Nickel - Wikipedia PDF

12/9/2019 Nickel - Wikipedia
Nickel
Nickel is a chemical element with the symbol Ni and atomic
Nickel, 28Ni
number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight
golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is
hard and ductile. Pure nickel, powdered to maximize the
reactive surface area, shows a significant chemical activity,
but larger pieces are slow to react with air under standard
conditions because an oxide layer forms on the surface and
prevents further corrosion (passivation). Even so, pure
native nickel is found in Earth's crust only in tiny amounts,
usually in ultramafic rocks,[4][5] and in the interiors of larger
nickel–iron meteorites that were not exposed to oxygen
when outside Earth's atmosphere.
Nickel
Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron, a Appearance lustrous, metallic, and silver
reflection of the origin of those elements as major end with a gold tinge
products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An iron–nickel
Standard atomic 58.6934(4)[1]
mixture is thought to compose Earth's outer and inner
weight Ar, std(Ni)
cores.[6]
Nickel in the periodic table
Use of nickel (as a natural meteoric nickel–iron alloy) has
been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated H H –
LB BCNOFN ↑
and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik SM ASPSCA Ni
PCS TVCMIrCNCZGGASBK ↓
RSY ZNMTRRPSCInTATIoX
Cronstedt, who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral, CBLCPNPSEGTDHETYLHTTROIrPGMTLBPAR Pd
FRATPUNPACBCEFMNLRDSBHMDRCNFMLTO
in the cobalt mines of Los, Hälsingland, Sweden. The cobalt ← nickel → copper
element's name comes from a mischievous sprite of German Atomic number (Z) 28
miner mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick), who
Group group 10
personified the fact that copper-nickel ores resisted
refinement into copper. An economically important source of Period period 4
nickel is the iron ore limonite, which often contains 1–2% Block d-block
nickel. Nickel's other important ore minerals include Element category Transition metal
pentlandite and a mixture of Ni-rich natural silicates known
Electron [Ar] 3d8 4s2 or [Ar] 3d9 4s1
as garnierite. Major production sites include the Sudbury
configuration
region in Canada (which is thought to be of meteoric origin),
New Caledonia in the Pacific, and Norilsk in Russia.
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 16, 2 or 2, 8, 17, 1
Physical properties
Nickel is slowly oxidized by air at room temperature and is
Phase at STP solid
considered corrosion-resistant. Historically, it has been used
for plating iron and brass, coating chemistry equipment, and Melting point 1728 K (1455 °C, 2651 °F)
manufacturing certain alloys that retain a high silvery polish, Boiling point 3003 K (2730 °C, 4946 °F)
such as German silver. About 9% of world nickel production Density (near r.t.) 8.908 g/cm3
is still used for corrosion-resistant nickel plating. Nickel-
when liquid (at m.p.) 7.81 g/cm3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel 1/21
plated objects sometimes provoke nickel allergy. Nickel has Heat of fusion 17.48 kJ/mol
been widely used in coins, though its rising price has led to Heat of 379 kJ/mol
some replacement with cheaper metals in recent years. vaporization
Nickel is one of four elements (the others are iron, cobalt, Molar heat capacity 26.07 J/(mol·K)
and gadolinium)[7] that are ferromagnetic at approximately Vapor pressure
room temperature. Alnico permanent magnets based partly
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based
permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets. The metal is at T (K) 1783 1950 2154 2410 2741 3184
valuable in modern times chiefly in alloys; about 68% of
Atomic properties
world production is used in stainless steel. A further 10% is
used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 7% for alloy
Oxidation states −2, −1, 0, +1,[2] +2, +3, +4[3]
steels, 3% in foundries, 9% in plating and 4% in other (a mildly basic oxide)
applications, including the fast-growing battery sector.[8] As Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.91
a compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical Ionization energies 1st: 737.1 kJ/mol
manufacturing uses, such as a catalyst for hydrogenation,
2nd: 1753.0 kJ/mol
cathodes for batteries, pigments and metal surface
treatments.[9] Nickel is an essential nutrient for some
3rd: 3395 kJ/mol
microorganisms and plants that have enzymes with nickel as (more)
an active site. Atomic radius empirical: 124 pm
Covalent radius 124±4 pm
Van der Waals 163 pm
Contents radius
Properties
Atomic and physical properties
Electron configuration dispute Spectral lines of nickel
Isotopes
Other properties
Occurrence
Compounds
Natural occurrence primordial
Nickel(0) Crystal structure face-centered cubic (fcc)
Nickel(I)
Nickel(II)
Nickel(III) and (IV)
History Speed of sound 4900 m/s (at r.t.)
Coinage thin rod
Canada
Thermal expansion 13.4 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Switzerland
United Kingdom Thermal 90.9 W/(m·K)
United States conductivity
Current use
Electrical 69.3 nΩ·m (at 20 °C)
World production resistivity
Extraction and purification
Magnetic ordering ferromagnetic
Electrorefining
Mond process Young's modulus 200 GPa
Metal value Shear modulus 76 GPa
Applications Bulk modulus 180 GPa
Biological role
Toxicity Poisson ratio 0.31

References Mohs hardness 4.0
External links
Vickers hardness 638 MPa
Brinell hardness 667–1600 MPa
Properties CAS Number 7440-02-0

History
Discovery and first Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1751)
Atomic and physical properties
isolation
Main isotopes of nickel
Iso- Abun- Half-life Decay Pro-

tope dance (t1/2) mode duct
58Ni 68.077% stable
59Ni trace 7.6×104 y ε 59Co
60Ni 26.223% stable
61Ni 1.140% stable
62Ni 3.635% stable

Electron micrograph of a Ni
nanocrystal inside a single wall 63Ni syn 100 y β− 63Cu
carbon nanotube; scale bar 5
nm.[10] 64Ni 0.926% stable
Nickel is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high
polish. It is one of only four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature, the others being iron, cobalt and
gadolinium. Its Curie temperature is 355 °C (671 °F), meaning that bulk nickel is non-magnetic above this temperature.[11]
The unit cell of nickel is a face-centered cube with the lattice parameter of 0.352 nm, giving an atomic radius of 0.124 nm.
This crystal structure is stable to pressures of at least 70 GPa. Nickel belongs to the transition metals. It is hard, malleable
and ductile, and has a relatively high for transition metals electrical and thermal conductivity.[12] The high compressive
strength of 34 GPa, predicted for ideal crystals, is never obtained in the real bulk material due to the formation and
movement of dislocations; however, it has been reached in Ni nanoparticles.[13]
Electron configuration dispute

The nickel atom has two electron configurations, [Ar] 3d8 4s2 and [Ar] 3d9 4s1, which are very close in energy – the
symbol [Ar] refers to the argon-like core structure. There is some disagreement on which configuration has the lowest
energy.[14] Chemistry textbooks quote the electron configuration of nickel as [Ar] 4s2 3d8,[15] which can also be written
[Ar] 3d8 4s2.[16] This configuration agrees with the Madelung energy ordering rule, which predicts that 4s is filled before
3d. It is supported by the experimental fact that the lowest energy state of the nickel atom is a 3d8 4s2 energy level,
specifically the 3d8(3F) 4s2 3F, J = 4 level.[17]
However, each of these two configurations splits into several energy levels due to fine structure,[17] and the two sets of
energy levels overlap. The average energy of states with configuration [Ar] 3d9 4s1 is actually lower than the average
energy of states with configuration [Ar] 3d8 4s2. For this reason, the research literature on atomic calculations quotes the
ground state configuration of nickel as [Ar] 3d9 4s1.[14]
Isotopes
The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48 u (48Ni) to 78 u (78Ni).
Naturally occurring nickel is composed of five stable isotopes; 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni and 64Ni, with 58Ni being the most
abundant (68.077% natural abundance). Isotopes heavier than 62Ni cannot be formed by nuclear fusion without losing
energy.
Nickel-62 has the highest mean nuclear binding energy per nucleon of any nuclide, at 8.7946 MeV/nucleon.[18] Its binding
56 58
energy is greater than both Fe and Fe, more abundant elements often incorrectly cited as having the most tightly-
bound nuclides.[19] Although this would seem to predict nickel-62 as the most abundant heavy element in the universe,
the relatively high rate of photodisintegration of nickel in stellar interiors causes iron to be by far the most abundant.[19]
Stable isotope nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide 60Fe, which decays with a half-life of 2.6
million years. Because 60Fe has such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the solar system may generate
observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60Ni. Therefore, the abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial
material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history.
Some 18 nickel radioisotopes have been characterised, the most stable being 59Ni with a half-life of 76,000 years, 63Ni
with 100 years, and 56Ni with 6 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 60 hours
and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has one meta state.[20]
Radioactive nickel-56 is produced by the silicon burning process and later set free in large quantities during type Ia
supernovae. The shape of the light curve of these supernovae at intermediate to late-times corresponds to the decay via
electron capture of nickel-56 to cobalt-56 and ultimately to iron-56.[21] Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide
59 59
with a half-life of 76,000 years. Ni has found many applications in isotope geology. Ni has been used to date the
terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment. Nickel-78's half-life
was recently measured at 110 milliseconds, and is believed an important isotope in supernova nucleosynthesis of elements
heavier than iron.[22] The nuclide 48Ni, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich heavy element isotope known. With 28
protons and 20 neutrons 48Ni is "double magic", as is 78Ni with 28 protons and 50 neutrons. Both are therefore unusually
stable for nuclides with so large a proton-neutron imbalance.[20][23]
Occurrence
On Earth, nickel occurs most often in combination with sulfur and iron in
pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and
with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena.[24] Nickel is commonly found in iron
meteorites as the alloys kamacite and taenite. The presence of nickel in
meteorites was first detected in 1799 by Joseph-Louis Proust, a French chemist
who then worked in Spain. Proust analyzed samples of the meteorite from
Campo del Cielo (Argentina), which had been obtained in 1783 by Miguel
Rubín de Celis, discovering the presence in them of nickel (about 10%) along
Widmanstätten pattern showing the with iron.[25]

