Ingenieria de Reservorios-Sin Candado

1 INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
2 RESERVOIR PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES
3 RESERVOIR FLUIDS COMPOSITION
4 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS
5 BEHAVIOUR OF GASES
6 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR LIQUIDS
7 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCKS
8 ROCK PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT
9 PERMEABILITY-ITS VARIATIONS
10 FLUID FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA
11 DRIVE MECHANISMS
12 VAPOUR LIQUID EQILIBRIA
13 EQUILIBRIUM RATIO PREDICTION AND CALCULATION
14 PVT ANALYSIS
15 MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
16 MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION APPLICATION
17 WATER INFLUX
18 IMMISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT
19 EXAMINATION AND MODEL SOLUTIONS

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING RE
This Reservoir Engineering module covers material presented in a range of reservoir engineering texts and a
number of the figures and examples are based on these texts and copyright is currently being sought. The student
may find the more detailed analysis in these texts supportive when going through these notes. The following
books are considered useful in building up a reservoir engineering library.
1.Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering. L.P.Dake. Elsevier. 1978

ISBN:0-444-41667-6
2.The Practise of Reservoir Engineering. L.P.Dake. Elsevier. 1994.

ISBN: 0-444-82094-9
3.Principles of Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. G.H.Chierici. Springer-Verlag 1994.

ISBN:3-540-56037-8
4.Fundamental Principles of Petroleum Reservoir B.F. Towler. Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc
Engineering ISBN:55563-092-8
5.Applied Reservoir Engineering B.C.Craft & M.F.Hawkins. Prentice Hall.

1959.
6.The Properties of Petroleum Fluids 2nd Ed W.D.McCain Pennwell Books . 1990

ISBN:0-87814-335-1
7.Petroleum Engineering Principles and Practise. J.S.Archer & C.Wall.Graham & Trotman.
1986. ISBN:0-86910-715-9
8.Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. J.W.Amyx,D.M.Bass & R.L.Whiting.

McGraw-Hill. 1960. ISBN:07-001600-3
9.PVT and Phase Behaviour of Petroleum Reservoirs A. Danesh. Elsevier. ISBN: 0-444-82196-1
Adrian C Todd
All rights reserved no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise without the prior permission of the Copyright owner.
2
Reservoir Engineering notes cover an extensive amount of material. They are support
material for the examination in this topic but are also considered to be useful material
in subsequent career use. Not all the material in the text can be covered in a limited
time examination.
In the context of the examination a student should consider the learning objectives at
the front of each section which should help in the level of detail and analysis which
is required in relation to an examination covering the various topics.
Detailed below is a graded analysis of each section which should help the candidate
in examination preparation. These should be considered alongside the learning
objectives.
Grading structure:
5 - Core material for examination purposes

4 - Core material less analytical than 5 - examinable.
3 - Between 4 & 2
2 - General awareness. Not so examinable with respect to analysis of detail.
1 - Other information not examinable.
OM- Material covered in another module not for examination purposes in Reservoir
Engineering.
Equations – It is not necessary to memorise complicated equations. Equations unless

asked to be derived will be given.
Clearly some basic equations one should know and would not be given e.g.
Darcy’s Law,
PV = nzRT
STOOIP equation
Equilibrium Ratio K=y/x
Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 3

4
Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 4 Phase Behaviour Chapter 7 Reservoir Rocks Chapter 8 Rock Measurement
Section – grading All material 5 1 3 1.1 2
1.1 4 2 4 2.1 2
1.2 4 Chapter 5 Gases 3 3 2.2 2
1.3 4 1.1 5 4.1 5 3.1 2
2 4 1.2 5 4.2 5 3.2 2
3 – 1.3 5 4.3 3 4.1 3
3.1 4 1.4 5 4.4 3 4.2 3
3.2 4 1.5 5 4.5 5 4.3 3
3.3 4 1.6 5 4.6 5 4.4 3
3.4 4 1.7 5 4.7 4 5 2
4 OM 1.8 5 4.8 5 6.1 5
5 OM 1.9 5 4.9 2 6.2 3
6 4 2.1 5 4.10 2 6.3 5
7 4 2.2 5 5 3 6.4 5
8 4 2.3 5 6 5 7 2
9 4 2.4 1 7.1 5
2.5 5 7.2 5 Chapter 9 - Permeability Variations
Chapter 2 Reservoir Pressures 3 5 7.3 5 1 3
1 5 4 3 8.1 5 2 5
2 5 5 3 8.2 5 3 5
3 5 6 2 8.3 5
4 5 Chapter 10 Fluid Flow
5 5 Chapter 6 Liquids 1 3
6 4 1 5 2 3
2 5 3.1 3
Chapter 3 Reservoir Composition 3 5 3.2 3
1 5 4 5 3.3.1 3
2 5 5 5 3.3.2 3
3 4 6 5 3.3.3 3
4 5 7 3 note there is an error in some texts with another 7 heading 3.3.3.1 5
5.1 5 8.1 5 3.3.4 5
5.2 2 8.2 5 3.4 5
5.3 2 9 5 3.4.1 3
10 3 3.5 5
11 1 4 1
12 5 5 5
5.2 5
5.3 5
6 5
Chapter 11 Drive Mechanisms Chapter 15 Material Balance Chapter 18 Immiscible Displacement
All sections 5 1 5 1 5
2 3 2 5
Chapter 12 Vapour Liquid Equilibrium 3 5 3.1 3
1 2 4 5 3.2 5
2 2 Eq 11 – 5 5 5 3.3 3 ( Eqn 1 – 5 -should be expected to know )
3 5 6 5 3.4 4 ( post equation 14 – 5 )
4.1 5 7 5 4 5
4.2 5 8 5 5.1 2
4.3 5 9 5 5.2 5 ( from equation 72+ - 2)
5.1 3 10 5 6.1 3
5.2 3 11 5 6.2 3
5.3 3 12 5 6.3 3
5.4 3 6.4 5
Chapter 16 MB Application 6.5 5
Chapter 13 Equilibrium Ratio 1 5 6.6 1
1 3 2 5 6.7 5
2 3 3 5 7 5
3 2 4 4 8.1 2
4 2 5.1 5 (5.1.2.2 Eq46 -1 ) 8.2 2
5.2 4 8.3 2
Chapter 14 PVT 5.3.1 4 8.4 1
1 4 5.3.2 2 8.5 1
2 2 5.3.3 5
3.1 5 5.3.4 5
3.2 5 5.3.5 2
3.3 5 5.4 2
3.4 2 5.5 1
Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

3.5 2 5.6 3
4 5 6 1
5 2
6 5 Chapter 17 Water Influx
7 3 1 5
8.1 2 2.1 3
8.2 2 2.2 3
9 5 2.3 3
10 5 2.4 3
11 5 2.5 5
12 5 3 5
13 3 4 4
14 3 5 3
15 1 6 2
7 2
5
Introduction To Reservoir Engineering
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 8. PRODUCTION OPERATIONS OPTIMISATION

1.1 Reserves Estimation 8.1 Development Phase
1.2 Development Planning 8.2 History Matching
1.3 Production Operations Optimsation 8.3 Phases of Development
2 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES 9. THE UNIQUENESS OF THE RESERVOIR
3 RESERVE ESTIMATING 10. CONCLUSIONS

3.1 Definitions
3.2 Proven Reserves
3.2.1 Exercises - Reserve Definitions
3.3 Unproved Reserves
3.3.1 Probable Reserves
3.3.2 Possiible Reserves
3.4 Reserve Status Categories
3.4.1 Developed:
3.4.1.1 Producing
3.4.1.2 Non-producing:
3.4.2 Undeveloped Reserves:
4 PROBABILISTIC REPRESENTATION OF
RESERVES
5 VOLUME IN - PLACE CALCULATIONS

