OIL AND NATURAL GAS

CORPORATION AHMEDABAD ASSET,

GUJARAT

PROJECT REPORT
BY
Gauraw Singh
Harshal Borse
Mahesh Shelar
Sanket Pawar

B.E Petroleum Engineering, MIT-Pune

In Partial Fulfillment of
UNDERGRADUATE WINTER INTERNSHIP PROGRAM
2018
OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION
LIMITED
AvaniBhavan, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Gauraw Singh, Harshal Borse, Mahesh Shelar,

,Sanket Pawar students of B.E., Petroleum Engineering at
Maharashtra Institute of Technology (MIT), Pune have successfully
completed their project work at ONGC Ahmedabad Asset. They are
submitting this project report after the successful completion of their
winter training from 17th Dec, 2018 to 16th Jan, 2019.

Project Guide
Sh.N. Chandra Sekaran,
DGM(P), Well Services
ONGC, Ahmedabad Asset
16-01-2019
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Winter Internship is a golden opportunity for learning & self-development. However, it would not
have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals from their respective
sections. we would like to extend our sincere thanks to all.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Sh.N. Chandra Sekaran,

DGM (P), Well Services ONGC Limited, Ahmedabad Asset, for his support and
guidance during our report.

Shri. J S Garbayal DGM (P)-I/C & Shri. Mayank Yadav,

EE(P)monitored our progress and arranged all required facilities to
make the project lively. We choose this moment to acknowledge their
contribution gratefully.

We are highly indebted to HR Department for helping us gain an opportunity to work with a highly
esteemed organization, ONGC Limited.

Gauraw Singh

Harshal Borse

Mahesh Pawar

Sanket Pawar

B.E. Petroleum Engineering

Maharashtra Institute of Technology, Pune

Place: Ahmedabad

Date: 16-Jan-2019
 INDEX

Sr.no. Content

1. Introduction

2. Overview of Well Services

3. Health, Safety& Environment

4. Well Testing

5. Well Completion

6. Workover Operations

8. Well Stimulation Services

Introduction
ONGC was founded on 14 August 1956 by Government of India. It is the largest crude oil
and natural gas Company in India, contributing around 70 per cent to Indian domestic
production. It is a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) of the Government of India, under the
administrative control of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
ONGC as an integrated Oil & Gas Corporate has developed in-house capability in all aspects
of exploration and production business i.e., Acquisition, Processing & Interpretation (API) of
Seismic data, drilling, work-over and well stimulation operations, engineering &
construction, production, processing, refining, transportation, marketing, applied R&D and
training, etc.
ONGC operates both on onshore and offshore for exploration and exploitation of
hydrocarbon energy. Almost 73 % of oil is produce from offshore platform.
ONGC have assets located in Ahmedabad, Tripura, Ankleshwar, Jorhat, Kakinada, Bokaro,
Mehsana, Mumbai high, and Rajahmundry.
Main Operational Activities:
1. Exploration and Exploitation of hydrocarbon to meet committed target to production
and supply.
2. Reservoir health management to optimize recovery.
3. Well servicing and minimizing non-flowing wells and improve productivity.
4. Quality, Health, Safety and Environment (QHSE).
 WELL SERVICES

Well Services are the maintenance services that are done after the well has been
drilled and completed. A wide range of matters are managed by the Well Services department
which helps an organization to manage the existing wells. Basic Well Services such as
servicing, maintenance, workover, well work etc., are performed under the supervision of
Well Services supervisor.
Well service activities are generally conducted to maintain or enhance the well
productivity, although some slickline and coil tubing applications are performed to monitor
the performance of the well.
Well Services plays a vital role in augmentation/meeting the Asset‟s hydro carbon (Oil &gas
gain) production targets by way of:
1. Completion of newly drilled development wells and Testing & Completion of newly
drilled exploratory wells.
2. Recompletion/Work over of old &sick wells by Work over rigs.
3. With Rig and Rig less stimulation operations carried out in the asset by coordination
with Surface, Sub-surface & Well Stimulation Services.

Well Servicing operation assumes that the well has been completed and initial production has
begun. All servicing activity requires specialized equipment.

 General Servicing
 Wireline operations
 Well logging
 Perforation
 Well activation
 Coil tubing

 Well Stimulation Services

 Acidizing
 Hydraulic Fracturing
 Health, Safety and Environment in Petroleum Industry
Introduction to Health, Safety and Environment
Health, Safety, and Environmental (HSE) is an integral part of any Industry
and is considered to be extremely essential when it comes to oil and gas
industry.
HSE Requirements are generally laid out considering the expectations of
divisional compliance with that of standard policies. This is the most important
part of HSE through legislation in the recent decades and thus forms the basis of
HSE regulations in the present era.
Apart from setting out the general duties and responsibilities of the employers and
others, it also lays the foundation for subsequent legislation, regulations, and enforcement
regimes. HSE standards are circumscribed around activities that are “reasonably practicable”
to assure safety of the employees and assets as well.
HSE regulations impose general duties on employers for facilitating the employees
with minimum health and safety norms and members of the public; general duties on
employees for their own health and safety and that of other employees, which are insisted as
regulations.

Health :
The health function typically deals with the well -being of the employees as they
live and work in the E&P environment. Typica lly, the health function focuses on
the effects of oilfield chemicals and oilfield physical environment on
employees.

Safety :
The safety function focuses on protecting the employee from risk involved in
E&P operations. All E&P operations involve some ri sk from operational
hazards. The safety function seeks to minimize these risks and monitor the
effectiveness of the minimization activities.

Environment :
The environmental function focuses on the effects E&P have on the external,
environment. Typically, the discipline deals with those effect that occurs
outside the E&P footprint. Included the effects of air emissions, waste water
discharges, and disposal of waste.
Importance of Safety

There are risks associated with every kind of work and workplace in day‐today life. Levels of
risk involved in some industries may be higher or lower due to the consequences involved.
These consequences affect the industry as well as the society, which may create a negative
impact on the market depending upon the level of risk involved. It is therefore very important
to prevent death or injury to workers, general public, prevent physical and financial loss to
the plant, prevent damage to the third party, and to the environment. Hence, rules and
regulations for assuring safety are framed and strictly enforced in petroleum industries, which
is considered to be one of the most hazardous industries.

The prime goal is to protect the public, property, and environment in which they
work and live. It is a commitment for all industries and other stakeholders toward the
interests of customers, employees, and others. One of the major objectives of the oil and gas
industries is to carry out the intended operations without injuries or damage to equipment or
the environment.

Industries need to form rules, which will include all applicable laws and relevant
industry standards of practice. Industries need to continuously evaluate the HSE aspects of
equipment and services. It is important for oil and gas industries to believe that effective HSE
management will ensure a good business.

From the top management through the entry level, every employee should feel
responsible and accountable for HSE. Industries need to be committed to the integration of
HSE objectives into management systems at all levels. This will not only enhance the
business, but also increase the success rate by reducing risk and adding value to the customer
services.
Protective Equipment
Protective equipment are used in drilling and workover rig, when the operations are being
carried out. There are various protective equipment as follows;

Personal Protective Equipment:

1. TEED: Top man emergency escape device, Used when rig is under fire, or some unsafe
activity is happening.

2. FPD: Fall prevention device, used for protecting the Top man.

3. Eye wash: It is used when eyes have come under some eye irritation while working in rig.

4. Respiratory PPE: If a workplace has unsafe atmospheric conditions, employers must

provide employees with respirators.

5. Hard Hat: If there‟s a danger of falling objects, overhead electrical hazards or fixed objects
that workers could bump into, they‟ll need to wear head protection.