two forms of nickel-iron, kamacite
The bulk of the nickel is mined from two types of ore deposits. The first is
and taenite, in an octahedrite
meteorite laterite, where the principal ore mineral mixtures are nickeliferous limonite,
(Fe,Ni)O(OH), and garnierite (a mixture of various hydrous nickel and nickel-
rich silicates). The second is magmatic sulfide deposits, where the principal ore
mineral is pentlandite: (Ni,Fe)9S8.
Australia and New Caledonia have the biggest estimate reserves, at 45% of world's total.[26]
Identified land-based resources throughout the world averaging 1% nickel or greater comprise at least 130 million tons of
nickel (about the double of known reserves). About 60% is in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits.[26]
On geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be in the Earth's outer and inner cores. Kamacite and
taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel. For kamacite, the alloy is usually in the proportion of 90:10 to
95:5, although impurities (such as cobalt or carbon) may be present, while for taenite the nickel content is between 20%
and 65%. Kamacite and taenite are also found in nickel iron meteorites.[27]
Compounds
The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2, but compounds of Ni0, Ni+, and Ni3+
are well known, and the exotic oxidation states Ni2−, Ni1−, and Ni4+ have been
produced and studied.[28]
Nickel(0)
Nickel tetracarbonyl (Ni(CO)4), discovered by Ludwig Mond,[29] is a volatile, highly
toxic liquid at room temperature. On heating, the complex decomposes back to nickel
and carbon monoxide:
Tetracarbonyl nickel
Ni(CO)4 ⇌ Ni + 4 CO
This behavior is exploited in the Mond process for purifying nickel, as described above. The related nickel(0) complex
bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) is a useful catalyst in organonickel chemistry because the cyclooctadiene (or cod) ligands are
easily displaced.
Nickel(I)
Nickel(I) complexes are uncommon, but one example is the tetrahedral complex NiBr(PPh3)3. Many nickel(I) complexes
feature Ni-Ni bonding, such as the dark red diamagnetic K4[Ni2(CN)6] prepared by reduction of K2[Ni2(CN)6] with
sodium amalgam. This compound is oxidised in water, liberating H2.[30]
It is thought that the nickel(I) oxidation state is important to nickel-containing enzymes, such as [NiFe]-hydrogenase,
which catalyzes the reversible reduction of protons to H2.[31]
Nickel(II)
Nickel(II) forms compounds with all common anions, including sulfide, sulfate, carbonate, hydroxide, carboxylates, and
halides. Nickel(II) sulfate is produced in large quantities by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid, forming both
a hexa- and heptahydrates[32] useful for electroplating nickel. Common salts of nickel, such as the chloride, nitrate, and
2+
sulfate, dissolve in water to give green solutions of the metal aquo complex [Ni(H2O)6] .
The four halides form nickel compounds, which are solids with molecules that feature octahedral Ni centres. Nickel(II)
chloride is most common, and its behavior is illustrative of the other halides. Nickel(II) chloride is produced by dissolving
nickel or its oxide in hydrochloric acid. It is usually encountered as the green hexahydrate, the formula of which is usually
written NiCl2•6H2O. When dissolved in

water, this salt forms the metal aquo
2+
complex [Ni(H2O)6] . Dehydration of
NiCl2•6H2O gives the yellow anhydrous
NiCl2.
Some tetracoordinate nickel(II)

complexes, e.g.
Color of various Ni(II) complexes in aqueous solution. From left to right, bis(triphenylphosphine)nickel chloride,
2+ 2− 2+
[Ni(NH3)6] , [Ni(C2H4(NH2)2)]2+, [NiCl4] , [Ni(H2O)6] exist both in tetrahedral and square
planar geometries. The tetrahedral
complexes are paramagnetic, whereas
the square planar complexes are diamagnetic. In having properties of magnetic
equilibrium and formation of octahedral complexes, they contrast with the divalent
complexes of the heavier group 10 metals, palladium(II) and platinum(II), which form
only square-planar geometry.[28]
Nickelocene is known; it has an electron count of 20, making it relatively unstable.
Crystals of hydrated nickel

sulfate.
Nickel(III) and (IV)
Numerous Ni(III) compounds are known, with the first such examples being Nickel(III)
trihalophosphines (NiIII(PPh3)X3).[33] Further, Ni(III) forms simple salts with
fluoride[34] or oxide ions. Ni(III) can be stabilized by σ-donor ligands such as thiols and
phosphines.[30]
Ni(IV) is present in the mixed oxide BaNiO3, while Ni(III) is present in nickel oxide
hydroxide, which is used as the cathode in many rechargeable batteries, including
nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, nickel hydrogen, and nickel-metal hydride, and used by
Nickel(III) antimonide
certain manufacturers in Li-ion batteries.[35] Ni(IV) remains a rare oxidation state of
nickel and very few compounds are known to date.[36][37][38][39]
History
Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver, understanding of this metal and its use dates to relatively
recent times. However, the unintentional use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BCE. Bronzes from
what is now Syria have been found to contain as much as 2% nickel.[40] Some ancient Chinese manuscripts suggest that
"white copper" (cupronickel, known as baitong) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BCE. This Paktong white copper
was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822.[41]
Coins of nickel-copper alloy were minted by the Bactrian kings Agathocles, Euthydemus II and Pantaleon in the 2nd
Century BCE, possibly out of the Chinese cupronickel.[42]
In medieval Germany, a red mineral was found in the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains) that resembled copper ore. However,
when miners were unable to extract any copper from it, they blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel
(similar to Old Nick), for besetting the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel from the German Kupfer for
copper.[43][44][45][46] This ore is now known to be nickeline, a nickel arsenide. In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt tried
to extract copper from kupfernickel at a cobalt mine in the Swedish village of

