THERMODYNAMICS I

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

• Mass and Weight • Pressure and Temperature
• Specific Volume and Density • Flowrates
• Specific Weight • Conservation of Mass
• Conservation of Energy
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Dimensions – is the name given to a physical quantity. (ex. mass,
temperature, time and length)

Units – is the standard measure of dimension (i.e. kilogram, meter, second

and Kelvin)
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

1. Systeme International (SI)

2. Meter – Kilogram – Seconds
3. Centimeter – Gram – Seconds
4. English (FPS)
UNITS AND DIMESIONS
UNITS AND DIMESIONS
UNITS AND DIMESIONS
UNITS AND DIMESIONS
UNITS AND DIMESIONS
UNITS AND DIMESIONS
ACCELERATION
Newton’s Law of Acceleration states that the acceleration of a particular
body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass.
𝐹
𝑎=𝑘
𝑚
𝑚𝑎
𝑘=
𝐹

where k is the gravitational constant gc

ACCELERATION
• System of Units (gc = 1.0)
a. CGS system: 1 dyne force accelerates 1 gram – mass (gm) at 1 cm/𝑠 2
b. MKS system: 1 newton force accelerates 1 kilogram – mass (kgm) at 1
m/𝑠 2
c. FPS system: 1 pound force (lbf) accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/𝑠 2

• System of Units (gc ≠ 1.0)

a. 1 gram - force accelerates 1 gram – mass (gm) at 980.66 cm/𝑠 2
b. 1 kilogram – force (kgf) accelerates 1 kilogram – mass (kgm) at 9.8066 m/𝑠 2
c. 1 pound force (lbf) accelerates 1 pound – mass (lbm) at 32.174 ft/𝑠 2
ACCELERATION
• Derived Conversions:

1 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 9.8066 N 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 = 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚

FORCE
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a body of unit mass.

𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠 2
1 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙 = (1 slug) (ft/𝑠 2 ) 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 =
𝑓𝑡
FORCE
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a body of unit mass.

𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠 2
1 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙 = (1 lbm ) (ft/𝑠 2 ) 1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 =
𝑓𝑡
MASS and WEIGHT
The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it.
The weight of a body means the force of gravity Fg on the body.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation relates the force of attraction

between two masses, and in equation form is:
𝑚1𝑚2
Fg = G 2
𝑟
where Fg is the force of attraction (for earth’s attraction on earthly system,
the force of gravity) between the masses m1 and m2 that r distance
4
apart.
−8 𝑙𝑏𝑓 −𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡
G is the gravitational constant (3.44x10 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔2 or 4 ), in MKS;
𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
−11 𝑁 −𝑚2
6.670𝑥10
𝑘𝑔2
MASS and WEIGHT
An astronaut weighs 730 N in Houston, Texas where the local acceleration of
gravity is g = 9.792 m/𝑠 2 . What are the astronaut’s mass and weight on the
moon, where g = 1.67 m/𝑠 2 ?
MASS and WEIGHT
A car whose mass is 2 metric tons is accelerated uniformly from standstill to
100 kmph in 5 sec. Find the mass in pounds, the acceleration, the driving
force in newtons, and the distance travelled.
MASS and WEIGHT
Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 fp𝑠 2 are
as follows: 500 g of mass; 800 gf;15 poundals; 3lbf and 0.10 slug of mass.
What is the total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in pounds, and (c) in slugs?
MASS and WEIGHT
Note that the gravity of acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fp𝑠 2
and that its variation is - 0.003 fp𝑠 2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in
miles above this point for which (a) the gravity acceleration becomes 30.504
fp𝑠 2 , (b) the weight of a given man is decreased by 5%. (c) What is the
weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29 131 ft Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to
this point?
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME and SPECIFIC
WEIGHT
𝑚
Density (ρ) is its mass per unit volume:ρ =
𝑉
1
Specific Volume (ν) is the volume per unit mass:ν=
ρ
𝐹
Specific Weight (Ƴ) of any substance is the force of gravity in unit volume:Ƴ =
v
ρ𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
Specific Gravity: spec. gravity =
ρ𝑟𝑒𝑓
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME and SPECIFIC
WEIGHT
The mass of a fluid system is 0.311 slug, its density is 30 lb/𝑓𝑡 3 and g is 31.90 fp𝑠 2 .
Find (a) the specific volume, (b) the specific weight, and (c) total volume.
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME and SPECIFIC
WEIGHT
A cylindrical drum (2 – ft diameter, 3 – ft height) is filled with a fluid whose density
is 40 lb/𝑓𝑡 3 . Determine (a) total volume of the fluid, (b) its mass in pounds and
slugs, (c) its specific volume, and (d) its specific weight where g = 31.90 fp𝑠 2 .
DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME and SPECIFIC
WEIGHT
Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1500 kg/𝑚3 , ρ2= 500 kg/𝑚3 ) are poured
together into a 100 – L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the mixture is 800
kg/𝑚3 , find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also, find the weight of the
mixture; local g = 9.675 mp𝑠 2 .
PRESSURE
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS
1 atm = 14.7 psi (lbf/𝑖𝑛2 )
= 101325 Pa
= 101.325 kPa
= 760 mmHg
= 760 Torr
= 29.92 inHg
= 33.91 ft water
1 bar = 105 Pa