5.1 Volume of Oil and Gas in-Place
5.2 Evolution of Reserve Estimate
5.3 Reservoir Area
5.4 Reservoir Thickness
5.5 Reservoir Porosity
5.6 Water Saturation
5.7 Formation Volume Factors
5.8 Recovery Factors
5.9 Production Capacity
5.10 Hydrocarbon Pore Volume Map
6 OTHER APPRAISAL ROLES
7 DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
7.1 Reservoir Modelling
7.2 Technoconomics
7.3 Coping with Uncertainty
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter the Student will be able to:
• Show using a block diagram the integration of reservoir engineering with other
petroleum engineering and other subjects.
• Define the SPE definitions of reserves; proven reserves, unproved reserves;

probable reserves and possible reserves.
• Calculate given the prerequisite data proved, probable and possible reserves.
• Describe in general terms reserve estimation.
• Sketch a diagram showing the probability versus recoverable reserves indicating,

proven, proven + probable and proven + probable + possible reserves.
• Present a simple equation for volumes of oil and gas in-place.
• Describe in general terms the evolution of reserves through successive

exploration wells.
• Describe briefly with the aid of a sketch the various maps used to represent
reservoir; area, thickness porosity, saturation.
• Describe briefly the use of the production (well0 test to determine reservoir
flowability and properties.
• Describe briefly the various elements of development planning: reservoir

modeling technoeconomics and uncertainty.
• Illustrate with a sketch the impact of different technical parameters on the

associated uncertainties on a project.
• Describe in general terms in the context of production operations, optimization

in history matching.
• Draw a sketch showing the various phases of production from build up to

economic limit.
• Draw a sketch illustrating the various recovery scenarios from primary to

tertiary recovery.

1 INTRODUCTION
With the petroleum industry’s desire to conserve and produce oil and gas more efficiently
a field of specialisation has developed called Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. This
new science which can be traced back only to the mid 1930’s has been built up on a
wealth of scientific and practical experience from field and laboratory. In the 1959
text of Craft & Hawkins1 on Applied Reservoir Engineering it is commented that “as
early as 1928 petroleum engineers were giving serious consideration to gas-energy
relationships and recognised the need for more precise information concerning
physical conditions as they exist in wells and underground reservoirs. Early progress
in oil recovery methods made it obvious that computations made from wellhead or
surface data were generally misleading.” Dake2, in his text "The Practise of Reservoir
Engineering", comments that “Reservoir Engineering shares the distinction with
geology in being one of the ‘underground sciences’ of the oil industry, attempting
to describe what occurs in the wide open spaces of the reservoir between the sparse
points of observation - the wells”
The reservoir engineer in the multi-disciplinary perspective of modern oil and gas
field management is located at the heart of many of the activities acting as a central
co-ordinating role in relation to receiving information processing it and passing it on
to others. This perspective presented by Dake2 is shown in the figure below.
Exploration
Geophysics/ Petrophysics
Geology
Reservoir Engineering
Economics Production
(Project viability) Process Egineering
General Engineering
Platform Topsides Design
2
Figure 1 Reservoir Engineering in Relation to Other Activities (adapted Dake )
Dake2 has usefully specified the distinct technical responsibilities of reservoir

engineers as:
• Contributing, with the geologists and petrophysicists , to the estimation of

hydrocarbons in place.
• Determining the fraction of discovered hydrocarbons that can be recovered.
• Attaching a time scale to the recovery.

• Day-to-day operational reservoir engineering throughout the project lifetime.
The responsibility of the first is shared with other disciplines whereas the second is
primarily the responsibility of the reservoir engineer. Attaching a time scale to recovery
is the development of a production profile and again is not an exclusive activity. The
day-to-day operational role is on going through the duration of the project.
A project can be conveniently divided into two stages and within these the above
activities take place, the appraisal stage and the development phase. The appraisal
phase is essentially a data collection and processing phase with the one objective of
determining the ‘viability’ of a project. The development phase covers the remaining
period if the project is considered viable from the time continuous production com-
mences to the time the field is abandoned. Reservoir engineering activity in various
forms takes place during both of these stages.
The activities of reservoir engineering fall into the following three general catego-
ries:
(i) Reserves Estimation

(ii) Development Planning
(iii) Production Operations Optimisation
1.1 Reserves Estimation

The underground reserves of oil and gas form the oil company’s main assets. Quan-
tifying such reserves forms therefore a very important objective of the practising
reservoir engineer but it is also a very complex problem, for the basic data is usually
subject to widely varying interpretations and on top of that, reserves may be affected
significantly by the field development plan and operating practice. It is an on-go-
ing activity during, exploration, development planning and during production. It is
clearly a key task of the appraisal phase for it is at the heart of determining project
viability.
Before any production has been obtained, the so-called ‘volumetric estimate of
reserves’ is usually made. Geological and geophysical data are combined to obtain
a range of contour maps with the help of a planimeter and other tools the hydrocar-
bon bearing rock volumes can be estimated. From well log petrophysical analysis,
estimates of an average porosity and water saturation can be made and when applied
to the hydrocarbon rock volume yield an estimate of oil in place (STOIIP). Since
it is well known that only a fraction of this oil may in fact be ‘recoverable’, labora-
tory tests on cores may be carried out to estimate movable oil. The reserve estimate
finally arrived at is little more than an educated guess but a very important one for
it determines company policy.
In 1987 the Society of Petroleum Engineers in collaboration with the World Petroleum
Congress published definitions with respect to reserves and these are now accepted
world-wide 3. These definitions have been used in the summary of reserve defini-
tions which follow.

1.2 Development Planning

Oilfield development, particularly in the offshore environment, is a ‘front loaded’
investment. Finance has to be committed far in advance not only of income guaran-
teed by the investment, but frequently also of good definitive data on the character
of the field. Much of the responsibility for this type of activity falls on the reservoir
engineers because of their appreciation for the complex character of sub-surface fluid
behaviour under various proposed development schemes.
1.3 Production Operations Optimisation

Producing fields will seldom behave as anticipated and, of course, by the very nature
of this sort of activity, the balance of forces in the reservoir rock gets severely upset by
oil and gas production. The reservoir engineer is frequently called upon to ‘explain’
a certain aspect of well performance, such as increasing gas-oil ratio, sand and/or
water production and more importantly will be asked to propose a remedy. The actual
performance of the reservoir as compared to the various model predictions is another
ongoing perspective during this phase.
2 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES
In the past the traditionally available reservoir engineering tools were mainly
designed to give satisfactory results for a slide rule and graph paper approach. For
many problems encountered by reservoir engineers today this remains a perfectly
valid approach where the slide rule has been replaced by the calculator. Increasingly,
however, the advance of computing capability is enabling reservoir engineering
modelling methods (‘simulations’) to be carried out at the engineers desk, previously
considered impossible.
The basis of the development of the 'model' of the reservoir are the various data
sources. As the appraisal develops the uncertainty reduces in relation to the quality
of the forecasts predicted by the model. Building up this ‘geological’ model of the
reservoir progresses from the early interpretation of the geophysical surveys, through
various well derived data sets, which include drilling information, indirect wireline
measurements, recovered core data, recovered fluid analysis, pressure depth surveys,
to information generated during production.
3. RESERVE ESTIMATING
The Society of Petroleum Engineers SPE and World Petroleum Congress WPO1987
agreed classification of reserves3 provides a valuable standard by which to define
reserves, the section below is based on this classification document.
3.1 Definitions
Reserves are those quantities of petroleum which are anticipated to be commercially
recovered from known accumulations from a given date forward.
All reserve estimates involve some degree of uncertainty. The uncertainty depends
chiefly on the amount of reliable geologic and engineering data available at the time

of the estimate and the interpretation of these data. The relative degree of uncertainty
may be conveyed by placing reserves into one of two principal classifications, either
proved or unproved.
Unproved reserves are less certain to be recovered than proved reserves and may
be further sub-classified as probable and possible reserves to denote progressively
increasing uncertainty in their recoverability.
Estimation of reserves is carried out under conditions of uncertainty. The method of

estimation is called deterministic if a single best estimate of reserves is made based
on known geological, engineering, and economic data. The method of estimation is
called probabilistic when the known geological, engineering, and economic data are
used to generate a range of estimates and their associated probabilities. Identifying
reserves as proved, probable, and possible has been the most frequent classification
method and gives an indication of the probability of recovery. Because of potential
differences in uncertainty, caution should be exercised when aggregating reserves
of different classifications.
Reserves estimates will generally be revised as additional geologic or engineering

data becomes available or as economic conditions change. Reserves do not include
quantities of petroleum being held in an inventory, and may be reduced for usage or
processing losses if required for financial reporting.