Los, and instead produced a white metal that he named after the spirit that had
given its name to the mineral, nickel.[47] In modern German, Kupfernickel or
Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy cupronickel.[12]
Originally, the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel. Beginning in
1824, nickel was obtained as a byproduct of cobalt blue production. The first
large-scale smelting of nickel began in Norway in 1848 from nickel-rich
pyrrhotite. The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the
demand for nickel, and the nickel deposits of New Caledonia, discovered in nickeline/niccolite
1865, provided most of the world's supply between 1875 and 1915. The
discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury Basin, Canada in 1883, in
Norilsk-Talnakh, Russia in 1920, and in the Merensky Reef, South Africa in 1924, made large-scale production of nickel
possible.[41]
Coinage
Aside from the aforementioned Bactrian coins, nickel was not a component of
coins until the mid-19th century.
Canada
99.9% nickel five-cent coins were struck in Canada (the world's largest nickel
producer at the time) during non-war years from 1922–1981; the metal content
made these coins magnetic.[48] During the wartime period 1942–45, most or
all nickel was removed from Canadian and US coins to save it for
Dutch coins made of pure nickel
manufacturing armor.[44][49] Canada used 99.9% nickel from 1968 in its
higher-value coins until 2000.
Switzerland
Coins of nearly pure nickel were first used in 1881 in Switzerland.[50]
United Kingdom
Birmingham forged nickel coins in about 1833 for trading in Malaya.[51]
United States
In the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" originally applied to the copper-nickel Flying Eagle cent, which replaced
copper with 12% nickel 1857–58, then the Indian Head cent of the same alloy from 1859–1864. Still later, in 1865, the
term designated the three-cent nickel, with nickel increased to 25%. In 1866, the five-cent shield nickel (25% nickel, 75%
copper) appropriated the designation. Along with the alloy proportion, this term has been used to the present in the
United States.
Current use
In the 21st century, the high price of nickel has led to some replacement of the metal in coins around the world. Coins still
made with nickel alloys include one- and two-euro coins, 5¢, 10¢, 25¢ and 50¢ U.S. coins, and 20p, 50p, £1 and £2 UK
coins. Nickel-alloy in 5p and 10p UK coins was replaced with nickel-plated steel began in 2012, causing allergy problems
for some people and public controversy.[50]
World production
More than 2.3 million tonnes (t) of nickel per year are mined
worldwide, with Indonesia (560,000 t), The Philippines
(340,000 t), Russia (210,000 t), New Caledonia (210,000 t),
Australia (170,000 t) and Canada (160,000 t) being the largest
producers as of 2019.[26] The largest deposits of nickel in non-
Russian Europe are located in Finland and Greece. Identified
land-based resources averaging 1% nickel or greater contain at
least 130 million tonnes of nickel. Approximately 60% is in
laterites and 40% is in sulfide deposits. In addition, extensive
deep-sea resources of nickel are in manganese crusts and
nodules covering large areas of the ocean floor, particularly in
the Pacific Ocean.[53]
Time trend of nickel production[52]
The one locality in the United States where nickel has been
profitably mined is Riddle, Oregon, where several square miles
of nickel-bearing garnierite surface deposits are located. The
mine closed in 1987.[54][55] The Eagle mine project is a new
nickel mine in Michigan's upper peninsula. Construction was
completed in 2013, and operations began in the third quarter of
2014.[56] In the first full year of operation, Eagle Mine
produced 18,000 t.[56]
Extraction and purification
Nickel ores grade evolution in some leading nickel

producing countries.
Nickel is obtained through extractive metallurgy: it is extracted from the ore by

conventional roasting and reduction processes that yield a metal of greater
than 75% purity. In many stainless steel applications, 75% pure nickel can be
used without further purification, depending on the impurities.
Traditionally, most sulfide ores have been processed using pyrometallurgical

Evolution of the annual nickel techniques to produce a matte for further refining. Recent advances in
extraction, according to ores. hydrometallurgical techniques resulted in significantly purer metallic nickel
product. Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been processed by
concentration through a froth flotation process followed by pyrometallurgical
extraction. In hydrometallurgical processes, nickel sulfide ores are concentrated with flotation (differential flotation if
Ni/Fe ratio is too low) and then smelted. The nickel matte is further processed with the Sherritt-Gordon process. First,
copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide, leaving a concentrate of cobalt and nickel. Then, solvent extraction is used
to separate the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel content greater than 99%.
Electrorefining
A second common refining process is leaching the metal matte into a nickel
salt solution, followed by the electro-winning of the nickel from solution by
plating it onto a cathode as electrolytic nickel.
Mond process
Electrolytically refined nickel nodule,
The purest metal is obtained from
with green, crystallized nickel-
nickel oxide by the Mond process, electrolyte salts visible in the pores.
which achieves a purity of greater
than 99.99%.[57] The process was
patented by Ludwig Mond and has been in industrial use since before the
beginning of the 20th century. In this process, nickel is reacted with carbon
monoxide in the presence of a sulfur catalyst at around 40–80 °C to form
nickel carbonyl. Iron gives iron pentacarbonyl, too, but this reaction is slow. If
Highly purified nickel spheres made
by the Mond process. necessary, the nickel may be separated by distillation. Dicobalt octacarbonyl is
also formed in nickel distillation as a by-product, but it decomposes to
tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl at the reaction temperature to give a non-volatile
solid.[58]
Nickel is obtained from nickel carbonyl by one of two processes. It may be passed through a large chamber at high
temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres, called pellets, are constantly stirred. The carbonyl decomposes
and deposits pure nickel onto the nickel spheres. In the alternate process, nickel carbonyl is decomposed in a smaller
chamber at 230 °C to create a fine nickel powder. The byproduct carbon monoxide is recirculated and reused. The highly
pure nickel product is known as "carbonyl nickel".[59]
Metal value
The market price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007; as of April 5, 2007, the metal was
trading at US$52,300/tonne or $1.47/oz.[60] The price subsequently fell dramatically, and as of September 2017, the
metal was trading at $11,000/tonne, or $0.31/oz.[61]
The US nickel coin contains 0.04 ounces (1.1 g) of nickel, which at the April 2007 price was worth 6.5 cents, along with
3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, with a total metal value of more than 9 cents. Since the face value of a nickel is 5
cents, this made it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit. However, the United
States Mint, in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public
comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of cents and nickels.[62] Violators can be punished with a
fine of up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.
As of September 19, 2013, the melt value of a US nickel (copper and nickel included) is $0.045, which is 90% of the face
value.[63]
Applications
The global production of nickel is presently used as follows: 68% in stainless
steel; 10% in nonferrous alloys; 9% in electroplating; 7% in alloy steel; 3% in
foundries; and 4% other uses (including batteries).[8]
Nickel is used in many specific and recognizable industrial and consumer

products, including stainless steel, alnico magnets, coinage, rechargeable
batteries, electric guitar strings, microphone capsules, plating on plumbing
fixtures,[64] and special alloys such as permalloy, elinvar, and invar. It is used
for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is preeminently an alloy metal,
and its chief use is in nickel steels and nickel cast irons, in which it typically
increases the tensile strength, toughness, and elastic limit. It is widely used in
many other alloys, including nickel brasses and bronzes and alloys with
copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold (Inconel, Incoloy,
Monel, Nimonic).[65]
Because it is resistant to corrosion,

nickel was occasionally used as a
substitute for decorative silver.
Nickel was also occasionally used in
some countries after 1859 as a
cheap coinage metal (see above),
Nickel foam (top) and its internal
but in the later years of the 20th structure (bottom)
century was replaced by cheaper
stainless steel (i.e., iron) alloys,
except in the United States and Canada.
Nickel is an excellent alloying agent for certain precious metals and is used in
A "horseshoe magnet" made of the fire assay as a collector of platinum group elements (PGE). As such, nickel
alnico nickel alloy.
is capable of fully collecting all six PGE elements from ores, and of partially
collecting gold. High-throughput nickel mines may also engage in PGE
recovery (primarily platinum and palladium); examples are Norilsk in Russia and the Sudbury Basin in Canada.
Nickel foam or nickel mesh is used in gas diffusion electrodes for alkaline fuel cells.[66][67]
Nickel and its alloys are frequently used as catalysts for hydrogenation reactions. Raney nickel, a finely divided nickel-
aluminium alloy, is one common form, though related catalysts are also used, including Raney-type catalysts.
Nickel is a naturally magnetostrictive material, meaning that, in the presence of a magnetic field, the material undergoes a
small change in length.[68][69] The magnetostriction of nickel is on the order of 50 ppm and is negative, indicating that it
contracts.
Nickel is used as a binder in the cemented tungsten carbide or hardmetal industry and used in proportions of 6% to 12%
by weight. Nickel makes the tungsten carbide magnetic and adds corrosion-resistance to the cemented parts, although the
hardness is less than those with a cobalt binder.[70]
63
Ni, with its half-life of 100.1 years, is useful in krytron devices as a beta particle (high-speed electron) emitter to make
ionization by the keep-alive electrode more reliable.[71]
Around 27% of all nickel production is destined for engineering, 10% for building and construction, 14% for tubular
products, 20% for metal goods, 14% for transport, 11% for electronic goods, and 5% for other uses.[8]
Biological role
Raney nickel is widely used for hydrogenation of unsaturated oils to make margarine, and substandard margarine and
leftover oil may contain nickel as contaminant. Forte et al. found that type 2 diabetic patients have 0.89 ng/ml of Ni in the
blood relative to 0.77 ng/ml in the control subjects.[72]
Although not recognized until the 1970s, nickel is known to play an important role in the biology of some plants,
eubacteria, archaebacteria, and fungi.[73][74][75] Nickel enzymes such as urease are considered virulence factors in some
organisms.[76][77] Urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to form ammonia and carbamate.[74][73] The NiFe hydrogenases
can catalyze the oxidation of H2 to form protons and electrons, and can also catalyze the reverse reaction, the reduction of
protons to form hydrogen gas.[74][73] A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, cofactor F430, is present in methyl coenzyme M
reductase, which can catalyze the formation of methane, or the reverse reaction, in methanogenic archaea.[78] One of the
carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes consists of an Fe-Ni-S cluster.[79] Other nickel-bearing enzymes include a rare
bacterial class of superoxide dismutase[80] and glyoxalase I enzymes in bacteria and several parasitic eukaryotic
trypanosomal parasites[81] (in higher organisms, including yeast and mammals, this enzyme contains divalent
Zn2+).[82][83][84][85][86]
Dietary nickel may affect human health through infections by nickel-dependent bacteria, but it is also possible that nickel
is an essential nutrient for bacteria residing in the large intestine, in effect functioning as a prebiotic.[87] The US Institute
of Medicine has not confirmed that nickel is an essential nutrient for humans, so neither a Recommended Dietary
Allowance (RDA) nor an Adequate Intake have been established. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level of dietary nickel is
1000 µg/day as soluble nickel salts. Dietary intake is estimated at 70 to 100 µg/day, with less than 10% absorbed. What is
absorbed is excreted in urine.[88] Relatively large amounts of nickel – comparable to the estimated average ingestion
above – leach into food cooked in stainless steel. For example, the amount of nickel leached after 10 cooking cycles into
one serving of tomato sauce averages 88 µg.[89][90]
Nickel released from Siberian Traps volcanic eruptions is suspected of assisting the growth of Methanosarcina, a genus of
euryarchaeote archaea that produced methane during the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the biggest extinction event
on record.[91]
Toxicity
The major source of nickel exposure is oral consumption, as nickel is essential
Nickel
to plants.[93] Nickel is found naturally in both food and water, and may be
increased by human pollution. For example, nickel-plated faucets may Hazards
contaminate water and soil; mining and smelting may dump nickel into waste- GHS pictograms
water; nickel–steel alloy cookware and nickel-pigmented dishes may release
nickel into food. The atmosphere may be polluted by nickel ore refining and
fossil fuel combustion. Humans may absorb nickel directly from tobacco smoke GHS Signal Danger
and skin contact with jewelry, shampoos, detergents, and coins. A less- word
common form of chronic exposure is through hemodialysis as traces of nickel GHS hazard H317, H351,
ions may be absorbed into the plasma from the chelating action of albumin.
statements H372, H412
GHS P273, P280,
The average daily exposure does not pose a threat to human health. Most of the precautionary P314,
nickel absorbed every day by humans is removed by the kidneys and passed statements
P333+313[92]
out of the body through urine or is eliminated through the gastrointestinal
tract without being absorbed. Nickel is not a cumulative poison, but larger NFPA 704
0
doses or chronic inhalation exposure may be toxic, even carcinogenic, and (fire diamond) 2 0
constitute an occupational hazard.[94]
Nickel compounds are classified as human carcinogens[95][96][97][98] based on