P = P0 + Pg
PRESSURE
Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia, make these conversions:
a. 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere
b. 20 inHg vacuum to inHg abs and to psia
c. 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa
d. 15 inHg gage to psia, torrs and to Pa.
PRESSURE
A dead weight gage with a 1 cm diameter piston is used to measure
pressures accurately. In a particular instance a mass of 6.14 kg (including
piston and pan) brings it into balance. If the local g = 9.82 m/𝑠 2 . What is the
gage pressure being measured? If the barometric pressure is 748 torr, what is
the absolute pressure?
TEMPERATURE
• Absolute temperature is the
temperature measured from
absolute zero.
• Absolute zero temperature is the
temperature at which all
molecular motion ceases.
(KE = 3RT/2NA)
TEMPERATURE
Show that the specific heat of a substance in BTU/lbm - ˚F is numerically
equal to cal/g - ˚C.
TEMPERATURE
An instrument to measure the acceleration of gravity on mars is constructed
of a spring from which a mass of 0.40 kg is suspended at a place on earth
where the local acceleration of gravity is 9.81 m/𝑠 2 , the spring extends 1.08
cm. When the instrument package is landed on Mars, it radios the
information that the spring is extended 0.40 cm. What is the Martian
acceleration of gravity?
HOMEWORK
HOMEWORK
HOMEWORK
HOMEWORK
Assume 50 kg of mass are placed on the pan of a spring balance located on a
freight elevator; local gravity acceleration is 9.70 m/𝑠 2 . (a) When the
elevator is moving with an upward acceleration of 2.5 m/𝑠 2 , what will the
balance read? (b) If the elevator is stopped, what will the balance read? (c) If
the supporting cable breaks (elevator falls freely), what will the balance
read? (d) If the balance reads 350 N, what are the circumstances?
CONSERVATION OF MASS
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass is indestructible.
If steady flow exists in a channel and the principle of conservation of
mass is applied to the system, there exists a continuity of flow,
defined as: "The mean velocities at all cross sections having equal areas
are then equal, and if the areas are not equal, the velocities are
inversely proportional to the areas of the respective cross sections.“ This
is expressed in the Continuity Equation:
𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴
Q = the volumetric flow rate
A = the cross sectional area of flow
V = the mean velocity
CONSERVATION OF MASS
Mass Flowrate Volumetric Flowrate
CONSERVATION OF MASS
A fluid moves in a steady flow manner between two sections in a flow line.
At section 1: A1 = 10𝑓𝑡 2 ,ν1 = 100 fpm, v1 = 4𝑓𝑡 3 /lb. At section 2: A2= 2𝑓𝑡 2 , ρ2
= 0.20 lb/𝑓𝑡 3 . Calculate (a) the mass flow rate and (b) the speed at section 2.
CONSERVATION OF MASS
Two gaseous streams enter a combining tube and leave as a single mixture.
These data apply at the entrance section:
ft3
For one gas, A1 = 75 𝑖𝑛2 , ν1 = 500 fps, v1 = 10 𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏
For the other gas, A2 = 50 𝑖𝑛2 , 𝑚2= 16.67 lb/s, ρ2 = 0.12 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑓𝑡 3
At exit, ν3= 350 fps, v3= 7 . Find (a) the speed v2 = at section 2, and (b) the
𝑙𝑏
flow area at the exit section.
CONSERVATION OF MASS
If a pump discharges 75 gpm of H2O whose specific weight 0s 61.5 lbf/ft 3 and
g = 31.95 ft/s2 . Find (a) mass flowrate in lb/min and (b) the total time
required to fill a vertical tank 10 feet in diameter and 12 feet – high.
CONSERVATION OF MASS
A 10 – ft diameter by 15 – ft height vertical tank is receiving water (ρ = 62.1
lb/ cu ft) at the rate of 300 gpm and is discharging through a 6 – in ID line
with a constant speed of 5 fps. At a given instant, the tank is half full. Find
the water level and the mass change in the tank 15 min later.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Energy, can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed
from one form or another. The flow of energy is described by work.
Work is performed whenever a force acts through a distance. By its
definition, the quantity of work is given by the equation:

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑙
where F is the component of force acting along the line of the displacement
dl.
CONSERVATION ENERGY
CONSERVATION OF KINETIC ENERGY CONSERVATION OF POTENTIAL ENERGY
𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 𝑊 = ∆𝑃𝐸
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑧

𝑚∆𝑣 2 𝑚𝑔∆𝑧
𝑊= 𝑊=
2𝑔𝑐 2𝑔𝑐
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The figure shows a chamber containing 0.04 m3 of a gas. The initial pressure
which is supplied by weights on the piston is 200 kPa, keeping this pressure
constant, the chamber is heated until the volume of the gas is 0.10 m3 .
Considering the gas in the chamber as a system; (a) calculate the work done
by the system. While heating is going on, weights are removed from the
piston in such a way that the relation between pressure and volume is given
by the expression:(b) PV = k; (c) PV1.3 = k. Calculate the work done in both
cases if the initial conditions are the same and the initial and final volume
are 0.04 m3 and 0.1 m3 respectively. (d) Let the piston be fixed so that the
volume remains constant. For the same initial conditions, calculate the work
done if the heat is removed from the system and the pressure drops to 100
kPa.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
During a process the volume of a unit weight system change from 5 ft 3 to 3
500
ft 3 . Calculate the work done for this process if P = + 0.060v 3 , where P
𝑉
3
is the pressure in psia and V is the volume in ft .
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
TERMS
ENERGY BALANCE FOR AN OPEN SYSTEM
ENERGY BALANCE FOR A CLOSED SYSTEM
STEAM TABLE
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Joule’s Experiment – a known amount of water, oil, mercury

Internal Energy is the energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of

the activity and configuration of its molecules and of the vibration of the
atoms within the molecules. Its an energy that is not depended on the
position or motion of the substance.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
System is the portion of the universe
under consideration.
a. Open system is a control volume
system allows the transfer of
mass and heat. (e.i. turbine,
pump, nozzle, compressor and
pipes)
b. Closed system is a control mass
system, it only allows the
exchange of energy. (e.i. vessel
and tank)
c. Isolated system neither matter
nor energy is transferred.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Boundary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings.
a. Imaginary
b. Real
c. Moving
d. Fixed
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Intensive Properties Extensive Properties

Intensive properties are those that Extensive properties are those whose
are independent of the mass of a values depend on the size—or
system, such as temperature, extent—of the system. (i.e. mass,
pressure, and density. volume and momentum)
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
• Path Functions are properties
that depend on how the
change occurs. Distance
travelled is a path function.
• State functions are properties
that depend only on the
conditions that describe the
system. Energy is a state
function
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Zeroth Law by Ralph Howard
Fowler states that when to bodies,
isolated from other environment,
are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, the two are in
equilibrium with each other.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
First Law of Thermodynamics by Rudolf
Julius Emmanuel Clausius states that:
“energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but can only be changed from
one form to another.”

