1.

Introduction

The screw was used in machining industry as part of automotive control systems and motor
generators in the late 1930s [1]. After that, along with the development of modern technology
screw often used for various applications in semiconductor, mechatronics’ equipment, industrial
robots, printed circuit boards and or other facilities for precision motion control [2]. The screw has a
variety in sizes depending on the need at a high accuracy, such as watches ‘screw components,
mobile phone components and bone connectors and so on. Therefore, manufacturing a screw, it is
advisable to use an efficient and high accuracy machine [1]. In addition, the screw production for
some manufacturers may use automatic machines designed specifically for screw production, but
these machines cannot be applied to different components with different types and sizes [3].
However, the automatic machines

have high accuracy and efficiency for screw manufacturing. The numeric machines such as CNC
machine, are flexible in every production line which gives to the screw manufacturer a capability to
make the complex mechanism [4]. According to Lee, et al. [5] screw manufacturer that operates 24-
hours, require production costs about 15-40% for equipment maintenance and 30% of it are for
maintenance cost for unused equipment. This method is considered as manufacturing process that
results in high-cost investments [5]. To overcome this challenge, other manufacturing processes are
needed to be investigated, the casting process offers good results with the method of lost wax
casting and requires a mold with some different types of prints which are permanent and
expendable types made of wax, expandable polystyrene (EPS) or other polymeric material [6]. This
type is a customizable way to produce complex shapes with gold or other metals, with fine detail
from the original pattern [7]. Therefore, the method is considered appropriate in the manufacture of
orthopaedic screws whose dimensions are relatively small and require high accuracy and low cost.

The screw is a simple mechanical tool that changes the rotation force into linear motion [8]. Screws
are also used for medical devices such as bone connectors found in the history of orthopedic from
the use of grafting bone which began in 1850; where the French surgeons Cucel and Rigaul [9] made
grafting bone by tied with rope. In 1886, German differentiator Carl Hansmann conducted the first
experiments by fixing the internal plate using a steel plate and nickel-plated screw. In 1996,
Chapman et al began to consider several factors affecting the screw's strength geometry and tapping
[9]. Illustration of screw usage function can be seen i

Screws are generally made from low to medium carbon steel

wire, but other tough and inexpensive metals may be substituted,
such as stainless steel, brass, nickel alloys, or aluminum alloy.
Quality of the metal used is of utmost importance in order to
avoid cracking. If a finish is applied to the screw, it must be of a
compatible makeup. Steel may be coated or plated with zinc,
cadmium, nickel, or chromium for extra protection.

The earliest metal machine screws were a breakthrough in contemporary engineering.

The innovation added helical teeth to the tried-and-tested nail formula, and created an
unrivalled industrial fastener. Screws were particularly popular in gun making, for their
ability to resist loosening under the vibrations encountered during gunfire. In
comparison, components such as nails could (and would) simply drop out after a
period of use, causing a gun to misfire or even fall apart mid-battle. Early screws were
manufactured from nails, and laboriously carved by hand. This production method
meant that production was slow, quality was poor, and no two screws were ever
identical.

With screws in high demand, inventors from across Europe tried their hands at
creating contraptions to mechanise the screw manufacture process. These efforts led
to the development of a machine by Job and William Wyatt in 1760, which could
autonomously cut around 10 uniform screws per minute. While many specialised
screw lathes were developed by individual screw makers throughout the 18th century,
the Wyatt brothers’ screw cutter is widely regarded as one of the very first examples
of automated mass production. Since the 1700s, fastener design and production has
seen significant advancements, and has been continually development to improve the
versatility, quality and efficiency of fastener production.