Reserves may be attributed to either natural energy or improved recovery methods.
Improved recovery methods include all methods for supplementing natural energy
or altering natural forces in the reservoir to increase ultimate recovery. Examples of
such methods are pressure maintenance, gas cycling, waterflooding, thermal methods,
chemical flooding, and the use of miscible and immiscible displacement fluids. Other
improved recovery methods may be developed in the future as petroleum technology
continues to evolve.
3.2 Proven Reserves

Proven reserves are those quantities of petroleum which, by analysis of geological
and engineering data, can be estimated with reasonable certainty to be commercially
recoverable, from a given date forward, from known reservoirs and under current
economic conditions, operating methods, and government regulations.
Proved reserves can be categorised as developed or undeveloped.
If deterministic methods are used, the term reasonable certainty is intended to express
a high degree of confidence that the quantities will be recovered. If probabilistic
methods are used, there should be at least a 90% probability that the quantities actu-
ally recovered will equal or exceed the estimate.
Establishment of current economic conditions should include relevant historical

petroleum prices and associated costs and may involve an averaging period that is
consistent with the purpose of the reserve estimate, appropriate contract obligations,
corporate procedures, and government regulations involved in reporting these
reserves. In general, reserves are considered proved if the commercial producibility
of the reservoir is supported by actual production or formation tests. In this context,

the term proved refers to the actual quantities of petroleum reserves and not just
the productivity of the well or reservoir. In certain cases, proved reserves may
be assigned on the basis of well logs and/or core analysis that indicate the subject
reservoir is hydrocarbon bearing and is analogous to reservoirs in the same area that
are producing or have demonstrated the ability to produce on formation tests.
The area of the reservoir considered as proved includes (1) the area delineated by
drilling and defined by fluid contacts, if any, and (2) the undrilled portions of the
reservoir that can reasonably be judged as commercially productive on the basis of
available geological and engineering data. In the absence of data on fluid contacts, the
lowest known occurrence of hydrocarbons controls the proved limit unless otherwise
indicated by definitive geological, engineering or performance data. Reserves may be
classified as proved if facilities to process and transport those reserves to market are
operational at the time of the estimate or there is a reasonable expectation that such
facilities will be installed. Reserves in undeveloped locations may be classified as
proved undeveloped provided (1) the locations are direct offsets to wells that have
indicated commercial production in the objective formation, (2) it is reasonably
certain such locations are within the known proved productive limits of the objective
formation, (3) the locations conform to existing well spacing regulations where
applicable, and (4) it is reasonably certain the locations will be developed. Reserves
from other locations are categorised as proved undeveloped only where interpretations
of geological and engineering data from wells indicate with reasonable certainty that
the objective formation is laterally continuous and contains commercially recoverable
petroleum at locations beyond direct offsets.
Before looking at further detail we will carry out some tests to help emphasise the
above definition.
3.2.1 Exercises - Reserve Definitions

The section on Reserve Definitions as put together by the SPE and the World Petro-
leum Congress, defines the various aspects of reserve definitions. These definitions,
are important both to companies and countries, and they can have very significant
commercial impact. The following tests are presented to help understand the work-
ing of these earlier definitions.
Test 1
There are 950 MM stb ( million stock tank barrels) of oil initially in place in a res-
ervoir. It is estimated that 500 MM stb can be produced. Already 100 MM stb have
been produced. In the boxes below, identify the correct answer.
STOIIP is: 950 500 400 MM stb
The Reserves are: 450 400 500 MM stb
Turn to page 9 for answers

Test 2
Before starting production it was estimated that there was a 90% chance of produc-
ing at least 100 MM stb, 50% chance of producing 500 MM stb and 10% chance of
producing 700MM stb. That is we are sure we can produce at least 100MM stb, and
we will probably produce as much as 500 MM stb, and we will possibly produce as
much as 700 MM stb.
Tick the correct answers.
Proved reserves (MM stb):

100 200 400 500 600 700
Probable reserves
100 200 400 500 600 700
Possible reserves
100 200 400 500 600 700
Turn to page 9 for answers
Test 3
What is wrong with the following definitions?
1. Reserves are those quantities of petroleum which are anticipated to be recovered

from a petroleum accumulation.
Test 4
1. We have a structure in our licence area which we intend to explore. We anticipate

it to contain a STO IIP of 2000 MM stb, and recovery factor of 65% using primary
methods (30%), secondary (25%) and tertiary (10%) recovery methods. What are
the reserves?
Test 5
A reservoir has been discovered by drilling a successful exploration well, and drilling
a number of producing wells. We have even produced some 200 MM stb of oil.
STOIIP = 2000MM stb Recovery factor = 35%
What are the reserves?

Test 1 answer
There are 950 MM stock tank boards in place. It is estimated that 500 MM stb can
be produced and 100 MM stb have been produced then 400 recoverable reserves
remain.
STOIIP is: 950 √ 500 X 400 X MM stb
The Reserves are: 450 X 400 √ 500 X MM stb
Test 2 answer
Proved : 100 MM stb

Probable : 500 - 100 = 400 MM stb
Possible : 700 - 500 = 200 MM stb
Proved : 100 MM stb
Proved & Possible 500 MM stb
Proved & Probable & Possible : 700 MM stb
Test 3 answer

recovered from a petroleum accumulation.
Clearly economics is a very important aspect of the definition.
Economic Variables
What economic factors are used in the calculations? What oil and gas price do we
use for proved reserve estimates? Is inflation taken into account? Do we predict
future price trends? Do we apply discount factors to calculate present value of the
project? Are all these used in proved reserve calculations? The current economic
conditions are used for the calculations, with respect to prices, costs, contracts and
government regulations.
Test 4 answer
1. Answer is zero by SPC/WPC definition.

2. Intentions and anticipations are not the basis for reserves. In this case no well
has yet been drilled.
Note: Some companies allocate potential reserves for internal use but these cannot
be used for public and government figures.
recovered from a known accumulation.
Requirements for “Proved” include
The following sources are required for proved reserves. Maps (from seismic and/
geological data). Petrophysical logs. Well test results and rock properties from core
analysis tests on recovered core.

