CHARGING SYSTEM: COMPONENTS, FUNCTIONS, WORKING PRINCIPLE AND

DIAGNOSIS TIPS

Vehicle is equipped with many electrical devices to drive safely and comfortably. The
vehicle requires electricity not only while driving but also while it stops.

Therefore, the vehicle has a battery for a power supply and a charging system to generate
electricity by the engine running. The charging system supplies electricity to all the
electrical devices and charges the battery.

The Charging system is an important part of the electrical system. It provides electrical
current for the lights, the radio, the heater, the engines electrical systems, and other
electrical accessories. It also maintains the batteries in a charged state, recharging them
as necessary.

In order to properly service the charging system, you need to understand how it operates.
The charging system has three main components: the alternator, the voltage regulator,
and the batteries.
The alternator generates electrical power to run accessories and to recharge the
batteries. It is normally driven by a belt located off the crankshaft. Mechanical energy from
the crankshaft is converted by the alternator into electrical energy for the batteries and
accessories.
The voltage regulator acts as an electrical traffic cop to control alternator output. It senses
when the batteries need recharging, or when the vehicles electrical needs increase, and
adjusts the alternators output accordingly.

The batteries are a reservoir of chemical electrical power. Their primary purpose is to
crank the engine. They also supply power to vehicle accessories when the electrical load
is too great for the alternator alone.

Three-phase alternating current

(1) When a magnet rotates within a coil, a voltage will be created between both ends of
the coil. This will give rise to an alternating current.
(2) The relation between the current generated in the coil and the position of the magnet
is as shown in the figure. The largest amount of current is generated when the N and S
poles of the magnet are closest to the coil. However, the current flows in opposite
direction with each half turn of the magnet. Current that forms a sine wave in this
manner is called “single phase alternating current”.

COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS

In general, the components of the charging system are composed of alternators and
regulators. However, the charging system needs to add some additional components so
that the electricity generated can be supplied to the battery and to all electrical loads
safely and precisely. The component, consisting of;

1. Battery

The function of the battery is as a storage of electrical energy. Like a warehouse, the
battery will store all the electrical energy generated by the alternator and then this
stored electricity is removed when necessary.

2. Fuse and Fusible links

Fuse and fusible links have different functions even though have the same shape.
Fusible link can be called as main fuse which is placed near the battery positive
terminal. The function of this fuse is to protect the entire electrical system of the car
from excessive currents. Generally the fusible link has a capacity of up to more than 60
Ampere.

While the function of the fuse is as a safety of a series of specific electrical wiring, in
conventional charging system there are two fuse with same capacity (its about 10-15
Ampere). A fuse is used as a voltage regulator fuse and another fuse is used to secure
the CHG and Voltage relay.

3. CHG Lights

CHG lamp or commonly also called “charging warning light” is an indicator light to
indicate the presence failure of charging system. When the ignition key ON then this
light will light up normally, as well as when the engine life of this lamp should turn on, if
it is dead then it could mean the charging system failure.

4. Ignition key

The ignition key works as a switch. The charging system will be activated automatically
when the engine is running, but to generate a magnetic field on the rotor coil must be
done by a switch.

Ignition switch is used as a switch to connect and disconnect power (positive battery
currents) from battery to rotor coil. When the ignition key is ON, then the electricity from
the battery to the coil rotor will be connected. However, when the ignition key is turned
OFF then the power supply will be cut off. So it is not possible the alternator generates
electricity when the ignition key is OFF even the engine crankshaft is rotate.

5. Regulator

The function of the regulator is to regulate the voltage generated by the alternator. Why
should it be there? because the voltage generated by the alienator depends the
engine's RPM. This means that if the engine RPM is low, the alternator voltage is also
low, but if the engine RPM is high then the alternator voltage is also high.
The regulator will be used to keep the voltage generated by the altenator not exceeding
14 volts even if the engine run in high RPM. This voltage setting aims to protect the
electrical components of the vehicle to prevents over-voltage.

There are two types of regulators, namely type or conventional type and type of IC. The
point type/conventional uses two coils to adjust the altenator's output voltage. While the
IC Regulator uses an IC circuit (Integrated Circuit) to regulate the output voltage.

6. Altenator

The function of the altenator is to convert a partial engine's rotating energy into
electricity. The altenator input comes from the engine pulley connected through a V belt,
the rotation of the rotor will cause the intersection of the magnetic force line with the
stator coil so that the electrons flow on the stator coil.

The electricity in the stator coil is not directly connected to the battery, but it must pass
through the diode bridge to rectify the current. This is done because the current in the
stator coil is AC (Alternate Curent).

7. Charging Wires

The function of charging wires are to connect every component of the charging system,
there are at least two types of wires: standard wire and B + wire. The standard wire has
a small diameter like the car's electrical wiring in general, the function of this wire is
connecting each terminal on the entire charging system.

While the B + wire has a larger diameter than the standard wire and almost matches the
stater wire. The function of this wire is to connect the terminal B altenator with Battery.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Flow of electricity in charging system

Electricity in each position of the ignition switch.

Ignition switch ACC or LOCK

Ignition switch ON (when engine is not running)

When the ignition switch is in the ON position, current flows from the battery to the
alternator. The reason for this is as follows. The alternator generally used for the vehicle
generates electricity by rotating the magnet. The magnet is not the permanent magnet
but the electromagnet that generates magnetic force by flowing electricity inside.
Therefore, it is necessary to supply electricity to the alternator before starting the engine
to prepare for generating electricity.

Ignition switch ON (when engine is running)

The function of alternator

The alternator plays a major role in the charging system. Alternator has three functions
of generating electricity, rectifying current and regulating voltage.

(1) Generation
Transmitting the engine revolution to the pulley via the v-ribbed belt turns the
electromagnetized rotor, generating alternating current in the stator coil.

(2) Rectification
Since the electricity generated in the stator coil is alternating current, this cannot be
used for the DC electric devices installed on the vehicle. To use the alternating current,
the rectifier is used to rectify the alternating current into direct current.

(3) Regulation of voltage

IC regulator regulates the generated voltage to make the voltage constant even when
the alternator speed or the amount of current flowing into the electric devices change.

CHARGING SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS

The following general information has been assembled as a guide for charging system
diagnosis. Refer to the appropriate Original Equipment Manufacturer’s service manual
for specific information pertaining to charging system diagnostic procedures and safety
precautions for your vehicle.

