency switches into absorption when the third field is applied. These
complex multilevel systems can be employed for optical switching applications. Further,
a comparative study of five- and seven-level Ξ systems with wavelength mismatching, the
close proximity of hyperfine levels and different polarization combinations of the optical
field is also presented. Narrowing of EIT resonances in presence of an external magnetic
field is explained for a three level Ξ system. This thesis has the aim of exploring EIT in
multilevel systems and various parameters which notably change its behavior. One of the
themes to emerge from our analysis of multilevel systems is the study of light propagation
and switching from sub- to super-luminal on varying the chosen parameters.
L IST OF P UBLICATIONS
List of publications from the thesis work
1. Kavita Yadav, Ajay Wasan. Sub-luminal and super-luminal light propagation in

inverted-Y system with wavelength mismatching effects. Physics Letters A, 381,
3246-3253, 2017.
2. Kavita Yadav and Ajay Wasan. Study of coherence effects in a four-level Ξ−Λ type
system. J. Phys. B: At. Mol. Opt. Phys., 51, 105501 (8pp), 2018.
3. Kavita Yadav and Ajay Wasan. Five- and seven-level inhomogeneously broadened
Ξ systems with mismatched wavelengths and polarization effects. Eur. Phys. J. D
72, 125, 2018.
4. Kavita Yadav and Ajay Wasan. Polarization dependence of the optical properties in
a Ξ system with an external magnetic field, manuscript under preparation.
Additional publications
1. Kavita Yadav and Ajay Wasan. Switching from EIT to EIA in a four-level N-type
atomic system, under review.
v
Papers in conferences proceedings
1. Kavita Yadav and Ajay Wasan. Study of Electromagnetically Induced Transparency

in isotopes of Rubidium. Proceedings of DAE NLS-24 2-5, December, 2015 RRCAT
Indore.
2. Kavita Yadav and Ajay Wasan. Narrow absorption feature and optical switching in
a four-level N-type atomic system. Proceedings of ICAOP XLI conference by OSI,
100-104, 23-26, November, 2017 GJUST Hisar India
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
It comes to my realization while I am writing this thesis that Ph.D. study is truly a journey.
There are many people who influenced, guided, taught, and helped me. I am thankful to
every one of them.
First of all I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Ajay Wasan for his direction and
encouragement. I would like to gratefully acknowledge useful discussions with my seniors
Dr. Vineet Bharti and Dr. Paramjit Kaur. I thank all the members of my advisory committee
Prof. D. Kaur (DRC Chairman), Prof. B. D. Indu (SRC Chairman), Dr. Anirban Mitra
(Internal expert) and Dr. P. Jeevanandam (External expert, Chemistry Department) for
their encouragement and help throughout the years. I am thankful to Prof. K.L Yadav,
Head, Department of Physics and Prof. Rajesh Srivastava (former Head, Department of
Physics). I would like to thank my lab-mates for all their help and support. I acknowledge
the financial support from MHRD, India.
For all the discussions, the distractions, the frustrations, the laughter, for all the inspi-
ration and support, for the sense of belonging, for all this and more, I would like to thank
my family and friends.
Date:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Kavita Yadav)

C ONTENTS
Abstract iii
List of Publications iv
Acknowledgment vi
List of Figures xiii
List of Tables xx
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to EIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 The EIT mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Scope of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Theoretical basis of light-atom interaction 7

2.1 Hyperfine structure of Rubidium (Rb) atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Three-level systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
ix
2.2.1 Density Matrix formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Optical response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.3 Group Index variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.4 Decoherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.5 Optical pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.6 Doppler Broadening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.7 Wave vector mismatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.8 Effect of external magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 EIT in three-level systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.1 Dressed state analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.2 Three-level Ξ system: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.3 Three-level Λ system: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 Sub- and super-luminal light propagation in inverted-Y system with wave-

length mismatch effect 33
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Theoretical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Results and discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.1 EIT for Stationary atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.2 EIT with Doppler averaging in moving atoms . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.3 Group index variation with the probe detuning . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.4 Group index variation with coupling field (Ωc2 ) . . . . . . . . . . 44
4 Study of coherence effects in a four-level Ξ−Λ type system 47

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2 Theoretical model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.1 Steady state solution under weak probe approximation . . . . . . 50
4.3 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.1 Stationary case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.2 Thermal averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3.3 Transient behavior for the four-level Ξ−Λ system . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Five- and seven-level inhomogeneously broadened Ξ systems with mismatched

wavelengths and polarization effects 63
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.3.1 Stationary case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.3.2 Thermal averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6 Polarization dependence of the optical properties in a Ξ system with an exter-

nal magnetic field 81
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.3.1 EIT with longitudinal magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3.2 EIT with transverse magnetic field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7 Summary and Scope For Future Research 95

7.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.2 Future scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Bibliography 99
L IST OF F IGURES
2.1 The hyperfine level structure of D1 and D2 lines for 85

Rb (left) and 87
Rb
(right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 The EIT scheme in the three-level Λ (left) and Ξ (right) systems. . . . . . 10
2.3 Optical pumping shown in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 1) transitions

of Rb atom when σ + circularly polarized light field is used. The zigzag
arrows represent the decays from the upper state. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Optical pumping of atoms shown in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 2)

transitions of Rb atom when σ + circularly polarized light field is used. The
zigzag arrows represent the decays from the upper state. . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 Optical pumping in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 3) transitions of Rb

atom when σ + circularly polarized light field is used. The zigzag arrows
represent the decays from the upper state. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6 The EIT scheme in the three-level Λ (left) and Ξ (right) systems. γij and
γc are the optical and hyperfine decoherence, respectively. . . . . . . . . 25
2.7 The EIT scheme in the three-level Ξ system showing a bare-state illustra-
tion (left) and a dressed-state demonstration (right). . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
xiii
2.8 (a), (b) Probe absorption Im(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp ); (c), (d) dispersion Re(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp );
and (e), (f) group index versus probe detuning for the stationary (left col-
umn) and room temperature atomic vapors (right column) in the three-level
Ξ system. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc = 2Γ2
and ∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
and (e), (f) group index versus probe detuning for the stationary (left col-
umn) and room temperature atomic vapors (right column) in the three-level
Λ system. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc = 2Γ2
and ∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1 The EIT scheme in the inverted-Y system. γij and γc are the optical and
hyperfine decoherence, respectively. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 Probe absorption Im(ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp ) (left column) and dispersion Re(ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp )
(right column) with probe detuning for stationary atoms. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.00016 × Γ3 and ∆c1 = ∆c2 = 0. (a) and (b) show
the absorption and dispersion profiles for the three-level Ξ system with
short-lived states resulting in reduced transparency and more positive slope. 38
3.3 The probe absorption Im(ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp ) with probe detuning for various ex-
cited states at the room temperature. In the calculation, parameters are
Ωp = 0.00016 × Γ3 and ∆c1 = ∆c2 = 0. (a) Ωc1 = 0, Ωc2 = Γ3 . (b)
Ωc1 = Ωc2 = Γ3 , (c) Ωc1 = Ωc2 = 2Γ3 and (d) Ωc1 = 2Ωc2 = 3Γ3 . . . . . 40
3.4 Probe dispersion Re(ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp ) with probe detuning for various excited
states at the room temperature. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp =
0.00016 × Γ3 and ∆c1 = ∆c2 = 0. (a) Ωc1 = 0, Ωc2 = Γ3 . (b) Ωc1 = Ωc2 =
Γ3 . (c) Ωc1 = Γ3 , Ωc2 = 2Γ3 . (d) Ωc1 = 2Γ3 , Ωc2 = 3Γ3 . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5 Group index variation with probe detuning for stationary atoms (left col-
umn) and moving atoms at room temperature (right column). In the cal-
culation, parameters are Ωp = 0.00016 × Γ3 and ∆c1 = ∆c2 = 0. Cou-
pling field parameters are, (a) and (b) Ωc1 = 0, Ωc2 = Γ3 (c) and (d)
Ωc1 = Ωc2 = Γ3 , (e) and (f) Ωc1 = Γ3 , Ωc2 = 2Γ3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.6 Group index variation with Ωc2 for stationary atoms (left column) and mov-
ing atoms at room temperature (right column). In the calculation, parame-
ters are Ωp = 0.00016 × Γ3 and ∆c2 = 0. (a) and (b) Ωc1 = 0, ∆c1 = 0.
(c) and (d) Ωc1 = 4Γ3 , ∆c1 = 0. (e) and (f) Ωc1 = 4Γ3 , ∆c1 = 0.2Γ3 . . . . 44
4.1 EIT scheme in the four-level Ξ−Λ type system. In the four-level model,
5S1/2 (F = 2), 5P3/2 (F 0 = 3), and 5D5/2 (F 00 = 4) are the ground, in-
termediate, and excited states, respectively. The levels |2i and |3i share
the common sublevel of the 5P3/2 state. The dotted zigzag lines represent
decay from the intermediate and excited states with deocohrence rate γij . 49
4.2 Comparison of analytical and full numerical solution versus probe detun-
ing in the four-level Ξ−Λ system for room temperature atomic vapors. In
the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0,
Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 Absorption (left column) and dispersion (right column) versus probe de-
tuning for stationary atom case. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp =
0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 (a), (b) Ωd = 0, (c), (d) Ωd = 2Γ2
and (e), (f) Ωd = 4Γ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.4 Group index versus probe detuning for stationary atoms. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 . . . . . . 54
4.5 Group index versus coupling field for stationary atoms. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0. (a) Ωd = 0, (b)
Ωd = 4Γ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.6 FWM signal obtained for stationary case with probe detuning. In the cal-
culation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 . 56
4.7 Imaginary part (absorption) of the probe response with ∆p in the four-level
Ξ−Λ system when the probe and drive fields are counter- (black dotted
line) and co-propagating (red solid line) for room temperature atomic va-
pors. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001×Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0,
Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.8 Absorption (left column) and dispersion (right column) with ∆p in the four-
level Ξ−Λ system for room temperature atomic vapors. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 (a), (b)
Ωd = 0, (c), (d) Ωd = 2Γ2 and (e), (f) Ωd = 4Γ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.9 Group index versus probe detuning after thermal averaging for room tem-
perature atomic vapors. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001×Γ2 ,
∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.10 Group index versus coupling field after thermal averaging for room tem-
perature atomic vapors. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001×Γ2 ,
∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 (a) Ωd = 0, (b) Ωd = 4Γ2 . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.11 FWM signal versus probe detuning obtained for room temperature atomic
vapors. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p =
∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.12 Time evolution of Im{ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp } for the Ξ−Λ system. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0. Ωc = 4Γ2 , Ωd = 0
(red line), Ωc = Γ2 , Ωd = 4Γ2 (blue line), Ωc = 2.8Γ2 , Ωd = 4Γ2 (black
line) and Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2 (green line). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.1 The EIT scheme in a five-level (left) and seven-level (right) Ξ system with
different polarizations of the fields. The wavelengths of the probe and
coupling transitions are shown in the Fig. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Probe absorption, Im(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp12 ) versus probe detuning with different po-
larization combinations for stationary atom case in five-level Ξ system. In
the calculation, parameters are Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0. 70
larization combinations for stationary atom case in sevem-level Ξ system.
In the calculation, parameters are Ωp14 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and
∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.4 Probe dispersion, Re(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp12 ) versus probe detuning with different po-
larization combinations for stationary atom case in five-level Ξ system. In
larization combinations for stationary atom case in seven-level Ξ system.
In the calculation, parameters are Ωp14 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and
∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.6 Group index versus probe detuning with different polarization combina-
tions for stationary atom case in five-level Ξ system. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . 74
tions for stationary atom case in seven-level Ξ system In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp14 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . 74
larization combinations for the room temperature atomic vapors in five-
level Ξ system. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 ,
Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
larization combinations for the room temperature atomic vapors in seven-
Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
larization combinations for the room temperature atomic vapors in five-
Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
larization combinations for the room temperature atomic vapors in seven-
Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
tions for the room temperature atomic vapors in five-level Ξ system. In the
calculation, parameters are Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0. . 78
tions for the room temperature atomic vapors in seven-level Ξ system. In
6.1 (a) Three-level Ξ system (87 Rb) in absence of magnetic field. (b) The three-
level Ξ system in the presence of magnetic field. We have shown only those
excited state Zeeman hyperfine mF levels which undergo transition. . . . 83
6.2 (a) Three-level Ξ system (85 Rb) in absence of magnetic field. (b) The three-
level Ξ system in the presence magnetic field. We have shown only those
excited state Zeeman hyperfine mF levels which undergo transition. . . . 84
and (e), (f) group index versus probe detuning with longitudinal magnetic
field and optical field polarization σ + σ − and σ − σ + for 87 Rb (left column)
and 85
Rb (right column), respectively. In the calculation, parameters are
Ωp = 2π × 0.001Γ2 , Ωc = 2Γ2 and ∆c = 0, B = 20 G (blue) and B = 50
G (red). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.4 EIT sub windows when B = 20 G corresponding to the five possible tran-
sition routes of 87 Rb for the optical field polarization σ + σ − . From the back
forward: −2 → −1 → −2 Red, −1 → 0 → −1 Green, 0 → 1 → 0 Blue,
1 → 1 → 1 Violet and 2 → 3 → 2 Magenta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.5 EIT sub windows when B = 50 G corresponding to the five possible tran-
sition routes of 87 Rb for the optical field polarization σ + σ − . From the back
forward: −2 → −1 → −2 Red, −1 → 0 → −1 Green, 0 → 1 → 0 Blue,
1 → 1 → 1 Violet and 2 → 3 → 2 Magenta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
and (e), (f) group index versus probe detuning for 87 Rb (left column) and
85
Rb (right column) with transverse magnetic field and optical field po-
larization ππ. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 2π × 0.001Γ2 ,
Ωc = 2Γ2 and ∆c = 0, B = 20 G (blue) and B = 50 G (red). . . . . . . . 93
L IST OF TABLES
2.1 Decay rates (Γ) for the different Rb states. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 Decay rates, decoherence (γ) and wavelength mismatching factors (α) for
the different Rb levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.1 Rabi frequency for the probe and coupling fields corresponding to different
transition routes for the seven-level system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Rabi frequency for the probe and coupling fields corresponding to different
transition routes for the five-level system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.3 Transition probabilities for 87 Rb atom moving between the states 5S1/2 (F =
1) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 0, 1, 2) → 7S1/2 (F 00 = 1) as parts of 10,000 for all po-
larization combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.4 Transition probabilities for 87 Rb atom moving between the states 5S1/2 (F =
2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 1, 2, 3) → 5D5/2 (F 00 = 4, 3, 2) as parts of 10,000 for
each polarization combination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1 gF values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.2 Position of EIT sub-windows with longitudinal magnetic field and optical
field polarization σ + − σ − in 87 Rb and 85 Rb atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
xxi
6.3 Position of EIT sub-windows with transverse magnetic field and beams
polarization and σ − − σ + in 87 Rb and 85 Rb atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.4 Position of EIT sub-windows with transverse magnetic field and beams
polarization ππ in 87 Rb and 85 Rb atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
CHAPTER 1
I NTRODUCTION
“The goal is nothing other than the coherence and completeness of

the system not only in respect of all details, but also in respect of all physicists of all
places, all times, all peoples, and all cultures." - Max Planck
To control the flow of EM radiation near optical frequencies and to coherently manipulate
its degrees of freedom, notable progress has been made in nonlinear optics and quantum
optics [1, 2]. The main motivation behind this is the fact that light is a wonderful medium
with applications in communication and processing, quantum as well as optical. Coher-
ence originates when amplitudes add with a definite relative phase and a physical quantity
proportional to the square of the total amplitude is observed. Faraday in 1846, first discov-
ered this ability of light to manipulate its optical behavior when passing via a medium and
studied the rotation of the polarization of the optical field using an external field in a lead
glass [3]. Kerr observed the similar phenomenon using electric field in 1875 [4].
Later in 1960 with the advent of Lasers, high optical intensities made it feasible to
alter the optical properties of a medium with its electric field [5]. Laser light has the
ability to travel long distance without losing the coherence. It has wide applications in
providing temporal and spatial coherences for measurement standard and interferometry
1
2 Chapter 1. Introduction
[6]. The property of light to be coherent is a well-known theory in physics, though atomic
coherences are overlooked. The atomic coherence can be understood by the fact that a
quantum state can be represented in terms of populations as well as probability amplitudes.
The product of these probability amplitudes endows information about atomic coherence.
Lasers are necessary when dealing with the atomic coherence in optical regions as they
require a spectroscopic pure field to create them. Laser induced coherence can dramatically
modify the optical properties of a medium.
Nevertheless, it is not a trivial thing to control the flow of light as unlike other particles
with mass, photons cannot interact in vacuum. The coupling of photons with a medium via
the EM radiation also includes processes which are incoherent and detrimental to the flow
of light. One of the most promising mediums to study light atom interaction for coherent
control are multilevel atoms since this interaction increases exponentially near the atomic
resonances. Multilevel atoms serve as effective hosts for the multi-photon interactions and
higher order nonlinear processes [7–10].
The effects of atomic coherence are extensive such as – coherent population trapping
(CPT), which employs laser-induced coherence to achieve dark state via the superposition
of two states [11,12]; – stimulated Raman adiabatic passage (STIRAP) that transfers popu-
lation between different states using the counterintuitive sequence of beam pulses [13, 14];
– lasing without inversion (LWI) that suppress the absorption of a photon to produce gain
even when the excited state has limited population [15–18]; – electromagnetically induced
transparency (EIT) that causes transparency by modifying the optical properties of an oth-
erwise opaque medium when a strong coupling field is also present [19, 20].
1.1 Introduction to EIT

The EIT phenomenon was first enlightened by Harris et al. in a theoretical work [19]
followed by its experimental realization by Boller et al. in Strontium vapors [20]. EIT
was also studied experimentally in Lead vapors by Field et al. [21]. Ever since the initial
studies of EIT extensive work has been done employing it. A simplest possible EIT can
1.1. Introduction to EIT 3
be obtained with a minimum three-level system like lambda (Λ), cascade (Ξ) or Vee (V),
which results in the reduction of absorption and observation of an EIT transparency win-
dow especially in alkali atoms. Through Kramers-Kronig relation EIT leads to a change
in the refractive index of the system. EIT system can be used to manipulate the flow of
light in many ways, it has immense applications in optical switching, enhancement of self-
Kerr nonlinearity, reduction in group velocity, quantum memory, and quantum information
processing, high precision spectroscopy [22–25], magnetometry [26–36], suppression of
spontaneous emission and probe amplification [37, 38].
1.1.1 The EIT mechanism
The underlying physics behind the EIT phenomenon is as follows:

EIT can be explained in relation to two mechanisms working in tandem which create trans-
parency by quenching the absorption of a medium. In the framework of quantum mechan-
ics the superposition of states and interference play an important role. To obtain the total
transition probability for any quantum state the probability amplitudes are required instead
of the probability. There exist multiple pathways in any quantum mechanical process, in-
terference between these possible pathways may cause enrichment or complete reduction
of the total transition probability. These allowed transition paths can destructively interfere,
and under the appropriate conditions this results in zero probe absorption at resonance. The
coherent superposition of the states of the system result in the formation of a dark state,
that no longer resonantly couples to the probe field. Thus EIT technique is a result of the
dressed states formation and the quantum interference between the possible decay path-
ways of these states in presence of a strong coupling field. EIT has also been explained
with the classical corresponds, considering coupled classical harmonic oscillators [39, 40].
1.2 Motivation
Originally EIT was investigated in simple three-level systems. However, in recent times,
EIT studies with the inclusion of additional levels have also been of burgeoning interest and
are widely explored. Controlling the optical properties of a medium are desirable for many
applications. This thesis, primarily deals with four-level EIT systems, nevertheless the fact
that EIT has been studied in multilevel systems having more than four levels [41–43].
EIT has been explored in many four level atomic systems such as N-type [44–48], V+Ξ
[49, 50], tripod type system (double Λ) [51, 52], Y type [53–56], inverted-Y type [57–61]
and 3 type [62–65]. In these complex multilevel systems with the inclusion of a fourth
level, the degree of freedom increases. Thus EIT controllability is enhanced resulting in
many applications such as electromagnetically induced absorption (EIA), four-wave mix-
ing (FWM) and optical switching. The main objective of this thesis is to study the EIT
phenomenon in multilevel systems. The thesis aims to study various mechanisms which
cause modifications in the EIT phenomenon taking into account the effect of wavelength
mismatching, polarization of the optical fields, the close proximity of hyperfine levels and
an external magnetic field.
The coupling of the light and atoms depends on the polarization of the optical field.
In the study of a two-level atom, the polarization of laser field is generally ignored. But
the EIT phenomenon is observed with a minimum three-level system and two laser fields.
The two-photon absorption modifies with a change in the polarization of the optical fields,
causing variation in the EIT profile [66, 67]. Therefore, the role of the polarization of the
optical field cannot be ignored and an optimum polarization combination is essential to
study the EIT related effects in multilevel systems.
This thesis deals with the study of EIT in 87
Rb which exhibit many closely spaced
hyperfine levels. Therefore, when a laser interact with the Rb atom, nearby closely spaced
levels also take part in the interaction process. Consequently, the EIT profiles obtained
in the experimental studies are asymmetric in comparison to the theoretical results of the
simple three-level systems [68,69]. Hence, the inclusion of closely spaced hyperfine levels
1.2. Motivation 5
is a prerequisite to theoretically study EIT and related effects. Theoretical studies involving
the effect of multiple hyperfine levels in inhomogeneously broadened Λ and Ξ systems have
been investigated by Mishina et al. and Bharti et al., respectively [70, 71].
The majority of studies investigating light propagation behavior show the super-luminal
light propagation caused by the enhanced absorption at the zero detuning. Recently, it has
been theoretically investigated in V - Ξ system that the enhanced transmission and en-
hanced absorption result in sub- and super-luminal light propagation [72]. In real atoms,
the matched wavelength condition is difficult to obtain for EIT study with multilevel sys-
tems. Predominantly the EIT studies have taken the probe and coupling fields with wave-
length matched condition to minimize the Doppler-broadening effect. But, it has been
shown in some theoretical studies that wavelength mismatching is conducive to the EIT
phenomenon in multilevel systems [54, 55, 73]. A four-level system can be formed with
the mixture of cascade (Ξ), lambda (Λ) and V systems. The mixing of Doppler-free and
Doppler-broadened systems can be favorable resulting in the splitting of the absorption
profile. And enhanced absorption not at the zero probe detuning but on either side of it is
observed.
The change in absorption properties of a medium causes a concomitant modification
of the dispersion properties as well. The most widely known experimental results deal-
ing with the sub- and super-luminal light are provided by Hau et al. and Wang et al.,
respectively [33, 74]. These experimental studies have explained that the light propagation
behavior in medium depends on the slope of dispersion curve. The nature of this disper-
sion slope at the zero detuning speculates the light propagation behavior in medium. The
wavelength mismatching effects are studied to elucidate the modification in the absorption
behavior of EIT up to now. However, there has not been any explicit study of this mis-
matching on the dispersion and group index. It would be interesting to evaluate both type
of light propagation, sub- as well as super-luminal in a single system. The various multi-
level systems not only provide controllability by varying the strength of optical fields but
can also be employed in optical switching applications.
Narrow atomic resonances lead to the making of very sensitive measurements such as
high precision spectroscopy [22,24,25] and magnetometry [26–30]. Therefore, techniques

to obtain a narrow spectral width are desired. The broadening or narrowing in EIT res-
onances are mainly caused by Doppler-broadening and the relative propagation direction
of pump & probe fields, magnetic field. The study of EIT behavior in the presence of an
external magnetic field is of enormous interest because the transition probabilities of the
degenerate energy levels depend on magnetic field [75]. The magnetic field plays a vital
role in the study of quantum interference and atomic coherence [76].
1.3 Scope of the thesis

The objective of this work is to study the factors affecting the EIT behavior in multilevel
systems. Particularly, study of wavelength mismatching, polarization of optical fields and
external magnetic field. The light propagation behavior in the multilevel systems with
encapsulation of these effects is also discussed. Chapter 2 presents an overview of the basic
methodologies to understand the light-atom interaction. Chapter 3 involves the study of an
inverted-Y type system to achieve sub- as well as super-luminal light using wavelength
mismatching effects. Chapter 4 presents a study of the coherence effects in a four-level
Ξ − Λ system. In chapter 5, the combined effects of the polarization of optical fields,
closely spaced hyperfine levels and wavelength mismatching are addressed in five- and
seven-level Ξ systems. Chapter 6, investigates the effect of external magnetic field in a Ξ
system. In chapter 7 conclusion of this work is provided with the future directions.
CHAPTER 2
T HEORETICAL BASIS OF LIGHT- ATOM INTERACTION
“Physics would be dull and life most unfulfilling if all physical phe-
nomena around us were linear. Fortunately, we are living in a nonlinear world."
- Y. R. Shen Nonlinear Optics
In this chapter, we review the interaction between three-level systems with two EM fields
in semi-classical theory which treats the atomic system quantum mechanically while the
fields classically [77, 78]. We discuss the EIT phenomenon in lambda (Λ) and cascade
(Ξ) type three-level systems using density matrix formalism and study the dispersion and
group index properties in these systems. The effect of the Doppler broadening caused by
the atomic motion is taken into account and a brief explanation of the decoherence mech-
anism in these three-level EIT systems is presented. A simple approach to explain the EIT
mechanism known as dressed atom picture is discussed, followed by the concepts of wave
vector mismatch and optical pumping.
7
8 Chapter 2. Theoretical basis of light-atom interaction
2.1 Hyperfine structure of Rubidium (Rb) atom

Rubidium has a relevant energy structure that can be utilized for multilevel EIT systems.
The coupling between the total electron angular momentum J and the total nuclear angular
momentum I results into the hyperfine structure, such that F~ = I~ + J.
~ F has 2I + 1 values
for I < J and 2J + 1 values for J 6 I. The hyperfine splitting can be calculated as [79]:
Ahf s
∆Ehf s = [F (F + 1) − J(J + 1) − I(I + 1)], (2.1)
2
where Ahf s is the magnetic dipole constant. In the above relation, quadratic term is omitted
for the low principal quantum number [80].
F
85 87 F
Rb Rb
4
I 5/ 2 I  3/ 2 3
2
121 MHz 5 P3/ 2
267 MHz
3
63 MHz 2
2 D2 Line
157 MHz
29 MHz 780 nm 1
1 72 MHz 0
2
3 5 2 P1/ 2
362 MHz 815 MHz
2 1
D1 Line
795 nm
2
3 5 2 S1/ 2
6.8 GHz
3 GHz
2 1
Figure 2.1: The hyperfine level structure of D1 and D2 lines for 85 Rb (left) and 87 Rb (right).
As shown in Fig. 2.1 Rb atom exhibits many hyperfine levels, therefore the calculation
of transition element for all the levels becomes necessary. The hyperfine transition matrix
2.2. Three-level systems 9
element is of the form [67]:

q
1+L0 +S+J+J 0 +I−m0F
µeg = e(−1) hα L ||r||αLi × (2J + 1)(2J 0 + 1)(2F + 1)(2F 0 + 1)
0 0
   
 L0 J 0 S  0
J F I0 0
 F 1 F 
  

×   (2.2)
0
 J L 1 
  F J 1 
 mF q −mF
where F, I, J, L and S represent the angular momentum for hyperfine levels, nuclear spin
angular momentum, total angular momentum, orbital and electron spin, respectively. {...},
(...) and hα0 L0 ||r||αLi denote the 6J−, 3J− symbols and the reduced matrix element,
respectively. The reduced matrix element remains same for all the hyperfine transitions
within the angular momentum manifold. The symbol q represents the ellipticity of the field
such that, q = ±1 for right/left circularly polarized light and q = 0 for linearly polarized
light. The Wigner 3-j symbol remains non-zero only for, m0F = mF + q.
2.2 Three-level systems

We discuss the phenomenon of EIT in two types of three-level systems, lambda (Λ) and
cascade (Ξ), because most of the work in this thesis deals with these two systems. We
define three atomic levels as |1i, |2i, and |3i. The probe field frequency ωp acts on the
transition |1i − |2i and the control field frequency ωc couples the |2i − |3i transition as
shown in Fig. 2.2. The corresponding detuning terms are defined as ∆p = ω12 − ωp and
∆c = ω23 − ωc , here ωij is the |ii → |ji atomic transition frequency. In both the systems
these transitions are electric dipole allowed but the transition |1i − |3i is dipole forbidden.
The spontaneous decay rates from the excited states |2i and |3i are Γ2 and Γ3 , respectively.
We present a derivation of the EIT Hamiltonian in the three-level Λ system. The total
Hamiltonian (H) for a three-level system interacting with two light fields is the sum of the
bare state + the intercation Hamiltonian.
H = H0 + HI , (2.3)
H0 is the bare atomic Hamiltonian and HI is the atom-field interaction Hamiltonian. For
3
2
c
c
p 2
3 p
1 1
Figure 2.2: The EIT scheme in the three-level Λ (left) and Ξ (right) systems.
the considered three-level system, an orthonormal basis having three states |ni can be
formed as follows
3
X X3
H0 = |ni hn| H0 |ni hn| . (2.4)
n=0 n=0
Therefore, H0 can be written in matrix form as:

 
0 0 0
H0 =  0 ~ω2 0 , (2.5)
 
0 0 ~ω3
where ω2 and ω3 are the atomic transition frequencies and the ground state energy is con-
sidered zero.
The electric field interacting with the atoms in the semi classical picture can be written
in the following form:
~ = Ep cos(ωp t − ~k · ~r) + Ec cos(ωc t − ~k · ~r).

E (2.6)
Dipole approximation: It is an approximation related to the wavelength of the light

and the atomic size, typical atomic size is of the order of Bohr radius (5.3 nm) and the
wavelength of the D2 line of Rb atoms is ≈780 nm. The wavelength of light is very
large in comparison to the atomic size, therefore the spatial variation of the electric field
in comparison to the atom can be neglected. This is called as dipole approximation, hence
Eq. (2.6) modifies to
~ = Ep cos(ωp t) + Ec cos(ωc t).
E (2.7)
Using d as the dipole moment operator such that d = er, where r is the position
operator, the interaction Hamiltonian becomes
HI = −d~ · E
~ = −eE
~ · ~r. (2.8)
For Hydrogen like atoms, it is a good approximation that the dipole is aligned with the
electric field, therefore one can write
HI = −eEr. (2.9)
The interaction Hamiltonian can also be written in matrix form with a similar approach as
given in Eq. (2.4):
 
0 d12 0
HI = −E  d21 0 d23 . (2.10)
 
0 d32 0
As |1i and |3i levels are dipole forbidden, therefore d13 = d31 = 0. All the diagonal
elements vanish (dii = 0) because an atom does not exhibit the permanent dipole moment.
Rotating wave approximation (RWA): To obtain the EIT Hamiltonian, rotating wave
approximation is used. In this approximation, rapidly oscillating terms in the Hamiltonian
are neglected. These terms average out to zero over the time.
A unitary matrix U , defined as the time evolution operator in terms of the unperturbed
Hamiltonian that has the following form:
 
1 0 0
U (t) = eiH0 t/~ =  0 eiω2 t 0 . (2.11)
 
0 0 eiω3 t
Now, on applying the unitary operator to the interaction Hamiltonian:

   
1 0 0 0 d12 0 1 0 0
U HI U † = −E  0 eiω2 t 0  d21 0 d23  0 e−iω2 t 0 
   
0 0 eiω3 t 0 d32 0 0 0 e−iω3 t
 
0 d12 e−iω2 t 0
= −E  d21 eiω2 t 0 d23 ei(ω2 −ω3 t) . (2.12)
 
0 d32 ei(ω2 −ω3 t) 0
The electric field can also be written in the form
Ep iωp t Ec
E= (e + e−iωp t ) + (eiωc t + e−iωc t ). (2.13)
2 2
Inserting this electric field into the Eq. (2.12) gives
 
0 Ep d12 eiωp t e−iω2 t 0
~  E d e−iωp t eiω2 t Ec d23 eiωc t ei(ω2 −ω3 t) 
0 (2.14)

HI = −  p 21
2 
0 Ec d32 e−iωc t ei(ω2 −ω3 t) 0
This Hamiltonian is simplified using transformation U † (U HI U † )U in the Schrödinger pic-

ture:
 
0 Ep d12 eiωp t 0
~
HI = −  Ep d21 e−iωp t 0 Ec d23 eiωc t . (2.15)

2
0 Ec d32 e−iωc t 0
The dipole operators are complex quantities containing magnitude as well as phase
terms such that
d12 = d∗21 = |d12 | eiφp , (2.16)
d23 = d∗32 = |d23 | eiφc . (2.17)
The form of the interaction Hamiltonian is:

 
0 Ωp eiωp eiφp 0
~  ∗ −iωp −iφp
HI =  Ωp e e 0 Ωc e−iωc t eiφc . (2.18)

2
0 Ωc eiωc e−iφc 0
where Ωij is the Rabi frequency for the considered transition defined as ~Ωij = −dij E.
Now, the total Hamiltonian becomes
 
0 Ωp eiωp t eiφp 0
~  ∗ −iωp t −iφp
H=  Ωp e e 2ω2 Ωc e−iωc t eiφc . (2.19)

2
0 Ωc eiωc t e−iφc 2ω3
Conversion to time and phase independent Hamiltonian: To make the above Hamilto-
nian time and phase independent, a transformation called as the rotating basis is employed
with the following form of the unitary matrix:
 
e−i(ωp t+φp ) 0 0
Ũ (t) =  0 1 0 . (2.20)
 
−i(ωc t+φc )
0 0 e
The total Hamiltonian has a different set of eigenstates than the bare atom. Considering
|ni to be the eigenstates of the total Hamiltonian H, the corresponding eigenstates of the
corotating Hamiltonian H̃ are |ñi = Ũ |ñi. The form of the eigenstates of the corotating
Hamiltonian [81]:
∂ Ũ
H̃ |ñi = i~ † †
Ũ + Ũ H Ũ |ñi . (2.21)
∂t
Further, the transformation of the Hamiltonian can be obtained as follows
   
2ωp 0 0 0 Ωp 0
∂ Ũ † ~ ~ ∗
H̃ = i~ Ũ + Ũ H Ũ † =  0 0 0  +  Ωp 2ω2 Ωc , (2.22)
 
∂t 2 2
0 2ωc 0 Ω∗c 2ω3
 
2ωp Ωp 0
~
H̃ =  Ω∗p 2ω2 Ωc . (2.23)

2 ∗
0 Ωc 2ω3 + 2ωc
To obtain the required final form of the Hamiltonian a scalar −~ωp is added
 
0 Ωp 0
~
H̃ =  Ω∗p 2ω2 − 2ωp Ωc , (2.24)

2 ∗
0 Ωc 2ω3 + 2ωc − 2ωp
where ∆p = ω2 − ωp , ∆p − ∆c = ω2 − ωp − (ω23 − ωc ) = ω2 − ωp − (ω2 − ω3 − ωc ).