increased respiratory cancer risks observed in epidemiological studies of sulfidic ore refinery workers.[99] This is
supported by the positive results of the NTP bioassays with Ni sub-sulfide and Ni oxide in rats and mice.[100][101] The
human and animal data consistently indicate a lack of carcinogenicity via the oral route of exposure and limit the
carcinogenicity of nickel compounds to respiratory tumours after inhalation.[102][103] Nickel metal is classified as a suspect
carcinogen;[95][96][97] there is consistency between the absence of increased respiratory cancer risks in workers
predominantly exposed to metallic nickel[99] and the lack of respiratory tumours in a rat lifetime inhalation
carcinogenicity study with nickel metal powder.[104] In the rodent inhalation studies with various nickel compounds and
nickel metal, increased lung inflammations with and without bronchial lymph node hyperplasia or fibrosis were
observed.[98][100][104][105] In rat studies, oral ingestion of water-soluble nickel salts can trigger perinatal mortality effects
in pregnant animals.[106] Whether these effects are relevant to humans is unclear as epidemiological studies of highly
exposed female workers have not shown adverse developmental toxicity effects.[107][108][109][110]
People can be exposed to nickel in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, and contact with skin or eye. The Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for the workplace at
1 mg/m3 per 8-hour workday, excluding nickel carbonyl. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) specifies the recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.015 mg/m3 per 8-hour workday. At 10 mg/m3, nickel is
immediately dangerous to life and health.[111] Nickel carbonyl [Ni(CO)4] is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal
carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal and the off-gassing of carbon monoxide from the carbonyl
functional groups; nickel carbonyl is also explosive in air.[112][113]
Sensitized individuals may show a skin contact allergy to nickel known as a contact dermatitis. Highly sensitized
individuals may also react to foods with high nickel content.[114] Sensitivity to nickel may also be present in patients with
pompholyx. Nickel is the top confirmed contact allergen worldwide, partly due to its use in jewelry for pierced ears.[115]
Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made without nickel or
low-release nickel[116] to address this problem. The amount allowed in products that contact human skin is now regulated
by the European Union. In 2002, researchers found that the nickel released by 1 and 2 Euro coins was far in excess of
those standards. This is believed to be the result of a galvanic reaction.[117] Nickel was voted Allergen of the Year in 2008
by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.[118] In August 2015, the American Academy of Dermatology adopted a
position statement on the safety of nickel: "Estimates suggest that contact dermatitis, which includes nickel sensitization,
accounts for approximately $1.918 billion and affects nearly 72.29 million people."[114]
Reports show that both the nickel-induced activation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) and the up-regulation of
hypoxia-inducible genes are caused by depletion of intracellular ascorbate. The addition of ascorbate to the culture
medium increased the intracellular ascorbate level and reversed both the metal-induced stabilization of HIF-1- and HIF-
1α-dependent gene expression.[119][120]
References
1. Meija, Juris; et al. (2016). "Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied
Chemistry. 88 (3): 265–91. doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0305 (https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fpac-2015-0305).
2. Pfirrmann, Stefan; Limberg, Christian; Herwig, Christian; Stößer, Reinhard; Ziemer, Burkhard (2009). "A Dinuclear
Nickel(I) Dinitrogen Complex and its Reduction in Single-Electron Steps". Angewandte Chemie International Edition.
48 (18): 3357–61. doi:10.1002/anie.200805862 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.200805862). PMID 19322853 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19322853).
3. Carnes, Matthew; Buccella, Daniela; Chen, Judy Y.-C.; Ramirez, Arthur P.; Turro, Nicholas J.; Nuckolls, Colin;
Steigerwald, Michael (2009). "A Stable Tetraalkyl Complex of Nickel(IV)". Angewandte Chemie International Edition.
48 (2): 290–4. doi:10.1002/anie.200804435 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.200804435). PMID 19021174 (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19021174).
4. Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A.; Bladh, Kenneth W.; Nichols, Monte C., eds. (1990). "Nickel" (http://www.hand
bookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/nickel.pdf) (PDF). Handbook of Mineralogy. Vol. I. Chantilly, VA, US: Mineralogical Society
of America. ISBN 978-0962209703.
5. "Nickel: Nickel mineral information and data" (http://www.mindat.org/min-2895.html). Mindat.org. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20160303184003/http://www.mindat.org/min-2895.html) from the original on March 3, 2016.
Retrieved March 2, 2016.
6. Stixrude, Lars; Waserman, Evgeny; Cohen, Ronald (November 1997). "Composition and temperature of Earth's inner
core". Journal of Geophysical Research. 102 (B11): 24729–24740. Bibcode:1997JGR...10224729S (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/1997JGR...10224729S). doi:10.1029/97JB02125 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F97JB02125).
7. Coey, J. M. D.; Skumryev, V.; Gallagher, K. (1999). "Rare-earth metals: Is gadolinium really ferromagnetic?". Nature.
401 (6748): 35–36. Bibcode:1999Natur.401...35C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Natur.401...35C).
doi:10.1038/43363 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F43363).
8. "Nickel Use In Society" (https://www.nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseInSociety/AboutNickel/FirstAndEndUsesofNickel.asp
x). Nickel Institute. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170921000402/https://www.nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseI
nSociety/AboutNickel/FirstAndEndUsesofNickel.aspx) from the original on September 21, 2017.
9. "Nickel Compounds – The Inside Story" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180831002419/https://nickelinstitute.org/~/me
dia/Files/MediaCenter/NiCompounds/NI%20Compounds%202015%20v12%20FINAL.ashx?la=en). Nickel Institute.
10. Shiozawa, Hidetsugu; Briones-Leon, Antonio; Domanov, Oleg; Zechner, Georg; et al. (2015). "Nickel clusters
embedded in carbon nanotubes as high performance magnets" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC46022
18). Scientific Reports. 5: 15033. Bibcode:2015NatSR...515033S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015NatSR...515
033S). doi:10.1038/srep15033 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep15033). PMC 4602218 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC4602218). PMID 26459370 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26459370).
11. Kittel, Charles (1996). Introduction to Solid State Physics. Wiley. p. 449. ISBN 978-0-471-14286-7.
12. Hammond, C.R.; Lide, C. R. (2018). "The elements". In Rumble, John R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics (99th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 4.22. ISBN 9781138561632.
13. Sharma, A.; Hickman, J.; Gazit, N.; Rabkin, E.; Mishin, Y. (2018). "Nickel nanoparticles set a new record of strength"
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6173750). Nature Communications. 9 (1): 4102.
Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.4102S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatCo...9.4102S). doi:10.1038/s41467-018-
06575-6 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-018-06575-6). PMC 6173750 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC6173750). PMID 30291239 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30291239).
14. Scerri, Eric R. (2007). The periodic table: its story and its significance (https://books.google.com/?id=SNRdGWCGt1U
C&pg=PA239). Oxford University Press. pp. 239–240. ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9.
15. Miessler, G.L. and Tarr, D.A. (1999) Inorganic Chemistry 2nd ed., Prentice–Hall. p. 38. ISBN 0138418918.
16. Petrucci, R.H. et al. (2002) General Chemistry 8th ed., Prentice–Hall. p. 950. ISBN 0130143294.
17. NIST Atomic Spectrum Database (http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/ASD/levels_form.html) Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20110320190125/http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/ASD/levels_form.html) March 20, 2011, at the
Wayback Machine To read the nickel atom levels, type "Ni I" in the Spectrum box and click on Retrieve data.
18. Shurtleff, Richard; Derringh, Edward (1989). "The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei" (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hb
ase/nucene/nucbin2.html#c1). American Journal of Physics. 57 (6): 552. Bibcode:1989AmJPh..57..552S (https://ui.ad
sabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989AmJPh..57..552S). doi:10.1119/1.15970 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.15970). Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20110514050922/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/nucbin2.html#c1)
from the original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved November 19, 2008.
19. Fewell, M. P. (1995). "The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy". American Journal of Physics. 63 (7):
653. Bibcode:1995AmJPh..63..653F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995AmJPh..63..653F). doi:10.1119/1.17828
(https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.17828).
20. Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of
nuclear and decay properties" (https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/in2p3-00020241/document), Nuclear Physics A, 729:
3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A),
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001)
21. Pagel, Bernard Ephraim Julius (1997). "Further burning stages: evolution of massive stars". Nucleosynthesis and
chemical evolution of galaxies (https://archive.org/details/nucleosynthesisc0000page). pp. 154–160 (https://archive.or
g/details/nucleosynthesisc0000page/page/154). ISBN 978-0-521-55958-4.
22. Castelvecchi, Davide (April 22, 2005). "Atom Smashers Shed Light on Supernovae, Big Bang" (http://www.skyandtele
scope.com/news/3310246.html?page=1&c=y). Archived (https://archive.is/20120723105754/http://www.skyandtelesc
ope.com/news/3310246.html?page=1&c=y) from the original on July 23, 2012. Retrieved November 19, 2008.
23. W, P. (October 23, 1999). "Twice-magic metal makes its debut – isotope of nickel" (https://archive.is/2012052413412
5/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_17_156/ai_57799535). Science News. Archived from the original
(http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_17_156/ai_57799535) on May 24, 2012. Retrieved September 29,
2006.
24. National Pollutant Inventory – Nickel and compounds Fact Sheet (http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/nickel/index.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111208083730/http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/nickel/index.html)
December 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Npi.gov.au. Retrieved on January 9, 2012.
25. Calvo, Miguel (2019). Construyendo la Tabla Periódica. Zaragoza, Spain: Prames. p. 118. ISBN 978-84-8321-908-9.
26. Kuck, Peter H. "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2019: Nickel" (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nic
kel/mcs-2019-nicke.pdf) (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190421125
020/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nickel/mcs-2019-nicke.pdf) (PDF) from the original on April
21, 2019. Retrieved March 18, 2019.
27. Rasmussen, K. L.; Malvin, D. J.; Wasson, J. T. (1988). "Trace element partitioning between taenite and kamacite –
Relationship to the cooling rates of iron meteorites". Meteoritics. 23 (2): a107–112. Bibcode:1988Metic..23..107R (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988Metic..23..107R). doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1988.tb00905.x (https://doi.org/10.111
1%2Fj.1945-5100.1988.tb00905.x).
28. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
29. "The Extraction of Nickel from its Ores by the Mond Process". Nature. 59 (1516): 63–64. 1898.
Bibcode:1898Natur..59...63. (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1898Natur..59...63.). doi:10.1038/059063a0 (https://d
oi.org/10.1038%2F059063a0).
30. Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2008). Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 729. ISBN 978-0-13-175553-
6.
31. Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2012). Inorganic Chemistry (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 764. ISBN 978-0273742753.
32. Lascelles, Keith; Morgan, Lindsay G.; Nicholls, David and Beyersmann, Detmar (2005) "Nickel Compounds" in
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_235.pub2 (https://
doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a17_235.pub2)
33. Jensen, K. A. (1936). "Zur Stereochemie des koordinativ vierwertigen Nickels". Zeitschrift für Anorganische und
Allgemeine Chemie. 229 (3): 265–281. doi:10.1002/zaac.19362290304 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fzaac.1936229030
4).
34. Court, T. L.; Dove, M. F. A. (1973). "Fluorine compounds of nickel(III)". Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton
Transactions (19): 1995. doi:10.1039/DT9730001995 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FDT9730001995).
35. "Imara Corporation Launches; New Li-ion Battery Technology for High-Power Applications" (http://www.greencarcongr
ess.com/2008/12/imara-corporati.html). Green Car Congress. December 18, 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20081222102915/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/12/imara-corporati.html) from the original on
December 22, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2009.
36. Spokoyny, Alexander M.; Li, Tina C.; Farha, Omar K.; Machan, Charles M.; She, Chunxing; Stern, Charlotte L.;
Marks, Tobin J.; Hupp, Joseph T.; Mirkin, Chad A. (June 28, 2010). "Electronic Tuning of Nickel-Based
Bis(dicarbollide) Redox Shuttles in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (31): 5339–5343.
doi:10.1002/anie.201002181 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.201002181). PMID 20586090 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/20586090).
37. Hawthorne, M. Frederick (1967). "(3)-1,2-Dicarbollyl Complexes of Nickel(III) and Nickel(IV)". Journal of the American
Chemical Society. 89 (2): 470–471. doi:10.1021/ja00978a065 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja00978a065).
38. Camasso, N. M.; Sanford, M. S. (2015). "Design, synthesis, and carbon-heteroatom coupling reactions of
organometallic nickel(IV) complexes". Science. 347 (6227): 1218–20. Bibcode:2015Sci...347.1218C (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2015Sci...347.1218C). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.897.9273 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summar
y?doi=10.1.1.897.9273). doi:10.1126/science.aaa4526 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aaa4526).
PMID 25766226 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25766226).
39. Baucom, E. I.; Drago, R. S. (1971). "Nickel(II) and nickel(IV) complexes of 2,6-diacetylpyridine dioxime". Journal of
the American Chemical Society. 93 (24): 6469–6475. doi:10.1021/ja00753a022 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja00753a
022).
40. Rosenberg, Samuel J. (1968). Nickel and Its Alloys (http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA381960). National Bureau of
Standards.
41. McNeil, Ian (1990). "The Emergence of Nickel". An Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology. Taylor & Francis.
pp. 96–100. ISBN 978-0-415-01306-2.
42. Needham, Joseph; Wang, Ling; Lu, Gwei-Djen; Tsien, Tsuen-hsuin; Kuhn, Dieter and Golas, Peter J. (1974) Science
and civilisation in China (https://books.google.com/books?id=BYixSmXUCuMC&pg=PA237) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20160503082328/https://books.google.com/books?id=BYixSmXUCuMC&pg=PA237) May 3, 2016, at
the Wayback Machine. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-08571-3, pp. 237–250.
43. Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary, p888, W&R Chambers Ltd., 1977.
44. Baldwin, W. H. (1931). "The story of Nickel. I. How "Old Nick's" gnomes were outwitted". Journal of Chemical
Education. 8 (9): 1749. Bibcode:1931JChEd...8.1749B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931JChEd...8.1749B).
doi:10.1021/ed008p1749 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed008p1749).
45. Baldwin, W. H. (1931). "The story of Nickel. II. Nickel comes of age". Journal of Chemical Education. 8 (10): 1954.
Bibcode:1931JChEd...8.1954B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931JChEd...8.1954B). doi:10.1021/ed008p1954
(https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed008p1954).
46. Baldwin, W. H. (1931). "The story of Nickel. III. Ore, matte, and metal". Journal of Chemical Education. 8 (12): 2325.
Bibcode:1931JChEd...8.2325B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1931JChEd...8.2325B). doi:10.1021/ed008p2325
(https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed008p2325).
47. Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements: III. Some eighteenth-century metals". Journal of
Chemical Education. 9 (1): 22. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9...22W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JChEd...9...22
W). doi:10.1021/ed009p22 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed009p22).
48. "Industrious, enduring–the 5-cent coin" (http://www.mint.ca/store/mint/learn/circulation-currency-1100028). Royal
Canadian Mint. 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090126020102/http://www.mint.ca/store/mint/learn/circ
ulation-currency-1100028) from the original on January 26, 2009. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
49. Molloy, Bill (November 8, 2001). "Trends of Nickel in Coins – Past, Present and Future" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0060929095200/http://www.nidi.org/index.cfm/ci_id/160.htm). The Nickel Institute. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.nidi.org/index.cfm/ci_id/160.htm) on September 29, 2006. Retrieved November 19, 2008.
50. Lacey, Anna (June 22, 2013). "A bad penny? New coins and nickel allergy" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-2295
6874). BBC Health Check. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130807015003/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health
-22956874) from the original on August 7, 2013. Retrieved July 25, 2013.
51. "nikkelen dubbele wapenstuiver Utrecht" (http://www.nederlandsemunten.nl/Virtuele_munten_verzameling/Provinciaa
l/Provincie_Utrecht_1581-1795/Verzameling_nikkelen_dubbele_wapenstuiver_Utrecht-Birmingham_1786.htm).
nederlandsemunten.nl. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150107212633/http://www.nederlandsemunten.nl/Virt
uele_munten_verzameling/Provinciaal/Provincie_Utrecht_1581-1795/Verzameling_nikkelen_dubbele_wapenstuiver_
Utrecht-Birmingham_1786.htm) from the original on January 7, 2015. Retrieved January 7, 2015.
52. Kelly, T. D.; Matos, G. R. "Nickel Statistics" (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/ds140-nicke.pd