BENCH TESTING

If an alternator test bench is available, follow the procedures found in the bench tester’s
instruction manual to conduct an alternator performance test. This test will determine if
the alternator output is within its performance specification, preventing unnecessary
alternator replacement.
If the alternator output is within specification during bench testing, resolve problems in
the remainder of the vehicle’s charging circuit and other electrical circuits that may
affect charging circuit performance. Refer to the appropriate vehicle manufacturer’s
service manual for the procedures and circuit schematics necessary to identify and
correct additional charging circuit problems.
If the test bench results show the alternator’s output performance to be out of
specification, replace the alternator. Follow the vehicle manufacturer’s recommended
procedures to inspect the remainder of the charging circuit and other electrical circuits
that may affect charging circuit performance.

NOTE: If the bench test identifies the regulator as defective, it may be possible to
replace the regulator (internal or external) and return the alternator to service. If the
regulator is replaced and the alternator returned to service, follow the vehicle
manufacturer’s recommended procedures to inspect the remainder of the charging
system and other electrical circuits that may affect charging circuit performance.
Whether or not a test bench was used to determine the condition of the alternator, the
following Helpful Tips have been assembled to help isolate conditions that may affect
charging circuit performance.

HELPFUL TIPS

1. What is the condition of the battery?

• A visual inspection and a performance test of the battery must always be performed
before inspecting the charging system. The battery must be fully charged (12.6 volts)
and the battery cables, terminals and case in good, clean condition. This includes the
frame and body grounds as well (refer to Battery Visual Inspection and Performance
Testing).

2. Does a charge lamp, amperage (amp) gauge or voltmeter indicate a charging system
problem?

Charge Lamp:
• Ignition ON engine not running - The charge lamp should illuminate.
• Ignition ON engine running - The charge lamp should illuminate briefly then turn OFF.
• Weak Battery - A weak battery can cause the charge lamp to illuminate during high
amperage draw.
• Low Idle - A low idle can cause the charge lamp to illuminate dimly.
• Poor Wiring - Corroded, broken, loose or frayed wires/ connections could cause the
charge lamp to illuminate during idle.
• Open Charge Lamp - Some charging systems will not properly operate if the charge
lamp bulb fails.
Amp Gauge:
• Ignition ON engine not running - The amp gauge should read zero or slightly below.
• Ignition ON engine running - The amp meter should display a current output above
zero. It will display a different level of charge depending on what electrical circuits are
operating. A negative charge indicates the battery is discharging more quicklythan the
charging system can supply current.
• Wires and connectors - Corroded, broken, loose or frayed wires/connections could
cause zero or erratic readings on the gauge.
Voltmeter:
• Ignition ON and engine not running - Gauge readings should be between 12.0 and
12.6 volts with the ignition ON and the engine not running. Readings below 12 volts
could indicate insufficient charging, low battery, corroded, broken, loose or frayed
wires/connections.
• Ignition ON and engine running - Gauge readings should be between 13.0 and 14.5
volts with the ignition ON and the engine running. A reading exceeding 14.5 volts could
indicate a bad battery, failed regulator or poor wire connections. A reading below 13.2
volts could indicate a failed alternator or corroded, broken, loose or frayed
wires/connections.

3. Are any fuses open?

• Check the fuses in all the fuse box(es). An open fuse indicates circuit problem(s) that
may have an effect on the charging circuit. Check the owner’s manual or the
manufacturer’s service manual for the location of each fuse box.

4. Is the fusible link(s) open?

• There may be several fusible links controlling battery voltage to the vehicle’s electrical
circuits. If a fusible link is open, supply voltage will be completely lost to all electrical
systems or to the electric circuit(s) that the open fusible link controls. Check the owner’s
manual or the manufacturer’s service manual for the location of each fusible link.

5. Is the alternator’s drive belt tension within specification?

• Too loose - If the drive belt is too loose, it will slip around the pulley causing the
alternator to charge irregularly or not at all.
• Too tight - If the drive belt is too tight, internal bearing damage will cause premature
alternator failure.

6. Is the alternator’s drive belt in good condition and the proper size?

• Worn or too narrow - If the alternator’s drive belt is worn or too narrow, it will slip
around the pulley, causing the alternator to charge irregularly or not at all.
• New drive belt - The life of a new alternator drive belt is approximately 10 minutes. It is
important to check and adjust the belt’s tension to the “used” specification after the
initial 10 minutes of operation.

7. Has the vehicle been modified or additional equipment installed after it left the
factory?

• Accessories - Non-factory accessories such as phones, computer outlets, televisions,

refrigerators, stereo equipment or lights, among others, can overburden alternator
performance and cause premature failure.
• Improper accessory installation - Improper accessory installation procedures can
cause charging problems. Some of these problems may include poor ground points,
loose connections or improper wiring.

8. Has any work been performed on the vehicle?

• Electrical ground points - Check the ground circuits between the battery and engine
and also from the vehicle body to the frame for high resistance. Many times when a
vehicle has been repaired, the ground point(s) are disturbed or not re-secured properly.
• Multiple electrical grounds - With multiple ground vehicles, each electrical circuit is
assigned to one or more ground points. A poor ground at one ground point may cause
feedback through another ground point causing unusual circuit activity.
PROPELLER SHAFT: FUNCTION, TYPES, COMPONENTS AND REQUIREMENTS

The drive shaft (also called propeller shaft or prop shaft) is a component of the drive
train in a vehicle, with the purpose of delivering torque from the transmission to the
differential, which then transmits this torque to the wheels in order to move the vehicle.
The drive shaft is primarily used to transfer torque between components that are
separated by a distance, since different components must be in different locations in the
vehicle. A front-engine rear-wheel drive car must have a long drive shaft connecting the
rear axle to the transmission since these parts are on opposite sides of the car.

Drive shafts are used differently in different vehicles, varying greatly in cars with distinct
configurations for front-wheel drive, four-wheel drive, and the previously mentioned
front-engine rear-wheel drive. Other vehicles also use drive shafts, like motorcycles,
locomotives, and marine vessels. Below is the drive shaft configuration for a common
front-engine rear-wheel drive vehicle (some cars have the transmission at the back).

 Propeller Shaft is the shaft that transmits power from the gearbox to the differential
gear in a motor vehicle from the engine to the propeller in a boat or flying machine.
 Propeller shaft, sometimes called a cardan shaft, transmits power from the gearbox to
the rear axle. Regularly the shaft has a tubular section and is made in maybe a couple
piece construction.
 The two-piece arrangement is supported at the mid point by an elastic mounted
bearing. Short drive shafts are incorporated for the transmission of power from the last
drive assembly to the road wheels in both front and rear wheel drive layouts.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PROPELLER SHAFT

In most of the automotive vehicles, the engine is located at the front and the rear wheels
of the vehicle are being driven. This arrangement stipulates a longer propeller shaft to
be used. In some arrangements two or three propeller shafts are used to make up the
length.