Therefore, the standard form of the EIT Hamiltonian for a three-level Λ system can be
written as :
 
0 Ωp 0
~
H =  Ω∗p 2∆p Ωc . (2.25)

2 ∗
0 Ωc 2(∆p − ∆c )
Likewise, the Hamiltonian for a Ξ system can also be obtained with the following form:
 
0 Ωp 0
~
H =  Ω∗p 2∆p Ωc . (2.26)

2 ∗
0 Ωc 2(∆p + ∆c )
These two time independent Hamiltonian are utilized for a simplified solution with the
help of equations of motion. In order to properly analyze these Hamiltonian, we further
introduce the density operator and the Liouville equation in the next section.
2.2.1 Density Matrix formalism
A quantum mechanical system is formed by an ensemble of particles. The particles can

be in a pure state, but the state of an ensemble of particles is indeed not a pure state and
will be a mixed state. Therefore, the ensemble of particles cannot be represented by a
wave function. The density matrix approach is based on the idea that wave function cannot
appropriately describe the dynamics of a mixed state, but this can be done employing
an operator called as density operator. This operator describes the population of each
eigenstate as well as the correlation amidst each pair of eigenstates termed as coherence.
For such mixed states, instead of state vector |ψi, Pψ , i.e., the probability of being in state
|ψi is known. The density matrix operator (ρ) for a pure state can be defined as
ρ = |ψi hψ| , (2.27)
whereas for a mixed state density matrix operator takes the following form:
ρ = ΣPψ |ψi hψ| . (2.28)
Now in terms of the density operator, the expectation value of an operator A is
hAi = ΣPψ hψ|A|ψi = Trace(Aρ). (2.29)
The state vector for an idealistic three-level atom can be written as
|ψi = a |1i + b |2i + c |3i . (2.30)
The density matrix can be defined as

   
ρ11 ρ12 ρ13 aa∗ ab∗ ac∗
ρ =  ρ21 ρ22 ρ23  =  ba∗ bb∗ bc∗ . (2.31)
   
ρ31 ρ32 ρ33 ca∗ cb∗ cc∗
The diagonal elements of the density matrix represent the population terms while off-
diagonal terms represent the coherences between the states. The density matrix formalism
helps to explain the mixed states and coherences, which is not possible by using a wave
function.
The density matrix equations are obtained in the semi-classical regime with help of the
Liouville equation incorporating the relaxation terms as follows [2]:
i 1
ρ̇ = − [H, ρ] − {Γ, ρ}, (2.32)
~ 2
where Γ is the relaxation matrix, i.e., defined for a three-level Ξ system as:
 
0 0 0
Γ =  0 Γ2 0 . (2.33)
 
0 0 Γ3
The diagonal terms in the above matrix represent decay terms corresponding to the in-
termediate and excited states. and the decay rate (Γ1 ) for the ground state is considered
zero.
For the three-level Ξ system, the coupled density matrix equations are obtained by substi-
tuting equations (2.26) and (2.33) in (2.32) are:
1 1 Γ2 i
ρ̇11 = − ρ11 + + b1 ρ22 + (Ωp ∗ ρ12 − Ωp ρ21 );
τd 2τd 2 2
Γ3 i
ρ̇22 = − ρ22 Γ2 + b2 ρ33 + (Ωc ∗ ρ23 − Ωc ρ32 + Ωp ρ21 − Ωp ∗ ρ12 );
2 2
i
ρ̇33 = − Γ3 ρ33 + (−Ωc ∗ ρ23 + Ωc ρ32 );
2
i Γ2
ρ̇12 = (Ωp ρ11 − Ωp ρ22 + Ωc ∗ ρ13 ) + ρ12 (i∆p − );
2 2
i Γ3
ρ̇13 = (Ωc ρ12 − Ωp ρ23 ) + ρ13 i(∆p + ∆c ) − ;
2 2
i Γ2 + Γ3
ρ̇23 = (Ωc ρ22 − Ωc ρ33 − Ωp ∗ ρ13 + ρ23 (i∆c − ). (2.34)
2 2
where τd is the transit time of atoms with the optical field, which is of the order of a few
hundred µs [70, 71]. The observable in our case is the coherence element ρ12 , that can be
obtained by simplifying the above equations in the steady state condition. The simplified
solution of ρ12 under a weak probe approximation is given by Eq. (2.43).
Weak probe approximation: In most of the EIT studies, a probe field is taken such that
it should not perturb the system and population of the ground state does not change signifi-
cantly. It is likely to overlook the weak probe effects to concentrate on the consequence of
the strong coupling fields. Throughout all the studies in this thesis, we have taken a very
weak probe field, i.e., Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , so that in the weak probe approximation, ρ11 ≈ 1
and ρ22 = ρ33 = 0.
2.2.2 Optical response
The optical properties of the medium are studied mainly in terms of the dispersion and
absorption of probe field. The macroscopic polarization (P ) and optical susceptibility (χ12 )
of a medium are related as
P = 0 χ12 E. (2.35)
For an ensemble of atoms with the density N , the polarization is given by P = N d12 ρ12 .
Therefore, the susceptibility χ12 can be expressed as
N d12 ρ12
χ12 = . (2.36)
0 E
The real and imaginary parts of susceptibility give dispersion and absorption of the medium,
respectively. We elucidate the probe response ({ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp }) in terms of the real and imag-
inary parts of the coherence term ρ12 [82].
2.2.3 Group Index variation
To investigate the light propagation behavior in a medium, study of the group velocity (vg )
can be defined in terms of group index (ng ) as follows:
c
vg = . (2.37)
ng
The group index (ng ) of the medium can be written as
χ0 ωp ∂χ0
ng = 1 + + , (2.38)
2 2 ∂ωp
where χ0 represents the real part of the optical susceptibility.
It is apparent from the above relation that the positive and negative values of ng lead
to the sub- and super-luminal light propagation, respectively [74, 83]. EIT helps to get the
absorption close to zero and a steep positive dispersion slope.
To analyze the coherence term in an atomic system, one should also incorporate the
decoherence effects. We now discuss decoherence effects in Ξ and Λ systems.
2.2.4 Decoherence
Atomic coherence is a result of multiple interfering absorption paths for the radiation in-
teracting with the resonant transitions. When the decay rate of atomic coherence at the
forbidden transition is slower than at the allowed transition, the interference leads to dra-
matic modifications of the optical response of the system. Decoherence rates are integral to
all coherence effects since coherence between energy levels cannot exist if the decoherence
rates are too large. In an open quantum system uncontrollable interaction with the environ-
ment may lead to the loss of information initially stored in its states. This phenomenon is
commonly known as ‘loss of coherence‘ or ‘decoherence‘.
Further, the decoherence mechanism in the three-level Λ and Ξ systems is discussed.
Mainly two types of decoherence, i.e., hyperfine and optical decoherence exit in these
systems.
Decoherence in Λ system: First, decoherence effects in a three-level Λ system are dis-

cussed. The main contribution to the hyperfine decoherence is the time of flight through
the optical fields because the system loses coherence when the atoms leave the interaction
region. Decoherence mainly arises because of the dephasing in the ground levels |1i and
|3i [84]. This decoherence (γc ) can be described as:
√
πv
γc = , (2.39)
2d
where d is the diameter of the beam and v is the most probable velocity of the atoms.
It is evident from the above relation that for a tightly focused beam, a high decoherence
is observed. It decreases the interaction time of the atoms with the beam, consequently
coherence exists for a lesser time in the system. One can reduce decoherence in the system
by reducing the velocity of the atoms. This proves that cold atoms are effective host to
study the coherence related phenomena.
In the three-level Λ system, the steady state solution for the coherence term ρ12 can
be obtained by solving the density matrix equations under a weak probe approximation as
follows:
iΩp
ρ12 = 2 . (2.40)
γ12 Ω2c
− i∆p + h i
2 4 γc − i(∆p − ∆c )
The optical decoherence for the system is γij = (Γi + Γj )/2, here Γ1 = Γ3 = 0. It is
observed that the laser line width also plays an important role in the dephasing, a large
laser line width will suppress the EIT transparency window. If γ1 and γ2 are the probe
and control lasers line widths, respectively, then decoherence terms γ12 and γ23 are defined
as [85]
Γ2
γ12 = + γ1 , (2.41)
2
Γ2
γ23 = + γ2 . (2.42)
2
Decoherence in Ξ system: In a Ξ system, decoherence appear mainly because of the op-

tical deoherence. Decays outside the three-level system cause optical decoherence, hence
deteriorate the EIT phenomenon. The steady state solution of this system can be derived
from the equations (2.34):
iΩp
ρ12 = 2 , (2.43)
γ12 Ω2c
− i∆p + h γ i
2 4
13
− i(∆p + ∆c )
2
Γ2
γ12 = + γ1 , (2.44)
2
Γ3
γ13 = + γ1 + γ2 . (2.45)
2
2.2.5 Optical pumping
Optical pumping is another factor that affects the EIT phenomenon. The redistribution of
the population among the various states of an atom in the presence of a light field is known
F -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 mF
3
267 MHz
2
5 P3 / 2 2
157 MHz
1
72 MHz
0
2
5 2 S1/ 2
6.8 GHz
Figure 2.3: Optical pumping shown in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 1) transitions of

Rb atom when σ + circularly polarized light field is used. The zigzag arrows represent the
decays from the upper state.
as optical pumping. It changes the relative populations of either Zeeman or hyperfine lev-
els belonging to the ground or metastable states of an atom. To see the effect of optical
pumping in 87 Rb atom, we consider the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 1, 2, 3) transitions
with three cases, such that F → F 0 = F − 1, F → F 0 = F and F → F 0 = F + 1.
Each hyperfine state has 2F + 1 degenerate magnetic sublevels. When no optical field is
applied, all the ground state magnetic sub levels are equally populated. If we consider that
the ground and excited states’ sub levels interact with a σ + circularly polarized light for
which selection rule is∆mF = +1. However, the excited atoms can decay according to
the selection rule, ∆mF = 0, ±1. Spontaneous decay from the different mF levels of the
excited states causes decomposition of the population to the sub levels of the ground states.
(i) In case of F → F 0 = F − 1, atoms are pumped back to mF = 1, 2 states but no

excitation occur from these states (Fig. 2.3). Now, depending on the transition strength the
atoms are distributed in these hyperfine levels. Thus two dark states are formed for this
combination.
(ii) When F → F 0 = F , transition is taken, there is no excitation channel from mF = 2
and atoms start accumulating in this state. In contrast to the previous case, one dark state
F -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 mF
3
2
267 MHz
5 P3 / 2 2
157 MHz
1
72 MHz
0
2
5 2 S1/ 2
6.8 GHz
Figure 2.4: Optical pumping of atoms shown in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 2)

transitions of Rb atom when σ + circularly polarized light field is used. The zigzag arrows
represent the decays from the upper state.
is obtained (Fig. 2.4).

The absorption in above discussed cases decreases due to the trapping of atoms in dark
states.
(iii) For F → F 0 = F + 1, unlike previous cases optical pumping does not allow atoms
to get trapped in a particular state. However, it still accounts for the redistribution of the
population among the ground state hyperfine sub levels. This can be attributed to the fact
that the excitation and spontaneous decay rates vary for different combinations of ground
and excited states hyperfine sub levels [94].
F -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 mF
3
267 MHz
2
5 P3 / 2 2
157 MHz
1
72 MHz
0
2
5 2 S1/ 2
6.8 GHz
Figure 2.5: Optical pumping in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 3) transitions of Rb atom

when σ + circularly polarized light field is used. The zigzag arrows represent the decays
from the upper state.
On the interaction of the light field, five possible transition pathways from the ground
state to the excited state are shown in the Fig. 2.5. The population redistributions among
all these excitation pathways take place depending on the transition strengths. All the
population is optically pumped in the magnetic sub level with the maximum transition
strength. Therefore, for the considered system with σ + circularly polarized light, atoms
are optically pumped to the mF = +2 magnetic sub level. When the light polarization is
changed to the σ − circularly polarized, atoms are accumulated in the mF = −2 magnetic
sub level. For this combination, optical pumping is credited to increase in the absorption
of the system [95, 96].
2.2.6 Doppler Broadening
Earlier, conventional spectroscopy was limited to the Doppler width caused by Doppler
broadening. This broadening is a result of the Maxwellian velocity distribution of atomic
motion in a medium. Due to this broadening effect, the non-resonant atomic transitions
can also interact with the field if the corresponding frequencies are Doppler-shifted into
resonance. Consequently, some closely spaced atomic transitions having separation less
than the Doppler broadening may become indistinguishable from each other.
Therefore, for a moving atom with velocity vx along the x axis the effective frequency
(ω) changes from the initial transition frequency (ω0 ) depending on the direction of the
motion with respect to the field propagation direction as follows:
ω = ω0 ± kvx . (2.46)
The moving atoms in a gaseous phase obey the Maxwell- Boltzmann velocity distribution,
r
M M v2
f (v)dv = exp − dv, (2.47)
2πkB T 2kB T
The absorption profile has Gaussian type line shape function:
c n c2 ω − ω 2 o
0
G(ω) = √ exp − 2 , (2.48)
uω0 π u ω0
p
where u = 2kB T /M is the most probable velocity at temperature T for an atom of
mass M, and kB is the Boltzmann constant. The full width at half maxima (FWHM) for
the above equation gives the value of the Doppler width. The Doppler width for the 87 Rb
atomic vapors at the room temperature for the D2 line is around ≈ 2π× 560 MHz.
2.2.7 Wave vector mismatch
In Doppler-broadened medium the probe transparency depends upon the nature of the
residual Doppler broadening and the wave vector mismatch kp − kc , here kp and kc are
wave vectors of the probe and control fields, respectively. In real atomic systems perfect
Doppler-free two-photon transitions are not feasible. To study the EIT related effects the
beam geometry should be chosen to minimize the residual Doppler width. For Λ and Ξ
configurations, the residual Doppler width can be minimized by using co-propagating and
counter-propagating fields, respectively. In a Λ type EIT, with co-propagating control and
probe fields, all the velocity classes contribute to the EIT feature and complete transparency
is obtained [86, 87]. This can be achieved by taking the D2 line of 87
Rb atom forming a
Λ with equal wavelengths of the probe and control fields that result into reduction of the
spectral line width due to the averaging effect of thermal atoms [70, 87, 88]. The wave-
length matched condition is difficult to achieve with a Ξ system. The simplest Ξ system
can also be formed in Rb atom by taking 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 5D5/2 transitions. Therefore, a
nearly wavelength matched condition is obtained as the wavelengths of the probe and con-
trol fields are 780 nm and 776 nm, respectively [85, 89, 90]. The wavelength mismatching
factor (α) can be defined [54]:
kp − kc
α= . (2.49)
kp
Depending on the wavelengths of probe and coupling fields, three wavelength regimes are
possible with different values of α:
(i) Completely wavelength matched condition, i.e., kp = kc =⇒ α = 0.
(ii) Positive wavelength matched condition, i.e., kp > kc =⇒ α is positive.
(iii) Negative wavelength matched condition, i.e., kp < kc =⇒ α is negative.
Wavelength mismatching effects have already been studied in simple three level systems
as well as in some multilevel systems [54, 55, 73, 91].
2.2.8 Effect of external magnetic field
All hyperfine states have 2F + 1 Zeeman levels expressed in terms of mF such that
−F 6 mF 6 F . In the absence of any external field all the levels remain degenerate.
F is a good quantum number in a weak field [92, 93]. The energy shift in the presence of
an external magnetic field (B) is given by:
∆Ez = gF µB BmF , (2.50)
where gF is the landé g factor:
3J(J + 1) − L(L + 1) + S(S + 1) F (F + 1) + J(J + 1) − I(I + 1)

gF = × (2.51)
2J(J + 1) 2F (F + 1)
and µB = 1.4 MHz/G is the Bohr magneton.

2.3. EIT in three-level systems 25
3
c
2
c p  ij
 ij c
c 2
p p
3  ij
p
c
1
1
Figure 2.6: The EIT scheme in the three-level Λ (left) and Ξ (right) systems. γij and γc are
the optical and hyperfine decoherence, respectively.
2.3 EIT in three-level systems

Fig. 2.6 shows the considered three-level systems with decoherence rates. To analyze the
optical properties of the three-level Λ and Ξ systems in 87 Rb atom we take 5S1/2 → 5P3/2
and 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 5D5/2 transitions as described in the previous section. The group
index behavior for these system can be calculated using Eq. (2.38).
2.3.1 Dressed state analysis
The dressed state analysis to understand the underlying physics of EIT is borne out to be
very useful. It provides a simple explanation of the light atom interaction. Dressed states
picture is sustainable for high as well as low field strengths [97, 98]. This approach has
been demonstrated by Scully et al. and the role of beam propagation directions to study the
absorption spectra of multilevel systems is discussed [99]. Kong et al. proposed the dressed
state approach to show that the probe behavior can be varied by changing the strengths of
other two fields in an N-type system [100].
3
c
c

0
2
p 
p p
1 1
Figure 2.7: The EIT scheme in the three-level Ξ system showing a bare-state illustration
(left) and a dressed-state demonstration (right).
When the fields are resonant, i.e., ∆p = ∆c = 0, the eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian
for a three-level Ξ system given by Eq. (2.26) are as follows:
λ0 = 0, (2.52)
1q 2
λ± = ± Ωp + Ω2c . (2.53)
2
Dark and bright states: The eigenvectors corresponding to these eigenvalues are termed
as eigenstates. The dark (|0i) and bright states (|±i) for this system can be written as:
Ωc Ωp
|0i = p |1i − p |3i,
Ω2p + Ω2c Ω2p + Ω2c
(2.54)
1 Ωp Ωc
|±i = √ p 2 |1i + p 2 |3i ± |2i .
2 Ωp + Ω2c Ωp + Ω2c
1
|Ci = √ |+i + |−i
2
Ωp Ωc (2.55)
= p 2 |1i + p |3i ,
Ωp + Ω2c Ω2p + Ω2c
|N Ci = |0i
Ωc Ωp (2.56)
=p 2 2
|1i − p 2 |3i,
Ωp + Ωc Ωp + Ω2c
where |Ci and |N Ci represent the coupled and non-coupled states, respectively. The dark
state is a combination of the ground and excited states with no contribution from the inter-
mediate state and when the probe field is driven a transparency is observed instead of an
absorption. Under a weak probe approximation, |Ci and |N Ci become:
|Ci ≈ |3i , (2.57)
|N Ci ≈ |1i . (2.58)
In dark state, the interaction of field and atom prepares the resultant system in quan-
tum superposition of the states, which is decoupled from the fields, thus quenching the
absorption that results in a transparency. The Rabi frequency is treated as a measure of the
coupling between the atomic transition and the optical field.
The positions of the dressed states for moving atoms when the probe and and control
1 1
q
fields are counter-propagating are at 0 and kv ± (kv)2 + Ω2p + Ω2c .
2 2
Table 2.1: Decay rates (Γ) for the different Rb states.
States Wavelength (nm) Γ/2π(MHz)

[93, 101]
5P1/2 795 5.9
5P3/2 780 6.1
5D5/2 776 0.68
7S1/2 741 1.8
2.3.2 Three-level Ξ system:
Fig. 2.8 displays the various optical properties with probe detuning for the stationary and
room temperature atomic vapors for the Ξ system. Table 2.1 shows the decay rates for the
various states of 87 Rb atom.
(a) (b) 0.020