Facilities
An important perspective which might be forgotten by the reservoir engineer, is that

for reserves to be classified as “proven”, all the necessary facilities for processing
and the infrastructure for transport must either be in place or that such facilities will
be installed in the future, as backed up by a formal commitment.
Contribution to the Proved Reservoir Area
This comes from drilled and produced hydrocarbons, the definition of the gas and oil
and water contacts or the highest and lowest observed level of hydrocarbons. Also
the undrilled area adjacent to the drilled can be used.
Test 5 answer
Ultimate recovery = 2 000 x 0.35 = 700 MM stb

Minus production to date = 200
Reserves = 500 MM stb

recovered from known accumulations from a given date forward.
i.e. Reserves refer to what can be produced in the future.
Figure 2 gives a schematic of reserves showing the progression with time.
Potential SPE / WPC Definitions

P10
RESERVE CATEGORIES
Possible Possible
Probability Levels
P50
Probable Probable
P90 Provan Cumulative Production

Provan
Time
Seismic Discovery of Start of Dev Start of Abandonment
Data Well Planning Production
Before Drilling Prior and During Delineation, Evaluation, Production

PERIOD
Exploration Well Appraisal Development
Geophysical Geophysical, Geophysical, Reservoir Performance
TYPE OF Geological, Geological,
and Geological and Production Data
DATA Petrophysical Petrophysical
and Well Test Data and Well Tests and Production Data
METHOD
Mostly Probabilistic Deterministic and Probabilistic
Figure 2 Variations of Reserves During Field Life
What are the amounts termed that are not recoverable? The quantity of hydrocar-
bons that remains in the reservoir are called remaining hydrocarbons in place, NOT
remaining reserves!
Reserves which are to be produced through the application of established improved

recovery methods are included in the proved classification when :
10
(i) Successful testing by a pilot project or favourable response of an installed

program in the same or an analogous reservoir with similar rock and fluid
properties provides support for the analysis on which the project was based,
and,
(ii) It is reasonably certain that the project will proceed. Reserves to be recovered
by improved recovery methods that have yet to be established through
commercially successful applications are included in the proved classification
only:
(i) After a favourable production response from the subject reservoir from either
(a) A representative pilot or
(b) An installed program where the response provides support for the analysis
on which the project is based and
(ii) It is reasonably certain the project will proceed.
3.3 Unproved Reserves

Unproved reserves are based on geologic and/or engineering data similar to that
used in estimates of proved reserves; but technical, contractual, economic, or
regulatory uncertainties preclude such reserves being classified as proved.
Unproved reserves may be further classified as probable reserves and possible re-
serves. Unproved reserves may be estimated assuming future economic conditions
different from those prevailing at the time of the estimate. The effect of possible
future improvements in economic conditions and technological developments can
be expressed by allocating appropriate quantities of reserves to the probable and
possible classifications.
3.3.1. Probable Reserves

Probable reserves are those unproved reserves which analysis of geological and
engineering data suggests are more likely than not to be recoverable. In this context,
when probabilistic methods are used, there should be at least a 50% probability that
the quantities actually recovered will equal or exceed the sum of estimated proved
plus probable reserves. In general, probable reserves may include :
(1) Reserves anticipated to be proved by normal step-out drilling where subsurface

control is inadequate to classify these reserves as proved,
(2) Reserves in formations that appear to be productive based on well log

characteristics but lack core data or definitive tests and which are not analogous
to producing or proved reservoirs in the area,
(3) Incremental reserves attributable to infill drilling that could have been classified
as proved if closer statutory spacing had been approved at the time of the
estimate,

(4) Reserves attributable to improved recovery methods that have been established
by repeated commercially successful applications when;
(a) a project or pilot is planned but not in operation and

(b) rock, fluid, and reservoir characteristics appear favourable for commercial
application,
(5) Reserves in an area of the formation that appears to be separated from the
proved area by faulting and the geologic interpretation indicates the subject
area is structurally higher than the proved area,
(6) Reserves attributable to a future workover, treatment, re-treatment, change of

equipment, or other mechanical procedures, where such procedure has not been
proved successful in wells which exhibit similar behaviour in analogous
reservoirs, and
(7) Incremental reserves in proved reservoirs where an alternative interpretation of

performance or volumetric data indicates more reserves than can be classified
as proved.
3.3.2. Possible Reserves

Possible reserves are those unproved reserves which analysis of geological and en-
gineering data suggests are less likely to be recoverable than probable reserves.
In this context, when probabilistic methods are used, there should be at least a 10%
probability that the quantities actually recovered will equal or exceed the sum of
estimated proved plus probable plus possible reserves. In general, possible reserves
may include:
(1) reserves which, based on geological interpretations, could possibly exist

beyond areas classified as probable,
(2) reserves in formations that appear to be petroleum bearing based on log and
core analysis but may not be productive at commercial rates,
(3) incremental reserves attributed to infill drilling that are subject to technical
uncertainty,
(4) reserves attributed to improved recovery methods when
(a) a project or pilot is planned but not in operation and

(b) rock, fluid, and reservoir characteristics are such that a reasonable doubt
exists that the project will be commercial, and

(5) reserves in an area of the formation that appears to be separated from the
proved area by faulting and geological interpretation indicates the subject area
is structurally lower than the proved area.
12
3.4 Reserve Status Categories

Reserve status categories define the development and producing status of wells and
reservoirs.
3.4.1. Developed:
Developed reserves are expected to be recovered from existing wells including reserves
behind pipe. Improved recovery reserves are considered developed only after the
necessary equipment has been installed, or when the costs to do so are relatively minor.
Developed reserves may be sub-categorised as producing or non-producing.
3.4.1.1 Producing:
Reserves subcategorised as producing are expected to be recovered from comple-
tion intervals which are open and producing at the time of the estimate. Improved
recovery reserves are considered producing only after the improved recovery project
is in operation.
3.4.1.2. Non-producing:
Reserves subcategorised as non-producing include shut-in and behind-pipe reserves.
Shut-in reserves are expected to be recovered from (1) completion intervals which
are open at the time of the estimate but which have not started producing, (2) wells
which were shut-in for market conditions or pipeline connections, or (3) wells not
capable of production for mechanical reasons. Behind-pipe reserves are expected to
be recovered from zones in existing wells, which will require additional completion
work or future recompletion prior to the start of production.
3.4.2. Undeveloped Reserves:

Undeveloped reserves are expected to be recovered:
(1) From new wells on undrilled acreage,

(2) From deepening existing wells to a different reservoir, or
(3) Where a relatively large expenditure is required to
(a) Recomplete an existing well or

(b) Install production or transportation facilities for primary or improved
recovery projects.
4. PROBABILISTIC REPRESENTATION OF RESERVES
Whereas in the deterministic approach the volumes are determined by the calculation
of values determined for the various parameters, with the probalistic statistical analysis
is used, using tools like Monte Carlo methods. The curve as shown in the figure 3
below presents the probability that the reserves will have a volume greater or equal
to the chosen value.

Probability that the reserve is at least
1.0
0.9 'Proven'
as large as indicated.
0.5 'Proven + Probable'
'Proven + Proable
0.1 + Possible'
0
Recoverable Reserve
Figure 3 Probabilistic Representation of Recoverable Reserves.
On this curve:
The proven reserves represent the reserves volume corresponding to 90% probability
on the distribution curve.
The probable reserves represent the reserves volume corresponding to the difference
between 50 and 90% probability on the distribution curve.
The possible reserves represent the reserves volume corresponding to the difference
between 10 and 50% probability on the distribution curve.
As with the deterministic approach there is also some measure of subjectivity in the
probalistic approach. For each of the elements in the following equation, there is a
probability function expression in low, medium and high probabilities for the particular
values. A schematic of a possible distribution scenario for each of the elements and
the final result is given below in the figure 4.
Net rock Net rock Connate Formation Estimated

volume. average water volume recovery
porosity saturation factor factor
[ Vnr x φ x (1 - Swc) / Bo ] x RF = Reserves
Uniform Triangular Gaussian Uniform p90
P = p50
p10
Figure 4 Probablistic Reserve Estimates.
14
The resulting calculations result in a probability function for a field as shown in

the figure 5 below, where the values for the three elements are shown
Proven = 500 MM stb the P90 figure.
Probable = 240 MM stb which together with the proven makes up the P50 figure.
of 740MMstb
Possible = 120 MM stb which together with the proven and probable makes up the
P10 value of 860MMstb
Reserves distribution for a new field.