f) (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140812212741/http://minerals.usgs.gov/mi
nerals/pubs/historical-statistics/ds140-nicke.pdf) (PDF) from the original on August 12, 2014. Retrieved August 11,
2014.
53. "Nickel" (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nickel/mcs-2013-nicke.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Geological
Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries. January 2013. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130509061155/htt
p://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nickel/mcs-2013-nicke.pdf) (PDF) from the original on May 9, 2013.
Retrieved September 20, 2013.
54. "The Nickel Mountain Project" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120212005749/http://www.oregongeology.com/sub/publ
ications/OG/OBv15n10.pdf) (PDF). Ore Bin. 15 (10): 59–66. 1953. Archived from the original (http://www.oregongeolo
gy.com/sub/publications/OG/OBv15n10.pdf) (PDF) on February 12, 2012. Retrieved May 7, 2015.
55. "Environment Writer: Nickel" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060828211637/http://www.environmentwriter.org/resourc
es/backissues/chemicals/nickel.htm). National Safety Council. 2006. Archived from the original (http://www.environme
ntwriter.org/resources/backissues/chemicals/nickel.htm) on August 28, 2006. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
56. "Operations & Development" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151118181320/http://www.lundinmining.com/s/QOU.as
p?ReportID=718088). Lundin Mining Corporation. Archived from the original (http://www.lundinmining.com/s/QOU.as
p?ReportID=718088) on November 18, 2015. Retrieved August 10, 2014.
57. Mond, L.; Langer, K.; Quincke, F. (1890). "Action of carbon monoxide on nickel" (https://zenodo.org/record/2160347).
Journal of the Chemical Society. 57: 749–753. doi:10.1039/CT8905700749 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FCT89057007
49).
58. Kerfoot, Derek G. E. "Nickel". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_157 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a17_157).
59. Neikov, Oleg D.; Naboychenko, Stanislav; Gopienko, Victor G & Frishberg, Irina V (January 15, 2009). Handbook of
Non-Ferrous Metal Powders: Technologies and Applications (https://books.google.com/books?id=6aP3te2hGuQC&pg
=PA371). Elsevier. pp. 371–. ISBN 978-1-85617-422-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130529010927/htt
p://books.google.com/books?id=6aP3te2hGuQC&pg=PA371) from the original on May 29, 2013. Retrieved January 9,
2012.
60. "LME nickel price graphs" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090228180212/http://www.lme.com/nickel_graphs.asp).
London Metal Exchange. Archived from the original (http://www.lme.com/nickel_graphs.asp) on February 28, 2009.
Retrieved June 6, 2009.
61. "London Metal Exchange" (https://www.lme.com/metals/non-ferrous/nickel#tabIndex=0). LME.com. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20170920092525/https://www.lme.com/metals/non-ferrous/nickel#tabIndex=0) from the original
on September 20, 2017.
62. United States Mint Moves to Limit Exportation & Melting of Coins (http://www.usmint.gov/pressroom/index.cfm?action
=press_release&ID=724) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160527072103/http://www.usmint.gov/pressroom//i
ndex.cfm?action=press_release&ID=724) May 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, The United States Mint, press
release, December 14, 2006
63. "United States Circulating Coinage Intrinsic Value Table" (http://www.coinflation.com/). Coininflation.com. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20160617065505/http://www.coinflation.com/) from the original on June 17, 2016. Retrieved
September 13, 2013.
64. American Plumbing Practice: From the Engineering Record (Prior to 1887 the Sanitary Engineer.) A Selected Reprint
of Articles Describing Notable Plumbing Installations in the United States, and Questions and Answers on Problems
Arising in Plumbing and House Draining. With Five Hundred and Thirty-six Illustrations (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=DL1AAQAAMAAJ). Engineering record. 1896. p. 119. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161201111122/h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=DL1AAQAAMAAJ) from the original on December 1, 2016. Retrieved May 28,
2016.
65. Davis, Joseph R. (2000). "Uses of Nickel" (https://books.google.com/?id=IePhmnbmRWkC). ASM Specialty
Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys. ASM International. pp. 7–13. ISBN 978-0-87170-685-0.
66. Kharton, Vladislav V. (2011). Solid State Electrochemistry II: Electrodes, Interfaces and Ceramic Membranes (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=5n5Fwf5D2EMC&pg=PT166). Wiley-VCH. pp. 166–. ISBN 978-3-527-32638-9. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20150910120540/https://books.google.com/books?id=5n5Fwf5D2EMC&pg=PT166) from
the original on September 10, 2015. Retrieved June 27, 2015.
67. Bidault, F.; Brett, D. J. L.; Middleton, P. H.; Brandon, N. P. "A New Cathode Design for Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs)" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20110720233739/http://perso.ensem.inpl-nancy.fr/Olivier.Lottin/FDFC08/Bidault.pdf) (PDF).
Imperial College London. Archived from the original (http://perso.ensem.inpl-nancy.fr/Olivier.Lottin/FDFC08/Bidault.pd
f) (PDF) on July 20, 2011.
68. Magnetostrictive Materials Overview (https://web.archive.org/web/20130905155229/http://aml.seas.ucla.edu/researc
h/areas/magnetostrictive/overview.htm). University of California, Los Angeles.
69. Angara, Raghavendra (2009). High Frequency High Amplitude Magnetic Field Driving System for Magnetostrictive
Actuators. Umi Dissertation Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 9781109187533.
70. Cheburaeva, R. F.; Chaporova, I. N.; Krasina, T. I. (1992). "Structure and properties of tungsten carbide hard alloys
with an alloyed nickel binder". Soviet Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics. 31 (5): 423–425.
doi:10.1007/BF00796252 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00796252).
71. "Krytron Pulse Power Switching Tubes" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110716071203/www.siliconinvestigations.co
m/KRYT/Krytron.HTM). Silicon Investigations. 2011.
72. Khan, Abdul Rehman; Awan, Fazli Rabbi (January 8, 2014). "Metals in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes" (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3916582/). Journal of Diabetes and Metabolic Disorders. 13: 16.
doi:10.1186/2251-6581-13-16 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F2251-6581-13-16). PMC 3916582 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3916582). PMID 24401367 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24401367) – via PubMed
Central.
73. Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K. O. Sigel, eds. (2008). Nickel and Its Surprising Impact in Nature. Metal Ions in
Life Sciences. 2. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-01671-8.
74. Sydor, Andrew; Zamble, Deborah (2013). Banci, Lucia (ed.). Nickel Metallomics: General Themes Guiding Nickel
Homeostasis. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 375–416. ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1.
75. Zamble, Deborah; Rowińska-Żyrek, Magdalena; Kozlowski, Henryk (2017). The Biological Chemistry of Nickel (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=LQifDgAAQBAJ). Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-78262-498-1.
76. Covacci, Antonello; Telford, John L.; Giudice, Giuseppe Del; Parsonnet, Julie; Rappuoli, Rino (May 21, 1999).
"Helicobacter pylori Virulence and Genetic Geography". Science. 284 (5418): 1328–1333.
Bibcode:1999Sci...284.1328C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999Sci...284.1328C).
doi:10.1126/science.284.5418.1328 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.284.5418.1328). PMID 10334982 (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10334982).
77. Cox, Gary M.; Mukherjee, Jean; Cole, Garry T.; Casadevall, Arturo; Perfect, John R. (February 1, 2000). "Urease as a
Virulence Factor in Experimental Cryptococcosis" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC97161). Infection
and Immunity. 68 (2): 443–448. doi:10.1128/IAI.68.2.443-448.2000 (https://doi.org/10.1128%2FIAI.68.2.443-448.200
0). PMC 97161 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC97161). PMID 10639402 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pubmed/10639402).
78. Stephen W., Ragdale (2014). "Chapter 6. Biochemistry of Methyl-Coenzyme M Reductase: The Nickel
Metalloenzyme that Catalyzes the Final Step in Synthesis and the First Step in Anaerobic Oxidation of the
Greenhouse Gas Methane". In Peter M.H. Kroneck; Martha E. Sosa Torres (eds.). The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry
of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 14. Springer. pp. 125–145. doi:10.1007/978-
94-017-9269-1_6 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-9269-1_6). ISBN 978-94-017-9268-4. PMID 25416393 (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25416393).
79. Wang, Vincent C.-C.; Ragsdale, Stephen W.; Armstrong, Fraser A. (2014). "Chapter 4. Investigations of the Efficient
Electrocatalytic Interconversions of Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide by Nickel-Containing Carbon Monoxide
Dehydrogenases". In Peter M.H. Kroneck; Martha E. Sosa Torres (eds.). The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of
Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 14. Springer. pp. 71–97. doi:10.1007/978-94-
017-9269-1_4 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-9269-1_4). ISBN 978-94-017-9268-4. PMC 4261625 (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4261625). PMID 25416391 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25416391).
80. Szilagyi, R. K.; Bryngelson, P. A.; Maroney, M. J.; Hedman, B.; et al. (2004). "S K-Edge X-ray Absorption
Spectroscopic Investigation of the Ni-Containing Superoxide Dismutase Active Site: New Structural Insight into the
Mechanism". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 126 (10): 3018–3019. doi:10.1021/ja039106v (https://doi.org/
10.1021%2Fja039106v). PMID 15012109 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15012109).