}
0.002
p
}
p
2/
2/
0.015
12
12
0.001
Im{
Im{
0.010
0.000
(c) (d)
0.01
}
}
p
p
0.001
2/
2/
12
12
0.000 0.00
Re{
Re{
-0.001
-0.01
(e) (f)
1
0
( 10 )
6
( 10 )
7
0
-2
g
n
g
n
-1
-4
-2 -1 0 1 2 -0.5 0.0 0.5
p/ 2 p/ 2
Figure 2.8: (a), (b) Probe absorption Im(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp ); (c), (d) dispersion Re(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp );
and (e), (f) group index versus probe detuning for the stationary (left column) and room
temperature atomic vapors (right column) in the three-level Ξ system. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc = 2Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
First, we discuss the EIT behavior in the considered system for stationary atoms. The
absorption peaks and super-luminal light propagation are observed on both the sides of the
line center at dressed state locations, i.e., Γ2 as shown in Figs. 2.8(a) and 2.8(e). A positive
slope at the line center results in the slow light in dispersion plot, one of the most promising
applications of the EIT.
We have already discussed in section 2.2.6, the role of the Doppler broadening when
atomic motion comes into play. Counter-intuitively, Doppler-broadening helps in narrow-
ing of EIT resonances due to thermal averaging of all the velocity classes [86, 87]. Due to
the atomic motion, the shift in the frequency is:
∆D = kv. (2.59)
As EIT study involves two fields, so it becomes obligatory to take into consideration the
prorogation direction of the fields. The beam geometry should be taken such that the
Doppler shifts (∆D ) caused by the probe and control fields must cancel each other. In a
three-level Ξ system, resonance in the EIT, a two-photon process, is observed at [102,103]:
∆p + ∆c = 0. (2.60)
The effective probe and control detunings after Doppler shifts due to the atomic motion:
∆p = ∆p ± kp v, (2.61)
∆c = ∆c ± kc v. (2.62)
The plus and minus signs refer to the direction of atomic velocity.
After incorporating the effective detunings, the Ξ Hamiltonian as well as coherence
element ρ12 modify to the following forms:
 
0 Ωp 0
~
H =  Ω∗p 2(∆p + kp v) Ωc , (2.63)

2 ∗
0 Ωc 2(∆p + kp v + ∆c − kc v)
iΩp
ρ12 = 2 . (2.64)
γ12 Ω2c
− i(∆p − kp v) + h γ i
2 4
13
− i(∆p + kp v + ∆c − kc v)
2
In 87
Rb atom for the considered transitions, the two-photon resonance condition for
moving atoms modifies to:.
∆p + kp v + ∆c − kc v = 0. (2.65)
A complete cancellation of the Doppler shift requires that the probe and control wave-
vectors must be equal. But in our considered system kp 6= kc and the residual Doppler
width is ≈ 2π×1.6 MHz at 300 K. In general, at the room temperature the velocity of the
atomic vapors is explained by Maxwell Boltzmann distribution. For performing thermal
averaging of all the atomic velocity classes, the most probable velocity of the atoms is
considered. In our case, for 87 Rb atoms we take the velocities from −250 m/s to +250 m/s
and this range has been divided into 500 points.
2.3.3 Three-level Λ system:
Fig. 2.9 displays the various optical properties with probe detuning for the stationary and
moving atoms at the room temperature for the taken Λ system. In stationary case, the
absorption peaks are observed at the dressed state positions similar to the Ξ system.
The position of EIT resonance in a three-level Λ system is:
∆p − ∆c = 0. (2.66)
In 87
Rb atom for the 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 transition, the two-photon resonance condition for
moving atoms modifies to:
∆p + kp v − ∆c − kc v = 0. (2.67)
(a) (b) 0.020
}
0.002
p
}
p
2/
0.015
/
2
12
12
0.010
0.001
Im{
Im{
0.005
0.000
(c) (d)
0.01
}
p
0.001
}
p
2/
/
2
12
0.000 0.00
12
Re{
Re{
-0.001
-0.01
(e) (f)
0
5
( 10 )
( 10 )
6
7
-2
g
g
n
n
0
-4
-6
-2 -1 0 1 2 -0.5 0.0 0.5
p/ 2 p/ 2
Figure 2.9: (a), (b) Probe absorption Im(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp ); (c), (d) dispersion Re(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp );
and (e), (f) group index versus probe detuning for the stationary (left column) and room
temperature atomic vapors (right column) in the three-level Λ system. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc = 2Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
The Hamiltonian given by Eq. (2.25) modifies to the following form after thermal averag-
ing:
 
0 Ωp 0
~
H =  Ω∗p 2(∆p + kp v) Ωc (2.68)

2

∗
0 Ωc 2(∆p + kp v − ∆c − kc v)
And the steady solution

iΩp
ρ12 = 2 . (2.69)
γ12 Ω2c
− i∆p − kp v + h i
2 4 γc − i(∆p − ∆c )
In this case, a complete cancellation of the Doppler shift is achieved since kp = kc . It is

evident from the transparency window shown in Fig. 2.9 (b) that a complete transparency
is obtained in comparison to the broadened transparency window of the Ξ system. The
sub-luminal regions are observed near line center because the dispersion slope becomes
steeper at the line center for moving atoms.
CHAPTER 3
S UB - AND SUPER - LUMINAL LIGHT PROPAGATION IN
INVERTED -Y SYSTEM WITH WAVELENGTH MISMATCH
EFFECT
Inclusion of extra fields to expand the three-level systems analyzed in chapter 2 can expe-
dite the EIT controllability. On coupling the intermediate state of a Ξ system with another
ground state, a system composed of Ξ and Λ systems can be formed. In this chapter, we
study such a system called as an inverted-Y type system. As discussed in chapter 2, in real
atoms the wavelength matched condition is difficult to obtain for EIT study with multilevel
systems. Most of the EIT studies have taken the probe and coupling fields with wave-
length matched condition to minimize the effect of the Doppler-broadening. However, it
has been shown in some theoretical studies that wavelength mismatching is conducive to
the EIT phenomenon in multilevel systems [54, 55]. We theoretically elucidate the vari-
ation of the absorption and dispersion profiles with wavelength mismatching factor in a
four-level inverted-Y system. Further extending the study of the dispersion properties, we
also discuss the group index behavior with the probe detuning and coupling fields.
33
34 Chapter 3. Sub- and super-luminal light propagation in inverted-Y sys- . . .
3.1 Introduction
Inverted-Y type EIT system has been studied both theoretically and experimentally owing
to its applications in optical switching, quantum memory, and quantum information pro-
cessing. Nonlinear properties and phase gates were demonstrated by slightly going away
from the resonance to get optimum nonlinearity in inverted-Y type system [58]. The con-
cept of dark-state polaritons was studied with application in quantum memory and quantum
information processing in inverted-Y type system [59]. In this system suppression of two-
photon absorption and non classical light generation was reported [60, 61]. The inverted-Y
type system has also been used to study controllability of optical bi-stability phenomenon
and optical switching with incoherent pumping theoretically [104]. Ali et al. has stud-
ied the role of double dark resonance in an inverted-Y system and showed that the optical
switching action in the inverted-Y system can be enabled or attenuated [105].
In this chapter, we investigate wavelength mismatching effects in inverted-Y type sys-
tem by taking four different configurations in 87 Rb such that the wavelength mismatching
factor increases two orders of magnitude for the Rydberg state 44D5/2 in comparison to
the state 5D5/2 . High lying Rydberg state lives sufficiently long and minimizes optical
pumping effects, hence it favors the EIT phenomenon [106]. We also study the effect of
the mismatching factor on the group index and concomitantly the group velocity of the
atoms. So far the wavelength mismatching effect is studied to elucidate the modification in
absorption behavior of the EIT. It turns out that, in an inverted-Y system for the Doppler-
broadened states with wavelength mismatching effects light propagation behavior switches
from sub- to super-luminal. In most of the EIT studies, the super-luminal light propaga-
tion is caused by the enhanced absorption at the line center. However, we observe narrow
absorption peaks on both the sides of line center. We focus on the dispersion slope be-
havior and the corresponding group index profile of the inverted-Y system. The switching
behavior in different wavelength regimes is also discussed.
3.2. Theoretical Model 35
3.2 Theoretical Model
4
D c2
g ij
Wc2
3
D c1 Dp
g ij
Wc1
Wp
gc 1
Figure 3.1: The EIT scheme in the inverted-Y system. γij and γc are the optical and
hyperfine decoherence, respectively.
A four-level inverted-Y system interacting with three laser fields is a combination of Λ

and Ξ systems as shown in Fig. 3.1. The considered system is formed by two hyperfine
ground levels of 5S1/2 state, one hyperfine intermediate level of 5P3/2 state and various
hyperfine excited levels, i.e., 5D5/2 , 7S1/2 , 7D5/2 and 44D5/2 of 87 Rb. A weak probe field,
Ωp for both the systems is common, coupling the level |1i and |3i. Two strong coupling
fields Ωc1 and Ωc2 couple the levels |2i - |3i and |3i - |4i. The detuning terms for these
transitions are given as ∆p , ∆c1 and ∆c2 such that ∆p = ω13 − ωp , ∆c1 = ω23 − ωc1 ,
∆c2 = ω34 − ωc2 . Decay rates from the intermediate level |3i and excited level |4i are
Γ3 and Γ4 , respectively. The Λ configuration is formed by considering levels |1i , |2i , |3i,
while Ξ configuration is a blend of levels |2i , |3i and |4i.
The total Hamiltonian of the four-level system in the rotating wave approximation
(RWA) is written as:
~
H = ~[(∆p − ∆c1 ) |2i h2| + ∆p |3i h3| + (∆p + ∆c2 ) |4i h4|] + (Ωp |1i h3|
2
+ Ωc1 |2i h3| + Ωc2 |3i h4| + H.c.), (3.1)
The coupling field Ωc1 acts as a re-pumping beam and transfer all the atoms from the
state |2i to the intermediate state |3i and eliminate any possibility of optical pumping in
the ground state |2i. The probe field is very weak as compared to both the coupling fields.
In these conditions, all the population will remain at the ground state (ρ11 ≈ 1).
Ground hyperfine decoherence (γc ) considered in our system for cold atoms (temp few
K) is ≈ 2π×10 kHz [107] and for the room temperature atomic vapors ≈ 2π×40 kHz [108].
The effective decoherence rate (γ) for the three-level Ξ system is γ14 + γp + γc2 (γp , γc1
and γc2 are probe and control lasers line widths, respectively) [85]. Decoherence rate for
the different excited states of the Rubidium atom are listed in Table 3.1.
The coupling field Ωc1 plays a key role in modifying the behavior of the four-level
inverted-Y system from usual three-level cascade system. It creates double dark resonance
and repumps the atoms from off-resonant transitions [105]. In usual three-level Ξ system
one dark state is formed while in a four-level inverted-Y system, two degenerate dark states
are formed at the two-photon resonant condition. The dark state formed in our composite
system is a linear combination of |1i, |2i and |4i levels.
The density matrix equations obtained with the help of Liouville equation ((2.32)) are
solved for a steady state condition. The solution of the coherence term ρ13 obtained under
a weak probe (Ωp = 0.00016 × Γ3 ) condition up to first order in Ωp is :
iΩp
ρ13 = 2 . (3.2)
γ13 Ω2c1 Ω2c2
− i∆p + + h
4[γc − i(∆p − ∆c1 )] 4 γ − i(∆ + ∆ )
i
2
p c2
2
We have neglected the contribution of the coherence term, ρ24 in the solution for the
steady state though we have incorporated it to explain the EIT behavior with different
coupling fields. In the Eq. (3.2), the pole structure shows that the dressed states are present
3.3. Results and discussions 37
p
Ω2c1 + Ω2c2
at ± . We measure the probe response in terms of the imaginary and real parts
2
of the coherence term {ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp } between the levels |1i and |3i [82]. The above solution
for probe response culminates to the Λ system (Ξ system) when the control field Ωc2 (Ωc1 )
is switched off [98].
Table 3.1: Decay rates, decoherence (γ) and wavelength mismatching factors (α) for the
different Rb levels.
States Wavelength Γ4 /2π(MHz) Decoherence rate Mismatching

(nm) [101, 106] (γ14 + γp + γc2 )/2π factor(α)
5D5/2 776 0.68 0.44 −0.005
7S1/2 741 1.8 1.0 −0.0526
7D5/2 572 0.48 0.34 −0.3636
44D5/2 480 0.3 0.25 −0.625
We study EIT with various excited states including Rydberg state to see the effect of wave-
length mismatching in the four-level inverted-Y system. Wavelength mismatching factors
(eq.(2.49)) for the different excited states of Rubidium atom are listed in Table 3.1.
3.3 Results and discussions

The four-level inverted-Y system has more expediency and offers more degree of freedom
than a simple three-level Λ or Ξ system. This system results in an unusual EIT behavior
than the simple three-level Ξ system for varying mismatching factor. In this section, we
discuss the absorption and dispersion properties for the stationary as well as the room tem-
perature atomic vapors. The group index variation is also discussed with probe detuning
and with the coupling field to study the probe propagation behavior in the 87 Rb atoms.
5D
(a) (b) 5/2
0.5
7S
1/2
7D
5/2
0.5 44D
5/2
0.0
c1
c2 3
-0.5
0.0
1.0
(c) (d) 0.5
0.5 0.0
c1 3
}
c2 3
p
}
p
-0.5
13
0.0
Im{
13
1.0
(e) (f)
0.5
Re{
0.5 0.0
c1 3
c2 3
-0.5
0.0
1.0 (g) (h)