6. Body PPE: Body PPE is used when, workers may step on sharp objects, have their feet
crushed by heavy objects, be exposed to excessive heat or cold, and be exposed to slip, trip,
and fall hazards.
Critical Safety Equipment:

1. BOP: A blowout preventer (BOP) is a large, specialized valve or similar mechanical

device, used to seal, control and monitor oil and gas wells to prevent blowouts, the
uncontrolled flow of crude oil and or natural gas from a well.

2. Accumulator: An accumulator is a device in which potential energy is stored in the form of

a compressed gas, or by a raised weight to be used to exert a force against an incompressible
fluid. It is used for operating BOP.

3. Remote Panel: Used for operating BOP.

4. Choke manifold: Choke manifold is used to lower the pressure from the well head. It
consist of a set of high pressure valves and two chokes.

5. Kill manifold: Kill manifold is mainly used to kill well, prevent fire and assist in fire
extinction.

6. Mud pump safety valve: Pressure relief valves are installed on mud pumps in order to
prevent an overpressure which could result in a serious damage of the pump and serious or
fatal injury to personnel.

7. FOSV: Full Opening Safety Valve is a ball valve designed for high pressure condition and
it can hold pressure from both directions.

8. Kelly cock: Kelly cock valves are located within the drill string that allow for free-passage
of drilling fluid without pressure loss and are specifically designed for effective control of
blow outs and/or mud loss control.

9. Drillo-meter: A device or system used to measure, display and record the weight of a
tubing string, slick-line string or coiled tubing string in the wellbore.

10. Drillograph: It is graph paper, a clock for time and pen is attached to it and it records the
activities happening in the operations.

11. Hook load cut off: It is safety equipment used when the load is too high it cut off engine

12. Trip Tank: Trip Tank is a small metal tank with small capacity about 20-40 bbl. with 1
bbl. divisions inside and it is used for monitoring the well.

13. Programmable logic circuit: An electronic logic circuit that controls crown-o-matic, floor-
o-matic and hook overload.
Electrical Safety equipment:

1. NGR: NGR (Neutral Grounding Resistor) is a high resistance grounding which in context
of electrical power system means the grounding of the system.

2. NDR: NDR or Neutral Displacement Relay or Residual Voltage Transformer is an

electrical protective device which is sensitive to raise in potential of unearthed neutral point
of a 3-phase system during earth faults.

3. MCB: A miniature circuit breaker automatically switches off electrical circuit during an
abnormal condition of the network means in overload condition as well as faulty condition.
 WELL COMPLETION

INTRODUCTION

The individual well is much more than just an expensive faucet. It provides the only
communication with reservoir during the exploitation of a field. The effectiveness of that
communication is a driving factor in the reservoir drainage as well as overall economics. The
individual well completion must be designed to yield maximum overall profitability.
A well completion is nothing but an arrangement that allows the well to produce oil and gas
from the reservoir to surface. The completion basically consists of:
 Bottom hole equipment to provide communication between producing formation and
well.
 Tubulars and accessories to provide a means for the produced fluids to flow from
bottom to surface.
 Well head equipment for control and monitoring of the produced fluids.

An ideal completion is the one that meets the demands placed upon it for the exploitation of a
reservoir at lowest cost for the entire producing life. Many factors both reservoir and
mechanical need to be considered to intelligently design completion of a well.

Reservoir Considerations:
Reservoir considerations involve the location of different fluids in the formation penetrated
by the well bore, flow behaviour of these fluids in the reservoirs and the characteristics of the
rock itself. It is the producing rate that provides maximum economic recovery which is often
considered as the starting point for well completion design. The other important factors that
influence the well completion design are as follows:
 Multiple reservoirs that requires multiple completions with or without packers, in
single or multiple strings etc.
 Reservoir drive mechanismmainly determines the completion or perforation interval
depending on expected movements of gas-oil and water-oil contacts. A water drive
reservoir may indicate water cut problem. Dissolved gas drive may indicate artificial
lift and the dissolved gas and the gas drive reservoirs usually means declining
productivity index and increasing GOR.
 GOR Techniquesmay require completion method conductive to selective injection or
production. Thermal recovery processes may require special casing and cementing
material.
 Stimulation may require special perforating patterns to permit zone isolation, perhaps
adaptability to high injection rate and pressures and a well hook up such that after
treatment, the zone can be returned to production without contact with killing fluids.
 High Temperaturesmay require special cementing, casing and casing landing
practices.
  Sand Control may dictate the type of completion in a well where sand control
measures are to be adopted.
 Work over Frequencywhenever it is high, often dictates completion conductive to
wire line or through tubing type re-completion systems.
 Artificial Liftrequires single completions because less complexness required.

Mechanical Considerations:
It involves the mechanical configuration or well hook up to exploit the reservoir effectively,
monitor down hole performances and modify the well situation when necessary. While
designing well completion, it should always be kept in mind that design should be cost
effective, safe, simple and reliable fulfilling anticipated operating conditions. Keeping in
view the above influencing factor, the basic decisions to be reached are
 Method of completion
 Number of completions within the well bore
 Casing-Tubing configuration
 Diameter of the production conduit
 Completion interval

TYPES OF WELL
Based on the well construction profile, the wells can be classified as:
1. Vertical well
2. Directional well
3. Horizontal well
4. Extended reach well
5. Multilateral well

The wells can be categorized based on the service they provide such as:

 Producers that produce hydrocarbons from the reservoir

 Injectors that inject fluid into the reservoir for better recovery

TYPES OF COMPLETIONS

The completion types can be classified on different basis. Some of the classifications are:

Classification Based on Casing Configuration

Basically, there are the following methods for completing a well based on casing
configuration:

1. Open Hole Completion where the production casing is set on top of or slightly into
the pay zone and cemented. The pay zone is left open and uncemented.
 Figure 1-Open hole Completion
Advantages:
 Full exposure of reservoir zone
 No cementing or perforating expense
 Minimize formation damage
 Minimize flow path restriction due to cementing and perforating
 Minimize wellbore skin
 Improve wellbore performance due to a large inflow area

Disadvantage:
 Unable to control excessive water or gas production
 Unable to isolate hydrocarbon zones
 Difficult to do reservoir management
 Has large potential to produce sand
 Inability to produce at different zones

2. Perforated Completion where the producing

interval is covered by the production casing
cemented and then perforated for taking
production.

Figure 2-Perforated Completion

Advantages
 The tubing controls the internal corrosion of the casing because produced fluid flows
through it
Disadvantages
 Tubings restricts the flow of produced fluid
 The completion is more expensive because of the cost of packer, tubing and
accessories.

3. Liner Completion where the production casing is set on top of the pay zone and is
followed by a liner/slotted liner/screen. The slotted liners and screen are not
cemented. In case liner is lowered then the same is cemented and perforated in the
producing layer.

Advantages
 Formation damage is minimized
 Selective stimulation is possible in cemented liner
 Perforation expense is avoided in screen liner

Disadvantages:
 Diameter across the pay is minimized

 Good quality cementation is difficult in cemented liner Figure 3-Liner completion

Classification Based on Number of Tubing Strings

Based on the number of tubing strings lowered into the well, the most commonly used
completions can be classified into:

1. Single completion
A single tubing string is lowered into the well to take production from either a single layer or
many layers. All the figures shown above indicate single completions.

2. Dual completion
In dual completion, two layers are completed and production from each layer is taken through
different production strings. Such type of completion does not require the pressures of
individual layers to be similar since the production from each layer is independent from one
another. The layers are isolated through use of packers.
Advantages
 It is possible to produce from/inject into more than one production / injection zone
through a single well, thereby reducing overall development costs.
 Selective treatment of individual zone is possible.
 Use of natural energy from one zone can be used to artificially produce another zone.
Disadvantages

 Large number of equipment

downhole used can create
problems.
 Expensive and more complicated
completion and workover
technique.
 Possibility of loss of production in
zone due to mechanical problems
and formation damage during work
over.