100
90 P90
P10 = 860 MMstb
80 P50 = 740 MMstb
70 P90 = 500 MMstb
Probability / %
60
Proven 500 MMstb P50
50
Probable 240 M
40
30
P+P+P = 860 MMstb
20
120 P10
10
Proven Probable Possible
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Reserves / MMstb
Figure 5 Reserves Cummulative Probability Distribution.
As a field is developed and the fluids are produced the shape of the probability curve
changes. Probability figures for reserves are gradually converted into recovery leav-
ing less uncertainty with respect to the reserves. This is illustrated in figure 6.

100
90 P90
80
70
Probability / %
60
50 P50
40
Proved ultimate recovery.
30
20
10 P10
Production Proved reserves
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Reserves / MMstb
Figure 6 Ultimate Recovery and Reserves Distribution For a Mature Field.
5. VOLUME IN-PLACE CALCULATIONS
5.1 The volume of oil and gas in-place depends on a number of parameters :
The aerial coverage of the reservoir. A
The thickness of the reservoir rock contributing to the hydrocarbon volume. hn
The pore volume, as expressed by the porosity ,φ , the reservoir quality rock.
The proportion of pore space occupied by the hydrocarbon ( the saturation ).
1-Sw
The simple equation used in calculation of the volume of fluids in the reservoir, V,
is
V=Ahnφ(1-Sw): (1)
where:
A= average area
hn = nett thickness. nett thickness = gross thickness x nett: gross ratio
φ = average porosity
Sw = average water saturation.
When expressed as stock tank or standard gas volumes, equation above is divided
by the formation volume factor Bo or Bg.
V = Ahnφ (1 − Sw ) / Bo (2)
To convert volumes at reservoir conditions to stock tank conditions formation volume

factors are required where Bo and Bg are the oil and gas formation volume factors.
These are defined in subsequent chapters. The expression of original oil in place is
termed the STOIIP.
16
The recovery factor, RF, indicates the proportion of the in-place hydrocarbons ex-
pected to be recovered. To convert in place volumes to reserves we need to multiply
the STOIIP by the recovery factor so that:
Reserves = STOIIP x RF (3)
The line over the various terms indicates the average value for these spatial
parameters.
The reservoir area A, will vary according to the category; proven, probable or pos-
sible, that is being used to define the reserves.
Before examining the contributions of the various parameters it is worthwhile to

give consideration of the evolution of the reserve estimate during the exploration
and development stage.
5.2 Evolution of the Reserve Estimate

Figure 7 gives a cross section view of a reservoir structure as suggested from seismic
and geological data.
Oil
Suggested 0il and water contact
Figure 7 Cross Section Interpretation From Seismic and Geological Data.
Using this data and possible suggested structure we can carry out some oil in place
calculations and estimate reserves. These figures however are not admissible in public
reserve estimates. They are useful inside the company to justify project expenditure!
The question is where do we locate the first exploration well and get involved in large
exploration expenditure costs. Figure 8 suggest three alternatives

Suggest this location.
Oil
Suggested oil and water contact
Figure 8 Alternative locations of Exploration Wells
In figure 9 an exploration well has been drilled and a core recovered and the struc-
ture of the field with respect to formations and contacts redefined. The redefined
structure can now be used to provide an estimate of reserves according to the
three, proven, probable and possible perspectives. Figure 10
Oil
Oil and water contact Cored interval
Figure 9 Interpretation After Exploration Well Drilled and Cored.
18
Proved
e
l
ab
ble
bl
si Oil ible
ba
ob
os s
Pos
o
Pr
P
Pr
Figure 10 After The Exploration Well Was Drilled.
Subsequent appraisal wells are now drilled to give better definition of the reserves
of the field. Well 2 aimed at defining the field to the left identifies some additional
isolated hydrocarbon structure with its own oil water contact. Figure 11. The well, as
well as increasing the proven reserves, further identifies previous unknown reserves.
The next appraisal well is aimed at defining the reserves in the other direction. Dur-
ing well testing on wells 1or 2 indications of faulting are also helping to define the
flowing nature of the accumulation. Figure 12 for the further appraisal well confirms
the accumulation to the right and also identifies the impact of the fault with a new
oil water contact. Subsequent appraisal wells and early development give greater
definition to the field description. Figure 13
Well 2. Well 1. Proposed

delineation
well 3.
ven
Pro Proven
Oil
Initial appraisal stage.
Figure 11 Further Delineation Well.

Well 2. Well 1. Well 3.
Gas
ven
Pro Proven
Oil
New oil water contact.
Figure 12 After Further Appraisal.
Well 2. Well 1. Well 4. Well 3.
Gas
ven
Pro Proven
Oil
New oil water contact.
Figure 13 Final Appraisal Well.
From a deterministic perspective the various reserve estimates, that is, proven,
probable and possible can be further determined. The indication of the various
elements based on the top structure map are shown. Figure 14
20
Probable
1
Proved
3
4
2
Possible
Figure 14 Reserves Uncertainties by Deterministic Method.
5.3 Reservoir Area

The reservoir area can be obtained by separately evaluating the individual units
making up the reservoir as obtained from various reservoir maps. These maps are
derived from the evidence given from seismic and subsequent drilled wells. The maps
generally indicate the upper and lower extent of the reservoir section or sections and
the aerial extent as defined by faults or hydrocarbon contacts. Figure 15 shows an
aerial section with the defined limits. The contour lines are lines of constant subsea
depths. Figure 16 gives a cross section of a reservoir unit. The combination of the
two representations of the unit(s) can be used to calculate the gross rock volume.
Fault B
ounda
ry
Porosity
Fluid Boundary
Contact
ry
Bo unda
Fault
7
Figure 15 Structure Contour Map.

Heighest Elevation
on Top Structure
To
Heighest Elevation p
R St
Ro ese uctu
on Base Structure r
ck rvo re
Ba Vo ir
Contour Elevation
se lu
St m
ru e
ctu
re
(units ss)
Hydrocarbon Water
Contact Elevation
o
Area Contained by Contour
7
Figure 16 Reservoir cross section.
Figures 17 & 18 show an example of a top structure map and cross section of the
Rough Gas field in the North Sea.
47/2 47/3
Completed Producers
Gw
Proposed Well Locations

C
x Abandoned Wells
9
95500
00 C.I. = 50ft.
C
w
G
0
955000
960
95 50 8
94 00 8
94 50 8
93 00 8 8
8 93 8
B 250 8 A
9 A2 00
A
8 92
47/7 47/8 8 A A4
47/8-1x A5
A
8 A Platform A
A3
9100 A6
50
91 93
9200
50
92
93 50
00
x 47/8-2
5
Figure 17 Top Sand Structure Map Rough Gas Field.
22
Depth (ft) A3 A1 A4
subsea
9000 A2 A5
Unc
onf
9200 orm
Rot ity
lieg
Fault
end
Fault
Unc es
onfo
9400 rmit
y
Tentative
9600 hydrocarbon/
water contact
9800
Carboniferous
Sands
5
Figure 18 Schematic Cross Section of The Rough Field.
5.4 Reservoir Thickness

Another representation of the reservoir formations is the reservoir thickness map.
Where the areal contour maps show the thickness normal to the plane of the reservoir
the contours are called isopachs. When the thickness is mapped as a vertical thickness
then the contour is called an isochore. Not all the reservoir thickness will contrib-
ute to fluid recovery and will include non-productive strata. Those contours which
include these non-productive material are called gross reservoir isopach and those
where non-productive material is excluded are called net reservoir isopach maps.
Those intervals contributing to flow are termed pay. The ratio of net to gross, hn/ht ,
is an important aspect in reservoir evaluation. Figure 19 shows a net pay thickness
isopach and the isopach map for the Rough field is shown in figure 20
Isopach C I
25 Units
75
100
125
150
0
7
Figure 19 Net Pay Thickness Isopach.

