​​

CHEM-E3140​ ​-​ ​Bioprocess​ ​technology​ ​II

Dialysis​ ​and​ ​Reverse​ ​Osmosis

Kwok​ ​Liang​ ​Hui 637570

Elise​ ​Jyränoja 473954
Thu​ ​Ha​ ​Dang 637402

Instructor:​ ​Sandip​ ​Bankar

Date​ ​of​ ​Submission:​ ​6​ ​December​ ​2017
Abstract

Dialysis and Reverse Osmosis are both purification techniques aiming to remove
unwanted substances through the use of a semipermeable membrane. Both processes
leverage on the difference in particle size of the solid and fluid to attain a separation
between the two. This report will give an introduction to dialysis and Reverse Osmosis
and explain the theory and mechanism behind the processes. In addition, practical
applications​ ​used​ ​in​ ​our​ ​daily​ ​lives​ ​will​ ​be​ ​explored​ ​as​ ​case​ ​studies.

Introduction

As an engineer the development of a successful fermentation process is a great

achievement. However, a more important step that needs to be tackled is the
purification of the product from the fermentation broth. In this report two techniques
used in the downstream process are introduced. Both dialysis and reverse osmosis rely
on​ ​a​ ​semipermeable​ ​membranes​ ​through​ ​which​ ​molecules​ ​diffuse.
For us humans water is a necessity essential for the life on earth. Especially in arid
regions as the desert fresh water from surface water like rivers and lakes is scarce. In
order to overcome this issue desalination of seawater has been considered as a
solution.​ ​A​ ​lot​ ​of​ ​research​ ​and​ ​development​ ​led​ ​to​ ​Reverse​ ​Osmosis​ ​systems/plants.

Filtration is a separation process where solid particles in fluids are removed through the
use of a semipermeable medium that allows the fluid to pass and retains the unwanted
solids. The fluid that has been passed through is known as the filtrate. This separation
method is known long ago when our ancestors used it to produce drinking water from
muddy water. However, there are always some fine solid particles present
contaminating the filtrate and thereby lowering its purity. Thus, there are systems
created​ ​to​ ​improve​ ​the​ ​filtrate​ ​purity​ ​such​ ​as​ ​reverse​ ​osmosis​ ​and​ ​dialysis.

A dialysis system consists of a buffer solution called the dialysate and semipermeable
membrane. History of dialysis dates back to 1910 where a team led by John Jacob Abel
demonstrated the use of dialysis to separate amino acids from blood [1]. He also
realised the potential uses of dialysis to cure renal dysfunction in humans. However, the
first functioning dialysis machine was only created by Dr. Willem Kolff in the 1940s [2].
Dialysis is also used for non-clinical applications such as in biotechnology where
dialysis can be used in fermentation broths to extract important compounds such as
ethanol​ ​[3].
Osmosis is a vital process in our life. In biological systems, osmosis helps to filter out
large molecules such as ions and only allows smaller molecules such as oxygen and
water to pass. A physicist named Jean-Antoine Nollet observed the process of osmosis
through a semipermeable membrane in the 1740s. In the 1950s, the osmosis concept
was modified and used to produce pure water from saltwater which would be known as
Reverse Osmosis. However, due to inefficient membrane technology at that time, this
application was not commercially viable. Only after the development of membrane
technology, reverse osmosis was used in desalination plants and by the end of 2001,
there​ ​were​ ​about​ ​15,200​ ​desalination​ ​plants​ ​worldwide​ ​[4].

Mechanism

Figure​ ​1.​ ​The​ ​theory​ ​behind​ ​osmosis​ ​[5].

Osmosis

Osmosis is a phenomenon occurring in nature. Examples from our everyday life are the
absorption of water from soil through the plants’ roots and the absorption of water from
our blood by the kidneys. It is characterized by the spontaneous passage or diffusion of
solvents as water through a semipermeable membrane. [​ 5, 6] ​The solvents flows from a
solution with a low concentration of dissolved solids to a solution with a high
concentration of dissolved solids as visualized in figure 1. In this particular case on the
left side of the membrane there are more molecules of contaminants. Thus, the water
moves in this direction. The flow continues until the equilibrium state meaning the
concentration​ ​is​ ​equal​ ​on​ ​both​ ​sides​ ​of​ ​the​ ​membrane​ ​is​ ​accomplished.​ ​[5]
 Figure​ ​2.​ ​Reverse​ ​Osmosis​ ​utilizes​ ​additional​ ​pressure​ ​to​ ​reverse​ ​the​ ​water​ ​flow​ ​and
thereby​ ​desalinating​ ​the​ ​water​ ​[5].