Figure 4-Dual completion

PERFORATION

Perforating is a process used to establish a flow path between the near reservoir and the
wellbore. It normally involves initiating a hole from the wellbore through the casing and any
cement sheath into the producing zone. A perforation in the context of oil wells refers to a
hole punched in the casing or liner of an oil well to connect it to the reservoir. In cased
hole completions, the well will be drilled down past the section of the formation desired for
production and will have casing or a liner run in separating the formation from the well bore.

Figure 5-Perforation gun

High explosives are very powerful explosives such as RDX, HMX, PYX, HNS, and others
that find common use in the oil industry. High explosives are characterized by extreme
energy release in a very short time.

A primary explosive is an explosive that is used in initiators or other devices to initiate the
explosive sequence. Primary explosives usually are more sensitive to firing (can be initiated
more easily) than secondary to initiate and must be initiated to get proper response.

Figure 6-Shot Phasing

Phasing is the angle between the charges. The most common phasing are 0°, 180°, 120°, 90°,
and 60°. Several specialty guns, offering higher density charge application
and guns for sand control or casing protection, explosives.

Secondary explosives are the main explosives used in charges. The

secondary explosives (usually high explosives) are harder may offer
phasings that increase the linear distance between the charges in a direct
line along the gun body.

Shot density is the measurement of the perforations made per unit length of the gun. Normally
given in either shots/ft. (SPF) or shots/m (SPM), the ranges of shot density extend from 1 to
27 SPF. The most common shot densities are 4 to 12 SPF (13 to 39 SPM). Shot density
requirements are a function of the completion design and the formation production
requirements.

Types of Perforation:
 Overbalanced Perforation
 Underbalanced Perforation

Firing Options:
When the gun is in position, it can be detonated by one of a number of optional techniques:
 Mechanical firing-
 Hydro mechanical
 Wireline firing

Operating Considerations:
 Gun length/Perforating interval
 Temperature effects
 Casing effect
 Charge quality
 Safety Procedure

BOTTOMHOLE COMPLETION EQUIPMENT

1. Wireline re-entry guides: In some operations, it is necessary to run electric wireline,
slickline tools, or coiled-tubing assemblies past the end of the tubing string and into the
casing below. Upon retrieving these tools, there may be problems pulling them back into the
tubing string if the tubing is run open-ended and unprotected.
 Figure 7-Wireline
re-entry guide
2.Problem seating nipple: Profile seating nipples are often referred to as

 Top no-go
 Bottom no-go
 Selective.

As the names indicate, each has a unique machined profile with a locking groove to accept a
flow-control device that is run and installed on slickline or coiled tubing.

Figure 8-Landing
nipple

3.Sliding sleeves: The sliding sleeve provides a means of establishing

communication between the tubing and annulus for

 Fluid circulation
 Selective zone production
 Injection purposes.

4.Blast Joints: The blast joint is used in multiple-zone wells in which the tubing extends past
a producing zone to deter the erosional velocity of the produced fluids and formation sand
from cutting through the tubing string.

5.Bottomhole Chokes: Bottomhole chokes are flow-control devices that are landed in profile
seating nipples. The bottomhole choke restricts flow in the tubing string and allows control
of production from different zones. It can be used to prevent freezing of surface controls.

Wireline and Packer Services (Downhole Services)

 Wireline and Packer services section of ONGC CMP situated at Kalol provides
facility for servicing the packers used in oil and gas well to hold the tubing in place.
 Its main function is to service the packers that are retrieved from the wells and to
make them ready by servicing for its use in the other wells.
 They mainly provides and services:-
 o Hydraulically set packers
o Mechanically set packers
o Bridge Plug
o Cement Retainers

Packers:-
 Packers are key component of completion and it is used to
isolate space between the casing and tubing.

 Uses of Packer:-
o Protect the production casing from corrosion from
produced fluid.
o Can provide a means of separating multiple producing
zones.
o Prevent downhole movement of tubing string.
o Support some weight of tubing.

 Packer Classification:-Based on retrievability packers are

classified into two group are as follows
o Permanent Packer:-This type of packer once placed in
well cannot be retrieved unless and until milling is done.
Permanent packer offers high temperature and pressure
resistance.
o Retrievable Packer:-This type of packer is resettable i.e. set and unset easily. It
can be very basic for low pressure and low temperature applications.However,
the ease of removing the packer from the wellbore as well as features, such as
resettability and being able to reuse the packer often, may outweigh the added
cost.

 Packer Component:-Packer have four key features

o Slip
o Cone
o Mandrel
o Packing element system

Figure 9-Packer component

 Hydraulically Set Packer:-The packer is hydraulically
activated by applying tubing pressure against a underneath
plugging device. The packer requires only straight pull to
release.

 Setting Procedure:- The packer is set by pressuring the

tubing to obtain a differential at the packer. To accomplish
this temporary plugging device below the packer must be provided like Wireline re-
entry guide with pump-out plug.The hydraulic-set packer has a bidirectional slip
system that is actuated by a predetermined amount of hydraulic pressure applied to
 the tubing string. To achieve a pressure differential at the
packer and set it, a temporary plugging device must be run
in the tailpipe below the packer. The applied hydraulic
pressure acts against a piston chamber in the packer. The
force created by this action sets the slips and packs the
element off. Some models have an atmospheric setting
chamber and use the hydrostatic pressure of the well to
boost the packoff force. Regardless of design, all of the
force generated during the setting process is mechanically
locked in place until the packer is later released. Once the
packer is set, the tubing may be landed in tension (limited
by the shear-release value of the packer), compression, or Figure 10-Hydraulic Set Packer
neutral.

Applications:-
o Production, Injection.
o Single string selective completion.

 Mechanically Set Packer:-This is a mechanical set double

grip retrievable production packer for medium to high
Pressure applications. The Packer allows unrestricted flow
and passage of full gauge wire line tools and accessories
with an unrestricted ID, making it ideal for zone isolation
injection and production applications. It can be set with production tubing in tension,
compression or neutral maximizing effectiveness in shallow wells or fiberglass tubing
operation. The packer‟s mechanical lock-set action closes an
internal bypass and allows application of pressure above or
below the packer. The packer is released by a ¼ right-hand
turn at the tool, followed by straight pickup of the production
tubing.

Application:-
o Casing integrity testing.
o Production completion. Figure 11-Mechanically Set
Packer

 Bridge Plug:-Bridge plug are mainly used to isolate a zone be

it during completion, W/O or simulation. Bridge plug can be
set using tubing or it can be set by using wireline. Once the
Bridge plug is set the setting tools can be retrieved and the
required job can be performed in the desired zone of interest. They are mainly used or
the wells that are completed in the multiple zones.

o Application:-

Figure 12-Bridge Plug

 o Temporary or permanent zone isolation
o Well abandonment
o Stimulation

 Cement Retainer:-Their assembly is same as that of the bridge plug accept that they
contain stringer at the bottom part which allows the cement to be pumped while the
tool is in the place. When stringer is stabbed on, the ports open and allow the cement
to be pumped while when stringer is stabbed off the ports closes and does not allow
the pumped cement to enter back in the string. They are mainly used for performing
the squeeze cementing operation.

o Application:-
o Squeeze cementing

 Pump out Plug:-The pump out plug is temporary tubing plug. It allows the tubing to
be pressured up for setting a device such as packer. They are a type of non-returning
valve (NRV) placed at the end of the last tubing.