47/2 47/3
140
GwC
130
C
Gw
120
0
11 0
10
A2
47/7 47/8 A4
47/8-1 x A5
80
A1
70
11
6
A3
11
100
0
90
A6
x 47/8-2
5
Figure 20 Rough Field Isopach.
The isopach map can also be used to calculate reservoir volume. For example in figure
21 the area under a plot of net pay thickness vs. area contained within the contour
provides a net pay volume. These plots can be generated for each section or rock
type. The thickness plots for each section are called isoliths.
40
Area Enclosed = Net Rock Volume
Net Pay Isopach Value
80
120
140
OWC
180
Area Contained by Contour
7
Figure 21 Hydrocarbon Volume From Net Pay Isopach.
5.5 Reservoir Porosity

The variation of porosity can also be represented . The average porosity, φ, in a well
can be calculated from the thickness-weighted mean of the porosities 4 .
24
∑φ h k n, k
φw = k =1
hn (4)
where φk is the average porosity derived from the log over a small thickness hn,k
within the net pay thickness, hn.
These values of porosity can then be plotted to generate an isoporosity map as il-
lustrated in figure 22. The example of an isoporosity map for the Rough Field is
shown in figure 23.
Porosity C I
5%
25
20
15
5 10
7
Figure 22 Iso Porosity Map.
47/2 47/3
Gw
C
C
w
G
A2
47/7 47/8 47/8-1 A4

14%
x A5
A
A1
12%
%
10
A3
8%
A6
6%
47/8-2
x
7
Figure 23 Rough Field Iso Porosity Map.

5.6 Water Saturation, Sw
The water saturation in a reservoir is influenced by the characteristics of the reservoir
rock and the location with respect to the position above the free water level near
the oil-water or gas-oil contact (see section Reservoir Rock Properties Chapter 7).
The average water saturation Sw,w , can be calculated in a similar way to porosity by
calculating the volume weighted mean across the producing elements of the forma-
tion, the pay.
m
∑S w, k φ k h n,k
Sw,w = k =1
φwh n (5)
The values of Sw,w can be plotted and contours of constant saturation (isosaturation)
presented. Figure 24.
Shale
15 20
25
30 35
40
WOC
4
Figure 24 Iso Saturation (sw) Map.
A more detailed description together with exercises are given in the mapping section
of the geology module.
5.7 Formation Volume Factors Oil, Bo and Gas, Bg

These properties of the oil and gas which convert reservoir volumes to surface volumes,
are generated from measurements made on fluid samples from the reservoir. They do
not vary significantly across the reservoir when compared to the other rock related
parameters. These parameters are covered in the gas properties and oil properties
chapters. In some reservoirs where the formations are thick there is a compositional
gradient over the depth. This variation in composition from heavier (less volatile
components) to lighter components at the top results in a variation of the oil forma-
tion volume factor, Bo over the thickness. In such cases an average value based on
values measured or calculated at depth would be a preferred value.
26
5.8 The Recovery Factor, ER

The proportion of hydrocarbons recovered is called the recovery factor. This fac-
tor is influenced by a whole range of factors including the rock and fluid properties
and the drive mechanisms. The variability of the formation characteristics, the het-
erogeneity can have a large influence on recovery. The development process being
implemented and the geometries and location of wells again will also have a large
influence. Calculating recovery therefore in the early stages is not feasible and many
assumptions have to be included in such calculations. It is in this area that reservoir
simulation can give indications but the quality of the calculated figure is limited by
the sparse amount of quality data on which the simulation is based.

The American Petroleum Institute6 has analysed the recoveries of different fields and
correlations have been presented for different reservoir types and drive mechanisms.
Figures 25 and 26 give the residual saturations and oil recovery efficiences for dif-
ferent drive mechanisms. The API also presents correlations for recoveries,ER,
For sandstone and carbonate reservoirs with solution gas drive
 φ (1 − Sw ) 
0.1611 0.0979 0.1741
 k   pb 
ER, o = 0.4185    (Sw ) 0.3722
 
 Bob   µob   pa 
(6)
For sandstone reservoirs with water drive
 φ (1 − Sw ) 
0.0422 0.0770
 k µ wi  p
ER, o = 0.54898    (Sw )− o.1903  pi  − 0.2159
 Boi   µoi   a
(7)
b refers to bubble point conditions, i is the initial condition and a, refers to abandonment
pressure.

2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 95 98
RESIDUAL SATURATIONS
1.00 1.00
Sor In Water Drive

Sor (OR Sgr) as Fraction of Total Pore Space
Reservoirs
0.50 0.50
Sgr In Solution Gas Drive

Reservoirs
0.10 0.10
0.05 0.05
−σ +σ
MEDIAN
0 0
2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 95 98
PERCENTAGE OF CASES LARGER THAN
Figure 25 Log - Probability Residual Oil Saturation For Water Drive and Solution Gas
6
Drive Reservoirs. (API )
2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 95 98
OIL RECOVERY EFFICIENCY AT FIELD ABANDONMENT
RESIDUAL SATURATIONS
1.00 1.00
Water Drive
IN PERCENT OF OIL PLACE
Gas Cap Drive

0.50 0.50
Gas Cap Drive +

Water Injection
0.10 0.10
Solution Gas Drive
0.05 0.05
−σ +σ
MEDIAN
0 0
2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 95 98
PERCENTAGE OF CASES LARGER THAN
6
Figure 26 Log - Probability of Oil Recovery For Various Drive Mechanisms. (API )
28
5.9 Production Capability

Another concept, isocapacity, is used to signify production capability. Isocapacity
denotes equal values of permeability-net thickness product. This product can be
mapped instead of permeability. The figure 27 shows an isocapacity map where the
absolute permeability has been obtained as an arithmetic average in the zone.
4 5 4 3 2 1
0.5
123
0.25
7
Figure 27 Isocapacity Map.
The permeability map for the Rough Field is given in figure 28
47/2
Gw
C
C
w
G
120 A2
47/7 47/8 100 A4
80 A5
47/8-1 x
60 Platform B
40
A3
0
A6
x 47/8-2
Contour Intervals 20 millidarcies
5
Figure 28 Rough Field Permeability Map.

5.10 The Hydrocarbon Pore Volume Map
The hydrocarbon pore volume can be obtained by combining the net rock volume with
a mean porosity and a mean hydrocarbon saturation. An alternative is the mapping of
hydrocarbon thickness (HPT) at each well. HPT at a well in a given zone is:
_ _
HPT = φ .hn . Sh (8)
where:
_ _
Sh = 1 − Sw
Figure 29 gives an HPT map and the Rough Field HPT map is given in figure 30
12
15
11
0
14 10
14
13
13
12
11
10
9
0
7
Figure 29 Hydrocarbon Pore Thickness Map.
10
A2
9
8
A4
A5 7
A1 6
A3 5
A6
4
5
Figure 30 Rough Field Hydrocarbon Pore Thickness.
30
6. OTHER APPRAISAL ROLES
In building up the ‘picture’ to enable the reserves estimates and recoveries to be

determined the reservoir engineer will be involved in an number of aspects. One of
the most powerful tools is the production test.
In a well test an exploration or appraisal well is converted to a short term producing

well, with all the associated facilities put in place to handle the produced fluids and
monitor fluid rates. A downhole pressure monitoring device is also located in the
well. Figure 31. The well is flowed at a constant rate , and sometimes two rates as
illustrated in figure 32a, a two rate test. The downhole pressure device responds to
the production and pressure declines. After a short or longer time period depending
on the nature of the test, the well is “shut in”, i.e. the flow is stopped. In the well the
pressure builds up and eventually as monitored by the downhole pressure device,
recovers to the original pressure. Figure 32b. It is in the analysis of the pressure
drawn down and build up curves and the rates that the reservoir engineer is able to
determine the flowability of the reservoir. If the flowing interval thickness is known,
the permeability can be calculated. The presence of faults can also be detected.
A considerable amount of reservoir data can be obtained from these well tests
sometimes called DST’s ( drill stem tests). It has been the practise over recent years
for the produced fluids to be flared since there is unlikely to be an infrastructure to
collect these fluids. Now that companies are moving to a zero or reduced hydrocarbon
emission policy the nature and facilities required for these tests are changing. A
feature of the flaring approach is a public demonstration of the productivity of the
well being tested.