Reverse Osmosis is the reversal of the osmosis process. A major difference is that
energy has to be supplied for reverse osmosis plants. Pressure has to be applied on the
more saline solution to move the water through the membrane. Most importantly, the
pressure has to be greater than the natural osmotic pressure otherwise the water is not
successfully​ ​desalinated​ ​or​ ​demineralized.​ ​[5]

Figure​ ​3.​ ​Simplified​ ​overview​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Reverse​ ​Osmosis​ ​system​ ​[5].

After the feed water enters the membrane under pressure, the water molecules pass
through the membrane. Foreign particle molecules are retained by the membrane and
leave the reverse osmosis system through the reject stream. There are two possible
path for the reject stream. It either is discarded or it is recycled and fed back into the
feed water supply. A high pressure pump is needed in order to increase the pressure on
the salt side of the Reverse Osmosis. The amount of pressure required depends on the
salt concentration of the feed water meaning if the feed water is more concentrated, a
higher​ ​pressure​ ​has​ ​to​ ​be​ ​applied​ ​to​ ​overcome​ ​the​ ​osmotic​ ​pressure.
The water that makes it through the RO membrane is called permeate or product water
and​ ​usually​ ​has​ ​around​ ​95%​ ​to​ ​99%​ ​of​ ​the​ ​dissolved​ ​salts​ ​removed​ ​from​ ​it.
The water stream that carries the concentrated contaminants hindered by the
membrane​ ​from​ ​passing​ ​is​ ​called​ ​the​ ​reject​ ​(or​ ​concentrate)​ ​stream.​ ​[5]

An important feature of an RO system is the use of cross filtration which leads to two
outlets: the filtered water goes one way and the contaminated water goes another way.
This ensures less build up of contaminants, as the cross flow filtration allows water to
sweep away contaminant build up and also allows enough turbulence to keep the
membrane​ ​surface​ ​clean.​ ​[5]

Performance​ ​of​ ​Reverse​ ​Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis is able to retain up to 99% of dissolved particles, ions but also
bacteria. The rejection of a certain contaminant is based on the size (if the molecular
weight is greater than 200) and charge. The higher the ionic charge is, the more
probable​ ​the​ ​Reverse​ ​Osmosis​ ​membrane​ ​will​ ​retain​ ​it.
It is a highly effective purification technique for brackish, surface and ground water.
Reverse Osmosis plants are used in different fields of industries as pharmaceutical,
food and beverage and most importantly for the production of potable water. However, a
proper pretreatment is necessary to prevent fouling of the Reverse Osmosis membrane
and ensure its functionality. Particulate, organics and microorganisms are causing
fouling.​ ​[5]

Dialysis

Dialysis is a way of separating small, unwanted compound from macromolecules in

solution by using a semipermeable membrane [​7​,8]. The flow through the membrane is
caused by selective and passive diffusion. The membrane separates molecules of the
sample that are larger than the membrane pores while small compounds and buffer
solutions can pass freely through the membrane. This is shown in the figure 1.
Because, the sample and the buffer solution are placed on the opposite sides of the
membrane, the flow of the smaller compounds from sample to buffer solution, reduces
the concentration of the small compounds in the sample. [7] The reduction of the
concentration in the sample continues until reaching the equilibrium with the buffer
solution. [9] By this reduction of the concentration, the level of unwanted and
contaminated compound in the solution is reduced to a acceptable level. To increase
the purity of the sample, the buffer solution should be changed so that it contains less
small compounds from the sample. This enables more small compounds to flow through
the​ ​membrane.​ ​[7]