 Application:-
o Packer setting
o Tubing Testing

Figure 13-PoP

 Bell Bottom:-They are a downhole piece of equipment connected to

lowermost tubing lower end. They have one end threaded and the
threads on the other end removed. This is done for a specific reason
to ensure that the entire string of tubing is being pulled out of the
hole
 WELL TESTING

Well Testing is the first major activity to be undertaken after drilling and exploratory
well in a field. Based on the data collected during the test, the reservoir model is created
which is then used to formulate the field development strategy.
The reservoir model is used to predict the physical behaviour of field with regard to
production rate and fluid recovery under different operating condition. For realistic
prediction, it is essential the model represents the reservoir as closed as possible to real
reservoir. The several parameter/data during the drilling and testing of a well contribute
toward development of reservoir model. Surface seismic data and well logs provide static
description of the reservoir whereas the well test data provide the dynamic response, which is
the most essential data for the construction of the reservoir model. Thus, well testing data are
the key inputs for accurate reservoir models and successful field development strategies. The
reservoir model is not fixed, but changes as more and more no. of exploratory wells are
drilled, information collected through conventional course during drilling and open hole logs,
well tested and new data are made available.
The main objectives of well testing operations are:
1. Identify produced fluids and determine their respective ratios
2. Measure reservoir pressure and temperature
3. Determine well productivity
4. Obtain samples for analysis
5. Evaluate reservoir parameters
6. Estimate completion efficiency

Well Testing
The well testing operations commence after a well has been drilled up to target depth, logged,
cased and cemented. After the well is cleaned and scrapped up to the required depth, CBL-
VDL log is recorded. In case the cement bondage is good then the well testing operation
starts with the hermetical testing of production casing and/or liner.
The major stages of a well test programme are:
1. Hermetical testing of production casing and/or liner, in which the casing is tested to
maximum expected surface pressure during testing operations.
2. Installation of down hole production string
3. Installation of surface equipment setup and its pressure testing as explained in safety
considerations in well testing
4. Perforation of zone to be tested – conventional perforation using wireline or tubing
conveyed perforation
5. Activation through placement of lighter fluid cushion, pressure surging etc.
 6. Cleaning of well to eliminate all foreign fluids such as mud, filtrate and completion
fluids contained in the embedded zone and wellbore so that representative reservoir
fluids are produced during tests. The following criteria are generally used to conclude
that the well has cleaned up:

I. Basic sediments and water (BS&W) are less than 1%

II. Flowing tubing head pressure (FTHP) is constant
III. Incase the well is flowing water along with oil and gas, then water percentage
and salinity are constant.
7. Flowing the well through various chokes and recording of flow rates and bottom hole
flowing pressures
8. Build up studies, gradient survey, PVT sample collection
9. Killing/subduing the well
10. Isolation of the zone tested
11. Well abandoning after all the identified zones are tested.

Hermetical Test
The hermetical test is carried out to ensure the hermeticity or complete Sealing of production
casing and / or liner to pressures exerted on it from either inside of well or from reservoir
side. The casing head and Production casing and/or liner should be pressure tested separately
to the maximum expected surface pressure during testing/ production. The annular space
between two consecutive casings should be connected to a valve. It should not be plugged
otherwise the casing may be Subjected to a pressure higher than the intended. The valves
should be tested to working pressure. X-mas tree assembly should be complete in all respects
as per recommendations of the manufacturer. Pressure gauges with suitable cocks should be
installed for release of pressure during the test. Every well head assembly should be provided
with suitable arrangement for recording tubing and annulus pressure. The procedure for
carrying out the hermetical test is as follows:
1. A tubing string with / without scraper is run to the bottom.
2. The drilling mud is displaced with water and thorough circulation is Carried out
to ensure that the entire drilling fluid has been displaced with clean water.

Negative test: The well is kept under observation for 1 hr. to ensure that there is no activity /
flow back of water from the well thereby indicating that the production casing / liner is
hermetical to Formation pressures from behind it.
Initially there will be some flow back owing to thermal gradients which should not be
concluded as failure of negative test. As cold water attains thermal equilibrium with the
temperatures inside the well (approximately in ½ hr.), the flow stops provided the production
casing is hermetical.
Also, in case the hydrostatic head of water inside the casing is more than the reservoir
pressure then some of the water inside the well needs to be knocked out using compressor
and / or nitrogen to create pressure differential across the casing for the negative test.

Positive test: In case the negative test is satisfactory then the well is filled with clean water
up to the surface. The pipe rams are closed on the string.
A pressure equivalent to maximum expected surface pressure during testing which will be
equal to higher of shut-in tubing head pressure assuming well flows only dry gas or
maximum expected surface pressure of nitrogen during activation or pressure required to
hydrostatically fire TCP guns is applied on casing through tubing.
The pressure is normally applied in stages / increments of 500 psi initially up to 3000 psi and
then in increments of 200 psi and held for 2 minutes to observe for any pressure drop. The
pressure is held for 15 minutes at the final hermetical test pressure.
All the annular valves should be kept open during positive test and any activity flow from
them should be closely monitored.
Since hermetical testing involves application of high pressures, it must be ensured that:
 All the lines being subjected to pressure are properly secured.
 Unnecessary personnel are removed /restricted from the area.

Subsequent to successful hermetical test, the well volume water is displaced with drilling
mud or solid-free completion fluid such as brine of requisite specific gravity and the same is
thoroughly circulated & conditioned prior to pulling out the tubing string.

Cement Bond Log

Proper cement placement between the well casing and the formation is essential:

 To support the casing (shear bond)

 To prevent fluid from leaking to the surface
 For isolating producing zones from water-bearing zones (hydraulic bond)

Acoustic logs provide the primary means for evaluating the mechanical integrity and quality
of the cement bond

Cement bonding is affected by:

 Cement job design and execution as well as effective mud removal.

 Cement in place and its mechanical properties (compressive strength).
 Temperature and pressure changes applied to the casing after cementing.
 Cement additives or epoxy resin applied to the outer wall of the casing.

Evaluating cement bond

Acoustic logs do not measure cement quality directly, rather, this value is inferred from the
degree of acoustic coupling of the cement to the casing and to the formation. Properly run
and interpreted, cement-bond logs (CBL) provide highly reliable estimates of well integrity
and zone isolation. Just as filtrate invasion and formation alteration may produce changes in
formation acoustic properties, and thus variation in acoustic logs over time, so too, cement-
bond logs may vary over time as the cement cures and its properties change.
 Figure 14=CBL

Modern acoustic cement-evaluation (bond) devices are comprised of monopole

(axisymmetric) transmitters (one or more) and receivers (two or more). They operate on the
principle that acoustic amplitude is rapidly attenuated in good cement bond but not in partial
bond or free pipe. These cased-hole wire line tools measure:

 Compressional-wave travel time (transit time)

 Amplitude (first pipe arrival)
 Attenuation per unit distance

Conventional CBL tools provide omnidirectional measurements, while the newer radial
cement-evaluation tools provide azimuthally sensitive measurements for channel evaluation.

When the acoustic wave generated by the transmitter reaches the casing,

 Part is refracted down the casing (amplitude and travel-time measurement)

 Part travels through the mud (fluid arrival)
 Other parts are refracted into the annulus and the formation and received back (formation
arrival)

Amplitude measured directly or as an attenuation ratio, is the primary bond measurement and
is used to provide:

 Quantitative estimations of cement compressive strength

 Bond index
 Qualitative interpretation of the cement-to-formation interface
Variable Density Log
Variable density is a continuous-depth time display of full-waveform amplitude presented as
shades of black and white. Positive waveform amplitudes are shown as dark bands and
negative amplitudes as gray or white bands; contrast is proportional to amplitude. On a
variable-density log, free pipe and fluid arrivals (if present) are easily identified as straight
dark and light lines (indicating homogenous acoustic properties) at either side of the display
.The zigzag, wavy, or chevron pattern between these two arrivals is the formation signal
(indicating varying acoustic transit time). In cases of poor bonding, casing-collar signals may
also be identified as "w" patterns (anomalies)

Figure 15 VDL
 WORKOVER

Any work on the wellbore which changes the flowing characteristics of the well or repairs a
problem within the wellbore can be classified as a workover.