81. Greig N; Wyllie S; Vickers TJ; Fairlamb AH (2006). "Trypanothione-dependent glyoxalase I in Trypanosoma cruzi" (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1652828). Biochemical Journal. 400 (2): 217–23.
doi:10.1042/BJ20060882 (https://doi.org/10.1042%2FBJ20060882). PMC 1652828 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC1652828). PMID 16958620 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16958620).
82. Aronsson A-C; Marmstål E; Mannervik B (1978). "Glyoxalase I, a zinc metalloenzyme of mammals and yeast".
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 81 (4): 1235–1240. doi:10.1016/0006-291X(78)91268-8 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2F0006-291X%2878%2991268-8). PMID 352355 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35235
5).
83. Ridderström M; Mannervik B (1996). "Optimized heterologous expression of the human zinc enzyme glyoxalase I" (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1217073). Biochemical Journal. 314 (Pt 2): 463–467.
doi:10.1042/bj3140463 (https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj3140463). PMC 1217073 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti
cles/PMC1217073). PMID 8670058 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8670058).
84. Saint-Jean AP; Phillips KR; Creighton DJ; Stone MJ (1998). "Active monomeric and dimeric forms of Pseudomonas
putida glyoxalase I: evidence for 3D domain swapping". Biochemistry. 37 (29): 10345–10353. doi:10.1021/bi980868q
(https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fbi980868q). PMID 9671502 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9671502).
85. Thornalley, P. J. (2003). "Glyoxalase I—structure, function and a critical role in the enzymatic defence against
glycation". Biochemical Society Transactions. 31 (Pt 6): 1343–1348. doi:10.1042/BST0311343 (https://doi.org/10.104
2%2FBST0311343). PMID 14641060 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14641060).
86. Vander Jagt DL (1989). "Unknown chapter title". In D Dolphin; R Poulson; O Avramovic (eds.). Coenzymes and
Cofactors VIII: Glutathione Part A. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
87. Zambelli, Barbara; Ciurli, Stefano (2013). "Chapter 10. Nickel: and Human Health". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel;
Roland K. O. Sigel (eds.). Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases. Metal Ions in Life
Sciences. 13. Springer. pp. 321–357. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_10 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-75
00-8_10). ISBN 978-94-007-7499-5. PMID 24470096 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24470096).
88. Nickel. IN: Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron,
Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Copper (https://www.nap.edu/read/10026/chapter/15)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170922174144/https://www.nap.edu/read/10026/chapter/15) September 22,
2017, at the Wayback Machine. National Academy Press. 2001, PP. 521–529.
89. Kamerud KL; Hobbie KA; Anderson KA (August 28, 2013). "Stainless Steel Leaches Nickel and Chromium into Foods
During Cooking" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4284091). Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry. 61 (39): 9495–501. doi:10.1021/jf402400v (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf402400v). PMC 4284091 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4284091). PMID 23984718
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23984718).
90. Flint GN; Packirisamy S (1997). "Purity of food cooked in stainless steel utensils". Food Additives & Contaminants. 14
(2): 115–26. doi:10.1080/02652039709374506 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02652039709374506). PMID 9102344 (htt
91. Schirber, Michael (July 27, 2014). "Microbe's Innovation May Have Started Largest Extinction Event on Earth" (http://
www.space.com/26654-microbe-innovation-started-largest-earth-extinction.html). Space.com. Astrobiology Magazine.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140729090332/http://www.space.com/26654-microbe-innovation-started-larg
est-earth-extinction.html) from the original on July 29, 2014. Retrieved July 29, 2014. ".... That spike in nickel allowed
methanogens to take off."
92. "Nickel 357553" (https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/357553?lang=en&region=US). Sigma Aldrich.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181003104947/https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/35755
3?lang=en&region=US) from the original on October 3, 2018. Retrieved October 3, 2018.
93. Haber, Lynne T; Bates, Hudson K; Allen, Bruce C; Vincent, Melissa J; Oller, Adriana R (2017). "Derivation of an oral
toxicity reference value for nickel". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 87: S1–S18.
doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.03.011 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yrtph.2017.03.011). PMID 28300623 (https://www.ncbi.n
lm.nih.gov/pubmed/28300623).
94. Butticè, Claudio (2015). "Nickel Compounds". In Colditz, Graham A. (ed.). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Cancer and
Society (Second ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. pp. 828–831. ISBN 9781483345734.
95. IARC (2012). “Nickel and nickel compounds” (https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-10.pd
f) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170920044638/https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mon
o100C-10.pdf) September 20, 2017, at the Wayback Machine in IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum. Volume
100C. pp. 169–218..
96. Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on
Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures, Amending and Repealing Directives 67/548/EEC
and 1999/45/EC and amending Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 [OJ L 353, 31.12.2008, p. 1]. Annex VI (http://www.eur
-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1272) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190314
212328/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1272) March 14, 2019, at the Wayback
Machine. Accessed July 13, 2017.
97. Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) (https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DA
M/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev05/English/ST-SG-AC10-30-REv5e.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017
0829031509/http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev05/English/ST-SG-AC10-30-Rev5e.
pdf) August 29, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, 5th ed., United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2013..
98. National Toxicology Program. (2016). “Report on Carcinogens” (https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/roc/index-1.html)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170920044600/https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/roc/index-1.html)
September 20, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, 14th ed. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service..
99. "Report of the International Committee on Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man". Scandinavian Journal of Work,
Environment & Health. 16 (1 Spec No): 1–82. 1990. doi:10.5271/sjweh.1813 (https://doi.org/10.5271%2Fsjweh.1813).
JSTOR 40965957 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40965957). PMID 2185539 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/218
5539).
100. National Toxicology Program (1996). "NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Subsulfide (CAS No.
12035-72-2) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)". National Toxicology Program Technical Report
Series. 453: 1–365. PMID 12594522 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12594522).
101. National Toxicology Program (1996). "NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Oxide (CAS No. 1313-
99-1) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)". National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series.
451: 1–381. PMID 12594524 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12594524).
102. Cogliano, V. J; Baan, R; Straif, K; Grosse, Y; Lauby-Secretan, B; El Ghissassi, F; Bouvard, V; Benbrahim-Tallaa, L;
Guha, N; Freeman, C; Galichet, L; Wild, C. P (2011). "Preventable exposures associated with human cancers" (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3243677). JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 103 (24): 1827–
39. doi:10.1093/jnci/djr483 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjnci%2Fdjr483). PMC 3243677 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p
mc/articles/PMC3243677). PMID 22158127 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22158127).
103. Heim, K. E; Bates, H. K; Rush, R. E; Oller, A. R (2007). "Oral carcinogenicity study with nickel sulfate hexahydrate in
Fischer 344 rats". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 224 (2): 126–37. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2007.06.024 (https://do
i.org/10.1016%2Fj.taap.2007.06.024). PMID 17692353 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17692353).
104. Oller, A. R; Kirkpatrick, D. T; Radovsky, A; Bates, H. K (2008). "Inhalation carcinogenicity study with nickel metal
powder in Wistar rats". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 233 (2): 262–75. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2008.08.017 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.taap.2008.08.017). PMID 18822311 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18822311).
105. National Toxicology Program (1996). "NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate
(CAS No. 10101-97-0) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)". National Toxicology Program Technical
Report Series. 454: 1–380. PMID 12587012 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12587012).
106. Springborn Laboratories Inc. (2000). “An Oral (Gavage) Two-generation Reproduction Toxicity Study in Sprague-
Dawley Rats with Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate.” Final Report. Springborn Laboratories Inc., Spencerville. SLI Study
No. 3472.4.
107. Vaktskjold, A; Talykova, L. V; Chashchin, V. P; Nieboer, E; Thomassen, Y; Odland, J. O (2006). "Genital