In some vehicles, the engine is kept at the front and the front wheels of the vehicle are
being driven. In some other vehicles, the engine is at the rear and the rear wheels are
being driven. For such arrangements a short propeller shaft is used to drive each wheel.
The engine and the transmission unit are attached to the vehicle frame with some
flexible mounting. The rear axle housing with differential and wheels are attached to the
vehicle frame by suspension springs.

Due to the above arrangement, the transmission output shaft and the input shaft to the
rear axle housing are in different planes. This compels the propeller shaft that connects
these two shafts to be kept inclined.

Further, whenever the rear wheels encounter irregularities in the road, the rear axle
housing moves up and down, compressing and expanding the suspension springs. As
this happens, the angle between the transmission output shaft and the propeller shaft
changes. Further, the length to be occupied by the propeller shaft also changes.
The variation in the length of the propeller shaft happens because the propeller shaft
and the rear axle housing rotate on arcs with different points as their centres of rotation.

The rear axle housing moves in the shorter arc than that of the propeller shaft. This is
because the centre of the rear axle housing arc is the point of attachment of the rear
spring or control arm to the vehicle frame. This aspect causes a reduction in the length
occupied by the propeller shaft as the angle between the transmission and the propeller
shaft increases.

TYPES OF PROPELLER SHAFT:

1. Single-Piece-Type Propeller Shaft:

 Used in vehicles with a short distance between the engine and axles, and MR based
four-wheel-drive vehicles.
 The friction weldingadopted at the junction contributes to an improvement in the
strength, quality, and durability of the junction.

2. 2-piece-type/3-piece-type Propeller Shaft:

 Utilized as a part of vehicles with a long distance between the engine and axles, and
Front engine front drive base four-wheel-drive vehicles.
 The division of the propeller shaft into two- or three-parts allows the critical number of
revolution to lowered preventing vibration issue from occurring, when the overall length
of the shaft increased.

COMPONENTS OF PROPELLER SHAFT:

 The propeller shaft transfers engine torque to the rear axle through one or more
universal joints.
 The splines on the ends at the propeller shaft fit perfectly into the splines in the
sleeve. This permits a length variation between the driving and the driven unit to vary
slightly without damaging the output and input bearings.
 The main bearing support and guide the propeller shaft.
 The flanges associate the propeller shaft to the gearbox.

REQUIREMENTS OF PROPELLER SHAFT:

For achieving efficient functions, the following are expected in a propeller shaft
 High torsional strength: Therefore, they are made of solid or hollow circular cross
section
 Toughened and hardened: Therefore, they are made of superior quality steel and are
induction hardened
 Efficiently jointed: Therefore they are generally welded by submerged are carbon
dioxide welding process.
 Dynamically balanced: Since the phenomenon of whirling may be critical at higher
speeds, therefore, propeller shafts are tested on electronic balancing machine.
 Reduced thrust loads: Since resonance is dangerous for the life of shaft. It also
transmits excessive dynamic force to the shaft's end supports, and so its occurrence
should be avoided.

NOTE: Since the propeller shaft sleeve end is pulled out from the transmission
extension housing with the transmission still mounted, overflow of the transmission oil,
damage of oil seal lip or entrance of dust may result if the vehicle is raised higher
toward its front end. Use extreme care in removing the propeller shaft.
VEHICLE EXHAUST SYSTEM: COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTION
The exhaust system collects the exhaust gases from the cylinders, removes harmful
substances, reduces the level of noise and discharges the purified exhaust gases at a
suitable point of the vehicle away from its occupants...

FUNCTION

The exhaust system collects the exhaust gases from the cylinders, removes harmful
substances, reduces the level of noise and discharges the purified exhaust gases at a
suitable point of the vehicle away from its occupants. The exhaust system can consist of
one or two channels depending on the engine. The flow resistance must be selected so
that the exhaust backpressure affects engine performance as little as possible. To
ensure that the exhaust system functions perfectly, it must be viewed as a whole and
developed accordingly. This means that its components must be coordinated by the
design engineers in line with the specific vehicle and engine.

In addition to all the complex functions which the exhaust system has to perform, it is
also subject to extreme stresses. The fuel-air mixture in the cylinders is abruptly heated
to temperatures up to 2,400 °C. This causes it to expand greatly before escaping into
the exhaust system at supersonic speed. This noise level resembles the crack of an
explosion and must be reduced by approx. 50 dB(A) as it travels from the engine
exhaust valve to the end of the exhaust system.

Apart from temperature and pressure stresses, the exhaust system must also cope with
vibrations from the engine and bodywork as well as vibrations and jolting from the
carriageway. The exhaust system additionally has to resist corrosion attacking from the
inside caused by hot gases and acid, and from the outside in the form of moisture,
splashed water and salt water. There is also the risk that the catalyst may be poisoned
through sulphur or lead present in the fuel.

COMPONENTS OF EXHAUST SYSTEM

1. Exhaust manifold:

The exhaust manifold attaches to the cylinder head and takes each cylinder’s exhaust
and combines it into one pipe. The manifold can be made of steel, aluminum, stainless
steel, or more commonly cast iron.
2. Oxygen sensor:

All modern fuel injected cars utilize an oxygen sensor to measure how much oxygen is
present in the exhaust. From this the computer can add or subtract fuel to obtain the
correct mixture for maximum fuel economy. The oxygen sensor is mounted in the
exhaust manifold or close to it in the exhaust pipe.

3. Catalytic converter:

This muffler like part converts harmful carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons to water
vapor and carbon dioxide. Some converters also reduce harmful nitrogen oxides. The
converter is mounted between the exhaust manifold and the muffler.

4. Muffler/Silencer:

Every internal combustion engine produces "exhaust noise" due to the pulsating
emission of gases from the cylinders. This noise has to be silenced by reducing the
sound energy of the exhaust gas flow. There are two basic options here: Absorption and
reflection of the sound in the silencer. These two principles are generally combined in a
single silencer. Exhaust chambers and exhaust flaps are other sound-absorbing and
sound-modifying elements that can be used to eliminate especially undesirable
frequencies from the outlet noise. Catalytic converters also have a sound-absorbing
effect.

The exhaust system is itself a system subject to vibration, it produces noise itself
through natural frequencies and vibration which are transmitted to the car body. Careful
coordination of the entire system is therefore necessary here. This includes design and
positioning of the individual elements of the exhaust system and their flexible
mountings.

The muffler serves to quiet the exhaust down to acceptable levels. Remember that the
combustion process is a series of explosions that create allot of noise. Most mufflers
use baffles to bounce the exhaust around dissipating the energy and quieting the noise.
Some mufflers also use fiberglass packing which absorbs the sound energy as the
gases flow through.