Pre-Workover Conference (PWOC)

Before calling pre-workover conference, availability of the following items must be ensured:

1. Workover plan incorporating the well completion details, history of the well;
complications encountered during drilling /workover; completion of the well
including details about the casing and cementing, perforations, downhole equipment,
tubing and X-mas tree; problem in the well; present and expected bottom hole
pressure and temperature after workover job; type of workover fluid and weight to be
used; details of operation to be carried out/ stepwise activity plan and other relevant
details as deemed necessary should be prepared and made available at site/ with Rig
In-charge. All the shift in-charges shall be aware of the content of such work-over
plan.

2. Protective equipment must be there in a workover rig before (PWOC)

 Personal protective equipment:

Helmets, Safety Glasses with Side Shields, Eye wash, Leather, Canvas, Fabric
Gloves, Safety Shoes, Flame Resistant (FR) Workwear, Breathing operator

 Safety critical equipment:

Blow out Preventer, Accumulator, Remote Panel, Choke Manifold, Kill Manifold,
Safety Valve at Mud Pump (Popup Valve), Full Opening safety Valve (FOSV),
Lower Kelly Cock, Upper Kelly Cock, Drillometer, Drillograph, Emergency Kill,
Hook Load cut off, Trip Tank, Top Man Escape Device (TEED), and Fire Pump

Prior to commencing of any Workover operation, a pre-workover conference shall be held

with all personnel involved, covering procedure for operation, hazards associated and
emergencies. Pre-workover meeting shall ensure the participation of the following personnel
or their representatives:

i. Area Manager
ii. Rig I/C
iii. Chemist
iv. Installation I/C
v. Representative from Health Safety & Environment – Well Services
vi. Rig Safety Officer
vii. Mines Safety Officer
viii. Rig Maintenance I/C
ix. Representative from Maintenance Section- WS
x. Representative from Civil Engineering Section
xi. Representative from Logistics Department
xii. Representative from Fire Services Department

WORKOVER RIG:
All the workover rigs are mobile, mounted on wheeled carrier, with or without prime mover,
which can be driven to the well site with all necessary hoisting equipment.

Workover rigs can broadly be divided in two categories:

1. Rotary type
2. Non Rotary type

1. Rotary Type: In well servicing often drilling of cement/sand plug, milling of bridge plug/
packer/ fish etc. are performed which requires rotation of string. This requirement
necessitates the need of rotary rigs in well servicing operations. In rotary type, inbuilt
rotary table does rotation of workstring.

2. Non Rotary Type: Non-rotary type do not have rotary table but rotation of workstring
may be achieved by some external equipments like power swivel. Drilling of cement/
sand can also be accomplished by mounting dynadrill with work-string. Circulating
workover fluid at certain rate rotates these tools and not the workstring.

Overall cost and success of a workover job depends upon selection of workover rig. The
selection of suitable workover rig to perform a particular job depends on depth of the well
and load capacity.
Rig capacities are commonly spoken of in terms of depth rating with particular size tubing,
usually 2 7/8”. Rig capacity depends upon a number of factors namely braking capacity,
derrick capacity and draw works horsepower. Braking capacity is the prime consideration in
rig selection as considerable energy is developed in lowering pipe in the hole. This energy is
converted into heat energy in the braking system and must be effectively dissipated from the
system.

Types of workover operation

1. Rig operation
2. Rig less operation

1. Rig operation

Rig operation requires workover rig to install on the well prior to perform various heavy job
in the well. In rig operation for well work to be conducted with a conventional service rig, the
well must be dead.
It consist of following operation:

 Remedial Cementing
 Perforation
 Well stimulation
  Hot oil circulation (HOC)
 Repair leakage of tubing and casing
2. Rig less operation

Rig less operation are done in the wellbore without workover rig. It consist of small
workover job. Rig less operation can work on live well without subduing.
Rig less operations are done through the following methods:

 Coiled tubing unit (CTU)

 Slickline operation
 Snubbing operation

Rig Operations:

Remedial Cementing

Two general techniques are recognized for accomplishing the remedial cementing objective:

1. The high pressure technique involves fracturing the formation and pumping cement slurry
into the fracture until a particular surface pressure is reached and "holds" without bleed off.
Normally, neat cement (very high fluid loss) is used. This technique has inherent
disadvantages, most of which are overcome by the low-pressure technique.
2. Low pressure technique, or more descriptive , the "low-fluid-loss-cement" technique
involves spotting cement over the perforated interval and applying a pressure sufficient to
form a filter cake of dehydrated cement in the perforations and in channels or fractures that
may be open to the perforations. Low fluid-loss cement and clean workover fluids must be
used. It is not necessary or desirable to hydraulically fracture the formation.

Re-Perforation

1. Since the pay zone is sealed off by the production casing and cement, perforations must
be made in order for oil or gas to flow into the wellbore.
2. Hole made in the casing, cement, and formation, through which formation fluids enter a
wellbore. Usually several perforation are made at a time.
3. Perforating incorporates shaped-charge explosives which creating a jet of high-pressure,
high-velocity liquid – jet perforation.
4. It can be overbalance or underbalance perforation, and wireline conveyed perforation
(WCP) or tubing conveyed perforation (TCP).
5. Perforating gun (WCP type) is lowered into the hole at the depth where the oil or gas
formation is found (A).
6. After the gun is lined up properly, powerful explosive charges are fired (B) from the
control panel at the surface. These explosives blast a hole in the steel casing and cement,
up to several feet out into the rock.
7. Finally, the oil and gas fluids flow into the holes and up the well to the surface (C).
 Figure 16 Re-perforation
Figure 15 Re-perforation

Well Stimulation

Well Stimulation is the process of cleaning the available flow channels or creating new flow
channels with in the rock formation to improve permeability. The main purpose of Well
Stimulation is to improve the flow hydrocarbons into the wellbore so as to increase the
productivity. Well Stimulation operations can be carried out in existing as well as newly
drilled wells.

1. Acidization: involves pumping calculated quantity of acid into the wellbore at certain
pressure without fracturing the formation which dissolves the foreign material thus
improves the permeability. Hydrofluoric acid is used for sandstone while hydrochloric
acid is used for limestone.

2. Hydraulic Fracturing:Hydraulic fracturing, informally referred to as “fracking,” is an

oil and gas well development process that typically involves injecting water, sand, and
chemicals under high pressure into a bedrock formation via the well. This process is
intended to create new fractures in the rock as well as increase the size, extent, and
connectivity of existing fractures.

Hot Oil Circulation

A major challenge to production and stimulation is to send heat from surface to reservoir to
reduce oil viscosity, to dissolve paraffin wax from tubing and downhole equipment. Such
deposits tend to occur where a large variation in temperature exists across the production
system.
Operation:
Light crude oil is heated and converted into hot oil with the help of hot oilers. Oil is generally
injected through tubing in a well at temperature ranging from 80 o C to 90 o C. These are
generally truck mounted or skid mounted units whose primary purpose is to heat heavy crude
oil or any treatment fluid. Hotoilers are very much helpful in routinely removal of wax
deposits fromthe upper wellbore sections of wells in cold climates where low wellhead
temperatures increase the susceptibility of heavy crude oil and wax precipitation. A hot oil
unit is designed to clear these blockages by circulating the heated fluid into piping, tubing,
casing or tanks. High- pressure units remove paraffin from well tubing and pipelines.