Surface casing
Production casing
Production tubing
Cement
Packer
Perforations
Down hole
pressure monitor
Figure 31 Production Test Assembly.
32
q bbls / day
Flow 1 Flow 2 Well shut in
Pi
Pressure draw down

Pf. psig
Pressure build up
Figure 32 Production Test Analysis. Two Rate Test.
Well test analysis is a powerful reservoir engineering tool and is treated in depth in
a subsequent module of the Petroleum Engineering course.
The nature of the fluids is key to reservoir behaviour and also subsequent processing
in any development. The collection and analysis of these fluids is an important
role and is at the focus of PVT analysis. This topic is covered in Chapter 14 PVT
Analysis. The pressure profile in a well is another important aspect of reservoir
characterisation and can be used to identify fluid contacts. When used during the
early stages of production it can be a powerful means of refining the structure and
hydrodynamic continuity characteristics of the reservoir. This is covered in the next
chapter. Like PVT analysis where the information is based on samples removed
from the reservoir, core analysis is based on recovered core from the formation.
Various tests on this material and its reaction to various fluids provides many of the
reservoir engineering parameters important in determining the viability of a project.
Core analysis also provides a cross check for indirect measurements made downhole.
These core analysis perspectives are covered in chapters 7 and 8.
It is clear from what we have discussed that reservoir engineering is an important

function in the appraisal of the reservoir. The focus for this appraisal so far has con-
centrated on determining the characteristics and potential flow behaviour of a reservoir
under development. Clearly there could be a whole range of possibilities with respect
to the plan that could be used to develop the field. This development planning per-
spective is an important part of the reservoir engineers role. Again it is a team effort

involving the geological community who understand the ‘reservoir’ and the various
engineers who have the responsibilities of designing and operating the hardware to
enable production. An important part of any future development are the facilities that
would be required for sustained production and its is therefore an important part of
the appraisal stage to provide data for those who would have responsibility for good
quality data predictions which will enable optimised facility design.
In any project new data is always being generated. Indeed for a reservoir, its
characteristics are unlocked over the whole lifetime of the project. The duration of
the appraisal stage clearly is a techno economic decision related to the confidence
to go ahead based on a good foundation of quality data and forecasts. Fine tuning
can always be carried out but this is costly if this delays the development stage. It
is important to identify and fill the gaps for the largest uncertainties, and having
sufficient information to design a system which is safe and cost effective. The
difficulty is making the decision on the data under which a line is drawn which
defines the basis for field development design. In reservoir development the reservoir
is always revealing its properties, indeed it is in the production phase that the true
characteristics are revealed.
7 DEVELOPMENT PLANNING
7.1 Reservoir Modelling

Given appraisal well data, and test results the reservoir engineer can consider some
alternative development plans, relying heavily on experience and insight. Since the
80’s computer based reservoir simulation has played a major role.
The starting point will invariably be a reservoir map used to calculate reserves, but
in addition use will be made of the material balance equation (chapter 15), together
with some drive concepts (chapter 11), to predict reservoir behaviour. One of the
problems faced in making predictions is to adequately take into account knowledge
about geological trends and, although individual well models can be adjusted to reflect
local conditions, there is no practical ‘desk calculator’ technique for using say, the
material balance equation and well models to come up with a predictive reservoir
performance. Displacement models such as those derived by Buckley and Leverett
(chapter 18), mainly from observations in the laboratory, give some insight into
reservoir behaviour but again do not significantly assist in allowing the engineer to
study the effect of alternative development plans on a heterogeneous reservoir.
With insight and ingenuity, the reservoir can be divided into a number of simple
units that can be analysed by the traditionally available techniques but such an
approach remains unsatisfactory. Over recent years the integration of geological and
geophysical perspectives is contributing considerably to the ‘confidence’ in reservoir
modelling.
7.2 Technoeconomics
For hydrocarbon accumulations found on dry land the traditional reservoir engineering
techniques available for field development planning were, in fact, quite adequate. This
is mainly so because land development operations offer a high degree of planning
34
flexibility to oil companies and hence allow them to make optimal use of the latest
information. In an offshore environment this is not the case; once platforms have
been ordered most development options are closed. It is with respect to offshore field
development planning that reservoir simulation models have found their greatest
application potential.
7.3 Coping with Uncertainty

The challenge to the exploration & production business of the oil & gas industry is
considerable. The looking for the “needle in the haystack” scenario is not too far from
the truth, when compared to other industrial sectors. With the challenge of reserves
being found in technically challenging areas and the oil price moving in response
to political as well as demand scenarios, there is the need to define more accurately
forecasts of production and recovery. Reducing uncertainty is the message of the
current decade and not least in reservoir engineering and its related disciplines.
It is clear from what we have overviewed in this chapter and the topics which will be
covered in the subsequent chapters that there are many parameters which contribute
to the viability of the various aspects of successful oil and gas production. It is also
clear that the various forms of data required, the confidence in the absolute values
vary according to the type, and therefore the final impact on the final result will vary
according to the particular parameter.
The following list summarises some of the principal uncertainties associated with
the performance of the overall reservoir model. The type of data can for example
be subdivided into two aspects “static” and “dynamic” data .
Static Properties
• Reservoir structure
• Reservoir properties
• Reservoir sand connectivity
• Impact of faults
• “thief” sands
Dynamic Properties
• Relative permeability etc
• Fluid properties
• Aquifer behaviour
• Well productivity (fractures, welltype, condensate drop out etc.)
The impact of each of these parameters will vary according to the particular field but
it is important that the company is not ignorant of the magnitude of the contributing
uncertainties, so that resources can be directed at cost effectively reducing specific
uncertainties. Figure 33 illustrates an outcome which might arise from an analysis
of various uncertainties for a particular field. It demonstrates for this particular field
and at the time of analysis the impact of the various data has on the final project cost.
Clearly in this case the aquifer behaviour uncertainties has the least impact whereas
reservoir structure and well productivity uncertainties had the most significant. An-
other field would result in different impact perspectives, and therefore a different
strategy to reduce overall project uncertainty would be required.

Q Well
Reservoir P production
area Project
Cost
Reservoir
structure
Sand
conectives
Aquifer
behaviour
Fluid properties
Relative
permeabilities etc.
Thief zones
Faults
- Changes +
Figure 33 Impact on a Project of Different Uncertainties
8 PRODUCTION OPERATIONS OPTIMISATION
8.1 The Development Phase

The development phase covers the period from the time continuous production
starts until the production from the field stops i.e. abandonment. The decision when
to stop production clearly is a techno-economic decision based to a large extent on
the costs of the development. Low volume producers can be allowed to continue in
an onshore development where well operating costs might be low but the high costs
associated with for example in an expensive offshore operation sets a much higher
economic limit for the decision to abandon a field.
During the development phase Dake2 has identified a number of roles for the Reservoir
Engineering which are targeted at optimising production. It is an irony that some
of the best data is generated during the production phase. Through production the
reservoir unveils more of its secrets. Some of these may cause modifications to the
development, perhaps in defining new well locations. The nature of the hydrodynamic
continuity of the reservoir is mainly revealed through pressure surveys run after a period
of production. This may define zones not being drained and therefore modifications
to the well completions might result.
As production progresses fluid contacts rise and therefore these contacts need to
be monitored and the results used to decide, for example, to recomplete a well as a
result of, for example excessive water production. As is pointed out in the chapter on
reservoir pressure, development wells before they are completed provide a valuable
resource to the reservoir engineer to enable surveys of pressure to be run to provide
a dynamic pressure-depth profile.
36
8.2 History Matching

Throughout the production phase the comparison of the actual performance with that
predicted during the appraisal stage and more recent predictions is made. It is during
this stage that the quality of the reservoir simulation model comes under examina-
tion. The production pressure decline is compared to that predicted and the reservoir
simulation model adjusted to match. This process is called history matching. Clearly
if the simulation cannot ‘predict’ what has happened over the recent past it cannot
be used with much confidence to forecast the future!
More simple approaches not requiring the resources of a complex simulator can also
be used to up date early predictions, for example material balance studies.
Once production has been obtained, the additional data becomes available and makes
an important contribution to the refining of the initial reserves estimates. Two tech-
niques historically used are decline curve analysis and material balance studies.