5. Exhaust pipe:
Between all of the above mention parts is the exhaust pipe which carries the gas
through it's journeys out your tail pipe. Exhaust tubing is usually made of steel but can
be stainless steel (which lasts longer due to its corrosion resistance) or aluminized steel
tubing. Aluminized steel has better corrosion resistance than plain steel but not better
than stainless steel. It is however cheaper than stainless steel.
ALL-WHEEL DRIVE/AWD/ vs 4-WHEEL DRIVE
/4WD/

In fact, the terms “4-wheel drive” (4WD) and “all-wheel drive” (AWD) are often used
interchangeably. But they shouldn’t be, as they are part of two completely different
powertrains. While they might weigh down your vehicle slightly more, and don’t offer the
same fuel efficiency as two-wheel drive setups, they can be a lifesaver in many
situations. So let’s explore the differences and the advantages of each, starting with the
oldest model.

4-WHEEL DRIVE(4WD)

In 4WD trucks you will see a lever or switch that says 4WD Hi and 4WD Low. 4WD Low
is for very low speeds when you need the most power and traction. This is done by
evenly distributing power to all four wheels. This is good for low speeds but wont work
for higher speeds because when a vehicle turns the outside wheels need to turn at a
higher speed since they are covering more ground.

Therefore, if all four wheels are spinning at the same rate through turns the inside
wheels will lose traction and start spinning freely. This is where 4WD High comes in
handy. 4WD High allows power to be split between the inside and outside wheels called
a “limited slip”. This allows for higher speeds while using 4WD.

Most vehicles are only propelled by one axle, or two tires, either the front or the back.
These are front-wheel drive, the more common option these days, and rear-wheel drive.
But neither of these two options are ideal when road conditions are too slippery, or for
roads that aren’t even paved at all.

4WD runs in complement with a two-wheel drive setup. When the 4WD mode is
selected, the power from the drivetrain is split equally between the front and rear axles,
ensuring the vehicle does not get stuck or spin out in thick mud, snow, uneven terrain,
or when scaling a boulder like in most off-road jeep commercials. Split-axle power helps
to reduce fishtailing and spinning out on slick pavement, saving you the need to call
over someone for a push. When you consider that many work trucks operate in
construction lots or farmers’ fields, you can appreciate why many advertise 4×4 on the
side of the bed.
So why would you need anything other than 4WD for difficult road conditions? When
driving forward in a straight line, 4×4 technology is brilliant; the difficulty comes when
turning, as the difference in the turning radius between the front and rear axles requires
that the wheels turn at different speeds, something that 4WD does not allow for. If
you’re driving in suitable 4×4 conditions—that is, with icy roads, uneven terrain, or loose
dirt or gravel beneath the tires—that allows for the wheels to become unstuck and
release their windup. Otherwise, they can lock up, especially when driving slow.

Types of 4WD:

1. Part Time 4WD

This refers to four-wheel drive system that operates on-demand and drives all 4 wheels
by locking the front and rear axles together via a shift lever. It usually includes 2 speed
ranges (Hi and Lo). Part-time four wheel drive systems must be operated in 2WD mode
on dry pavement, because they’re designed to be used only in special situations when
extra traction is required.

2. Full-Time 4WD

This is a four-wheel-drive system that can be operated continuously on all surfaces. It

powers all 4 wheels at all times. A full-time 4WD system may include the option of part-
time operation (allowing you to shift into 2WD on dry pavement, for example) and may
or may not have Hi and Lo speed ranges.

Pros and Cons of 4-Wheel Drive

Advantages:
• Best off-road traction capabilities
• Can be switch off to increase fuel efficiency

Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for all driving conditions

ALL-WHEEL DRIVE (AWD)

AWD vs 4WD is that AWD is on all the time. There is no way to turn it off like you can
with 4WD. Like 4WD Hi power is split between the left and right side as well. Although
AWD takes it a step further. AWD drive has three differentials. Differentials are basically
gear boxes allowing the wheels to turn at different speeds. Below is a video explain how
it works. AWD drive vehicles have a differential in the center of the car to split the power
from the front and back and one each on the front and rear axles distributing the power
from left and right. Distributing different amount of power to each wheel helps to gain
traction at all speeds in all conditions. AWD drive is used on many types of vehicles
from sport cars to SUV’s.
AWD is the newer technology, and while it also splits the power from the engine
between the two axles, it has two main differentiators from 4WD:

With AWD, the system is always on (well, almost always). It isn’t a feature or mode that
you need to select. This means that when you hit unexpected poor road conditions (like
a patch of ice), the system automatically kicks in to give you better traction and
handling.

The power split between the two axles isn’t always 50-50. There is usually a range of
the amount of the split, but the AWD system is continually gaining feedback from the
tires and sending the most power to the wheels which are receiving the most traction at
the moment. For this reason, the AWD often achieves a better safety rating, and is
preferable and handy during slick Canadian winter driving conditions.

A true AWD vehicle does not require the driver to actively shift between two-wheel and
four-wheel mode. If it does, it is a 4×4 masquerading as AWD. But since the AWD
option does not quite match the 4WD system for extreme off-roading, you’re more likely
to see it in sporty performance coupes and aesthetically outdoorsy SUVs with no
serious off-road pretensions.

Pros and Cons of All-Wheel Drive

Advantages:
• Better grip and sporty feel
• Higher safety ratings

Disadvantages:
• Poorer fuel economy
AIR COMPRESSOR: TYPES AND WORKING PRINCIPLES

Air compressors have been used in industry for well over 100 years because air as a
resource is safe, flexible, clean and convenient. These machines have evolved into
highly reliable* pieces of equipment that are almost indispensable in many of the
applications they serve. Compressors can come in a wide variety of different types and
sizes.

It is a device which compresses the gases to higher pressure and than this high
pressure gas is used for various application like Tyre inflation, powering a turbine or
used to do some mechanical work. The air compressor is generally powered by electric
motor, diesel or gas engine.

Working Principle
Since we know that air is compressible and we only need some mechanical device to
do that and for that we have air compressor. It takes air form one end and than squeeze
this air to high pressure and deliver it to the other end for various application.

Types of Air Compressor

According to the pressure delivered

1. low-Pressure Air Compressors (LPACs): It can discharge pressure at 151 psi or less.
2. Medium-Pressure Air Compressors : Can discharge pressure in between 151 psi to
1000 psi.
3. High-Pressure Air Compressors (HPACs): having discharge pressure above 1000
psi.

According to the type of compression, it can be classified as

1. Positive Displacement : Piston type, rotary screw, rotary vane air compressor
2. Dynamic Displacement: Centrifugal and axial flow air compressor

1. Positive Displacement Air Compressor

In positive displacement compressor, the air is sucked into a chamber whose volume
gets decreased to compress the air. When the maximum pressure is reached in the
chamber, the discharge valve opens and air is discharged to the storage tank. Once the
pressure of the storage tank reaches to its desired upper limit the compressor stops.
The compressed air in the tank is used to perform various works. As the pressure in the
tank reaches to its minimum limit, the compressor again starts and begins the process
of compressing air.