0.5
0.5 c1 3 0.0
c2 3
-0.5
0.0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
p 3 p 3
Figure 3.2: Probe absorption Im(ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp ) (left column) and dispersion Re(ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp )
(right column) with probe detuning for stationary atoms. In the calculation, parameters
are Ωp = 0.00016 × Γ3 and ∆c1 = ∆c2 = 0. (a) and (b) show the absorption and dis-
persion profiles for the three-level Ξ system with short-lived states resulting in reduced
transparency and more positive slope.
3.3.1 EIT for Stationary atom
The real and imaginary parts of {ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp } determine the probe dispersion and absorption.
Fig. 3.2 shows variation of the probe absorption and dispersion with probe detuning for
different values of Ωc1 and Ωc2 with various excited states in the stationary atom case.
In Fig. 3.1(a) when Ωc1 = 0, a complete transparency is observed for Rydberg state
(Γ4 = 2π×0.3 MHz) and states with higher decay rates result in a reduction of transparency
window [109]. The 7S1/2 state, with highest decay rate (Γ4 = 2π × 1.8 MHz) displays
least transparency among all considered cases. As a result, the dispersion slope for this
state (Fig. 3.1(b)) becomes more positive around the line center. Now, when we apply the
coupling field Ωc1 a small dip is observed in the transparency window around the resonance
for all the states. On further increase of Ωc2 , the dip disappears [Figures 3.2(c), 3.2(e),
3.2(g)]. The dispersion profiles for the four-level system are shown in Figs. 3.2(d), 3.2(f),
3.2(h). It is observed that the transparency window broadens with increasing coupling
fields, but the slope of dispersion curves decrease. The EIT response of four-level system at
resonance differs from the constituent systems. This prodigious behavior at the resonance
arises due to an interference between the narrow absorption of the Λ system with wide
transparency of the Ξ system. In a Λ system, complete transparency is observed for Ωc1 =
Γ3 but for the Ξ system as shown in Fig. 3.2(a), the transparency increases with the lifetime
of the upper state |4i. When we plot the absorption behavior of the composite system,
convolution of these two subsystems is observed. It is understood that Λ system dominates
over the Ξ system, resulting in a complete transparency despite a change in the Γ4 values.
3.3.2 EIT with Doppler averaging in moving atoms
(a) (b)
0.10
0.10
5D
5/2
0.05
7S
1/2
0.05
7D
p}
p}
5/2
44D
0.00
Im{ 13 3
5/2
Im{ 13 3
0.20 0.20
(c) (d)
0.15 0.15
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05
0.00 0.00
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
p/ 3 p 3
Figure 3.3: The probe absorption Im(ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp ) with probe detuning for various excited
states at the room temperature. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.00016 × Γ3 and
∆c1 = ∆c2 = 0. (a) Ωc1 = 0, Ωc2 = Γ3 . (b) Ωc1 = Ωc2 = Γ3 , (c) Ωc1 = Ωc2 = 2Γ3 and (d)
Ωc1 = 2Ωc2 = 3Γ3 .
Fig. 3.3 (a) displays the EIT behavior of a three-level Ξ system in four different wavelength
regimes and more broadened transparency window is observed with high mismatching
factors. On applying Ωc1 inside the broader transparency window, a narrow transparency
region arises. This complex EIT behavior can be explained owing to an interference effect
produced due to the overlapping of transitions between the Doppler-broadened Ξ system
with the Doppler-free Λ system. The combined effect is the convolution of EIT in the Ξ and
Λ systems. Therefore, for the composite system two-photon resonance positions deviate for
various velocity groups due to the wavelength mismatching and we observe splitting in the
(a) (b)
0.05
0.05
0.00 0.00
}
}
p
p
-0.05
3/
-0.05
5D
3/
5/2
7S
13
13
1/2
7D
Re{
5/2
(c) (d)
Re{
44D
0.1 5/2
0.1
0.0 0.0
-0.1
-0.1
-2 -1 0 1 2 -1 0 1 2
p/ 3 p/ 3
Figure 3.4: Probe dispersion Re(ρ13 Γ3 /Ωp ) with probe detuning for various excited states
at the room temperature. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.00016 × Γ3 and ∆c1 =
∆c2 = 0. (a) Ωc1 = 0, Ωc2 = Γ3 . (b) Ωc1 = Ωc2 = Γ3 . (c) Ωc1 = Γ3 , Ωc2 = 2Γ3 . (d)
Ωc1 = 2Γ3 , Ωc2 = 3Γ3 .
absorption profiles [55]. For high mismatching regimes the composite system shows more
broadening [Figs. 3.3(b)-3.3(d)]. For state 5D5/2 the system is Doppler-free, hence no
extra peaks are observed within the transparency window around the resonance compared
to other three wavelength mismatched cases. The Rydberg state (44D5/2 ) with highest
mismatching factor (as listed in Table 3.1) displays the most complex EIT behavior.
Fig. 3.4 shows the dispersion behavior of the system at the room temperature. In
absence of Ωc1 , the dispersion slope corresponding to the 5D5/2 state is steeper. But dis-
persion slope of the Rydberg state with highest mismatching factor is less steep among
all states [Fig. 3.4(a)]. The dispersion wings are more widened for the states with high
mismatching factors. Now on applying Ωc1 steeper slopes are displayed for all the states
around the line center [Fig. 3.4(b)]. Due to the combined effect of Λ and Ξ the medium
becomes more dispersive and we observe multiple dispersion peaks near the line center. If
Ωc2 > Ωc1 the dispersion slopes for the various states coincide for small detuning range at
the line center [Figs. 3.4(c) and 3.4(d)].The characteristics of Ξ system dominates over Λ
system resulting in more widened dispersion wings. Thus the dispersion behavior varies
with mismatching factor and it can be controlled with the coupling fields.
3.3.3 Group index variation with the probe detuning
5D
5/2
0.2 0.6
7S
1/2
0.4
7D
0.0 5/2
0.2
44D
5/2
-0.2 0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-1 0 1
6
0.2
n ( 10 )
n ( 10 )
6
7
0.0 3
g
g
-0.2
0
-0.4
-3
5
0.2
0.0 0
-0.2
-5
-0.4
-10
-2 -1 0 1 2 -0.4 0.0 0.4
p 3 p 3
Figure 3.5: Group index variation with probe detuning for stationary atoms (left column)
and moving atoms at room temperature (right column). In the calculation, parameters are
Ωp = 0.00016×Γ3 and ∆c1 = ∆c2 = 0. Coupling field parameters are, (a) and (b) Ωc1 = 0,
Ωc2 = Γ3 (c) and (d) Ωc1 = Ωc2 = Γ3 , (e) and (f) Ωc1 = Γ3 , Ωc2 = 2Γ3 .
In this section, we discuss the group index variation with probe detuning depending upon
varying coupling fields and detuning. The variation of group index with detuning for sta-
tionary as well as moving atoms is discussed. Figs. 3.5(a), 3.5(c) and 3.5(e) display group
index variation for stationary atom and Figs. 3.5(b), 3.5(d) and 3.5(f) show the group index
behavior of 87 Rb atoms after thermal averaging. In Fig. 3.5(a), the group index variation
for a three-level Ξ system is shown. It shows sub-luminal behavior at the line center, but
super-luminal behavior away from the line center. The dispersion slope of Rydberg state
is steepest at the line center [Fig. 3.2(b)] consequently highest positive group index is ob-
served in this state. But for the 7S1/2 state with less steep dispersion slope at the line center,
minimum positive group index is observed among all the states.
In Fig. 3.5(c) for Ωc1 = Ωc2 = Γ3 , we observe a narrow spike on the top of the
group index profile at the zero detuning for all the states. On further increasing Ωc2 , the
super-luminal behavior shifts from the line center. Variation in the group index after the
thermal averaging of the Ξ system is shown in Fig. 3.5(d). The Doppler-free case (5D5/2 )
displays the highest peak but the Rydberg state having the highest mismatching factor
shows a broadened peak at the line center with small group index value. Our composite
system shows a complex behavior, as shown in Figs. 3.5(e) and 3.5(f) for different values
of coupling fields. The group index for the 5D5/2 state remains positive throughout with a
peak at the zero detuning thus slow light may be obtained for a Doppler-free case in all the
detuning ranges. The group index for the mismatched states starts increasing from the line
center, reach to a maximum value and then sharply decrease. It is observed from the figure
that the group index value at the zero detuning is same for the matched and mismatched
states. The mismatched states display both sub-luminal as well as super-luminal natures.
The group index values can be varied up to 104 with chosen parameters. After performing
the Doppler averaging for the real part two dispersive regions are obtained by splitting. At
the line center, the narrow dispersion wings arise because of the Doppler-free Λ system and
sub-luminal light propagation is observed as a result of the positive dispersion slope [33].
But away from the line center dispersion wings are widened due to the Doppler broadening
for the mismatched states in the Ξ system. We obtain a negative steep slope type behavior
around the line center. This negative slope or anomalous dispersion gives rise to a super-
luminal light propagation [74].
3.3.4 Group index variation with coupling field (Ωc2 )
5D
5/2
(b)
10 (a) 7S
10
)
1/2
4
)
2
(×10
7D
(×10
5/2
5 44D
5 5/2
g
g
n
n
0
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
15
15
(d)
(c)
)
2
10
)
(×10
10
(×10
g
5
n
5
n
0
0
0 25 50 75 100 0 50 100 150 200 250
(e)
(f)
20
)
0
2
(×10
)
2
(×10
0 -10
g
n
g
n
-20
-20
0 2 4 0 5 10 15 20 25
c2 c2
Figure 3.6: Group index variation with Ωc2 for stationary atoms (left column) and mov-
ing atoms at room temperature (right column). In the calculation, parameters are Ωp =
0.00016 × Γ3 and ∆c2 = 0. (a) and (b) Ωc1 = 0, ∆c1 = 0. (c) and (d) Ωc1 = 4Γ3 , ∆c1 = 0.
(e) and (f) Ωc1 = 4Γ3 , ∆c1 = 0.2Γ3 .
Variation of ng with Ωc2 is shown in Fig. 3.6 when Ωc1 is not applied the group index is
negative initially and increases rapidly with Ωc2 resulting in maximum peak height for the
Rydberg state. But the group index variation for the 7S1/2 state is very less compared to
the other states. Now on applying Ωc1 , the group index is initially positive and then start
decreasing gradually with Ωc2 Fig. 3.6(c). An anomaly is observed when we take ∆c1 =
0.2Γ3 . Now the group index is initially positive, starts decreasing with Ωc2 and with further
increase in Ωc2 again becomes positive. The 7S1/2 state remains always positive, but the
Rydberg state shows more variation. Thus switching from sub- to super-luminal and then
again to sub-luminal is observed in this case for slightly detuned coupling field Ωc1 . This
switching action is most prominent in the Rydberg state, but not in 7S1/2 . After thermal
averaging, for the Ξ system ng increases with coupling field first and then decreases and
reaches to almost constant value. Maximum peak height is observed for the 5D5/2 state and
minimum for the Rydberg state. On applying Ωc1 , positive ng is observed for all the states.
When we slightly detune the first coupling field similar to the stationary case, switching
from positive to negative group index is observed with shifting in the minimum values due
to Doppler broadening. The wavelength mismatched states result in the broadening of the
group index profiles.
CHAPTER 4
S TUDY OF COHERENCE EFFECTS IN A FOUR - LEVEL Ξ−Λ

TYPE SYSTEM
Study of coherence effects is not only limited to the simple three-level systems, but also
to various types of multilevel systems. The three-photon coherence generally studied in a
four-level system is relatively less examined in comparison to the two-photon coherence.
Two-photon and the three-photon coherence effects are associated with each other and
result in transparency and enhanced absorption [110–112]. Depending on the nature of
decay pathways, various interesting features are observed in the Ξ system contrary to the
Λ and V systems. Various types of atomic coherence including one-photon, two-photon
as well as cross coherence cause two-photon absorption (TPA), EIT and double-resonance
optical pumping (DROP) in a Ξ system [113, 114].
47
48 Chapter 4. Study of coherence effects in a four-level Ξ−Λ type system
4.1 Introduction
EIT and EIA are two extensively studied two-photon coherence phenomena theoretically
as well as experimentally. EIT, a quantum interference phenomenon, causes transparency
by quenching absorption of the medium [20, 109]. In contrast, the transfer of coherence
in some systems causes enhanced absorption due to the EIA [46, 115, 116]. In multi-
level atomic systems, the interference and coherence are also utilized to elucidate non-
linear wave-mixing. In four-level systems, various studies have observed three-photon
electromagnetically induced absorption (TPEIA) and four wave mixing (FWM) simulta-
neously [117–119]. In a Ξ system, conversion of TPA and EIT to TPEIA was demon-
strated [120] and conditions for observing the three-photon coherence in a Ξ system were
also reported [121]. In a more recent study, TPEIA and FWM were investigated theoreti-
cally as well as experimentally in Ξ−Λ and Ξ−V type systems [122].
In this chapter, we explore the two- and three-photon coherence phenomena in a four-
level Ξ−Λ system for the considered 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 5D5/2 transitions of the 87
Rb
atom theoretically. We discuss the role of dressed states to elucidate the EIT and EIA
phenomena. The presence of the third field induces absorption at the line center. The three
optical fields trigger four-wave mixing (FWM) as a result of the third order nonlinearity.
4.2 Theoretical model

Our composite four-level system, a combination of Ξ with a third drive field, which couples
the excited state with the intermediate state, form a Ξ−Λ system in the 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 →
5D5/2 transitions is shown in Fig. 4.1. A weak probe field Ωp and a control field Ωc couples
the levels |1i-|2i and |2i-|4i, respectively. A drive field Ωd couples the levels |3i and |4i.
The detuning terms for these transitions are given as ∆p = ω12 − ωp , ∆c = ω24 − ωc , and
∆d = ω34 − ωd .
4.2. Theoretical model 49
5D 5/ 2 4
c d
 ij
d
c
2
5P3/ 2 3
p
 ij
p
5S1/ 2 1
Figure 4.1: EIT scheme in the four-level Ξ−Λ type system. In the four-level model,
5S1/2 (F = 2), 5P3/2 (F 0 = 3), and 5D5/2 (F 00 = 4) are the ground, intermediate, and
excited states, respectively. The levels |2i and |3i share the common sublevel of the 5P3/2
state. The dotted zigzag lines represent decay from the intermediate and excited states with
deocohrence rate γij .
For the experimental realization of the system, the polarizations of the two strong fields,
i.e., control and drive fields must be opposite to observe the TPEIA in the considered
system [112, 122].
The total Hamiltonian of the considered system can be written as:
h i
H = ~ ∆p |2i h2| + (∆p + ∆c − ∆d ) |3i h3| + (∆p + ∆c ) |4i h4|
~
+ Ωp |1i h2| + Ωd |4i h3| + Ωc |2i h4| + H.c. , (4.1)
2
where H.c. is the Hermitian conjugate of the precursory off-diagonal elements.

The coupled density matrix equations for the considered system can be obtained by
substituting Eq.(4.1) in Eq.(2.32) as follows:

1 1 Γ2 Γ3 i
ρ̇11 = − ρ11 + + b1 ρ22 + b1 ρ33 + (Ωp ∗ ρ12 − Ωp ρ21 );
τd 2τd 2 2 2
Γ4 i
ρ̇22 = − ρ22 Γ2 + b2 ρ44 + (Ωc ∗ ρ24 − Ωc ρ42 + Ωp ρ21 − Ωp ∗ ρ12 );
2 2
i
ρ̇33 = − Γ3 ρ33 + b2 Γ4 ρ44 + (Ωd ∗ ρ34 − Ωd ρ43 );
2
i
ρ̇44 = − Γ4 ρ44 + (−Ωc ∗ ρ24 − Ωd ∗ ρ34 + Ωc ρ42 + Ωd ρ43 );
2
i Γ2
ρ̇12 = (Ωp ρ11 − Ωp ρ22 + Ωc ∗ ρ14 ) + ρ12 (i∆p − );
2 2
i Γ3
ρ̇13 = (Ωd ∗ ρ14 − Ωp ρ23 ) + ρ13 i(∆p + ∆c − ∆d ) − ;
2 2
i Γ4
ρ̇14 = (Ωc ρ12 + Ωd ρ13 − Ωp ρ24 ) + ρ14 i(∆p + ∆c ) − ;
2 2
i ∗ ∗
Γ2 + Γ3
ρ̇23 = (−Ωp ρ13 + Ωd ρ24 − Ωc ρ43 ) + ρ23 i(∆c − ∆d ) − ;
2 2
i Γ2 + Γ4
ρ̇24 = (Ωc ρ22 − Ωc ρ44 − Ωp ∗ ρ14 + Ωd ρ23 ) + ρ24 (i∆c − );
2 2
i Γ3 + Γ 4
ρ̇34 = (Ωc ρ32 + Ωd ρ33 − Ωd ρ44 ) + ρ34 (i∆d − ). (4.2)
2 2
The branching ratio for the 5P3/2 and the excited states are given by b1 = 1 and b2 = 0.65,
respectively. For the 87 Rb atom, the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 3) → 5D5/2 (F 00 = 4)
transitions can be approximated as cycling transition because most of the population decays
back to the ground state [113, 124, 125]. On account of the above considerations, all the
population can be taken in the state |1i, i.e., ρ11 ≈ 1.
4.2.1 Steady state solution under weak probe approximation
The density matrix equations are solved to obtain the solution of the coherence term ρ12 in
the steady state under the weak probe approximation:
iΩp
ρ12 = 2 . (4.3)
(Ωc /2)2
γ2 − i∆p +
(Ωd /2)2
γ4 − i(∆p + ∆c ) +
γ3 − i(∆p + ∆c − ∆d )
The two-photon coherence terms for the constituent systems, i.e., Ξ and Λ are ρ14 and
ρ23 , respectively.
4.2. Theoretical model 51
To ensure the exactness of the analytical solution, in Fig. 4.2 we plot the comparative
absorption behavior of analytical and full numerical solution for the room temperature
atomic vapors. The results show that our analytical solution is in good agreement with the
full numerical results.
Analytical
Full numerical
0.08
}
p
/
2
12
Im{
0.04
0.00
-4 -2 0 2 4
/
p 2
Figure 4.2: Comparison of analytical and full numerical solution versus probe detuning
in the four-level Ξ−Λ system for room temperature atomic vapors. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0, Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2 .
In this system, three optical fields trigger FWM due to the third order non-linearity of the
medium in a direction driven by the phase-matching condition [117, 119]. Two-photon
coherence for the Ξ system is imperative to observe three-photon coherence on applying
the drive field Ωd [117]. FWM phenomenon is ignited as a result of three-photon coherence
by the drive field. The coherence element ρ13 represents the FWM:
iρ14 Ωd − iρ23 ΩP
ρ13 = . (4.4)
(Γ3 − 2i(∆p + ∆c − ∆d ))
Thus FWM is proportional to the two-photon coherence terms of the constituent systems.
It mainly depends upon the drive field and the two-photon coherence of the Ξ system under
the weak probe approximation. The expression also involves the three-photon resonance
condition, i.e., ∆p + ∆c − ∆d in the denominator.
4.3 Results and discussion

We study the two-photon and three-photon processes in a Ξ−Λ type system for the sta-
tionary and room temperature 87 Rb atomic vapors. Even and odd-photon coherence causes
transparency and absorption, respectively, at the probe resonance [123]. We also discuss
group index variation associated with the dispersion properties of system. Enhanced ab-
sorption causes optical switching due to the anomalous dispersion at resonance [56, 72].
Dressed state analysis
A simple analysis of the four-level system using dressed

p state picture is discussed. The
(Ω2c + Ω2d )
eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian ((4.2)) are 0, 0 and ± . The dressed states for
2
the system at resonance condition (∆p = ∆c = ∆d = 0) for the same control and driving
fields strength (Ωc = Ωd ) are:
1
|0i = √ (|2i − |3i),
2
1 √
|±i = (|2i + |3i) ± 2 |4i . (4.5)
2
The state |1i can interact with both of the above given dressed states due to the presence of
the state |2i and absorption is does not vanish in the system.
Further, we explain the occurrence of absorption peaks for different control and drive fields
strength and the propagation directions of the fields with the help of dressed states pic-
ture.
p The dressed states position in our system for stationary atom case are at 0 and
(Ω2c + Ω2d )
± . The positions of these dressed states shift for moving atoms depending
2
on the propagation direction of the fields:
Case 1: When the drive field is co-propagating to the probe

s field
(kv)2 + Ω2
(i) For Ωc = Ωd = Ω, the dressed states position are 0, ± .
2
(ii) For Ωc 6= Ωd , positions of all the dressed states are shifted and none of them is present
at 0.
4.3. Results and discussion 53
Case 2: But when the drive field is counter-propagating to the probe field, the three
dressed state positions are q
shifted for equal as well as unequal strength of the control and
kv (kv)2 + Ω2c + Ω2d
drive fields, i.e., kv, ± .
2 2
(b) 1.5
(a)
0.9
1.2
0.6
0.9
0.3
0.6
0.0
0.9 1.5
(d)
}
(c)
}
p
p
/
1.2
/
2
0.6
2
12
12
0.9
Im{
Re{
0.3
0.6
0.0
(e) (f)
0.6
1.2
0.3 0.9
0.6
0.0
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
/ /
p 2 p 2
Figure 4.3: Absorption (left column) and dispersion (right column) versus probe detuning
for stationary atom case. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c =
∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 (a), (b) Ωd = 0, (c), (d) Ωd = 2Γ2 and (e), (f) Ωd = 4Γ2 .
4.3.1 Stationary case
Fig. 4.3 shows the absorption and dispersion behavior in the considered system. It is
observed that a single transparency window is obtained with a positive dispersion slope
at the line center due to the two-photon coherence condition, i.e., ∆p + ∆c = 0 in the Ξ
system. When the driving field is added, we obtain an absorption instead of transparency
at the line center with two symmetric absorption peaks on either side. This absorption at
the resonance condition is observed as a consequence of the three-photon coherence in the