Figure 17 -Hot oil circulation unit

Rig less operations:

Coil tubing unit (CTU)
CTU is 2nd generation work over rig. It is self-contained multi use unit which have
continuous length of steel tubing that is flexible enough to be wound on a large reel for
transportation. It is used for intervention in oil and gas wells and sometimes as production
tubing in depletion gas wells, which comes spooled on a large reel. Coiled tubing is often
used to carry out operations similar to wire lining. The main benefits over wireline are the
ability to pump chemicals through the coil and the ability to push into the hole rather than
relying on gravity. However, for offshore operations, the „footprint‟ for a coiled tubing
operations generally larger than a wireline spread, which can limit the number of installations
where coiled tubing can be performed and make the operations more costly. The Coiled
Tubing unit (CTU) has endless tubing stored on a reel and run into hole (RIH) or pulled out
of hole (POOH) by means of continuous motion friction device (Injector assembly).
Well servicing using coiled tubing has grown significantly with the development of tooling
and tubing technology. The size of tubing available vary from 1 inch through 4 ½” inch (in
ONGC, 1 ¼”and 1 ½”size is normally used). The material of tubing has improved
tremendously to give higher performance. Much of the recent increase in capability is due to
the increased performance of downhole motors, which provided the ability to rotate, enabling
and milling operations etc.
CTU Applications: The Coiled Tubing Unit (CTU) is used for various well servicing jobs.
Some of the applications are as listed here under:
Conventional CTU Applications
 Jetting for bottom/clean out.
 Activation for production.
 Paraffin removal.
 Stimulation.
 Tubing clean out.
 Emergency clean out.

Advanced CTU Applications

 Through- tubing operations like fishing – packer setting, zone isolation etc.
 Cementation and water shut off.
 Running, setting, pulling wireline pressure operated type tools.
 Selective zonal acidizing.

Figure 18-Coil tubing unit

Artificial Lift Completion
Most oil reservoirs are of the volumetric type where the driving mechanism is the expansion
of solution gas when reservoir pressure declines because of fluid production. Oil reservoirs
will eventually not be able to produce fluids at economical rates unless natural driving
mechanisms (e.g., aquifer and/or gas cap) or pressure maintenance mechanisms (e.g., water
flooding or gas injection) are present to maintain reservoir energy.
The only way to obtain a high production rate of a well is to increase production pressure
drawdown by reducing the bottom-hole pressure with artificial lift methods.
Artificial liftrefers to the mechanical lifting of wellbore fluids to the surface.

The commonly used artificial lift methods include the following:

 Sucker rod pumping (SRP)

 Gas lift System
 Electrical Submersible Pump (ESP)
 Progressive Cavity Pump (PCP)

Sucker Rod Pumping (SRP)

Sucker rod pumping is also referred to as „„beam pumping.‟‟

It provides mechanical energy to lift oil from bottom hole to surface. It is efficient, simple,
and easy for field people to operate. It can pump a well down to very low pressure to
maximize oil production rate. It is applicable to slim holes, multiple completions, and high-
temperature and viscous oils. The system is also easy to change to other wells with minimum
cost. The major disadvantages of beam pumping include excessive friction in crooked
deviated holes, solid-sensitive problems, low efficiency in gassy wells, and limited depth due
to rod capacity.
Beam pumping trends include improved pump-off controllers, better gas separation, and gas
handling pumps, and optimization using surface and bottom-hole cards.

A Sucker Rod Pump works in the following way:

 A motor and gear box runs the power shaft.

 Counter weights are added to the cranks at the end and the cranks lift the counter
weights.
 The Pitman arms connect the walking beam with the cranks. The beam then hinges
and lowers the plunger. When the plunger and the horse head are lowered, it
completes 1 down stroke.
 When the horsehead and plunger are lifted up, the fluid gets lifted from the bottom to
the surface. This completes the upstroke.
 The fluid flow determines the opening and closing of the valves. The standing valve is
opened while the riding valve is closed during the upstroke. During the downstroke,
the standing valve gets closed and the riding valve is opened.
Sucker Rod Pump is installed in wellbore, when the reservoir pressure is not enough to push
oil to the surface. It is installed where the depth of production zone is low and intermediate.It
is used for Heavy crude viscous oil

Figure 19. Sucker Rod Pump

Components of Sucker rod pump:

Surface equipment:
 Prime mover that provides the driving power to the system and can be an electric motor
or a gas engine.

 Gear reducer or gearbox reduces the high rotational speed of the prime mover to the
required pumping speed and, at the same time, increases the torque available at its slow
speed shaft.

 Pumping unit, a mechanical linkage that transforms the rotary motion of the gear reducer
into the reciprocating motion required to operate the downhole pump. Its main element is
the walking beam, which works on the principle of a mechanical lever.

 Polished rod connects the walking beam to the sucker-rod string and ensures a sealing
surface at the wellhead to keep well fluids within the well.

 Wellhead assembly contains a stuffing box that seals on the polished rod and a pumping
tee to lead well fluids into the flowline. The casing-tubing annulus is usually connected,
through a check valve, to the flowline.

Downhole equipment includes:

Rod string composed of sucker rods, run inside the tubing string of the well. The rod
string provides the mechanical link between the surface drive and the subsurface pump.

 Pump plunger, the moving part of a usual sucker-rod pump is directly connected to the
rod string.

 Standing valvein sucker-rod pump, a valve that permits flow up the tubing to fill the
pump-barrel chamber while preventing downward flow.

 Pump barrelit is cylinder of the downhole pump.

Gas lift Completion

Gas lift technology increases oil production rate by injection of compressed gas into the
lower section of tubing through the casing–tubing annulus and an orifice installed in the
tubing string.
Upon entering the tubing, the compressed gas affects liquid
flow in two ways:
(a) The energy of expansion propels (pushes) the oil to the
surface and
(b) The gas aerates the oil so that the effective density of
the fluid is less and, thus, easier to get to the surface.

Types of Gas lift system:

There are two types of gas lift system
 Continuous flow gas lift system.
 Intermittent-flow gas lift.

 Continuous flow gas lift system

Figure 20 Continuous flow gas lift

 In continuous-flow gas lift, the formation gas is supplemented with additional high-
pressure gas from an outside source. Gas is injected continuously into the production
conduit at a maximum depth that depends upon the injection-gas pressure and well depth.
The injection gas mixes with the produced well fluid and decreases the density and,
subsequently, the flowing pressure gradient of the mixture from the point of gas injection
to the surface.

Advantages:

1. Gas lift is the best artificial lift method for handling sand or solid materials. Many
wells produce some sand even if sand control is installed. The produced sand causes
few mechanical problem in the gas-lift system; whereas, only a little sand plays havoc
with other pumping methods, except the progressive cavity pump (PCP).
2. Deviated or crooked holes can be lifted easily with gas lift. This is especially
important for offshore platform wells that are usually drilled directionally.

Disadvantages:

1. Relatively high backpressure may seriously restrict production in continuous gas lift.
This problem becomes more significant with
increasing depths and declining static BHPs. Thus,
a 10,000-ft well with a static BHP of 1,000 psi and
a PI of 1.0 bpd/psi would be difficult to lift with
the standard continuous-flow gas-lift system.
2. Adequate gas supply is needed throughout life of
project. If the field runs out of gas, or if gas
becomes too expensive, it may be necessary to
switch to another artificial lift method.