malformations in newborns of female nickel-refinery workers". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health.
32 (1): 41–50. doi:10.5271/sjweh.975 (https://doi.org/10.5271%2Fsjweh.975). PMID 16539171 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pubmed/16539171).
108. Vaktskjold, A; Talykova, L. V; Chashchin, V. P; Odland, Jon Ø; Nieboer, E (2008). "Spontaneous abortions among
nickel-exposed female refinery workers". International Journal of Environmental Health Research. 18 (2): 99–115.
doi:10.1080/09603120701498295 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09603120701498295). PMID 18365800 (https://www.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18365800).
109. Vaktskjold, A; Talykova, L. V; Chashchin, V. P; Odland, J. O; Nieboer, E (2007). "Small-for-gestational-age newborns
of female refinery workers exposed to nickel". International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental
Health. 20 (4): 327–38. doi:10.2478/v10001-007-0034-0 (https://doi.org/10.2478%2Fv10001-007-0034-0).
PMID 18165195 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18165195).
110. Vaktskjold, A; Talykova, L. V; Chashchin, V. P; Odland, J. O; Nieboer, E (2008). "Maternal nickel exposure and
congenital musculoskeletal defects". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 51 (11): 825–33.
doi:10.1002/ajim.20609 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fajim.20609). PMID 18655106 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubm
ed/18655106).
111. "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Nickel metal and other compounds (as Ni)" (https://www.cdc.go
v/niosh/npg/npgd0445.html). www.cdc.gov. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170718164956/https://www.cdc.g
ov/niosh/npg/npgd0445.html) from the original on July 18, 2017. Retrieved November 20, 2015.
112. Stellman, Jeanne Mager (1998). Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety: Chemical, industries and
occupations (https://books.google.com/books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C&pg=PT133). International Labour Organization.
pp. 133–. ISBN 978-92-2-109816-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130529043242/http://books.google.com/
books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C&pg=PT133) from the original on May 29, 2013. Retrieved January 9, 2012.
113. Barceloux, Donald G.; Barceloux, Donald (1999). "Nickel". Clinical Toxicology. 37 (2): 239–258. doi:10.1081/CLT-
100102423 (https://doi.org/10.1081%2FCLT-100102423). PMID 10382559 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/103
82559).
114. Position Statement on Nickel Sensitivity (https://www.aad.org/Forms/Policies/Uploads/PS/PS-Nickel%20Sensitivity.pd
f) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150908083534/https://www.aad.org/Forms/Policies/Uploads/PS/PS-Nicke
l%20Sensitivity.pdf) September 8, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. American Academy of Dermatology(August 22,
2015)
115. Thyssen J. P.; Linneberg A.; Menné T.; Johansen J. D. (2007). "The epidemiology of contact allergy in the general
population—prevalence and main findings". Contact Dermatitis. 57 (5): 287–99. doi:10.1111/j.1600-
0536.2007.01220.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0536.2007.01220.x). PMID 17937743 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/pubmed/17937743).
116. Dermal Exposure: Nickel Alloys (http://www.nipera.org/WorkplaceGuide/ToxicityOfNickelCompounds/NickelAlloys/Der
malExposureNickel%20Alloys.aspx) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160222055840/http://www.nipera.org/W
orkplaceGuide/ToxicityOfNickelCompounds/NickelAlloys/DermalExposureNickel%20Alloys.aspx) February 22, 2016,
at the Wayback Machine Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), accessed 2016 Feb.11
117. Nestle, O.; Speidel, H.; Speidel, M. O. (2002). "High nickel release from 1- and 2-euro coins". Nature. 419 (6903):
132. Bibcode:2002Natur.419..132N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Natur.419..132N). doi:10.1038/419132a
(https://doi.org/10.1038%2F419132a). PMID 12226655 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12226655).
118. Dow, Lea (June 3, 2008). "Nickel Named 2008 Contact Allergen of the Year" (https://web.archive.org/web/200902030
33929/http://www.nickelallergyinformation.com/2008/06/nickel-named-2008-contact-alle.htm). Nickel Allergy
Information. Archived from the original (http://www.nickelallergyinformation.com/2008/06/nickel-named-2008-contact-
alle.htm) on February 3, 2009.
119. Salnikow, k.; Donald, S. P.; Bruick, R. K.; Zhitkovich, A.; et al. (September 2004). "Depletion of intracellular ascorbate
by the carcinogenic metal nickel and cobalt results in the induction of hypoxic stress". Journal of Biological Chemistry.
279 (39): 40337–44. doi:10.1074/jbc.M403057200 (https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M403057200). PMID 15271983 (htt
120. Das, K. K.; Das, S. N.; Dhundasi, S. A. (2008). "Nickel, its adverse health effects and oxidative stress" (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20090410090734/http://www.icmr.nic.in/ijmr/2008/october/1005.pdf) (PDF). Indian Journal of Medical
Research. 128 (4): 117–131. PMID 19106437 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19106437). Retrieved
August 22, 2011.
External links
Nickel (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/028.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
CDC – Nickel – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nickel/)
An occupational hygiene assessment of dermal nickel exposures in primary production industries (http://www.iom-wor
ld.org/pubs/IOM_TM0405.pdf) by GW Hughson. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/04/05
An occupational hygiene assessment of dermal nickel exposures in primary production and primary user industries.
Phase 2 Report (http://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM0506.pdf) by GW Hughson. Institute of Occupational
Medicine Research Report TM/05/06
"The metal that brought you cheap flights" (https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-32749262), BBC
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nickel&oldid=927276074"
This page was last edited on 21 November 2019, at 12:25 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Nickel - Wikipedia PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nickel - Wikipedia PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nickel - Wikipedia PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