Figure​ ​4.​ ​shows​ ​the​ ​principle​ ​of​ ​dialysis​ ​where​ ​the​ ​molecules​ ​that​ ​are​ ​larger​ ​than​ ​the​ ​pores​ ​are​ ​not
able​ ​to​ ​pass​ ​through.​ ​ ​The​ ​buffer​ ​solution​ ​and​ ​the​ ​sample​ ​are​ ​placed​ ​on​ ​the​ ​opposite​ ​sides​ ​of​ ​the
semipermeable​ ​membrane.​ ​[7]

The efficiency of dialysis is described as how much the concentration and composition
of the sample can be changed. The efficiency depends on the concentration difference
between the volumes of sample and the buffer solution. The bigger the buffer solution is
the more efficient the dialysis is. The figure 5 shows a schematic description of the
dialysis process in laboratory. In this figure the sample is marked as dialysed solution
(V​1​) and the buffer solution as dialysing solution (V​2​). To increase the efficiency of the
process and the purity of the sample, the buffer solution should be changed after the
equilibrium has been reached. This enables more small compounds to flow through the
membrane.​ ​[7,9]
 Figure​ ​5.​ ​Shows​ ​the​ ​dialysis​ ​in​ ​the​ ​biochemical​ ​laboratory​ ​practice​ ​[9].

The time needed for dialysis to happen is influenced by many factors. These factors
determine the rate of dialysis. For example, increasing temperature or stirring the buffer
solution rises the rate of dialysis because it speeds the diffusion. In addition to this, the
concentration of molecules and molecule’s molecular weight also affects the rate of
dialysis. As the concentration of a molecule increases the probability of the molecules to
diffuse through the membrane increases and thereby the rate of dialysis rises. However,
in the case of increasing molecular weight the diffusion through the membrane is more
difficult and the rate of dialysis decreases. The pore sizes defines how big molecules
can diffuse through the membrane. The molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) describes the
pore size as the smallest average molecular mass of the molecule that cannot pass
through the membrane. The surface area and the thickness of the sample also affects
the rate. As the surface area of the membrane increases and the thickness of the
membrane​ ​decreases​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​dialysis​ ​rises.​ ​ ​[7]
Importance​ ​to​ ​industry

The largest and most important application of reverse osmosis is the separation of pure
water from seawater and brackish waters. Since the early 1970s, it has also been used
to​ ​purify​ ​fresh​ ​water​ ​for​ ​medical,​ ​industrial,​ ​and​ ​domestic​ ​applications.​ ​[4]
It has been shown that contaminants posing potential health hazards as
pharmaceuticals, hormones and food preservatives may be removed by reverse
osmosis plants. This indicates the potential that this technology holds. However, RO
requires electricity to pump the water through the semipermeable membranes. Another
important fact is that contaminants can easily clog the pores of the membranes and
thereby​ ​raising​ ​maintenance​ ​costs.​ ​[10]

Dialysis is an important filtration technique in the modern industry. It has applications in

medical fields such as clinical dialysis and in biotechnology fields such as extraction of
important salts or proteins from fermentation processes. However, despite the
popularity of using dialysis in industries, there are some limitations that will be further
explained.

One of the limiting factors is that the dialysis process is really slow. Dialysis would take
a few hours to days to completely remove the contaminants from the desired product.
This explains why a typical clinical dialysis session would lasts around four hours to be
completed [11]. Another limitation is that dialysis requires the inefficient act of manually
replacing the dialysate solution. Such an act would be inefficient and costly for any
biotechnology plant as stopping the reactor to change the dialysate would hinder the
extraction of the desired product [12]. With such limitations in mind, some biotechnology
companies​ ​have​ ​adopted​ ​an​ ​alternative​ ​extraction​ ​method​ ​like​ ​gel​ ​filtration​ ​technique.

Case​ ​studies

Hermodialysis is a treatment for patients who have kidney dysfunction. It is a process of

purifying the blood by removing waste and metal ions. As the name suggests,
hermodialysis uses dialysis to filter out unwanted substances from the blood to the
dialysate through the use of a membrane called dialyzer [13]. The dialyzer is a
semipermeable membrane which only allows water and waste to pass through. Thus
clean​ ​blood​ ​is​ ​produced​ ​and​ ​it​ ​will​ ​flow​ ​back​ ​to​ ​the​ ​patient.