Restated as: “Energy may be transferred

as work or heat, but no energy can be
lost, nor can heat or work be obtained
from nothing”. (perpetual motion
machines are not possible)
1st LAW: OPEN SYSTEM
Fifty kilo mole per hour of fluid air is compressed from 1.2 bar to 6 bar in a steady
flow compressor. Delivered mechanical power is 98.8 kilowatt. Temperatures and
velocities are:
• T1 = 300 K T2 = 520K
• V1 = 10 m/s v2 = 3.5 m/s
Estimate the rate of heat transfer from the compressor. Assume that enthalpy is
independent of pressure.
1st LAW: OPEN SYSTEM
Nitrogen flows at a steady state through a horizontal, insulated pipe with inside
diameter of 0.5 inch. A pressure drop results from flow through a partially opened
valve. Just upstream from the valve the pressure is 100 psia, the temperature is
120˚F, and the average velocity is 20 ft/s. If the pressure just downstream from the
PV
valve is 20 psia, what is the temperature? Assume for nitrogen is constant.
T
1st LAW: OPEN SYSTEM
Steam flows at a steady state through a converging insulated nozzle, 25 cm long
and with an inlet diameter of 5 cm. At the nozzle entrance, the temperature and
pressure 325˚C and 700 kPa , and the velocity is 30 m/s. At the nozzle exit, the
steam temperature and pressure are 240˚C and 350 kPa. What is the velocity of the
steam at the nozzle exit? What is the exit diameter?
1st LAW: OPEN SYSTEM
During a steady flow process, the pressure of the working substance drops from
200 to 20 psia, the speed increases from 200 to 1000 fps, the internal energy of the
open system decreases by 25 BTU per pound and the specific volume increases
from 1 to 8 cubic feet per pound. No heat is transferred. Determine the work per
pound. Is it done on or done by the system? Determine the work in horsepower per
10 pounds per min.
1st LAW: OPEN SYSTEM
Steam is supplied to a fully loaded 100 = hP turbine at 200 psia with an internal
energy equal to 1163.3 BTU per pound, V1 = 2.65 cubic feet per pound and v1 = 400
fps. Exhaust is at 1 psia with internal energy equal to 925 BTU per pound and V2 =
294 cubic feet per pound and v2 = 1100 fps. The heat loss in the turbine is 10 BTU
per pound. Determine the work per pound steam and the steam flow rate in pound
per hour.
1st LAW: OPEN SYSTEM
Water enters a boiler at 18.33˚C and 137.9 kPa through a pipe at an average
velocity of 1.52 m/s. Exit stream at a height of 15.2 m above the liquid inlet leaves
at 137.9 kPa and 148.9˚C, 9.14 m/s in the outlet line. At steady state, how much
heat must be added per kilogram of steam?
1st LAW: OPEN SYSTEM
Steam enters a turbine operating at steady state at 600˚F and 200 psia (1322.1
BTU/lb). The inlet velocity is 80 fps and leaves as saturated vapor at 5 psia and
velocity at 300 fps. The power developed by the turbine is 200 hP. Heat loss to the
surroundings is 50000 BTU/hr. What is the mass flowrate of steam in kg/s.
1st LAW: CLOSED SYSTEM
A closed gaseous system undergoes a reversible process during which 25 BTU are
rejected. The volume changes from 5 ft 3 to 2 ft 3 and the pressure is constant at 50
psia. What is the change in internal energy in BTU?
1st LAW: CLOSED SYSTEM
1st LAW: CLOSED SYSTEM
During the execution of a non – flow process by the system, the work done per
𝑑𝑊 lb ft
degree temperature increase is = 70 f − and internal energy may be
𝑑𝑇 ˚F
expressed as 20.0 + 0.5T lbf − ft , a function of temperature. Determine the heat if
the temperature is in ˚F. Determine the heat if the temperature change from 50˚F
to 100˚F.
VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES
Pure Substances
Ideal Gases
PT DIAGRAM
PV DIAGRAM
SINGLE PHASE REGIONS:
For Liquids:
Volume expansivity:

Isothermal compressibility:

Combined Equation:
SINGLE PHASE REGIONS: LIQUIDS
SINGLE PHASE REGIONS: LIQUIDS
SINGLE PHASE REGIONS: LIQUIDS
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
GENERAL PROPERTY RELATIONS
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS

These equations apply to the ideal-gas state for various process calculations. The
assumptions implicit in their derivation are that the system is closed and the process is
mechanically reversible.

𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊; 𝑊 = න − 𝑃𝑑𝑉
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS
Polytropic Process means turning many ways, a process that suggest a model of
some versatility.
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
PROPERTY RELATIONS FOR IDEAL GAS