system. The three-photon resonance condition for our system, i.e., ∆p + ∆c − ∆d = 0 is
always fulfilled for the stationary atoms. The transparency and absorption are associated
with normal and anomalous dispersion at the line center. Two-photon resonance condition
is obligatory to generate three-photon coherence, prerequisite to observe TPEIA in the
Ξ − Λ four-level system [117]. The observed absorption peaks can also be interpreted on
the basis of the dressed state. One of the dressed states is located at the line center for all
the combinations of driving and control field in the four-level system. Consequently, the
dispersion at the line center becomes negative for our system and super-luminal behavior
is observed.
Group index and FWM variation for stationary case
0
)
7
10
(
-2
g
n
=0
d
d 2
-4
d 2
-4 -2 0 2 4
/
p 2
Figure 4.4: Group index versus probe detuning for stationary atoms. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 .
The group index variation with the probe detuning is shown in Fig. 4.4. In the absence
of drive field, the group index for three-level Ξ system shows positive value at the line
center and result in sub-luminal light propagation. On applying the driving field, super-
)
)
-1
(
(
g
n
g
n
-2
0 1 2 3 4 0 15 30 45
c 2 c 2
Figure 4.5: Group index versus coupling field for stationary atoms. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0. (a) Ωd = 0, (b) Ωd = 4Γ2 .
luminal light propagation is observed at the line center as well as on either side of it.
The super-luminal behavior in the system can be easily explained on the basis of dressed
state formation as discussed. The group index variation for the system with the coupling
field for stationary atoms is shown in Fig. 4.5. When Ωd = 0, initially negative group
index changes to positive and reaches to a maximum value then decreases and remains
almost constant. On applying the driving field group index is shifted to the negative side
and remains negative throughout. Thus switching from positive to negative group index is
observed.
We apply the driving field in between the intermediate and the excited states while the
probe field acts among the intermediate and ground state. FWM in our system is generated
in between the ground and intermediate states. FWM variation with drive field for the
stationary case is shown in Fig. 4.6. FWM in the system can be obtained with the help
of Eq. (4.4) and is proportional to |ρ13 |2 . FWM peaks show an analogy with the EIT
behavior in the Ξ − Λ system and the peak at the line center is enhanced in this case. This
enhancement can be attributed to the two-photon coherence by the Ξ subsystem ((4.4)).
d 2
d 2
0.3
FWM
0.2
0.1
0.0
-4 -2 0 2 4
/
p 2
Figure 4.6: FWM signal obtained for stationary case with probe detuning. In the calcula-
tion, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 .
4.3.2 Thermal averaging
In the four-level Ξ−Λ type system the driving field can be taken co-propagating as well
as counter-propagating to the probe field. The absorption behaviors for these combina-
tions are shown in Fig. 4.7. It is clearly evident from the figure that when the drive field
is counter-propagating to the probe field, absorption at the line center is completely sup-
pressed and transparency is obtained. This can be attributed to the shift of dressed state
positions for the counter-propagating case elucidated by the dressed state picture. There-
fore, we take drive field co-propagating to the probe field to show the EIT and EIA effects
in our considered system.
The probe responses with probe detuning are shown in Fig. 4.8 after thermal averag-
ing for room temperature atomic vapors. The two-photon coherence is fulfilled for room
temperature atomic vapors at the room temperature in the system. A narrow transparent
window supervened by a normal dispersion is observed at the line center ( 4.7(b)).
When the driving field is applied the three-photon coherence comes into play, but for
0.08 p c
p c
}
p
d
/
2
12
Im{ d
0.04
0.00
-4 -2 0 2 4
/
p 2
Figure 4.7: Imaginary part (absorption) of the probe response with ∆p in the four-level
Ξ−Λ system when the probe and drive fields are counter- (black dotted line) and co-
propagating (red solid line) for room temperature atomic vapors. In the calculation, pa-
rameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0, Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2 .
unequal control and drive field transparency is observed at the line center. For this case,
the dressed states are shifted from the line center. When, Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2 , an enhanced
absorption is observed at the line center with shallowstransparency regions on both sides
(kv)2 + (4Γ)2
4.8(e). Dressed sates positions for this case are, 0, ± . For atoms moving
2
with velocity v, the three-photon resonance condition, ∆p + ∆c − ∆d ± kv is not consistent
for the Ξ − Λ system. A narrow absorption peak is observed due to the velocity selective
resonance condition in the system. The atoms of a specific range of velocity satisfy the
three-photon resonance condition [121].
Group index and FWM variation for room temperature atomic vapors
Group index variation with probe detuning after thermal averaging shows peak around the
line center. When Ωd = 2Γ2 is applied, subsequent to the normal dispersion slope at line
center for unequal control and drive fields in Fig. 4.8(d), sub-luminal light propagation is
0.020 (a)
(b)
0.01
0.015
0.00
0.010
-0.01
0.005
(c) (d)
}
}
p
0.03
p
0.01
/
2
/
2
12
0.02 0.00
12
Im{
Re{
-0.01
0.01
(e) (f)
0.04
0.08
0.06
0.00
0.04
0.02
-0.04
0.00
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
/ /
p 2 p 2
Figure 4.8: Absorption (left column) and dispersion (right column) with ∆p in the four-
level Ξ−Λ system for room temperature atomic vapors. In the calculation, parameters are
Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0, Ωc = 4Γ2 (a), (b) Ωd = 0, (c), (d) Ωd = 2Γ2 and (e),
(f) Ωd = 4Γ2 .
observed. For Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2 , group index valley is observed at the line center resulting
in super-luminal light propagation. The group index values can be changed up to 106 in
the system with an optimum strength of the control and drive fields as shown in Fig. 4.9.
The absorption at the zero detuning leads to the optical switching phenomenon. As shown
in Fig. 4.10, for the three-level Ξ system positive group index is observed for all values
of the coupling fields. But when we apply the driving field, group index value is switched
from positive to negative. From Figs. 4.5 and 4.10, it is noticeable that optical switching is
more significant in the moving atoms. This can be credited to the enhanced absorption at
the line center after thermal averaging, in contrast to the almost equal absorption peaks at
dressed states position for stationary atom case.
)
6
( 10
g
n
-2
=0
d
d 2
-4 d 2
-4 -2 0 2 4
/
p 2
Figure 4.9: Group index versus probe detuning after thermal averaging for room tempera-
ture atomic vapors. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d =
0, Ωc = 4Γ2 .
(a) (b)
1.0 0
10 )
10 )
4
4
(
(
-2
g
g
0.5 n
n
-4
0.0
0 2 4 6 0 2 4
/
c 2 c 2
Figure 4.10: Group index versus coupling field after thermal averaging for room tempera-
ture atomic vapors. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d =
0, Ωc = 4Γ2 (a) Ωd = 0, (b) Ωd = 4Γ2 .
The FWM for moving atoms at the room temperature shows a dip at line center for
Ωd = 2Γ2 and Ωc = 4Γ2 (Fig. 4.11). When Ωd = Ωc = 4Γ2 , a peak is observed at the
line center. The FWM intensity at line center is significantly enhanced in the second case
caused by drive field (Eq. (4.4)). Thus the EIT and FWM are correlated to each other.
d 2
0.008
d 2
FWM
0.004
10
0.000
-4 -2 0 2 4
/
p 2
Figure 4.11: FWM signal versus probe detuning obtained for room temperature atomic
vapors. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 , ∆c = ∆p = ∆d = 0,
Ωc = 4Γ2 .
4.3.3 Transient behavior for the four-level Ξ−Λ system
Fig. 4.12 elucidates time evolution for the system obtained using the time-dependent den-
sity matrix equations [47]. For a usual three-level Ξ system, probe absorption vanishes
when steady state is achieved [126]. It is evident from Fig. 4.10 that switching from posi-
tive to negative ng is observed on applying the drive field Ωd . We take Ωc = Γ2 (blue line),
Ωc = 2.8Γ2 (black line) and Ωc = 4Γ2 (green line) to show time evolution of the four-level
Ξ−Λ system. When we take Ωc = Γ2 and Ωd = 4Γ2 , enhanced absorption is observed.
For Ωc = 2.8Γ2 and Ωd = 4Γ2 , corresponding to the group index valley in Fig. 4.10, ab-
sorption is reduced. When we take equal control and drive fields strength, Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2
enhanced absorption is further reduced but remains non-zero. The maximum difference
between the switch on and switch off positions is observed for Ωc = Γ2 . Thus the sys-
tem provides controllability by varying the strength of control and drive fields and can be
employed in absorptive optical switching [127].
1
Im{ρ12Γ2/Ωp}
0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25
t×Γ
2
Figure 4.12: Time evolution of Im{ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp } for the Ξ−Λ system. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp = 0.001 × Γ2 and ∆c = ∆d = 0. Ωc = 4Γ2 , Ωd = 0 (red line),
Ωc = Γ2 , Ωd = 4Γ2 (blue line), Ωc = 2.8Γ2 , Ωd = 4Γ2 (black line) and Ωc = Ωd = 4Γ2
(green line).
CHAPTER 5
F IVE - AND SEVEN - LEVEL INHOMOGENEOUSLY
BROADENED Ξ SYSTEMS WITH MISMATCHED
WAVELENGTHS AND POLARIZATION EFFECTS
The level structure of Rb atom exhibit complex structure with many hyperfine levels in the
excited states. Therefore, in theoretical EIT systems the inclusive study of these nearby
levels becomes inevitable. The optical properties vary according to the level structure
of atom in the considered system. Various features of the light field such as intensity,
frequency, polarization, etc. are also very important to consider for precision spectroscopy
experiments. These properties become pertinent for EIT study. Polarization is an important
property of the light field which is imperative to meticulously study the Zeeman states of
atomic systems. We take into account the effect of wavelength mismatching, the close
proximity of hyperfine levels and various polarization combinations of the optical fields to
study the optical properties in five- (5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 7S1/2 ) and seven-level (5S1/2 →
5P3/2 → 5D5/2 ) Ξ systems for 87 Rb atom.
63
64 Chapter 5. Five- and seven-level inhomogeneously broadened Ξ . . .
5.1 Introduction
McGloin et al. have experimentally probed the effect of polarization in a Ξ system with
degenerate magnetic sub-levels. It was shown that the optical field polarization plays a
vital role in EIT experiments. EIT phenomenon can be modified by the suitable selection
of the fields polarization [128]. Moon et al. investigated the polarization dependence in
the 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 5D5/2 transitions of the 87 Rb atom and the transmittance spectra of
EIT and double-resonance optical pumping (DROP) were reported [129]. The EIT profile
obtained in all the experimental studies is asymmetric in comparison to the theoretical
results of the simple three-level system [68, 69]. This is because of the close proximity
of the hyperfine levels in the 5P3/2 and 5D5/2 states. Mishina et al. and Bharti et al.
have theoretically investigated the effect of multiple hyperfine levels in inhomogeneously
broadened Λ and Ξ systems, respectively [70, 71].
In this chapter, we theoretically study effect of the wavelength mismatching and optical
field polarization on the optical properties of five-and seven-level Ξ systems. The effect of
the multiple hyperfine (intermediate+upper state) levels are also taken into account. We
show that the transition probabilities of degenerate magnetic sub levels change with differ-
ent polarization combinations of the optical fields. The modifications in the dispersion and
group index profiles with these factors are also discussed.

We consider a five-level Ξ system in the 87
Rb atom with the 5S1/2 state as the ground
level, three closely spaced hyperfine levels of the 5P3/2 as the intermediate levels and the
7S1/2 state as an excited level. A weak probe field Ωp links the levels |1i (F = 1) and
|2i , |3i , |4i (F 0 = 0, F 0 = 1, F 0 = 2) and a strong coupling field Ωc couples the levels
|2i , |3i, and |4i to |5i (F 00 = 1). The detuning terms for these transitions are given as
∆p = ω12 − ωp and ∆c = ω25 − ωc .
To study the seven-level Ξ system we consider the 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 5D5/2 transitions
F mF
mF −1 0 1
1
F −1 1
0 15 MHz
2 2 7
2 638 MHz 22.3 MHz 5 2 D5 / 2
7 S1/ 2 3 6
1 ∆c 29.8 MHz
5 4 5
∆c
741 nm Ωc ΩC 776 nm
3 4
267 MHz ∆P
2 4 3
5 2 P3 / 2 157 MHz
2
1 3
72 MHz 2
0 ∆P π
Ωp σ−
Ωp σ+
780 nm
2 1
5 2S1/ 2 6.8 GHz
1 1
Figure 5.1: The EIT scheme in a five-level (left) and seven-level (right) Ξ system with
different polarizations of the fields. The wavelengths of the probe and coupling transitions
are shown in the Fig.
in the 87
Rb atom. In this case a weak probe field Ωp links the level |1i (F = 2) and
|2i , |3i , |4i (F 0 = 1, 2, 3) and a strong coupling field Ωc couples the levels |2i , |3i , |4i
and |5i , |6i , |7i (F 00 = 4, 3, 2). The detuning terms for these transitions are given as ∆p =
ω14 − ωp and ∆c = ω45 − ωc . Hyperfine separations between the levels are shown in
figure 5.1. To see the effect of polarization, we consider different transition channels and
mF values are not fixed for the system. Different polarization combinations of the optical
fields are taken to see the effect of polarization in the considered system as shown in figure
5.1.
The total Hamiltonian of the five- and seven-level system in the rotating wave approxi-
mation, respectively:
4
hX i
H=~ (∆p − ω2j ) |2i hj| + (∆p + ∆c ) |5i h5|
j=2
4 4
~ X X
+ Ωp1j |1i hj| + Ωcj5 |ji h5| + H.c. , (5.1)
2 j=2 j=2
4
hX 7
X i
H=~ (∆p + ω4j ) |4i hj| + (∆p + ∆c − ω5k ) |5i hk| ]
j=2 k=5
4 7 7
~ X X X
+ Ωp1j |1i hj| + Ωc2k |2i hk| + (Ωc3k |3i hk|]
2 j=2 k=5 k=5
7
X
+ Ωc4k |4i hk| + H.c. , (5.2)
k=5
where H.c. is the Hermitian conjugate of the precursory off-diagonal elements. The
density matrix equations can be obtained using Eqs. (2.32), (5.1) and (5.2). In a Ξ system,
the transparency window is influenced significantly by the double resonance optical pump-
ing effect (DROP) effect and the two-photon absorption [113, 125]. We take very weak
probe field (Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 ) to circumvent the optical pumping effects. Consequently,
the EIT effects are more prominent in the considered system. For both the considered
systems ρ11 ≈ 1 with an equal number of atoms in all the mF levels in the weak probe
approximation. [71]. Unlike Ref [129] we consider three degenerate magnetic sub levels
of the ground state 5S1/2 (F = 2) for seven-level system.
The solution of the coherence term ρ12 for the five-level system in steady state condition
under weak probe approximation is:
iΩp12 iΩc25 iΩp13 Ωc35 iΩp14 Ωc45

ρ12 = − + , (5.3)
2β 4ββ1 β2 β3
where
2 2 2
Ωc Ωc Ωc
β = γ12 − i∆p + 25
, β1 = γ15 − i(∆p + ∆c ) + 35
+ 45
,
4β1 4β2 4β3
β2 = γ13 − i(∆p − ω23 ), β3 = γ14 − i(∆p − ω24 ),
(5.4)
Γ12 Γ13
γ12 = + γp , γ13 = + γp ,
2 2
Γ14 Γ15
γ14 = + γp , γ15 = + γp + γc .
2 2
To achieve the simplified steady state solution we ignore the coherence terms, ρ32 and ρ42
terms, though we incorporate these terms in calculations for the final plots. The solution of
the coherence term ρ14 for the seven-level system is complicated to obtain analytically. We
plot the optical properties using the full numerical solution of the density matrix equations
for both the considered systems.
Table 5.1: Rabi frequency for the probe and coupling fields corresponding to different
transition routes for the seven-level system.
Polarization Probe field Control field
π Ωp12 = −0.330Ωp14 Ωc25 = Ωc26 = 0, Ωc27 = 0.8573Ω45

Ωp13 = 0 Ωc35 = Ωc37 = 0, Ωc36 = 0.9165Ω45
Ωc46 = 0, Ωc47 = −0.1223Ω45
σ+ Ωp12 = 0.5Ωp14 Ωc25 = Ωc26 = 0, Ωc27 = 0.7Ω45

Ωp13 = 1.118Ωp14 Ωc35 = 0, Ωc36 = 1.0801Ω45 , Ωc37 = 0.9037Ω45
Ωc46 = 0.6831Ω45 , Ωc47 = 0.1634Ω45
σ− Ωp12 = 0.5Ωp14 Ωc25 = Ωc26 = 0, Ωc27 = 0.7Ω45

Ωp13 = −1.118Ωp14 Ωc35 = 0, Ωc36 = 1.0801Ω45 ,
Ωc37 = −0.9037Ω45
Ωc46 = −0.6831Ω45 , Ωc47 = 0.1634Ω45
In multilevel atoms, light-atom interaction depends on the coupling strengths of the transi-
tions. This coupling strength varies with the polarization of optical fields and dipole ma-
trix element between the levels [67]. For a particular transition pathway, the two-photon
transition probability can be obtained by multiplying the probe and coupling transitions
probability. We add all transition probabilities for the possible transition routes to get the
total transition probability. Tables 5.1 and 5.2 provide the relation between Rabi frequency
of the closely spaced hyperfine levels. Tables 5.3 and 5.4 show the total transition prob-
ability of atoms between the states for different hyperfine excited states of the five- and
seven-level Ξ systems, respectively.
Table 5.2: Rabi frequency for the probe and coupling fields corresponding to different
transition routes for the five-level system.
Polarization Probe field Control field
π Ωp13 = 0 Ωc35 = 0
Ωp14 = −Ωp12 Ωc45 = −Ωc25
σ+ Ωp13 = 1.118Ωp12 Ωc35 = −1.118Ωc25

Ωp14 = 0.5Ωp12 Ωc45 = 0.5Ωc25
σ− Ωp13 = −1.118Ωp12 Ωc35 = 1.118Ωc25

Ωp14 = 0.5Ωp12 Ωc45 = 0.5Ωc25
Table 5.3: Transition probabilities for 87

Rb atom moving between the states 5S1/2 (F =
1) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 0, 1, 2) → 7S1/2 (F 00 = 1) as parts of 10,000 for all polarization combi-
nations.
Probe Control F 00 = 1
Polarization Polarization
π π 772
π σ+ 410
σ+ σ+ 320
σ+ σ− 590
Table 5.4: Transition probabilities for 87