12/9/2019 Nickel - Wikipedia

Toxicity Poisson ratio 0.31

Properties CAS Number 7440-02-0

Iso- Abun- Half-life Decay Pro-

58Ni 68.077% stable

59Ni trace 7.6×104 y ε 59Co

60Ni 26.223% stable

61Ni 1.140% stable

62Ni 3.635% stable

Electron configuration dispute

Widmanstätten pattern showing the with iron.[25]

written NiCl2•6H2O. When dissolved in

Some tetracoordinate nickel(II)

Nickelocene is known; it has an electron count of 20, making it relatively unstable.

Crystals of hydrated nickel

to extract copper from kupfernickel at a cobalt mine in the Swedish village of

Extraction and purification

Nickel ores grade evolution in some leading nickel

Nickel is obtained through extractive metallurgy: it is extracted from the ore by

Traditionally, most sulfide ores have been processed using pyrometallurgical

Nickel is used in many specific and recognizable industrial and consumer

Because it is resistant to corrosion,

Nickel compounds are classified as human carcinogens[95][96][97][98] based on

52. Kelly, T. D.; Matos, G. R. "Nickel Statistics" (http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/ds140-nicke.pd

107. Vaktskjold, A; Talykova, L. V; Chashchin, V. P; Nieboer, E; Thomassen, Y; Odland, J. O (2006). "Genital

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nickel&oldid=927276074"

This page was last edited on 21 November 2019, at 12:25 (UTC).

You might also like