 Intermittent flow gas lift system

Intermittent flow is the periodic displacement of liquid

from the tubing by the injection of high-pressure gas.The
intermittent gas-lift method typically is used on wells that produce low volumes of fluid
(approximately < 150 to 200 B/D), although some systems produce up to 500 B/D. Wells in
which intermittent lift is recommended normally have the characteristics of high productivity
index (PI) and low bottom hole pressure (BHP) or low PI with high BHP. Intermittent gas lift
can be used to replace continuous gas lift on wells that have depleted to low rates or used
when gas wells have depleted to low rates and are hindered by liquid loading.
Figure 21 Intermittent flow gas lift
Advantages:
1. Intermittent gas lift typically has a significantly lower producing BHP than
continuous gas-lift methods.
2. It has the ability to handle low volumes of fluid with relatively low production BHPs.

Disadvantages:
1. Intermittent gas lift is limited to low volume wells. For example, an 8,000-ft well
with 2-in. nominal tubing can seldom be produced at rates of more than 200 B/D with
an average producing pressure much below 250 psig.
 2. Intermittent gas lift typically requires frequent adjustments. The lease operator must
alter the injection rate and time period routinely to increase the production and keep
the lift gas requirement relatively low.

Electrical Submersible Pump (ESP)

Electrical submersible pumps (ESPs) are easy to installand operate. They can lift extremely
high volumes from highly productive oil reservoirs. Crooked/deviated holes present no
problem. ESPs are applicable to offshore operations. Lifting costs for high volumes are
generally very low. Limitations to ESP applications include highvoltage electricity
availability, not applicable to multiple completions, not suitable to deep and high-temperature
oil reservoirs, gas and solids production is troublesome, and costly to install and repair.

Progressive Cavity Pump (PCP)

Progressing cavity pumping (PCP) systems derive their name from the unique, positive
displacement pump that evolved from the helical gear pump.
The downhole PC pump is a positive displacement pump that consists of two parts:

 Helical steel “rotor”

 “Stator” comprised of a steel tubular housing with a bonded elastomeric sleeve formed
with a multiple internal helix matched suitably to the rotor configuration.

The stator is typically run into the well on the bottom of the production tubing, while the
rotor is connected to the bottom of the sucker rod string. Rotation of the rod string by means
of a surface drive system causes the rotor to spin within the fixed stator, creating the pumping
action necessary to produce fluids to surface.

Applications:

 High-viscosity oil wells

 High-sand-
cut wells
 Low-
productivity wells
 Gassy wells
 Directional-
and horizontal-well
applications

Figure 22. Progressive Cavity Pump

Figure 22. Electrical Submersible Pump
 Well Stimulation
Well stimulation is the general term using describing a variety of operations performed on a
well to improve its productivity. Stimulation is carried out to increase well production by
improving the movement of hydrocarbons into the wellbore. In addition & drilling fluids
sometimes damage the formation by blocking the pores in the reservoir, thus preventing the
flow of hydrocarbons to the wellbore, so well stimulation may be applied to unblock the
pores. Generally stimulation operations can be focused on the wellbore or reservoir; and can
be conducted on old wells and new wells, and it can be designed for remedial purposes or for
enhanced production.
Well stimulation techniques are intended to:
1. Improve degree of interconnection between pores, particularly for low permeability.
2. Remove or bypass impediments to flow.
3. Provide large conductive hydraulic channel which allow the wellbore to communicate with
a larger area of reservoir.
In general, there are some principal techniques applied, namely:
Hydraulic Fracturing: If fluid is pumped into a well faster than the fluid can escape into the
formation, inevitably pressure rises, and at some point something breaks. Because rock is
generally weaker than steel, what breaks is usually the formation, resulting in the wellbore
splitting along its axis as a result of tensile hoop stresses generated by the internal pressure,
the simple idea of the wellbore splitting like a pipe because more complex for cased and
perforated wells. However, in general, the wellbore breaks-i.e., the rock fractures-owing to
the action of the hydraulic fluid pressure, and a hydraulic fracture is created. Because most
wells are vertical and the smallest stress is the minimum horizontal stress, the initial splitting
(or breakdown) results in a vertical planar parting in the earth.

Figure 23 fracturing

The breakdown fracture growth expose new formation area to the injected fluid, and thus the
rate of fluid leaking off into the formation starts to increase. However, if the pumping rate is
maintained at a rate higher than the fluid loss rate, then the newly created fracture must
continue to propagate and grow. This growth continues to open more formation area.
However, although the hydraulic fracture tremendously increase the formation flow area
while pumping , once pumping stops and the injected fluids leak off, the fracture will close
the new formation area will not available for production. To prevent this, measures must be
taken to maintain the conductive channel. This normally involves adding a propping agent to
the hydraulic fluid to be transported into the fracture. When pumping stops and fluid flows
back from the well, the pumping agent remains in place to keep the fracture open and
maintain a conductive flow path for the increased formation flow area during production. The
propping agent is generally sand or a high strength, granular substitute for sand.
Alternatively, for carbonate rocks, the hydraulic fluid may consist of acid that dissolves some
of the formation, leaving behind acid – etched channels extending into the reservoir.
Placement of acid in the reservoir is of very high importance. There are number of tools and
techniques may vary from field to field. Placing fractures in the right place in deviated and
horizontal wellbores with non-mechanical isolation tools is key. Generally, a jetting tool
deployed on the coiled tubing, is used in order to place the acid in the right spot in the
reservoir, which is more efficient that pumping from the surface.

Figure 24 Hydraulic Fracturing Unit

Hydraulic Fracturing: Stages

There is a range of hydraulic fracturing techniques and several different approaches may be
applied within a specific area. Hydraulic fracturing programs and the fracture fluid
composition vary based on the engineering requirements specific to the formation, wellbore
and location. A typical hydraulic fracture program will follow the stages below.

Hydraulic Fracturing Stages:

1. Spearhead stage: Also referred to as an acid stage, it is generally a mix of water with
diluted acid, such as hydrochloric acid. This serves to clear debris that may be present in
the wellbore providing a clear pathway for fracture fluids to access the formation.
2. Pad stage: A batch of carrying fluid without proppant that is used to break the formation
and initiate the hydraulic fracturing of the target formation.
3. Proppant stage: During this stage a mixture of water and sand (i.e. proppant) is fed into
the wellbore. The proppant is composed of non-compressible material, such as sand, that
will be carried by the fracture fluid into the formation and deposited. The proppant will
remain in the formation once the pressure is reduced and „prop‟ open the
 fracturenetwork. Thus, maintaining the enhanced permeability created by the hydraulic
fracture program.
4. Flush stage: A volume of fresh water is pumped down the wellbore to flush out any
excess proppant that may be present in the wellbore.

Applications for Hydraulic Fracturing:

 Increase the flow rate of oil and/or gas from low-permeability reservoirs
 Increase the flow rate of oil and/or gas from wells that have been damaged
 Connect the natural fractures and/or cleats in a formation to the wellbore
 Decrease the pressure drop around the well to minimize sand production

Acidizing

Oil and gas operator have used acid treatment to improved well productivity. Acidifying used
was limited by the lack of effective acid corrosive inhibitor To protect the steel tubular in the
well. With the development of effective corrosive inhibitor, the used and further development
of acid treatment of oil and gas well proliferated, leading to the establishment of the well
stimulation industry. Acidizing is commonly performed on new wells to maximize their
initial productivity and on aging wells to restored productivity and maximize the recovery of
the energy sources.

Acidizing Types:
There are three basic acidizing treatment
1. Spotting
2. Acid Fracturing
3. Matrix acidizing

Spotting:
 Spotting aid means to pump a small amount of acid into a particular spot into a well.
 Spotting removes deposits on the face of the producing formation. It is also used to
dissolve junk in the hole.