Screws belong to a family of threaded fasteners that also includes studs

and bolts. The practical applications of screws are almost endless: They
are used in industries ranging from construction to electronics and can be
used for almost any project that requires two or more objects to be firmly
connected. The process of making these small fasteners is complex, but
modern manufacturing processes have made screws cheaper and more
durable and precise.
The concept of screws can be traced backed to approximately 200 B.C.,
but metal screws that resemble the modern style weren't developed until
the Renaissance Age, between the 14th and 17th centuries A.D. These
early screws were handmade, thus no two screws were ever identical. In
1586, Jacques Besson introduced the first screw-cutting machine, which
would pave the way for future innovations. Job and William Wyatt filed a
patent for the first automatic screw-cutting machine in 1760; it could cut
roughly 10 screws per minute. In 1836, William Keane developed a
thread-rolling process. Although his efforts were mostly unsuccessful,
thread rolling eventually became the modern standard for screw
production.
The most common material used to make screws is low to medium
carbon-steel wire. Other durable and inexpensive metals that are
sometimes substituted include brass, stainless steel, nickel alloy and
aluminum alloy. Some screws have a finish applied to them for extra
protection, which must be compatible with the raw materials of the
screw. Steel can be plated in zinc, cadmium, nickel or chromium.

Screws provide more strength and holding power than nails. Additionally, if
something needs to be disassembled, screws can easily be removed.

Like nails, screws are available with different coatings to deter rust. They are
manufactured with four basic heads and different kinds of slots. Flathead
screws are almost always countersunk into the material being fastened so the
head of the screw is flush with (or lower than) the surface. Oval-head screws
are partially countersunk, with about half the screw head above the surface.
Roundhead screws are not countersunk; the entire screw head lies above the
surface. Fillister-head screws are raised above the surface on a flat base to
keep the screwdriver from damaging the surface as the

Most screws have slot heads and are driven with slotted, or standard,
screwdrivers. Phillips-head screws have crossed slots and are driven with
Phillips screwdrivers. Screws are measured in both length and diameter at the
shank, which is designated by gauge number from 0 to 24. Length is
measured in inches. The length of a screw is important because at least half
the length of the screw should extend into the base material.

Here's a tip: To prevent screws from splitting the material, pilot holes must be
made with a drill before the screws are driven.

For most home repair purposes, wood screws will suffice. Sheet metal screws,
machine screws, and lag screws also come in various types. If you're trying to
replace one of these screws, take an old screw with you to the hardware
store. Following are some of the most common screw types:
 Wood Screws: Wood screws are usually made of steel, although brass,
nickel, bronze, and copper screws should be used if there is potential
for corrosion. For optimum wood screw performance, you need to drill
first.
 Sheet Metal Screws: Use this type of screw to fasten pieces of metal
together. Sheet metal screws form threads in the metal as they are
installed. There are several different types of sheet metal screws.
Pointed panhead screws are coarse-threaded; they are available in
gauges from 4 to 14 and lengths from 1/4 inch to 2 inches. Pointed
panheads are used in light sheet metal. Blunt panhead screws are used
for heavier sheet metal; they are available in gauges from 4 to 14 and
lengths from 1/4 inch to 2 inches. Both types of panhead screws are
available with either plain or Phillips-head slots.
 Roundhead Screws: Partial-tapping roundhead screws have finer
threads; they can be used in soft or hard metals. They are available in
diameters from 3/16 inch to 11/4 inches. Self-tapping roundhead screws
are used for heavy-duty work with thick sheet metal and are available in
diameters from 1/4 inch to 2 inches and in lengths from 1/8 to 3/4 inch.
Both types of roundhead screws are available with either plain or
Phillips-head slots.
 Machine Screws: Machine screws are blunt-ended screws used to
fasten metal parts together. They are commonly made of steel or brass.
Like other fasteners, they are also made with coatings -- brass, copper,
nickel, zinc, cadmium, and galvanized -- that help deter rust. Machine
screws are manufactured with each of the four basic types of heads --
flathead, ovalhead, roundhead, and fillister-head -- and with both plain
and Phillips-head slots. They are typically available in gauges 2 to 12
and diameters from 1/4 inch to 1/2 inch and in lengths from 1/4 inch to 3
inches.
 Lag Screws: For light work, lead, plastic, or fiber plugs (called anchors)
can be used to hold screws. But for larger jobs and more holding power,
lead expansion anchors and lag screws are used. Lag screws are
heavy-duty fasteners. They are driven with a wrench and are used
primarily for fastening to masonry or wood framing. The anchors are
 inserted into holes drilled in the masonry, and the lag screws are driven
firmly into the anchors.