Dialysate is a solution of pure water, electrolytes and salt [14]. A dialysate solution’s
main purpose is to remove toxins from the water through dialysis. Salt from the
dialysate solution would be introduced into the bloodstream through hermodialysis.
However, if the dialysate solution does not contain a high purity water, ions that are
introduced into the bloodstream may build up to a hazardous level which can be fatal to
the patient. Thus dialysis centers typically obtain high purity water for their dialysate
solution​ ​through​ ​the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​reverse​ ​osmosis​ ​[15].

Reverse osmosis is an important technique of producing drinking water for many

countries e.g. Singapore. Singapore is a small country with no natural resources such
as water. Thus, Singapore has been relying on neighbouring countries such as
Malaysia to obtain clean water. In order to resolve the dependency issue, the
government prioritised the research in water recycling and they produced NEWater.
NEWater is a reclaimed water which is suitable for drinking that has been purified using
reverse osmosis and microfiltration. Through the process of reverse osmosis and
ultraviolet technologies, Singapore is able to produce high purity water that is suitable
for​ ​drinking​ ​and​ ​thus​ ​reduce​ ​the​ ​problem​ ​of​ ​water​ ​shortage.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we have extensively discussed dialysis and Reverse Osmosis which are
important purification techniques having been developed to improve our everyday’s life.
Through the use of dialysate and a semipermeable membrane, dialysis allows essential
compounds to be extracted and contaminants to be removed from any given sample.
Hence, dialysis is applied to different areas of our industries today as shown in the case
study above. Reverse Osmosis has been developed with the goal of obtaining highly
purified water from salt or waste water. It is an important technique developed from the
general osmosis technique which can solve water shortage problems in many countries
such​ ​as​ ​Singapore. Although it seems to be promising due to its removal of a variety of
contaminants,​ ​issues​ ​concerning​ ​membrane​ ​clogging​ ​and​ ​fouling​ ​still​ ​are​ ​relevant.
References

[1]​ ​-​ ​https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jacob_Abel#Devising_early_form_of_Dialysis_Machine

[2]​ ​https://www.davita.com/kidney-disease/dialysis/motivational/the-history-of-dialysis/e/197
[3]
Adapted from: Continuous production of ethanol by yeast “immobilised” in a membrane
fermentor​ ​(Kyu​ ​H.​ ​Kyung,​ ​Phlipp​ ​Gerhardt)​ ​March​ ​1984
[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis
[5]
https://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis
[6]
https://www.britannica.com/science/osmosis
[7]
‘Dialysis​ ​methods​ ​for​ ​protein​ ​research’,​ ​thermofisher.com.​ ​Thermo​ ​Fisher​ ​Scientific​ ​Inc.​ ​2016.
Collected​ ​from
https://www.thermofisher.com/fi/en/home/life-science/protein-biology/protein-biology-learning-ce
nter/protein-biology-resource-library/pierce-protein-methods/dialysis-methods-protein-research.h
tm​l
[8]
Luo,​ ​J.,​ ​Wu,​ ​C.,​ ​Xu,​ ​T.,​ ​Wu,​ ​Y.​ ​Diffusion​ ​dialysis-concept,​ ​principle​ ​and​ ​applications,​ ​Journal​ ​of
Membrane​ ​Science​ ​366​ ​(2010)​ ​1-16.
[9]
Hegyi,​ ​G.,​ ​Kardos,​ ​J.,​ ​Kovacs,​ ​M.​ ​et​ ​al.,​ ​‘Units,​ ​solutions,​ ​dialysis’​ ​in​ ​Introduction​ ​to​ ​practical
biochemistry,​ ​Eötvös​ ​Loránd​ ​University,​ ​Hungary​ ​2013.​ ​Web.
http://elte.prompt.hu/sites/default/files/tananyagok/IntroductionToPracticalBiochemistry/ch02s04
.html
[10]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1253740/
[11]
https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/dialysisinfo
[12]
https://info.gbiosciences.com/blog/how-to-tell-if-you-should-use-gel-filtration-or-dialysis
[13]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemodialysis#Mechanism_and_technique
[14]
https://www.davita.com/kidney-disease/dialysis/treatment/what-is-hemodialysis?/e/1350
[15]
https://www.environmental-expert.com/articles/reverse-osmosis-how-does-it-figure-into-a-dialysi
s-water-system-991