Rb atom moving between the states 5S1/2 (F =
2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 1, 2, 3) → 5D5/2 (F 00 = 4, 3, 2) as parts of 10,000 for each polarization
combination.
Probe Polar- Control Polar- F 00 = 4 F 00 = 3 F 00 = 2

ization ization
π π 686 207 146

π σ+ 600 363 76
σ+ σ+ 1200 333 93
σ+ σ− 200 286 154

EIT resonance in a three-level Ξ system is observed at ∆p + ∆c = 0 [103]. It is evident that
EIT resonance is independent of the intermediate state. Thus EIT is related with the two-
photon transition probability and it changes with different polarization combinations of the
optical fields. In a Ξ system, counter-propagating fields are used to diminish the residual
Doppler effect [82, 85, 90]. In this section, we discuss the optical properties of the five-
5S 5P 7S
1/2 3/2 1/2
1.0
} 3-level
p12
/
2
12
Im{
0.5
0.0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
/
p 2
Figure 5.2: Probe absorption, Im(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp12 ) versus probe detuning with different polar-
ization combinations for stationary atom case in five-level Ξ system. In the calculation,
parameters are Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
and seven-level Ξ systems for the stationary and room temperature atomic vapors. The
polarization combinations, σ + σ + , σ + σ − and πσ + show the results that are similar to the
combinations σ − σ − , σ − σ + and σ + π, respectively. Hence we discuss only four polarization
combinations, i.e., σ + σ + , σ + σ − , πσ + and ππ in our considered systems.
5.3.1 Stationary case
Figs. 5.2 and 5.3 show the absorption versus probe detuning for five- and seven-level Ξ
systems, respectively. We compare the multilevel systems with a simple three-level Ξ sys-
tem and observe an asymmetry due to the close proximity of the hyperfine levels. This
asymmetric behavior is a resultant of the multiple Ξ channels with mismatched dipole ma-
trix elements. The amplitudes of absorption peaks corresponding to the different optical
field polarizations are irregular in the five-level system. Maximum absorption peak height
on the positive detuning side and minimum on the negative side is observed for the σ + σ +
polarization combination. But opposite nature is observed for the σ + σ − case. This juxta-
5S 5P 5D
1/2 3/2 5/2
1.0
}
p14
/
2
3-level
14
Im{
0.5
0.0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
/
p 2
ization combinations for stationary atom case in sevem-level Ξ system. In the calculation,
position of the absorption profile for these two polarization combinations can be attributed
to the different transition probabilities. For seven-level system a third absorption peak
is observed for σ + σ + , σ + σ − and πσ + polarization combinations on the positive detuning
side. For ππ polarization combination only two peaks are observed because in this case the
coupling Rabi frequency Ωc46 vanishes. It is evident from the Figs. 5.2 and 5.3 that more
asymmetry is observed in the five-level system with various polarization combination. It
can be credited to more closely space hyperfine levels in the intermediate state.
This change in absorption is associated with a concomitant modification of the disper-
sive properties of medium.The asymmetric dispersion profile is observed in contrast to the
three-level system for all the polarization combinations and a positive slope at the zero
detuning which results in slow light or sub-luminal light propagation for both the consid-
ered systems. In the five-level system, dispersion slopes of the σ + σ − and ππ overlap with
that of the three-level around the line center (Fig. 5.4). But the dispersion profiles deviate
for the σ + σ + and πσ + polarization combinations and give a higher refractive index at the
5S 5P 7S
1/2 3/2 1/2
1.5
} 3-level
p12
/
2
12
1.0
Re{
0.5
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
/
p 2
Figure 5.4: Probe dispersion, Re(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp12 ) versus probe detuning with different polar-
ization combinations for stationary atom case in five-level Ξ system. In the calculation,
line center. However, the nature of the slope remains same for all the polarization com-
binations at line center. For seven-level system, all the polarization combinations show
similar behavior at the zero detuning as shown in Fig. 5.5. The third absorption peak in
Fig. 5.3 results in super-luminal region in the positive detuning side for σ + σ + , σ + σ − and
πσ + polarization combinations.
5S 5P 5D
1/2 3/2 5/2
0.5
}
p14
3-level
/
2 14
0.0
Re{
-0.5
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
/
p 2
ization combinations for stationary atom case in seven-level Ξ system. In the calculation,
Group index variation with probe detuning is also discussed. Super-luminal light prop-
agation is observed in all the polarization cases on both the sides of the line center at the
dressed state locations for a three-level Ξ system, i.e., 1.5Γ2 . The group index remains
same for all the polarization combinations at line center in the five-level system because of
the identical dispersion slopes. For the σ + σ + polarization combination the deepest group
index valley is observed on the positive detuning side, whereas σ + σ − polarization combi-
nation results in the opposite behavior. The ππ polarization plots show analogy with the
three-level Ξ system. For the five-level Ξ system, all the profiles in Figs. 5.2, 5.4 and 5.6
shift towards the negative detuning side relative to the three-level system. In seven-level
system, three super-luminal regions are observed at the dressed state positions with a small
dip around 9Γ2 due to multiples excited levels (Fig. 5.7).
5S 5P 7S
1/2 3/2 1/2
0
)
(
g
n
-2
3-level
-4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
/
p 2
Figure 5.6: Group index versus probe detuning with different polarization combinations
for stationary atom case in five-level Ξ system. In the calculation, parameters are Ωp12 =
0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
5S 5P 5D
1/2 3/2 5/2
1
-1
)
-2
(
g
n
-3
3-level
-4
-5
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
/
p 2
for stationary atom case in seven-level Ξ system In the calculation, parameters are Ωp14 =
0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
5S 5P 7S
1/2 3/2 1/2
0.10
}
p12
/
2
12
Im{
0.05
3-level
0.00
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
/
p 2
ization combinations for the room temperature atomic vapors in five-level Ξ system. In the
calculation, parameters are Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
5.3.2 Thermal averaging
In the 87 Rb atom for the 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 7S1/2 and 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 5D5/2 transitions,
the residual Doppler widths are ≈ 2π×16 MHz and ≈ 2π×1.6 MHz, respectively, at 300
K.
Fig. 5.8 displays the probe absorption after thermal averaging in the five-level system
for the polarization combinations of optical fields that are discussed in Fig. 5.2. A deep
and broadened transparency window with asymmetric nature is observed for the σ + σ −
polarization combination. But for the σ + σ + polarization combination, a dispersion like
profile is observed around the line center. Hence, suppression of the EIT transparency
window is observed. The comparison of the transparency windows of the three-level and
five-level systems shows that later is asymmetric in nature with broadening effects. The
probe detuning scan range is less than the hyperfine separation of the 7S1/2 state and we
observe only a single transparency window for our considered five-level system. The ππ
combination also displays the similar behavior as that of the three-level Ξ system, but it is
5S 5P 5D
1/2 3/2 5/2
0.02
}
p14
/
2
14
Im{
0.01
3-level
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
/
p 2
ization combinations for the room temperature atomic vapors in seven-level Ξ system. In
the calculation, parameters are Ωp14 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
asymmetric in nature. For the seven-level system, as shown in Fig. 5.1 hyperfine levels
of the 5D5/2 state are closely spaced. Therefore, we observe three transparency windows
instead of one corresponding to each excited level, i.e., |5i (F 00 = 4), |6i (F 00 = 3), and
|7i (F 00 = 2) (Fig. 5.9). The reduction in transparency for the |6i (F 00 = 3), and |7i (F 00 =
2) can be attributed to optical pumping [114]. For |5i (F 00 = 4) identical transparency
behavior is obtained for all the polarization combinations. But |6i (F 00 = 3) shows an
analogy with the transparency behavior of five-level system except for ππ polarization
combination. This irregularity arises because the coupling Rabi frequency vanishes for
this level as shown in table 5.1. Broadening effects are more prominent in the five-level
system attributed to the wavelength mismatching and nearby intermediate hyperfine levels.
Fig. 5.10 shows that the dispersion profile for the five-level system is contracted on the
positive detuning side for the σ + σ − polarization combination. For the σ + σ + polarization
combination, there is a loss of symmetry and an absorption type behavior is obtained at
the line center. For the πσ + polarization combination anomaly is observed that can be
5S 5P 7S
1/2 3/2 1/2
1.05
3-level
}
p12
/ 1.00
2
12
Re{
0.95
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
/
p 2
ization combinations for the room temperature atomic vapors in five-level Ξ system. In the
calculation, parameters are Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
5S 5P 5D
1/2 3/2 5/2
0.01
}
p14
3-level
/
2
14
0.00
Re{
-0.01
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
/
p 2
ization combinations for the room temperature atomic vapors in seven-level Ξ system. In
the calculation, parameters are Ωp14 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
5S 5P 7S
0.2
1/2 3/2 1/2
0.0
(
g
n
-0.2
3-level
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
/
p 2
for the room temperature atomic vapors in five-level Ξ system. In the calculation, parame-
ters are Ωp12 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc25 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
5S 5P 5D
1/2 3/2 5/2
1
)
0
(
g
n
-1
3-level
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
/
p 2
for the room temperature atomic vapors in seven-level Ξ system. In the calculation, param-
eters are Ωp14 = 0.001 × Γ2 , Ωc45 = 3Γ2 and ∆c = 0.
attributed to the counter-propagating beam geometry. In the seven-level system, dispersion

slope arising due to the |6i (F 00 = 3) level shows an analogy with Fig. 5.10 subsequent to
the absorption behavior. A less steep dispersion slope is obtained for the five-level system
relative to the seven-level system due to Doppler broadening (Figs. 5.10 and 5.11). Group
index plots also display asymmetric profile for the five-level system with shifting in the
negative detuning side compared to the conventional three-level Ξ system (Fig. 5.12). This
anomaly elucidates the effect of close proximate hyperfine intermediate states. Negative
slope type profile is observed for the σ + σ + polarization combination at line center. The
group index values in negative side change notably for all the polarization combinations.
Group index behavior for the seven-level system shows three sub-luminal peaks (Fig. 5.13).
One of the peaks is located at line center and the other two on positive detuning side.
CHAPTER 6
P OLARIZATION DEPENDENCE OF THE OPTICAL
PROPERTIES IN A Ξ SYSTEM WITH AN EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC FIELD
Techniques to obtain narrow spectral width are desired with wide applications in making
of very sensitive measurements such as high precision atomic spectroscopy [22, 24, 25],
magnetometry [26–30]. As mentioned in chapter 2 (section 2.3), the Doppler broadening
causes narrowing of EIT profile. Further, in the presence of an external magnetic field
the single EIT window splits into various sub windows leading to narrow spectral widths.
We theoretically investigate modification in the optical properties of a three-level Ξ system
in presence of an external magnetic field for 87 Rb and 85 Rb atoms after thermal averaging
using density matrix formalism. Through the calculation splitting is attributed to the broken
degeneracy of hyperfine levels and positions of the EIT resonance.
81
82 Chapter 6. Polarization dependence of the optical properties in a Ξ . . .
6.1 Introduction
The effect of magnetic field in a Ξ system was first studied by Fulton et al. and it was
shown that the zero field EIT split into many EIT sub-windows depending on the two-
photon selection rules [130]. The mechanism of line narrowing of the EIT window in
a three-level Λ system in 87
Rb atom was demonstrated experimentally [131]. The effect
of longitudinal and transverse magnetic fields in a three-level Λ system have been studied
experimentally as well theoretically [132,133]. A non degenerate three-level ladder system
has been studied in the hyperfine Paschen-Back regime and EIA is observed [134]. The
effect of an axial magnetic field has been studied in a three-level Ξ system for 133 Cs atom
with Rydberg state and polarization spectra of the Zeeman sub levels have been reported
[135, 136]. More recently, high resolution EIT spectroscopy in 87 Rb atom in the presence
of magnetic field explained that Zeeman interactions for Rydberg states cannot be taken as
a perturbation [137].
In the present chapter, we study the effect of a static external magnetic field with lon-
gitudinal and transverse orientation in a three-level Ξ EIT system theoretically with two
isotopes of Rb atom for room temperature atomic vapors. The degenerate magnetic sub
levels shift on application of the magnetic field. In a Ξ system to circumvent the effect
of residual Doppler width counter-propagating fields are used [82, 90], therefore the po-
larization of the probe and control fields also play an important role with the orientation
of the applied magnetic field. We show that the single narrow EIT window is no longer
observed in presence of the external magnetic field. The light propagation behavior also
modifies with the external magnetic field. It should be noted that the effect of external
magnetic field (up to 50 G) is studied in the hyperfine linear Zeeman regime in order that
the nuclear spin (I) and total angular momentum (J) are still coupled for all states [80,138].
In contrast to the previous studies in three-level Ξ system with magnetic field, we utilize
the 5S1/2 → 5P3/2 → 5D5/2 transitions in Rb atoms with nearly wavelength matched
condition and the Zeeman interaction are taken as perturbation only.

F 
2 16 MHz
1 
5 D5/ 2 2
23 MHz 2
3 1
29 MHz 0
4 3 -1
c -2
c 3
2
3 2
p 1
5 2 P3/ 2 267 MHz
2
0
-1
157 MHz -2
1
72 MHz -3
0
p
2
2 1 1
5 2 S1/ 2 0
-1
6.8 GHz -2
1
(a) (b)
Figure 6.1: (a) Three-level Ξ system (87 Rb) in absence of magnetic field. (b) The three-
level Ξ system in the presence of magnetic field. We have shown only those excited state
Zeeman hyperfine mF levels which undergo transition.
We consider a three-level Ξ system of the 87 Rb atom with the ground level |1i (5S1/2 , F =
2), hyperfine intermediates level |2i (5P3/2 , F 0 = 3) and the hyperfine excited level |3i
(5D5/2 , F 00 = 4). However, in 85 Rb atom 5S1/2 , F = 3 is the level |1i, 5P3/2 , F 0 = 4 level
|2i and 5D5/2 , F 00 = 5 is the level |3i. A weak probe field Ωp is applied between the levels
|1i and |2i, and a strong coupling field Ωc couples the levels |2i and |3i. The detuning
terms for these transitions are given as ∆p = ω12 − ωp and ∆c = ω23 − ωc .
The total Hamiltonian of the considered system in rotating wave approximation is
F


0

2.9 MHz
1
5 2 D5/ 2 5.5 MHz
2 3
7.6 MHz 2
3 1
9 MHz 0
4 -1
9.4 MHz -2
5 3
c -3
4
3
c 2
1
4 2 0
p -1
5 2 P3/ 2 121MHz
3 -2
63 MHz -3
2 -4
29 MHz
1
p
3
2
3 1 1
5 2 S1/ 2 0
3 GHz -1
-2
-3
2
(a) (b)
Figure 6.2: (a) Three-level Ξ system (85 Rb) in absence of magnetic field. (b) The three-
level Ξ system in the presence magnetic field. We have shown only those excited state
Zeeman hyperfine mF levels which undergo transition.
given by Eq. (2.63). The branching ratios for the intermediate state (5P3/2 ) is unity.
But there are two possible decay channels from the state 5D5/2 . One part decays to
the state 5P3/2 and the second part to the 6P3/2 state that finally decays to the 5S1/2
state [124, 139]. The branching ratio for the excited state (5D5/2 ) to the 5P3/2 state is
≈ 0.65, so it can be approximated as a cycling transition [113, 114]. We take very weak
probe field (Ωp = 2π × 0.001Γ2 ), so all population can be considered at the ground state
(ρ11 ≈ 1) under weak probe approximation. Similarly, for the 85 Rb atom the 5S1/2 (F =
3) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 4) → 5D5/2 (F 00 = 5) transitions are closed, so ρ11 ≈ 1.
The magnetic interaction, ∆Ez (Eq. (2.50)) acts like a perturbation to hyperfine interaction
(∆Ehf s ) in the hyperfine linear Zeeman regime, such that
∆Ez < ∆Ehf s . (6.1)
Conversely, in the hyperfine Paschen- Back (HPB) regime the magnetic interaction is
greater than the hyperfine interaction [80]. Ref. [134] investigates the Ξ system in the HPB
regime for a magnetic field of the order of 0.62 T. Thus the magnetic field up to 50 G
can be considered as a perturbation to the hyperfine interaction. From Figs. 6.1 and 6.2
it is clear that hyperfine separations between levels of the excited state 5D5/2 are small in
comparison to the ground and intermediate levels. Thus the excited state is more sensitive
to the external magnetic field. For the excited state magnetic interactions become important
when B≥14 G.
Table 6.1: gF values
87
Rb F gF 85
Rb F gF
State value value State value value
5S1/2 2 1/2 5S1/2 3 1/3
5P3/2 3 2/3 5P3/2 4 1/2
5D5/2 4 3/4 5D5/2 5 3/5

We study the effect of an external magnetic field on the optical properties of a three-level
Ξ system for the 87 Rb and 87 Rb atoms. The splitting corresponding to each level (ground
|1i, intermediate |2i and excited |3i) denoted by ∆1 , ∆2 and ∆3 depend upon the gF factor
(from Table 6.1):
87 1 µB B 2 µB B 3 µB B
Rb → ∆1 = , ∆2 = , ∆3 = ,
2 ~ 3 ~ 4 ~
85 1 µB B 1 µB B 3 µB B
Rb → ∆1 = , ∆2 = , ∆3 = .
3 ~ 2 ~ 5 ~
The total Hamiltonian of the system after applying magnetic field is:
h i
H = ~ ∆1 |1i h1| + (∆p + kp v + ∆2 ) |2i h2| + (∆p + kp v + ∆c − kc v + ∆3 ) |3i h3|
~
(6.2)

+ Ωp |1i h2| + Ωc |2i h3| + H.c.
2
Now the coherence term ρ12 with magnetic field modifies to

iΩp
ρ12 = 2 , (6.3)
Γ2 (|Ωc | /2)2
− iδ1 +
2 Γ3
− iδ2
2
where
δ1 = ∆p + kp v − ∆1 + ∆2 ,
δ2 = ∆p + kp v + ∆c − kc v − ∆1 + ∆3 .
EIT depends on the two-photon absorption and concomitantly on two-photon transition

probability. On varying the polarization combinations of fields, the two-photon absorp-
tion also changes. It has already been discussed in the previous chapter that σ + σ + and
σ − σ − have maximum and σ + σ − and σ − σ + have minimum transition strengths and EIT
is enhanced by selecting σ + σ − or σ − σ + polarization combination. In the weak probe ap-
proximation, we take into account one and two-photon absorptions and ignore all other
multi photon absorptions. We further discuss effect of orientation of the magnetic field on
optical properties of the system in this section. Fig. 2.8 (right column) shows the probe
response and group index behavior for the three-level Ξ system in absence of an external
magnetic field.
Table 6.2: Position of EIT sub-windows with longitudinal magnetic field and optical field
polarization σ + − σ − in 87 Rb and 85 Rb atom.
Rb Sub levels ∆p + ∆c ∆p + ∆c
Subsytems mF → m0F → m00F (87 Rb) (85 Rb)
(1) −3 → −2 → −3 − 3∆1 − 3∆3
(2) −2 → −1 → −2 2∆1 − 2∆3 2∆2 − ∆3
(3) −1 → 0 → −1 ∆1 − ∆3 ∆1 − ∆3
(4) 0→1→0 0 0
(5) 1→2→1 −∆1 + ∆3 −∆1 + ∆3
(6) 2→3→2 −2∆1 + 2∆3 −2∆1 + 2∆3
(7) 3→4→3 − −3∆1 + 3∆3
6.3.1 EIT with longitudinal magnetic field
In this case, the external magnetic field acts along the direction of the beams. The beams
are counter-propagating for our considered system, so in atom’s frame the control and
probe beams are circularly polarized with opposite handedness, i.e., σ + σ − or σ − σ + . The
single Ξ system forms 5 different Ξ subsystems for both the polarization combinations as
shown in the Fig. 6.1(b). Tables 6.2 and 6.3 show the position of EIT sub-windows for a
longitudinal magnetic field.
Table 6.3: Position of EIT sub-windows with transverse magnetic field and beams polar-
ization and σ − − σ + in 87 Rb and 85 Rb atom.
Rb Sub levels ∆p + ∆c ∆p + ∆c
(1) −3 → −4 → −3 − 3∆1 − 3∆3
(2) −2 → −3 → −2 2∆1 − 2∆3 2∆1 − ∆3
(3) −1 → −2 → −1 ∆1 − ∆3 ∆1 − ∆3
(4) 0 → −1 → 0 0 0
(5) 1→0→1 −∆1 + ∆3 −∆1 + ∆3
(6) 2→1→2 −2∆1 + 2∆3 −2∆1 + 2∆3
(7) 3→2→3 − −3∆1 + 3∆3
Now if we consider the fourth subsystem (1 → 0 → 1) as given in table 6.3, the