7 Steps of Manufacturing Process for Bolts

Screws and Stud Fasteners
What is a bolt?

A bolt is an externally threaded fastener which is primarily used as a bolted joint in

application with a nut.

Typical
Bolt Fastener
Image source: Wiki

Unthreaded portion of the bolt is called shank. Usually the shank portion is not
threaded because it acts as a dowel between two components acting against
shearing forces.

Bolts can be of different types: anchor bolt, U bolt, hex bolt, eye bolt, J bolts

Bolt vs. Screw vs. Stud

To put it simply, basic differences between the bolts, screw and stud remain in
their application.

The bolt is one which has external thread and which get tightened by holding its
head fixed and applying torque to the nut.

The screw, on the other hand, gets tightened by applied torque by its head and goes
inside the material.
Stud is a kind of special bolt which doesn’t have a head. Both of its ends are
threaded and shank or unthreaded area is at the middle.

What are Bolts/Screws made up of?

Mostly steel. However, materials like stainless steel, titanium, monel metal find
application for special purpose fastening, e.g., medical application.

How Bolts or Screws or Studs are Made

Overall manufacturing process of bolts, screws, studs and other external threaded
fasteners are basically same.

Let us take a look at the overall manufacturing process flow chart:

Bolt
Fastener Manufacturing Process Flow Chart

Step-1: Raw material inspection & storage

Raw material for the bolt to be decided upon the designer based upon application.
Material to be used to be inspected and then proper storage location to be identified
in order to avoid rust formation and proper coverage needs to be provided.

Step-2: Unthreaded / Unfinished bolt manufacturing

Mostly casting and forging are used in this stage.

Other methods may also be used:

1. Sintering

2. Prototyping (Rapid)

Step-3: CNC machining

After the part has been manufactured via forging/casting route, it is then machined
to the required dimensions usually by CNC.

The operations followed here are: pointing, facing, grooving.

Step-4: Heat Treatment

Heat treatment is done after machining to make the fasteners stronger. Hardening
& tempering operations are followed.

First, hardening is done such that bolt is heated to a temperature of 850-900°C and
then quenched in the cooling media.

Secondly, the bolt is again re-heated to bring back the extreme hardened bolt less
soft, so that the bolt remains stronger. Re-heating is done to bring down the
brittleness of the bolt which happened during hardening.

Step-5: Surface Finishing

Next is the surface finish process. Usually, grinding process is carried out to make
the surface smoother according to the surface finish specification.

Step-6:Thread Rolling
After finishing process, thread rolling is done with two dies. One is stationary and
another is a moving die which actually exerts pressure on the bolts and forms
threads.

Thread
Rolling of Screws, Bolts and Studs
Image source: Wiki

Threads on bots may be fine, medium, coarse depending upon the application.

Step-7: Coating

After thread rolling, bolts and screw fasteners are coated in order to prevent rust
and corrosion. A fine example of bolt coating is geomet coating in bolts which will
be tested to SST (Salt Spray Test) depending upon the number of hours as
specified.

Machinery called FISCHERSCOPE is used to determine coating thickness along

with other thickness measuring instruments such as coating thickness meter.

Step-8: Inspection for Form, Fit & Function:

 After all the processes being done, finally the part goes to inspection. It should
meet

1. Torque test, SST

2. Fitment with nut
3. Impact strength (Impact charpy test)
4. Tensile strength test (%elongation of bolt)
5. Core hardness of bolt
6. Coating thickness
7. Dimensional inspection etc.
8. Manufacturing process
9. Cold Forging
10. This process is also known as Cold Heading. It is the basic operation in most bolt and

screw plants to give their heads. The material is squeezed into a cavity of a mold,

normally at room temperature, and the resultant part is a nail, a bolt or a screw with

the head. The tooling is relatively simple and cheaper, moreover it offers other

benefits such as better surface finish, improved dimensional stability and efficient use

of material.
11. Machining
12. Basically, it is a removal process where jobs of desired size and shape are produced

by gradually removing the excess material in the form of scrap with the help of sharp

cutting edges or tools. Screw blanks go into a die, called a head-slotting machine,

then the machinery fastens them into channels positioned around the perimeter of

a wheel on the head-slotting machine. As the wheel revolves, a circular cutting device

slots the screws.