The positive displacement compressor can be of following type

1. Piston Type or Reciprocating Air Compressor

reciprocating air compressor

Reciprocating or Piston compressors are the most common machines available on the
market. They are positive displacement compressors and can be found in ranges from
fractional to very high horse powers. Positive displacement air compressors work by
filling an air chamber with air and then reducing the chamber’s volume (Reciprocating,
Rotary Screw and Rotary Sliding Vane are all positive displacement compressors).
Reciprocating compressors work in a very similar manner as does as internal
combustion engine but basically in a reverse process. They have cylinders, pistons,
crankshafts, valves and housing blocks.

advantages

* simple design
* low initial cost
* easy to install
* two stage models offer the highest efficiency
* no oil carryover
* large range of horse power
* special machines can reach extremely high pressures

disadvantages

* higher maintenance cost

* many moving parts
* potential for vibration problems
* foundation may be required
* many are not designed to run at full capacity 100% of the time

2. Rotary Screw Compressor

Rotary Screw Compressors work on the principle of air filling the void between two
helical mated screws and their housing. As the two helical screws are turned, the
volume is reduced resulting in an increase of air pressure. Most rotary screw
compressors inject oil into the bearing and compression area. The reasons are for
cooling, lubrication and creating a seal between screws and the housing wall to reduce
internal leakage. After the compression cycle, the oil and air must be separated before
the air can be used by the air system.

Positive displacement compression of air takes place in this compressor. It uses two
helical types of screws matching each other, when it rotates it takes the air from the
atmosphere and guides it to a chamber whose volume keeps on decreasing as the
screw turns.
advantage

* simple design
* low to medium initial cost
* low to medium maintenance cost
* two stage designs provide good efficiency
* easy to install
* few moving parts
* most popular compressor design in plants

disadvantages

* limited airend life

* airends are not field serviceable
* high rotational speeds
* shorter life expectancy than other designs
* oil injected designs have oil carryover
* single stage designs have lower efficiency
* two stage, oil-free designs have higher initial cost.
* difficulty with dirty environments

3. Rotary Vane Compressor

Rotary Sliding Vane Compressors like Reciprocating and Rotary Screw compressors
are positive displacement compressors. The compressor pump consists primarily of a
rotor, stator, and 8 blades. The slotted rotor is eccentrically arranged within the stator
providing a crescent shaped swept area between the intake and exhaust ports. As the
rotor turns a single revolution, compression is achieved as the volume goes from a
maximum at the intake ports to a minimum at the exhaust port. The vanes are forced
outward from within the rotor slots and held against the stator wall by rotational
acceleration. Oil is injected into the air intake and along the stator walls to cool the air,
lubricate the bearings and vanes, and provide a seal between the vanes and the stator
wall. After the compression cycle, the oil and air must be separated before the air can
be transferred to the air system.
It is also a positive displacement compressor in which the rotor has blades. As the rotor
rotates it traps the air in between the vanes (blades) and air gets compressed. A
question hits now in our mind that How this air gets compressed by the vane
compressor. Vanes of the compressor is adjustable according to the casing and the
rotor in the casing is eccentric (i.e. it is not located in the center but its center is shifted
away from the casing center). when rotor rotates, the air gets traped between two
adjacent vanes. The casing of compressor gets on decreasing as the rotor rotates, and
due to the decrease of casing the air gets compressed.

advantages

* simple design
* easy to install
* low to medium cost
* low maintenance cost
* field serviceable air-end
* long life air-end
* low rotational speeds
* very few moving parts
* forgiving to dirty environments

disadvantages

* oil injected designs have oil carryover

* single stage designs have lower efficiency
* difficulty with high pressures over 200 psi
* oil free designs are unavailable

2. Dynamic Displacement Air Compressor

In dynamic displacement compressor, it has a rotating part which imparts its kinetic
energy to the air and converts it into pressure energy. The impart of the kinetic energy is
done with the help of the centrifugal force.
This type of air compressor includes centrifugal compressor and axial flow compressor.

1. Centrifugal Compressor
Centrifugal Compressors are not positive displacement compressors like the
Reciprocating, Screw or Vane Compressors. They use very high speed spinning
impellers (up to 60,000 rpm) to accelerate the air then diffuser to decelerate the air. This
process, called dynamic compression, uses velocity to cause an increase in pressure.
In most Centrifugal compressors, there are several of these impeller/diffuser
combinations. Typically, these machines have intercoolers between each stage to cool
the air as well as remove 100% of the condensate to avoid impeller damage due to
erosion.

In this compressor centrifugal force is used to compress the air. It contains mainly three
main parts i.e. impeller, diffuser and involute casing. It is the most commonly used type
of air compressor in different areas.

advantages

* high efficiencies approaching two stage reciprocating compressors

* can reach pressure up to 1200 psi
* completely packed for plant or instrument air up through 500 hp
* relative first cost improves as size increases
* designed to give lubricant free air
* does not require special foundation

disadvantages

* high initial cost

* complicated monitoring and control system
* limited capacity control modulation, requiring unloading for reduced capacities
* hign rotational speeds require special bearing and aophisticated vibration and
clearance monitoring
* specialized maintenance considerations

2. Axial Flow Compressor

It is a compressor in which the air which is to be compressed moves axially during its
compression. Axial flow compressor can continuously provide compressed gas.
OXYGEN SENSORS /LAMBDA SENSOR/: PARTS, TYPES, WORKING PRINCIPLE
AND LOCATION

WHAT IS AN OXYGEN SENSOR?

The oxygen sensor (commonly referred to as an “O2 sensor”, as O2 is the chemical

formula for oxygen) is mounted in the exhaust manifold of the vehicle to monitor how
much unburned oxygen is in the exhaust as the exhaust exits the engine.

WHAT DOES AN OXYGEN SENSOR DO?

Oxygen sensors work by producing their own voltage when they get hot (approximately
600°F). On the tip of the oxygen sensor that plugs into the exhaust manifold is a
zirconium ceramic bulb. The inside and the outside of the bulb is coated with a porous
layer of platinum, which serve as the electrodes. The interior of the bulb is vented
internally through the sensor body to the outside atmosphere. When the outside of the
bulb is exposed to the hot gases of the exhaust, the difference in oxygen levels between
the bulb and the outside atmosphere within the sensor causes voltage to flow through
the bulb. If the fuel ratio is lean (not enough fuel in the mixture), the voltage is relatively
low — approximately 0.1 volts. If the fuel ratio is rich (too much fuel in the mixture), the
voltage is relatively high — approximately 0.9 volts. When the air/fuel mixture is at the
stoichiometric ratio (14.7 parts air to 1 part fuel), the oxygen sensor produces 0.45 volts.