Hamiltonian for the selected subsystem becomes
h1 3 i
H = ~ µB B |1i h1| + (∆p + kp v) |2i h2| + (∆p + kp v + ∆c − kc v + µB B) |3i h3|
2 4
~
(6.4)

+ Ωp |1i h2| + Ωc |2i h3| + H.c.
2
The coherence term ρ12 in steady state for this subsystem is

iΩp
ρ12 = 2 , (6.5)
Γ2 (|Ωc | /2)2
− iδ1 +
2 Γ3
− i∆2
2
where
µB B
δ1 = ∆p + kp v − ,
2
3µB B
δ2 = ∆p + kp v + ∆c − kc v + .
4
The poles of the equation for zero control detuning are at

r
1 1 3 2
−kp v + µB B ± µB B + Ω c 2 . (6.6)
8 2 4
The same process is extended to all other subsystems given in tables 6.2 and 6.3 and their
combined solutions with the probe detuning are plotted in Fig.6.3. It is clearly evident
from tables 6.2 and 6.3 that one of the EIT subwindows is located at the line center and the
other four sub-windows on either side of the line center. Five possible Ξ subsystems are
formed for both the polarization combinations and the convolution of all these subsystems
are shown in Fig.6.3.
(a) (b)
0.09
}
}
p
p
0.12
/
/
2
2
12
12
0.08
Im{
Im{
0.11
0.01 (c) (d)

0.01
}
}
p
p
/
2
/
2
0.00
12
0.00
12
Re{
Re{
-0.01
-0.01
(e) (f)
1 1
)
)
6
6
10
10
0 0
ng (
ng (
-1 -1
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
p/ 2 p/ 2
Figure 6.3: (a), (b) Probe absorption Im(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp ); (c), (d) dispersion Re(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp ); and
(e), (f) group index versus probe detuning with longitudinal magnetic field and optical field
polarization σ + σ − and σ − σ + for 87 Rb (left column) and 85 Rb (right column), respectively.
In the calculation, parameters are Ωp = 2π × 0.001Γ2 , Ωc = 2Γ2 and ∆c = 0, B = 20 G
(blue) and B = 50 G (red).
The magnetic field value 20 G acts only as a perturbation (Fig. 6.3(a)) as ratio of
the Zeeman shift to mF levels in the hyperfine state 5P3/2 is 18.66 MHz. But when the
magnetic field is 50 G, splitting is observed because ratio of the Zeeman shift to mF levels
now become 46.66 MHz. Fig. 6.4 shows the position of EIT sub windows for the five
possible transition routes for 87
Rb. One of the sub windows, 0 → 1 → 0 is located at
the line center. Two sub windows for the transitions −1 → 0 → −1 and 1 → 2 → 1
are located on both sides of the line center. These two sub windows overlap when we
plot the convolution of all five possible transition routes and instead of a transparency,
absorption is observed at the line center as shown in Fig. 6.3(a) (blue line). However, no
such overlapping is observed for magnetic field greater than 25 G. For B = 50 G, each
sub window is well-separated and the convolution results in five different transparency sub
windows without any overlapping (Fig. 6.5).
On increasing the magnetic field strength, due to different transition strengths of the
density matrix elements for all possible transition routes, we observe that the dispersion
profile is gradually decreasing and increasing for 2 to 3 and 3 to 2 transitions for σ + σ −
and σ − σ + for 87
Rb and 85
Rb, respectively (Figs. 6.3(c) and 6.3(d)). The group index
plots with the probe detuning are positive at the line center resulting in sub-luminal light
propagation. The group index profile also split into 5 parts with four super-luminal and
five sub-luminal light propagation regions. The height of group index peaks decreases
after applying the magnetic field and narrow multiple profiles are obtained. The group
index remains positive at the line center and slow light can be obtained. Fast light can also
be obtained with help of the four super-luminal regions. It is evident from Eq. (6.2) that by
increasing the magnetic field strength separation between the EIT sub windows increases.
Probe absorption
0.015
0.010
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Probe detuning
Figure 6.4: EIT sub windows when B = 20 G corresponding to the five possible transition
routes of 87
Rb for the optical field polarization σ + σ − . From the back forward: −2 →
−1 → −2 Red, −1 → 0 → −1 Green, 0 → 1 → 0 Blue, 1 → 1 → 1 Violet and
2 → 3 → 2 Magenta.
Probe absorption
0.015
0.010
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Probe detuning
Figure 6.5: EIT sub windows when B = 50 G corresponding to the five possible transition
routes of 87
Rb for the optical field polarization σ + σ − . From the back forward: −2 →
−1 → −2 Red, −1 → 0 → −1 Green, 0 → 1 → 0 Blue, 1 → 1 → 1 Violet and
2 → 3 → 2 Magenta.
To understand the mechanism of formation of 5 EIT sub-windows in presence of the

external field we examine the energy separation of each sub-level given by Eq. (6.2). We
take ω0p and ω0c , the transition frequencies which are resonant for the probe and control
transitions, |F = 2, mF = 0i → F = 3, m0F = 0 → F = 4, m00F = 0 , such that ∆p =

ωp − ω0p and ∆c = ωc − ω0c . For the subsystem 1 → 0 → 1, ∆p = −∆1 and ∆c = ∆3 and

the two-photon resonance condition becomes ∆p + ∆c = −∆1 + ∆3 . From the table 6.3
and the Fig. 6.3(a), it is clear that all sub-windows are present at different positions with
equal contrast.
For the 5S1/2 (F = 3) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 4) → 5D5/2 (F 00 = 5) transitions of 85 Rb atom,
the optical properties are shown in Fig. 6.3 (right column). The ratio of Zeeman shift to
mF levels for hyperfine state 5P3/2 is 14 MHz and 35 MHz for the magnetic field value 20
G and 50 G, respectively. In this case, the single EIT window splits into seven independent
EIT sub-windows. The nature of variation in the optical properties remains same as that of
the 87 Rb.
Table 6.4: Position of EIT sub-windows with transverse magnetic field and beams polar-
ization ππ in 87 Rb and 85 Rb atom.
Rb Sublevels ∆p + ∆c ∆p + ∆c
(1) −3 → −3 → −3 − 3∆1 − 3∆3
(2) −2 → −2 → −2 2∆1 − 2∆3 2∆1 − ∆3
(3) −1 → −1 → −1 ∆1 − ∆3 ∆1 − ∆3
(4) 0→0→0 0 0
(5) 1→1→1 −∆1 + ∆3 −∆1 + ∆3
(6) 2→2→2 −2∆1 + 2∆3 −2∆1 + 2∆3
(7) 3→3→3 − −3∆1 + 3∆3

6.3.2 EIT with transverse magnetic field
(a) (b)
0.090
}
}
p
p
0.12
/
0.085
2
/
2
12
12
0.080
Im{
Im{
0.11
0.075
0.01 (c) (d) 0.01
}
}
p
p
/
2
/
2
12
0.00 0.00
12
Re{
Re{
-0.01 -0.01
(e) (f)
1 1
)
)
6
6
10
10
0 0
ng (
ng (
-1 -1
-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
p/ 2 p/ 2
Figure 6.6: (a), (b) Probe absorption Im(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp ); (c), (d) dispersion Re(ρ12 Γ2 /Ωp ); and
(e), (f) group index versus probe detuning for 87 Rb (left column) and 85 Rb (right column)
with transverse magnetic field and optical field polarization ππ. In the calculation, param-
eters are Ωp = 2π × 0.001Γ2 , Ωc = 2Γ2 and ∆c = 0, B = 20 G (blue) and B = 50 G
(red).
When the external magnetic field is applied orthogonally to the optical beams, both the
beams are viewed as linearly polarized (ππ) in the atom’s frame. For this case also the
ideal three-level Ξ system splits into 5 and 7 Ξ subsystems as shown in Figs. 6.1(b) and
6.2(b). The positions of the EIT sub-windows as listed in table 6.4 show that out of the
5 sub-windows, one is located at the line center. The observed spectra are similar to the
combined result of σ + σ − and σ − σ + polarization combinations ( Fig.6.6). All sub-windows
are of equal contrast. The dispersion profiles show positive slope at the line center less
steep than the slope of a usual three level Ξ system. The group index profile also split
into five peaks with four super-luminal regions between the 5 sub-luminal peaks resulting
in sub-luminal light propagation at the zero detuning. The group index peak of the ideal
three-level Ξ system displays the maximum peak height among all the considered cases.
This clearly shows the role of polarization of light and the external magnetic field on the
light propagation behavior. For the 85
Rb atom, the optical properties are shown in Fig.
6.6 (right column) with ππ polarization combination. As a result of the convolution of
seven possible transition routes, seven sub-windows are observed, though the nature of the
optical properties remains same. Thus, in contrast to the Λ system [133] equal number of
sub windows are obtained for longitudinal and transverse magnetic field for a Ξ system.
CHAPTER 7
S UMMARY AND S COPE F OR F UTURE R ESEARCH
7.1 Summary
This thesis explores EIT in multilevel systems and various mechanisms which affects its
behavior are investigated. The optical properties vary according to level structure in the
considered systems. The dressed state formalism makes it possible to thoroughly under-
stand the underlying mechanism of the three-level as well as multilevel systems. The weak
probe approximation helps to obtain the steady state solution of the optical Bloch equation.
In the first two chapters of the thesis, introduction to the EIT phenomenon and theoretical
background of the light-atom interaction in three-level systems using semi-classical ap-
proach is discussed.
In chapter 3, we extended the EIT study to a four-level inverted-Y type system us-
ing wavelength mismatching effects. The findings suggest that wavelength mismatching
dramatically modify the properties in mixed systems, i.e., combination of Λ, Ξ and V. The
mixing of Doppler free (Λ) and Doppler broadened (Ξ) systems is borne out to be favorable
and splitting is observed in the absorption and dispersion profiles. Narrow absorption peaks
95
96 Chapter 7. Summary and Scope For Future Research
are observed on both sides of the resonance and the slope behavior changes from positive
at the line center to negative just near the line center. Our numerical results show that both
types of light propagation can be obtained by the experimental realization of our system.
The variation of group index with the coupling field shows switching from sub-luminal
to super-luminal and again back to sub-luminal when the first coupling field is slightly
detuned. This switching behavior is most prominent in the Rydberg state with largest mis-
matching factor among all the discussed states. These properties might be applicative in
the EIT-based switching devices and quantum information processing.
In chapter 4, we presented a thorough study of the coherence effects in a Ξ−Λ sys-
tem. We also explored the dressed state analysis for the system and showed that the beam
propagation direction plays a pivotal role in EIT and EIA study. For counter-propagating
probe and drive fields, absorption is completely suppressed in the system. The EIT effect
switches to TPEIA when an additional field, co-propagating to the probe field interacts
with the three-level Ξ system. In our system, the three-photon resonance condition is not
fulfilled for the moving atoms always. Atoms moving with some specific velocities, con-
tribute to the absorption at zero detuning. Optical switching is more prominent in the
moving atoms as compared to the stationary atoms. The transient behavior displays en-
hanced absorption on applying the drive field and can be utilized for optical switching.
This enhanced absorption is modified for optimum strength of the control field and can
facilitate the absorptive optical switching applications. A correlation is observed due to the
three-photon coherence between the FWM and TPEIA. Our theoretical study helps to get
a deeper insight into the three-photon effects in multilevel systems.
In chapter 5, we theoretically investigated variation in the optical properties of inhomo-
geneously broadened five- and seven-level Ξ systems with four polarization combinations
of the probe and control fields and wavelength mismatching. Change in the EIT behavior
depends upon polarization combinations of optical fields in the considered systems. Wave-
length mismatching causes broadening in the EIT profile and asymmetry in it is due to the
close proximity of intermediate hyperfine levels. On account of our theoretical study, it can
be concluded that the polarization of optical fields to study the multilevel systems cannot
7.2. Future scope 97
be taken arbitrarily because it affects their optical properties. Therefore, an optimum polar-
ization combination is essential to study the EIT related effects in multilevel systems. The
group index variation with probe detuning displays sub-luminal light propagation regimes
at the line center with asymmetric nature. The selection of hyperfine levels modifies the
optical properties of systems significantly.
In chapter 6, we investigated the mechanism underlying splitting of the EIT trans-
parency window in the presence of an external magnetic field for a three-level Ξ system.
The transition strengths and degeneracy of the levels are modified in presence of the mag-
netic field. On application of the external magnetic field, the single EIT windows of the
87
Rb and 85 Rb atoms split into five and seven independent EIT sub-windows, respectively.
A change in the polarization state of the beams is observed in the atom’s frame when the
orientation of the magnetic field is switched from longitudinal to transverse. In presence
of the longitudinal magnetic field, circularly polarized beams are observed in atom’s frame
with opposite handedness due to counter-propagating beam geometry in the Ξ system. But
linearly polarized light beams are observed when the magnetic field is transverse in na-
ture. Dispersion properties of the medium modify and we observe sub- and super-luminal
regions.
7.2 Future scope

1. The wavelength mismatching effects in multilevel system, composite of usual three-
level systems can be studied by mixing Doppler-free and Doppler-broadened EIT
systems.
2. Study of EIT with the quantized fields in cavity optomechanics for quantum mechan-
ical approach [140].
3. Manipulation of group velocity with self-Kerr non linearity can be studied in multi-
level systems with Rydberg states [141, 142].
98 Chapter 7. Summary and Scope For Future Research
4. EIT studies in complex multilevel systems can be utilized for atomic based MW or
RF electrometry to enhance sensitivity and spatial resolution [143].
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STUDY OF COHERENCE EFFECTS IN MULTILEVEL ATOMIC

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

The Ph. D. Viva-Voce Examination of ..............................................., Research Scholar,

Chairman, SRC Signature of External Examiner

Signature of Supervisor (s) Head of the Department

Electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) causes the cancellation of the absorption

List of publications from the thesis work

1. Kavita Yadav, Ajay Wasan. Sub-luminal and super-luminal light propagation in

1. Kavita Yadav and Ajay Wasan. Study of Electromagnetically Induced Transparency

Date:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Kavita Yadav)

List of Figures xiii

2 Theoretical basis of light-atom interaction 7

3 Sub- and super-luminal light propagation in inverted-Y system with wave-

4 Study of coherence effects in a four-level Ξ−Λ type system 47

5 Five- and seven-level inhomogeneously broadened Ξ systems with mismatched

6 Polarization dependence of the optical properties in a Ξ system with an exter-

7 Summary and Scope For Future Research 95

2.1 The hyperfine level structure of D1 and D2 lines for 85

2.3 Optical pumping shown in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 1) transitions

2.4 Optical pumping of atoms shown in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 2)

2.5 Optical pumping in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 3) transitions of Rb

2.1 Decay rates (Γ) for the different Rb states. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

“The goal is nothing other than the coherence and completeness of

1.1 Introduction to EIT

1.1.1 The EIT mechanism

The underlying physics behind the EIT phenomenon is as follows:

high precision spectroscopy [22,24,25] and magnetometry [26–30]. Therefore, techniques

1.3 Scope of the thesis

T HEORETICAL BASIS OF LIGHT- ATOM INTERACTION

2.1 Hyperfine structure of Rubidium (Rb) atom

element is of the form [67]:

2.2 Three-level systems

Therefore, H0 can be written in matrix form as:

~ = Ep cos(ωp t − ~k · ~r) + Ec cos(ωc t − ~k · ~r).

Dipole approximation: It is an approximation related to the wavelength of the light

Now, on applying the unitary operator to the interaction Hamiltonian:

The electric field can also be written in the form

Inserting this electric field into the Eq. (2.12) gives

This Hamiltonian is simplified using transformation U † (U HI U † )U in the Schrödinger pic-

d12 = d∗21 = |d12 | eiφp , (2.16)

d23 = d∗32 = |d23 | eiφc . (2.17)

The form of the interaction Hamiltonian is:

Further, the transformation of the Hamiltonian can be obtained as follows

where ∆p = ω2 − ωp , ∆p − ∆c = ω2 − ωp − (ω23 − ωc ) = ω2 − ωp − (ω2 − ω3 − ωc ).

2.2.1 Density Matrix formalism

A quantum mechanical system is formed by an ensemble of particles. The particles can

ρ = |ψi hψ| , (2.27)

ρ = ΣPψ |ψi hψ| . (2.28)

Now in terms of the density operator, the expectation value of an operator A is

hAi = ΣPψ hψ|A|ψi = Trace(Aρ). (2.29)

The state vector for an idealistic three-level atom can be written as

|ψi = a |1i + b |2i + c |3i . (2.30)

The density matrix can be defined as

2.2.2 Optical response

2.2.3 Group Index variation

Decoherence in Λ system: First, decoherence effects in a three-level Λ system are dis-

Decoherence in Ξ system: In a Ξ system, decoherence appear mainly because of the op-

2.2.5 Optical pumping

Figure 2.3: Optical pumping shown in the 5S1/2 (F = 2) → 5P3/2 (F 0 = 1) transitions of

iΩp12 iΩc25 iΩp13 Ωc35 iΩp14 Ωc45