13. Standards and Types
14. Fastener thread standards are commonly judged by ISO standards, as laid out in ISO

68-1, ISO 261, ISO 262, and ISO 965-1.

15. There is a huge range of screws and bolts and depending of their uses and shapes we

found several classifications. One of them is the following:

16. Wood screw
17. Covered by the standard DIN 97 and under various heads (flat, oval, countersunk,

Phillips head, Allen type head, Torx, head).

18. Lag screws
19. These are used to fix brackets with a high weight. Covered by standard DIN 571.
 20.Self- tapping
21. Or thread-forming screws feature threads that are designed to tap their own holes.

This type is not suitable for harder materials. DIN 7970, ISO 1478, BS 4174.
22.Machine Screw
23. Machine screws have finer threads than wood screws. They are designed to be used

in conjunction with a nut or tapped hole. DIN 7985, ISO 7045, DIN 965, DIN 966, DIN

84, DIN 85, DIN 933, DIN 931, DIN 912, ...
24. Sheet Metal Screws
25. These screws usually are short and have coarse threads that are designed to grab

onto relatively thin sheet metal. DIN 7981, ISO 7049, DIN 7976, DIN 7983, DIN 7971,

DIN 7504, ...

26. Although, screws are usually made in steel, they can be made in stainless steel, brass,

titanium, bronze, zinc, nylon, ... Screws also can have various finishes such as zinc

plating, black oxide or non-stick coating, HDG (hot dip galvanized).

The Manufacturing
Process

Machining is only used on unique designs or with screws too

small to be made any other way. The machining process is exact,
but too time consuming, wasteful, and expensive. The bulk of all
screws are mass manufactured using the thread rolling method,
and that is the procedure described in further detail.

Cold heading
 1 Wire is fed from a mechanical coil through a prestraightening machine. The
straightened wire flows directly into a machine that automatically cuts the wire at a
designated length and die cuts the head of the screw blank into a preprogrammed shape.
The heading machine utilizes either an open or closed die that either requires one punch
or two punches to create the screw head. The closed (or solid) die creates a more
accurate screw blank. On average, the cold heading machine produces 100 to 550 screw
blanks per minute.

Thread rolling
 2 Once cold headed, the screw blanks are automatically fed to the thread-cutting dies
from a vibrating hopper. The hopper guides the screw blanks down a chute to the dies,
while making sure they are in the correct feed position.
 3 The blank is then cut using one of three techniques. In the reciprocating die, two flat
dies are used to cut the screw thread. One die is stationary, while the other moves in a
reciprocating manner, and the screw blank is rolled between the two. When a centerless
cylindrical die is used, the screw blank is rolled between two to three round dies in order
to create the finished thread. The final method of thread rolling is the planetary rotary die
process. It holds the screw blank stationary, while several die-cutting machines roll
around the blank.
 All three methods create higher quality screws than the machine-cut variety. This is
because the thread is not literally cut into the blank during the thread-rolling process,
rather it is impressed into the blank. Thus, no metal material is lost, and weakness in the
metal is avoided. The threads are also more precisely positioned. The more productive of
the thread-rolling techniques is by far the planetary rotary die, which creates screws at a
speed of 60 to 2,000 parts per minute.

Quality Control

The National Screw Thread Commission established a standard

for screw threads in 1928 for interchangeability. This was
followed by an international Declaration of Accord in 1948,
adopting a Unified Screw Thread system. The standards focus on
three main elements: the number of threads per inch, the
designated pitch and shape of the thread, and designated
diameter sizes. In 1966, the International Standards Organization
(ISO) suggested a universal restriction on threads to ISO metric
and inch size ranges with coarse and fine pitches. Compliance
with the ISO suggested standards has been global.