WHERE ARE OXYGEN SENSORS LOCATED?

The amount of oxygen sensors a vehicle has varies. Every car made after 1996 is
required to have an oxygen sensor upstream and downstream of each catalytic
converter. Therefore, while most vehicles have two oxygen sensors, those V6 and V8
engines equipped with dual exhaust have four oxygen sensors — one upstream and
downstream of the catalytic converter on each bank of the engine.

1. The Upstream Oxygen Sensor (Oxygen Sensor 1)

Oxygen sensor 1 is the upstream oxygen sensor in relationship to the catalytic

converter. It measures the air-fuel ratio of the exhaust coming out of the exhaust
manifold and sends the high and low voltage signals to the powertrain control module in
order to regulate the air-fuel mixture. When the powertrain control module receives a
low voltage (lean) signal, it compensates by increasing the amount of fuel in the
mixture. When the powertrain control module receives a high voltage (rich) signal, it
leans the mixture by reducing the amount of fuel it adds to the mixture. The powertrain
control module’s use of the input from the oxygen sensor to regulate the fuel mixture is
known as a closed feedback control loop. This closed loop operation results in a
constant flip-flop between rich and lean, which allows the catalytic converter to minimize
emissions by keeping the overall average ratio of the fuel mixture in proper balance.
However, when a cold engine is started, or if an oxygen sensor fails, the powertrain
control module enters into open loop operation. In open loop operation, the powertrain
control module does not receive a signal from the oxygen sensor and orders a fixed rich
fuel mixture. Open loop operation results in increased fuel consumptions and emissions.
Many newer oxygen sensors contain heating elements to help them get to operating
temperature quickly in order to minimize the amount of time spent in open loop
operation.
2. The Downstream Oxygen Sensor (Oxygen Sensor 2)

Oxygen sensor 2 is the downstream oxygen sensor in relationship to the catalytic

converter. It measures the air-fuel ratio coming out of the catalytic converter to ensure
the catalytic converter is functioning properly. The catalytic converter works to maintain
the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 14.7:1 while the powertrain control module constantly
flip-flops between rich and lean air-fuel mixtures due to the input from the upstream
oxygen sensor (sensor 1). Therefore, the downstream oxygen sensor (sensor 2) should
produce a steady voltage of approximately 0.45 volts.

HOW OXYGEN SENSORS WORK

Step by step guide on how an automotive oxygen sensor works, this article pertains to
most vehicles.

Step 1 - An oxygen sensor is an electronic component that is designed to measure

levels of oxygen in an automotive engine exhaust system.

Step 2 - Typically, the oxygen sensor is mounted to the exhaust system tube or on the
side of a catalytic converter, with the sensor part inside the tube. This measures the
oxygen mixture by generating a small amount of electricity due to the difference in
atmosphere, oxygen and carbon dioxide. The computer PCM monitors this voltage and
adjusts fuel delivery accordingly. Oxygen sensors can usually be found in the exhaust
pipe near the engine (primary sensor) although sometimes they are mounted in the
exhaust manifold itself where the exhaust pipe connects. Sensors found after or on the
catalytic converter is the secondary unit.

Step 3 - The sensor's job is to measure the amount of oxygen required to burn any fuel
remaining in the exhaust stream and relay that information back to the computer PCM
(Powertrain Control Module) where it is compared with other live information so that
adjustments can be made to maximize fuel efficiency and power via proper air-fuel
mixture and ignition timing in the engine. Oxygen sensors do this through a chemical
reaction inside the sensor itself; in this article we will explain the evolution and
application of this very important piece of the fuel injection puzzle. Oxygen sensors work
through a chemical reaction. The core or element of the sensor is Zirconia ceramic with
a thin layer of platinum. Since these materials are reactive and are applied as layers
they will eventually wear out reducing their efficiency.

Step 4 - The voltage created by the sensor is then relayed to the computer where it will
compare it with other live information to make the necessary mixture and timing
adjustments. The oxygen sensor is in continuous communication with the engine control
unit giving it the information necessary to adjust fuel delivery for optimum combustion.

Step 5 - When the engine is cold the oxygen sensor reads slowly, a heating element
has been installed to correct this problem and help the sensor operate correctly until the
engine has reached operating temperature. When these heaters fail it will cause the
check engine lamp to illuminate. The number of secondary sensors will depend on how
many catalytic converters the vehicle has. Oxygen sensors use a cycling of rich to lean
mixtures to achieve a balance close to a stoichiometric mixture (ideal for internal
combustion).

THE PROBE

The sensor element is a ceramic cylinder plated inside and outside with porous platinum
electrodes; the whole assembly is protected by a metal gauze. It operates by measuring
the difference in oxygen between the exhaust gas and the external air and generates a
voltage or changes its resistance depending on the difference between the two.

The sensors only work effectively when heated to approximately 316 °C (600 °F), so
most newer lambda probes have heating elements encased in the ceramic that bring
the ceramic tip up to temperature quickly. Older probes, without heating elements,
would eventually be heated by the exhaust, but there is a time lag between when the
engine is started and when the components in the exhaust system come to a thermal
equilibrium. The length of time required for the exhaust gases to bring the probe to
temperature depends on the temperature of the ambient air and the geometry of the
exhaust system. Without a heater, the process may take several minutes. There are
pollution problems that are attributed to this slow start-up process, including a similar
problem with the working temperature of a catalytic converter.
The probe typically has four wires attached to it:
1. two for the lambda output, and
2. two for the heater power,

although some automakers use the metal as ground for the sensor element signal,
resulting in three wires. Earlier non-electrically-heated sensors had one or two wires.

TYPES OF OXYGEN SENSORS

1. Zirconia sensor

The zirconium dioxide, or zirconia, lambda sensor is based on a solid-state

electrochemical fuel cell called the Nernst cell. Its two electrodes provide an output
voltage corresponding to the quantity of oxygen in the exhaust relative to that in the
atmosphere.

An output voltage of 0.2 V (200 mV) DC represents a "lean mixture" of fuel and oxygen,
where the amount of oxygen entering the cylinder is sufficient to fully oxidize the carbon
monoxide (CO), produced in burning the air and fuel, into carbon dioxide (CO2). An
output voltage of 0.8 V (800 mV) DC represents a "rich mixture", which is high in
unburned fuel and low in remaining oxygen. The ideal setpoint is approximately 0.45 V
(450 mV) DC. This is where the quantities of air and fuel are in the optimal ratio, which
is ~0.5% lean of the stoichiometric point, such that the exhaust output contains minimal
carbon monoxide.