Q = Cδ (T2 − T1 )
(𝛿 − 𝛾)
Cδ = Cv
(𝛿 − 1)
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
lbf − ft
During a polytropic process, 10 pounds of ideal gas whose R = 40 and Cp = 0.25
lb −R
BTU
, changes state from 20 psia and 40℉ to 100 psia and 340℉. Determine ∆H, ∆U,
lb −R
W and Q.
EOS: IDEAL GAS LAW
Compress 4 kg/s of carbon dioxide gas polytropically (PV1.2 = k) from 103.4 kPa and
60℃to 227℃. Assuming ideal gas action, find P2, W and Q.
EOS: VIRIAL EQUATIONS
EOS: VIRIAL EQUATIONS
EOS: VIRIAL EQUATIONS
EOS: VIRIAL EQUATIONS
EOS: VIRIAL EQUATIONS
CHAPTER 4: HEAT EFFECTS
HEAT EFFECTS
Heat effects refer to physical and chemical phenomena that are associated
with heat transfer to or from a system or that result in temperature changes
within a system, or both.
Sensible heat effects can be detected by our sense perception of temperature.
Example of a sensible heat effect is the heating or cooling of a fluid by the
purely physical direct transfer of heat to or from the fluid.
Latent heat effects are for phase changes, physical processes occurring at a
pure substance at constant temperature and pressure
Heat of reactions are heat evolved or absorb for chemical reactions.
SENSIBLE HEAT EFFECTS
INTERNAL ENERGY

ENTHALPY
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF HEAT
CAPACITY
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF HEAT
CAPACITY
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF HEAT
CAPACITY
 EXAMPLE 1
The parameters listed in Table C.1 of Appendix C require use of
Kelvin temperatures in Eq. (4.5). Equations of the same form may
also be developed for use with temperatures in °C, but the parameter
values are different. The molar heat capacity of methane in the ideal-
gas state is given as a function of temperature in kelvins by:
𝐶𝑝
= 1.702 + 9.081×10−3 T − 2.164×10−6 T2
𝑅
where the parameter values are from Table C.1. Develop an equation
𝐶𝑝
for for use with temperatures in °C.
𝑅
 EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mol of
methane from 260 to 600°C in a steady-flow process at a pressure
sufficiently low that the ideal-gas state is a suitable approximation for
methane.
 EXAMPLE 3
What is the final temperature when heat in the amount of 400×106 J is
added to 11×103 mol of ammonia initially at 530 K in a steady-flow
process at 1 bar?
EXAMPLE 4
EXAMPLE 5
LATENT HEAT EFFECTS
CLAPEYRON EQUATION
 LATENT HEAT EFFECTS
CLAPEYRON EQUATION: TROUTON’S RULE
Rough estimates of latent heats of vaporization for pure liquids at their normal
boiling points (indicated by subscript n):

where Tn is the absolute temperature of the normal boiling point. The units of
ΔHn, R, and Tn are chosen so that ΔHn/RTn is dimensionless.
 LATENT HEAT EFFECTS
RIEDEL’S EQUATION
Also for the normal boiling point, but not quite so simple, is the equation
proposed by Riedel:

where Pc is the critical pressure in bars and Trn is the reduced temperature at
Tn. Equation (4.13) is surprisingly accurate for an empirical expression; errors
rarely exceed 5 percent. For water, the value is 13.56
 LATENT HEAT EFFECTS
WATSONS’S EQUATION
Estimates of the latent heat of vaporization of a pure liquid at any temperature
from the known value at a single temperature are given by the method of
Watson. The basis may be a known experimental value or a value estimated by
Eq. (4.13):
 LATENT HEAT EFFECTS
WATSONS’S EQUATION
Estimates of the latent heat of vaporization of a pure liquid at any temperature
from the known value at a single temperature are given by the method of
Watson. The basis may be a known experimental value or a value estimated by
Eq. (4.13):
 EXAMPLE 1
For acetic acid, the melting point at 1 atm is 16.61oC. The change heat
absorbed is 26000 cal/mol and the change in volume is 0.614 cm3/mol. What
will be its melting point at 11 atm.
 EXAMPLE 2
At 90oC, the vapor pressure of acetic acid is 293 mmHg and its vapor pressure
at 100oC is 417 mmHg. Calculate the normal boiling point of acetic acid.
 EXAMPLE 3
The vapor pressure of CH3Cl between – 47oC and -10o C can be represented by
the equation:
𝑜
−1149
log 𝑃 = + 7.481
𝑇
What is the heat of vaporization in cal/g?
 EXAMPLE 4
The vapor pressure of CH3Cl between – 47oC and -10o C can be represented by
the equation:
𝑜
−1149
log 𝑃 = + 7.481
𝑇
What is the heat of vaporization in cal/g?
 EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the heat of vaporization for water using Riedel’s equation.
 EXAMPLE 6
Given that the latent heat of vaporization of water at 100°C is 2257
J/g, estimate the latent heat at 300°C.