Where to Learn More

Books

Brittania Company. Screws and Screw-Making. James H. Wood,

1892.

Camm, F. J. Screw Cutting. Cassell and Company Ltd., 1920.

Glover, David. Screws. Rigby Education, 1997.

Periodicals

Koepfer, Chris. "Technology Gamble Pays Off." Modern Machine

Shop, February 1995, pp. 94-104.
—JenniferSwiftKramer
Fastener Design

Different manufacturing standards are used to specify different areas of the screw,
which makes almost every screw a modular combination of different features. For
instance, a metric thread size and pitch is defined by ISO 261, but a countersunk head
on the same screw would be defined by another standard, such as ISO 10642, the
material of this screw may be defined by ISO 3506. Multiple standards are used to
define the attributes of any screw, and can define anything, including thread size, head
type, drive type, material and finish.

Raw Materials

Almost all screws start their life as one continuous spool of metal wire. Spooled wire
is used for smaller sizes as it is easier to transport and can be continuously fed into a
machine, but for significantly larger sizes, screws must be cut from solid bar. The spool
of wire is lubricated and heated to increase workability, and is fed into a straightening
machine to ensure that there is no misalignment in the final product. Once
straightened, the wire is cut to a desired length, and a series of dies are used to
progressively punch an outline of the screw’s head shape, and create a chamfer at the
tip of the screw. This step is known as cold forming, and produces a ‘blank’ - a smooth,
featureless template of a screw, with no threads and no drive cut into the head.

Drive Cutting

The manufacture process of a screw drive depends on the type of head and drive. For
certain drives and driveless head types, this step is not needed, as it is performed
during cold forming. For a common slotted drive and certain Phillips drives, the groove
is cut by a secondary process.

Thread Rolling

Screw blanks are then fed into thread-rolling dies, which can form a screw thread in a
number of ways. The most common method is a reciprocating die, in which the screw
is rolled at extremely high pressure between two flat dies – one of which remains
stationary. This process imprints the thread onto the screw, and can produce hundreds
of screws per minute. Additional methods include cylindrical dies, where a screw is fed
into a pair (or trio) of cylindrical dies which rotate in a fixed position, or rotary planetary
dies, where several cylindrical dies roll around a stationary screw. Screws produced
by thread rolling are far superior to machine-cut screws, as the blank is not cut during
manufacture, but is compacted and strengthening by the dies. Accu’s thread-rolled
screws have a superior finish, increased surface hardness, create less waste, are
more accurate, and are significantly faster to produce than machine-cut alternatives.

Quality Control
After manufacture, a batch sample is selected for inspection, to ensure that all
products have been manufactured to specification. Digital metrology equipment is
used to ensure that all components adhere to Accu’s +0.13/-0.13mm general tolerance
on all dimensions. Due to their unique thread-rolling process, rolled screw threads are
measured against an even tighter standard of +0.00/-0.13mm, as precision rolled
threads should never be oversized.

In the previous post we had discussed the various materials that can be used in the
manufacturing process of bolts, screws, and fasteners. We also explained the
preferred manufacturing methods and processes. In this post we shall take a look at
some other options.
The Optional Four Steps in Fastener Manufacturing
These steps comprise complicated specialized processes to achieve specific
results. However, we will explain each option briefly:

1. Heat Treatment: This process is performed to increase the overall durability

of the screw or bolt. There are two operations within heat treatment:
1. Hardening: Here, the fasteners are heated to a high temperature
(about 1652oF), and then dipped into a cooling media (usually water).
This sudden change in temperature hardens the bolt or screw material.
2. Tempering: This operation is performed to reduce some of the excess
hardness/brittleness of the fastener. The metal is heated to a
temperature level below its critical point after which the screw is left to
air cool.