The voltage produced by the sensor is nonlinear with respect to oxygen concentration.
The sensor is most sensitive near the stoichiometric point (where λ = 1) and less
sensitive when either very lean or very rich.
The ECU is a control system that uses feedback from the sensor to adjust the fuel/air
mixture. As in all control systems, the time constant of the sensor is important; the
ability of the ECU to control the fuel–air ratio depends upon the response time of the
sensor. An aging or fouled sensor tends to have a slower response time, which can
degrade system performance. The shorter the time period, the higher the so-called
"cross count” and the more responsive the system.

The sensor has a rugged stainless-steel construction internally and externally. Due to
this the sensor has a high resistance to corrosion, allowing it to be used effectively in
aggressive environments with high temperature/pressure.
The zirconia sensor is of the "narrow-band" type, referring to the narrow range of fuel/air
ratios to which it responds.

2. Wideband zirconia sensor

A variation on the zirconia sensor, called the "wideband" sensor, was introduced by
NTK in 1992 and has been widely used for car engine management systems in order to
meet the ever-increasing demands for better fuel economy, lower emissions and better
engine performance at the same time. It is based on a planar zirconia element, but also
incorporates an electrochemical gas pump. An electronic circuit containing a feedback
loop controls the gas-pump current to keep the output of the electrochemical cell
constant, so that the pump current directly indicates the oxygen content of the exhaust
gas. This sensor eliminates the lean–rich cycling inherent in narrow-band sensors,
allowing the control unit to adjust the fuel delivery and ignition timing of the engine much
more rapidly. In the automotive industry this sensor is also called a UEGO (universal
exhaust-gas oxygen) sensor. UEGO sensors are also commonly used in aftermarket
dyno tuning and high-performance driver air–fuel display equipment. The wideband
zirconia sensor is used in stratified fuel injection systems and can now also be used in
diesel engines to satisfy the upcoming EURO and ULEV emission limits.

Wideband sensors have three elements:

1. ion oxygen pump,
2. narrowband zirconia sensor,
3. heating element.

The wiring diagram for the wideband sensor typically has six wires:
1. resistive heating element,
2. resistive heating element,
3. sensor,
4. pump,
5. calibration resistor,
6. common.

3. Titania sensor
A less common type of narrow-band lambda sensor has a ceramic element made of
Titania (titanium dioxide). This type does not generate its own voltage, but changes its
electrical resistance in response to the oxygen concentration. The resistance of the
Titania is a function of the oxygen partial pressure and the temperature. Therefore,
some sensors are used with a gas-temperature sensor to compensate for the resistance
change due to temperature. The resistance value at any temperature is about 1/1000
the change in oxygen concentration. Luckily, at λ = 1, there is a large change of oxygen,
so the resistance change is typically 1000 times between rich and lean, depending on
the temperature.

As Titania is an N-type semiconductor with a structure TiO2−x, the x defects in the crystal
lattice conduct the charge. So, for fuel-rich exhaust (lower oxygen concentration) the
resistance is low, and for fuel-lean exhaust (higher oxygen concentration) the resistance
is high. The control unit feeds the sensor with a small electric current and measures the
resulting voltage drop across the sensor, which varies from nearly 0 volts to about 5 volts.
Like the zirconia sensor, this type is nonlinear, such that it is sometimes simplistically
described as a binary indicator, reading either "rich" or "lean". Titania sensors are more
expensive than zirconia sensors, but they also respond faster.

In automotive applications the Titania sensor, unlike the zirconia sensor, does not require
a reference sample of atmospheric air to operate properly. This makes the sensor
assembly easier to design against water contamination. While most automotive sensors
are submersible, zirconia-based sensors require a very small supply of reference air from
the atmosphere. In theory, the sensor wire harness and connector are sealed. Air that
leaches through the wire harness to the sensor is assumed to come from an open point
in the harness – usually the ECU, which is housed in an enclosed space like the trunk or
vehicle interior.
OIL FILTERS: TYPES, FILTRATION MECHANISMS AND FILTER MEDIA, PROPER
OIL FILTER SELECTION AND FAILURE MODES

The motor oil that you put into your engine, along with its additives, works to absorb and
hold organic and inorganic contaminants. Organic contaminants can include bacteria,
bugs, and oxidized oil. Inorganic impurities can include metallic particles, wearing off the
components of the engine, and dust. Thus, motor oil helps to helps to protect the
engine, and improve its efficiency and performance. However, to prolong the life of your
engine and provide better performance, car manufacturers also install oil filters that
clean the oil before directing it to vital moving parts of the engine.

TYPES OF LUBRICATION SYSTEM

There are various types of lubrication system for lubricating the automobile engines.

1. Petroil Lubrication.
This system of lubrication is generally adopted in two stroke petrol engines, like
scooters and motorcycles. It is the simplest form of lubricating system. The lubricating
oil is mixed into the petrol itself while filling in the petrol tank of the vehicle, in a specified
ratio. The amount of oil to be added is quoted in relevant publications, but it is usually
about one part of oil to ten part of gasoline by volume. When the fuel goes into the
crank chamber during the engine operation, the oil particles go deep into the bearing
surfaces and lubricate them. The piston ring, cylinder walls, piston pin are lubricated in
the same way. The main disadvantage of this system is that, if the engine is allowed to
remain unused for a considerable time, the lubricating oil gets separated from petrol
leads to clogging of passage in the carburetor, and results into starting trouble.

2. Splash Lubrication.
In this system of lubrication, the lubricating oil is stored in an oil trough or sump. A
scoop or dipper is made in the lowest part of connecting rod. When the engine runs, the
dipper dips in the oil once in every revolution of the crankshaft and causes the oil to
splash on the cylinder walls.
This action effects the lubrication of the engine cylinder walls, piston pin, piston rings,
crankshaft bearings and big end bearings. Splash system mostly works in connection
with pressure system in an engine, some parts being lubricated by splash system and
other by pressure system. However, this types of lubrication system is not suitable for
high efficiency engines, because at starting and until the oil get warmed, some working
part have to starve of lubricant.

3. Pressure Lubrication.
There are two main systems, which uses a pump to force oil under pressure to the
bearing surfaces. They are wet sump and dry sump system.

1. Wet Sump Lubrication System.

In this system of lubrication, engine parts are lubricated under pressure feed. The oil is
stored in crankcase or sump and is maintained at a certain level to ensure an adequate
supply to pump. The oil pump is usually submerged and driven by camshaft. Oil pump
takes oil through a strainer and delivers it through a filter to main oil gallery at a
pressure of 2-4 kg/cm 2. The oil from main oil gallery goes to main bearing and through
the holes in crankshaft webs, to crankpins, from here it passes through holes to
lubricate the big-end bearings.