Acid Fracturing:
 The acid injection pressure is above the fracture pressure, the reservoir is
hydraulically fractured and then fractured faces are etched with acid to provide linear
flow channels to well bore.
 The application of acid fracturing is confined to carbonate reservoirs.
 It is a popular method because even injecting acid at moderate pumping rate in a low
permeability limestone and dolomite formation usually results in fracturing.
 A major problem in fracture acidizing of carbonate formation is that acid tent to react
too fast with carbonates and are spent near the wellbore.
 Figure 25 matrix acidizing

Matrix Acidization:
Matrix stimulation is a technique that has been used extensively since the 1930s to improve
production from oil and gas wells and to improve into injection wells. Matrix stimulation is
accomplished by injecting a fluid (e.g. acid or solvent) to dissolve and disperse materials that
impair well production in sandstones or to create new, unimpaired flow channels between the
wellbore and a carbonate formation. In matrix stimulation, fluids are injected below the
fracturing pressure of the formation. It is estimated that matrix treatments constitute 75% to
80% of all stimulation treatments (matrix and fracturing) worldwide, but the total expenditure
for matrix treatments is only 20% to 25% of the total for all stimulation treatments. However,
because the payout time for the matrix treatments is normally days rather than months as it is
for conventional fracturing treatments. Many operators around the world have indicated that
averages of 40% to 50% of their wells have significant damage, but routine only 1% to 2% of
their wells are treated every year. Substantial production improvements can be achieved with
matrix stimulation if treatments are engineered properly. A success rate greater than 90% is
reasonable.
 Acidisation is a technique of injecting acid and chemicals in the reservoir to reduce
damage near the wellbore for improving well productivity infectivity. Inorganic,
organic and combination of these acids along with surfactants are used in variety of
well stimulation treatments. The two basic types of acidizing are characterized
through injection rate and pressure. Injection rates below fracture pressure are termed
matrix acidizing while those above fracture are termed as fracture acidizing.
 Matrix acidizing is primarily applied to remove near well bore damaged caused by
drilling/completion /workover fluids or injection fluids and by precipitation of scale
deposits from produced or injected water. The goal of matrix acidizing is to achieve
radial acid penetration in to the formation for removal of effects permeability
reduction near wellbore. The objective of an acid treatment is to react with the
formation rock and pore plugging materials to form suitable salts that can beproduced
 to the surface, or displaced into the pore system some distance away from the well
bore, thus providing enlarged or more open flow channels.
 Basic acids used in the various combinations are Hydraulic Acid, Hydraulic
+Hydrofluoric acid, Formic acid and to lesser extent Fluoboric Acid and Sulfamic
Acid. Typically, 15% HCl acid for carbonate reservoirs and 12% HCl & 3% HF acid
for sandstones reservoirs is used in wells. Before acidizing, ensure the tubing (and
CT if used) is clean - if necessary run a pickling treatment to remove rust and scale
etc. - don't inject that stage into the formation if you can avoid it.

Matrix acidization stages:

1. In sandstone acidizing, the fluid sequence must include a pre-flush of inhibited HCl
- that dissolves or sweeps away any calcium ions present, which would cause a
precipitate (and thus damage) with the mud acid. The volume in a vertical well
would be 1 pore volume to 3 - 5 feet penetration, with the zone height being the
critical factor. In a vertical well, it is usually impossible to perform a matrix
treatment, so 1 wellbore volume of preflush is used.
2. The next stage is the treating fluid - use 3 pore volumes (to 3-5 feet) or 3
wellbore volumes in a horizontal well.

3. The final stage would be another 1 pore volume (or wellbore volume) of flush,
which is usually Ammonium Chloride plus a surfactant or mutual solvent.

That gives you the volumes required, it is better to treat the well in smaller stages, using
portions of preflush-treatment-flush separated with diverter stages - depending on the
permeability‟s, you might consider using a viscosity controlled diverter using a viscoelastic
surfactant, or a solid diverter such as benzoic acid or an oil soluble resin etc.

Acid Additives:

 Surfactants: Should be used in all acid jobs to reduce surface and interfacial tension,
to prevent emulsion
 Anti-sludge Agents: Some crudes particularly heavy asphaltic crudes, form an
insoluble sludge when contacted with acid this is avoided using the addition of certain
anti-sludge agent which can prevent formation of sludge by keeping colloidal material
dispersed.
 Corrosion Inhibitors: They are chemical additives that reduced the rate of corrosion of
a steel by acid.
 FISHING TOOLS & SERVICES
Definition of Fishing:-
It refers to the application of tools, equipment and techniques for removal of junk, debris or
stuck tools from wellbore.
OR
Fishing may be described as removal of any undesirable tool, equipment, or other object
found in cased or uncased well bore that stops or retards operational progress.

Causes of Fishing Jobs:-

As there are many types of fish, there are many ways that equipment can become lost or stuck
in hole. The most common causes of fishing jobs:-
 Twist off, a parting of drill string caused by metal fatigue
 Sticking of the drill string
 Bit or tool failure
 Foreign objects such as hand tools, logging instruments
 Human error.

Fishing tools

External Internal Impression Casing

Junk Mill Junk Magnet
catch catch Block Scrapper

A) External Catch fishing tool:-It is used to engage fish externally with help of grapple are
as follows
1) Overshot:-It is strongest tool available for externally engaging, packing off, and pulling a
fish. It can be released if fish is stuck. Overshot require same hand rotation for both operation
i.e. engaging and releasing operation.

Figure 26 Overshot
2) Die Collar:-It is simplest rugged and dependable external catch fishing tool. It has
hardened wickers (cutting teeth) to ensure positive engagement of the fish. Major drawback is
it is non-releasing tool i.e. once engaged fish cannot be disengaged in downhole.

B) Internal catch fishing tool:-It is used to engage fish

internally i.e. on ID of fish are Figure27-Die collar as follows
1) Taper Tap:-The Taper Tap is an internal catch
fishing tool designed to retrieve tubular members
from the well bore. It is the most economical tool of
its kind for freezing fish. It is a non-releasing tool.
Taper Tap has two types as plain and skirt type.

2) Full Circle Releasing Spear:-It is used to internally engage and retrieve all sizes of
tubing, drill pipes and casing. It can also be used in conjunction with internal cutters to
perform cut and pull operations. It can be released if fish Figure28-Taper Tap
is stuck.

Figure 29-Full Circle Releasing Spear

C) Impression Block:-The Impression Block is an
accessory tool used to accurately determine the
dimensions configuration of the upper end of fish as well
as to check its condition and position in well bore.The
soft lead lower end of the impression block capture an
impression of the fish upon making contact.

Figure 30-Impression Block

D) Junk Mill:-It is used to mill non-retrievable fish such as

float collar, packer, damaged liner and stuck pipes. It is put
at bottom of string and given proper rotation in order to mill
properly.

Figure 31-Junk Mill

E) Fishing Magnet:-The Fishing Magnet is a junk

retrievable tool designed to effectively remove metal
particles, shaving and debris from the bottom of the well
bore. This method mainly used to retrieve small objects like
bit tooth, screw, etc.

Figure 32-Fishing Magnet

F) Casing Scrapper:-It is used to remove irregulatries from tubular string like casing
tubings. It is ensure proper cleaning of casing prior setting of packers.

Figure 16-Casing scrapper

References

 Thomas O. Allen and Alan P. Roberts “Production Operations”

Oil and Gas Consultants, International inc. Tulsa

 Dr. Boyun Guo “Petroleum Production Engineering” Elsevier Science &

Technology Books

 https:/;/petrowiki.org/PetroWiki

 https://www.slb.com/

 H. Rabia“Oilwell drilling engineering”