2. Surface Finishing: This process includes operations that are performed to

alter the surface of the bolt or screw. It is done to enhance its function and
aesthetic appeal. Surface finishing can include:
1. Knurling: A lathe is used to create crossed, angled, or straight lines
into the metal.
2. Burnishing/Reaming: A tool is passed along the body of the fastener
in a sliding motion. This motion helps enhance the aesthetics of the
fastener’s surface finish.
3. Grinding: A grinder is used to remove any imperfections from the
screw to make the surface flat, smooth or even reflective.

3. Thread Forming and Rolling: Bolts and screws need to be threaded for
many applications. Thread forming or cutting is performed to create threads
on the inside or outside of the fastener. Thread rolling operations are
performed using thread rolling dies, which form various thread sizes on a part
without removing material. The die is placed against the area where the
threading needs to be made. The fastener is moved in a circular motion,
allowing the die to create perfect threads around the body at precise
locations.
 4. Protective Coating: The last step involves coating the screws and bolts with
a protective coating. This prevents the fasteners from rust or corrosion, and
can change the appearance by adding color.

After all these steps have been completed the custom machined fasteners are
then sent for testing and inspection. They are checked for their hardness levels,
threading accuracy, impact and tensile strength, torque levels, coating thickness,
and mating fit. If they pass all these tests, they are then packed and shipped for
delivery.
The Manufacturing Process: Basics
Screws are manufactured using a variety of methods, and smaller screws or screws with unique designs can only be
made by the “machining” process. The machining process is exact, time-consuming, and more expensive than the
process to make other screw types. The bulk of all screws are made with the “thread-rolling” method, the method used
in mass-production.
We’ll start with thread-rolling.

Thread Rolling
The process starts with “cold-heading,” in which a wire is fed through a pre-straightening machine. The straightened
wire is then cut into designated lengths, and then the head is cut into a preprogrammed shape. This is how screws get
their many variations in their heads, and the machine can produce 100 to 550 screw blanks in a minute.
After this is done the blank screws are fed to thread-cutting machines, being correctly ordered to make sure they’re in
the right position to be fed in. They are then cut in a variety of ways to give them the thread that you see on a screw.
This can take two to three rounds or trips through a machine before the desired thread is created.

Machining: Custom Screws

The process for a custom screw is very similar in that it has a lot of the same principles, only it requires more expensive
machinery in order to screw the variations in screws. They must be very exact to screw a micro screw, for example, or
calibrated differently to create a custom shoulder bolt. The thread-cutting and head creation process is very similar to a
traditional screw but requires a more precise machine.
It is because of this precision that the process can take so long.

While you now know the basics on how screw manufacturing works, there is a lot more to it than this. Hopefully, you
have a general idea of the process and how we create our custom screws. They’re specially designed for your project
and take a lot of time to be that way.

Modern Materials
The most common material used to make screws is low to medium carbon-
steel wire. Other durable and inexpensive metals that are sometimes
substituted include brass, stainless steel, nickel alloy and aluminum alloy.
Some screws have a finish applied to them for extra protection, which
must be compatible with the raw materials of the screw. Steel can be
plated in zinc, cadmium, nickel or chromium.

Cold Heading
The mass manufacturing of screws is accomplished through cold heading
and the thread rolling method. A coil of wire is fed into a machine that
straightens it, then directly into another machine that cuts the wire into the
desired lengths. A one- or two-punch process die cuts the head of the
screw into a preset shape. This process can produce between 100 and 550
screw blanks per minute.

Thread Rolling
The screw blanks are then guided down a chute that leads to one of three
different types of thread-cutting dies. If a reciprocating die is being used,
the screw will be rolled between one stationary flat die and one that moves
back and forth alternately to create the screw threads. A cylindrical die
achieves the same basic result by rolling the screw between two or three
round dies. The planetary rotary die process holds the screw blank in a
stationary position while several die-cutting machines roll around the
screw. All three of these methods create screws that are stronger than those
created using machine-cut methods. This is because the threads are not
actually cut into the screw blank but rather pressed. Thread rolling ensures
that no material is lost in the body of the screw, keeping the metal strong
while also creating more precisely positioned threads.