Oil escaping from bearings in the form of mist or spray, lubricates the cylinder bores,
pistons, piston rings, gudgeon pins and small end bearings before falling back to sump.
The camshaft may be either pressure or splash lubricated. The timing gear also may be
pressure or splash lubricated. The valve tappets are lubricated by connecting main oil
gallery to the tappet guide surfaces through drilled holes. To prevent excessive
pressure building up in system, an oil pressure relief valve is incorporated, which
permits excess oil to by-pass the system. This pressure relief valve can be adjusted by
varying pressure of its spring. An oil pressure gauge at instrument panel indicates the
oil pressure in system.

2. Dry Sump System.

The system in which lubricating oil is not kept in oil sump is known as dry sump system.
In this system, the oil is carried in a separate tank, which aids cooling. Oil from the tank
is fed to engine by a pressure pump. The oil from sump is sent back to the oil tank by a
separate delivery pump, known as scavenge pump. This scavenge pump usually has a
capacity of one third greater than that of pressure pump. An oil cooler is incorporated
between sump and oil tank line to cool the oil. The main advantage of this system is
that, there is no chance of break down the oil supply during up and down movement of
vehicle. The size of the sump can be smaller than that required for an engine operating
on wet sump system.

4. Semi Pressure System.

It is the combination of splash system and pressure system. Some parts are lubricated
by splash system and some parts by pressure system. Almost all four-stroke engines
are lubricated by this system.

FILTRATION MECHANISMS AND FILTER MEDIA

A filter’s primary function is to remove and retain contaminants as oil flows through the
porous component called the media. The media operate under several types of filtration
mechanisms, including:

• Direct Interception and Depth Entrapment – Particle blockage on the media due to the
particles being larger than the taken passages within the media.

• Adsorption – The electrostatic or molecular attraction of particles between the particles

and the media.

• Inertial Impaction – Particles are impacted onto the filter media by inertia and held
there by adsorption as the oil flows around.

• Brownian Movement – This causes particles smaller than 1 micron to move

irrespectively of the fluid flow and results in the particles being adsorbed by media in
close proximity. It is much less prevalent, especially in viscous fluids.

• Gravitation Effects – These allow much larger particles to settle away from fluid flow
regions when there is low flow.

In addition, filter media can be designed to capture particles through two distinct
methods:
• Surface Retention – Contaminants are held at the surface of the media. This provides
an opportunity for the contaminant to become trapped as it comes in contact with the
media surface.

• Depth Retention – Contaminants are held either at the surface of the media or within
the labyrinth of passages within the “depth” of the filter media. This creates several
opportunities for contaminants to become trapped.

Oil filters have different media, or membranes, inside them that filter out and clear the
contaminants of the motor oil as it circulates.

• Cellulose filter media: Typically, disposable oil filters have cellulose filter media. This
media can hold back particles 8 to 10 microns in size and can clean up to 40% of the
motor oil. It is advisable to have your mechanic check/replace them at every 3,000
miles.

• Synthetic filter media: Higher quality oil filters use synthetic media. This media is
effective in removing 50% of the particles in sizes ranging from 20 to 40 microns, and
24% of particles in the 8 to 10 micron range. These oil filters should be
checked/replaced every 5,000 to 7,000 miles.

• Microglass filter media: Most high-end oil filters include an extremely fine metal media
or microglass. This microglass mesh is made with fibers that are 10 times finer than
cellulose fibers. They also present far less of a restriction to the flow of motor oil and
only need to be checked/replaced ever 2 to 5 years or 10,000 miles (whichever comes
first).

BEST PRACTICES FOR OIL FILTER USAGE

• Storage - Filters can fail long before they are to be used for their intended purpose.
Therefore, proper filter storage and handling are essential. Ensure filters are kept clean,
cool and dry, and always follow the first-in/first-out rule.

• Installation - Even if a filter installation seems simple and routine, refer to the
manufacturer’s recommendations for proper procedures. A classic mistake is over-
tightening. Most recommendations suggest that a three-quarter turn after seal contact is
optimal. Over- or under-tightening can inhibit the seal’s longevity and effectiveness.
Confirm that connections, seals and ducts are fitted appropriately and are free of
contaminants.

• Avoiding Pre-fill - In most cases, you do not want to pre-fill your oil filters before
installation. In diesel engines, it is recommended that a pre-lube system be installed
instead in order to counteract changes from dry-start conditions.

• Choosing Correctly - Many filters and filter housings are designed to be

interchangeable, so just because a particular filter fits doesn’t mean it is the correct
filter. Make sure each filter is replaced with the right filter. This may not necessarily be
the one found on the machine, as an incorrect filter might have been used during the
last filter change.

• Training - Proper training must be conducted for all personnel involved with changing
filters. Remember, a task that seems straightforward to most people may not be for a
new employee.

FILTER FAILURE MODES

• Channeling - During high differential pressures, filter media passages can enlarge to a
point where unfiltered oil can pass through without an efficient contaminant capture. In
addition, any particles that were previously contained within the filter in line with the
enlarged passage may now be set free.

• Fatigue Cracks - In cyclic flow conditions, cracks can form within the filter media,
allowing a breach of oil to pass through unfiltered.

• Media Migration - Media fibers can deteriorate and produce new contaminants made
up of filter material. This may be caused by improper placement of the filter housing or
an inadequate fitting of the filter, which can generate damaging vibrations.
Embrittlement from incompatible oils or extremely high differential pressures can also
result in media disintegration.

• Plugging - During operation, filter media can become fully plugged by exceeding the
dirt-holding capacity. Plugging can occur prematurely if excessive moisture, coolant or
oxidative products like sludge are present.

FACTORS FOR PROPER OIL FILTER SELECTION

• Structural Integrity - Arguably the most critical factor, structural integrity relates to a
filter’s ability to prevent the passage of oil through an unfiltered flow path. The
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has established procedures for
testing fabrication integrity, material compatibility, end load and flow fatigue. These tests
can reveal defects such as improper sealing of seams and end caps or breaks in the
media from high-flow conditions, as well as the effects of high temperatures on the filter
element.

• Contamination (Dirt-Holding) Capacity - This refers to the amount of contaminants that

can be loaded onto the filter before the filter’s efficiency is limited.

• Pressure Loss - This involves the overall differential pressure lost from the filter’s
placement on the system. The pressure loss will be influenced by the filter media’s
porosity and surface area.

• Particle Capture Efficiency - This is the overall effectiveness of the filtration

mechanisms within the filter media to extract and retain contaminants from the oil.

• System/Environment - The characteristics of the system and environment in which the

filter will be installed must be considered, including the contamination expectations, flow
rates, location, vibration, etc.