Quality Control
Standards for screw threads were established by the National Screw
Thread Commission in 1928; the main goal was to make screws more
interchangeable. A unified screw thread system was adopted in 1948 that
focused on the number of threads per inch, the pitch and shape of the
thread and diameter sizes. In 1966, the International Standards
Organization suggested universal restrictions on metric and inch size
ranges that have become the accepted global standard.

Raw Materials
Screws are generally made from low to medium carbon steel wire, but other tough
and inexpensive metals may be substituted, such as stainless steel, brass, nickel
alloys, or aluminum alloy. Quality of the metal used is of utmost importance in order
to avoid
The cold heading machine cuts a length of wire and makes two blows on the end, forming a head. In the
head slotting machine, the screw blanks are clamped in the grooves around the perimeter of the wheel. A
circular cutter slots the screws as the wheel revolves.

cracking. If a finish is applied to the screw, it must be of a compatible makeup. Steel may be
coated or plated with zinc, cadmium, nickel, or chromium for extra protection.

Design
On a single thread screw, the lead and pitch are identical, lead is twice the pitch on a
double thread model, and three times as much on a triple thread. The pitch of a
screw is the distance between two threads (or grooves) from the same point on each
thread. It is also more commonly known as the number of threads per inch or
centimeter. The lead of the screw measures how far it is driven in for each
revolution.

The Manufacturing
Process
Machining is only used on unique designs or with screws too small to be made any
other way. The machining process is exact, but too time consuming, wasteful, and
expensive. The bulk of all screws are mass manufactured using the thread rolling
method, and that is the procedure described in further detail.

Cold heading
 1 Wire is fed from a mechanical coil through a prestraightening machine. The
straightened wire flows directly into a machine that automatically cuts the wire at a
designated length and die cuts the head of the screw blank into a preprogrammed
shape. The heading machine utilizes either an open or closed die that either requires
one punch or two punches to create the screw head. The closed (or solid) die creates
a more accurate screw blank. On average, the cold heading machine produces 100
to 550 screw blanks per minute.

Thread rolling
  2 Once cold headed, the screw blanks are automatically fed to the thread-cutting dies
from a vibrating hopper. The hopper guides the screw blanks down a chute to the
dies, while making sure they are in the correct feed position.
 3 The blank is then cut using one of three techniques. In the reciprocating die, two
flat dies are used to cut the screw thread. One die is stationary, while the other
moves in a reciprocating manner, and the screw blank is rolled between the two.
When a centerless cylindrical die is used, the screw blank is rolled between two to
three round dies in order to create the finished thread. The final method of thread
rolling is the planetary rotary die process. It holds the screw blank stationary, while
several die-cutting machines roll around the blank.

Threads can be cut into the blank by several methods. In the reciprocal method, the screw blank is
rolled between two dies. In the cylindrical method, it is turned in the center of several rollers.

 All three methods create higher quality screws than the machine-cut variety. This is
because the thread is not literally cut into the blank during the thread-rolling process,
rather it is impressed into the blank. Thus, no metal material is lost, and weakness in
the metal is avoided. The threads are also more precisely positioned. The more
productive of the thread-rolling techniques is by far the planetary rotary die, which
creates screws at a speed of 60 to 2,000 parts per minute.

Quality Control
The National Screw Thread Commission established a standard for screw threads in
1928 for interchangeability. This was followed by an international Declaration of
Accord in 1948, adopting a Unified Screw Thread system. The standards focus on
three main elements: the number of threads per inch, the designated pitch and
shape of the thread, and designated diameter sizes. In 1966, the International
Standards Organization (ISO) suggested a universal restriction on threads to ISO
metric and inch size ranges with coarse and fine pitches. Compliance with the ISO
suggested standards has been global.
Where to Learn More
Books
Brittania Company. Screws and Screw-Making. James H. Wood, 1892.
Camm, F. J. Screw Cutting. Cassell and Company Ltd., 1920.
Glover, David. Screws. Rigby Education, 1997.

Periodicals
Koepfer, Chris. "Technology Gamble Pays Off." Modern Machine Shop, February
1995, pp. 94-104.
— Jennifer Swift Kramer

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