In material balance studies, the pressure-volume behaviour of the entire field is
studied assuming an infinite permeability for the reservoir. By assuming an initial
oil-in-place from volumetric calculations, the pressure is allowed to decline following
fluid withdrawal. This decline is matched against the observed pressure behaviour
and, if necessary, the original oil-in-place figure is modified until a match is obtained.
In the presence of a water drive, additional variables are included by allowing water
influx into the ‘tank’. Water influx is governed by mathematical relationships such
as van Everdingen and Hurst (These concepts are covered in Chapters 11, 12, and
13 MB/MB Applications and Water Influx).
Decline curves are plots of rate of withdrawal versus time or cumulative withdrawal
on a variety of co-ordinate scales. Usually a straight line is sought through these ob-
servations and extrapolated to give ultimate recovery and rates of recovery. Decline
curves only use rates of withdrawal and pay relatively little attention to the reservoir
and flowing pressures. A change in the mode of operation of the field could change the
slope of the decline curve; hence, this is one of the weaknesses of this technique.
A noteworthy feature of these two approaches is that the engineer in fact ‘fits’ a sim-
ple model to observe data and uses this model to predict the future by extrapolation.
As more data becomes available the model gets ‘updated’ and predicted results are
adjusted. Decline curve analysis has not been used to the same extent as in the 60’s
and 70’s. With the power of computing and the efforts made to integrate geological
understanding , the physics of the flow and behaviour of rock and fluid systems into
reservoir simulation, the ‘fitting” and the uncertainty of earlier methods are being
superseded by integrated reservoir simulation modelling.
The routine company function will generate the need for on going production pro-
file updates. The generation of these is generally the responsibility of the reservoir
engineer, who might chose simple analytical approaches to the more costly reservoir
simulation methods.
8.3 Phases of Development

During the development there are a number of phases. Not all of these phases may
be part of the plan. There is the initial production build up to the capacity of the facil-

ity as wells are brought on stream. There is the plateau phase where the reservoir is
produced at a capacity limited by the associated production and processing facilities.
Different companies work with different lengths of the plateau phase and each project
will have its own duration. There comes a point when the reservoir is no longer able
to deliver fluids at this capacity and the reservoir goes into the decline phase. The
decline phase can be delayed by assisting the reservoir to produce the fluids by the
use of for example ‘lifting’ techniques such as down-hole pumps and gas lift. The
decline phase is often a difficult period to model and yet it can represent a significant
amount of the reserves. These phases are illustrated in figure 34
Plateau phase
Production rate
Artificial lift
Build up phase Decline phase
Economic limit
Time - years
Figure 34 Phases of Production.
The challenge facing the industry is the issue of the proportion of hydrocarbons left
behind. The ability to extract a greater proportion of the in-place fluids is obviously
a target to be aimed at and over recent years recoveries have increased through the
application of innovative technology. Historically there have been three phases of
recovery considered. Primary recovery, which is that recovery obtained through the
natural energy of the reservoir.
Secondary recovery is considered when the energy is supplemented by injection of

fluids, for example gas or water, to maintain the pressure or partially maintain the
pressure. The injected fluid also acts as a displacing fluid sweeping the oil to the
producing wells. After sweeping the reservoir with water or gas there will still be
remaining oil; oil at a high saturation where the water for a range of reasons, for
example; well spacing, viscosity, reservoir characteristics to name just a few, has
by-passed the oil. The oil which has been contacted by the injected fluid will not be
completely displaced from the porous media. Because of characteristics of the rock
and the fluids a residual saturation of fluid is held within the rock. Both of these
unrecovered amounts, the by-passed oil and the residual oil are a target for enhanced
recovery methods, EOR.
Much effort was put into enhanced oil recovery (EOR) research up until the mid
seventies. Sometimes it is termed tertiary recovery. When the oil price has dropped
the economics of many of the proposed methods are not viable. Many are based on
38
the injection of chemicals which are often oil based. The subject of EOR has not been
forgotten and innovative methods are being investigated within the more volatile
oil price arena. Figure 35 gives a schematic representation of the various phases of
development and includes the various improved recovery methods. More recently
a new term has been introduced called Improved Oil Recovery (IOR). IOR is more
loosely defined and covers all approaches which might be used to improve the recov-
ery of hydrocarbons in place. Clearly it is not as specific as EOR but provides more
of an achievable target than perhaps some of the more sophisticated EOR methods.
As we have entered into the next millennium it is interesting to note that a number
of major improved recovery initiatives are being considered particularly with respect
to gas injection. One perspective which make a project more viable is that of the
disposal of gas for example which is an environmental challenge in one field can
be the source of gas for another field requiring gas for a gas injection improved oil
recovery process.
Primary
Recovery
C
Natural Artifical Lift O
Pump gas lift etc. N
Flow V
E
N
Secondary T
Recovery I
O
N
A
Natural Pressure L
Flow Maintenance
Water, gas injection
Tertiary
Recovery
E
O
R Thermal Gas Chemical Microbial
Steam In-situ Hydrocarbon Polymer

combustion. miscible, CO2 surfactant/
N2 immiscible polymer
gas
Figure 35 Oil Recovery Mechanisms.
9. THE UNIQUENESS OF THE RESERVOIR
As we have discussed the role of the reservoir engineer in combination with other
disciplines is to predict the behaviour of the reservoir. Whereas in the early years of
oil exploration little attention was paid to understanding the detailed characteristics
of the reservoir, it is now recognized that detailed reservoir properties associated with
often complex physical and chemical laws determine field behaviour. The unlocking
of these characteristics and understanding the laws enable engineering plans to be
put in place to ensure optimised developments are implemented. This is schemati-
cally illustrated in figure 36.

Reservoir
Behaviour
Development
Plan
Reservoir Description
Unique
Dynamic and Static
Figure 36 Relationship between Reservoir Description, and Reservoir Behaviour.
At one extreme for example in a blow - out situation, a reservoir produces in an un-
controlled manner only restricted by the size of the well through which is producing.
Optmised development however based on a thorough understanding of the reservoir
enables the reservoir to be produced in a controlled, optimised manner.
In many other industries the effort expended on one project can be utilised in engi-
neering a duplicate or a similar size unit elsewhere. Such opportunities are not pos-
sible in the engineering of a reservoir. Reservoirs are unique in many aspects. The
composition of the fluids are unique, the rock characteristics and related properties
are unique, the size and shape are unique and so on. From our perspective this reser-
voir description is dynamic as the reservoir over a period of time gives up its secrets.
From the reservoir’s perspective however the description is static, except with the
changes resulting from the impact of fluid production or injection. The challenge
to those involved is reducing the time it takes for our dynamic description to match,
our static description known only to the reservoir or whoever was responsible for
its formation! The answer perhaps is more of a philosophical nature. The reality is
shown in figure 37 where the top structure map for a North Sea gas field with a ten
year gap shows the impact of knowledge gained from a number of wells as against
that interpreted from the one well. Considerable faulting is shown not as a result of
major geological a activity over the ten years but knowledge gained from the data
associated with the new wells.
40
2°00 2°10 2°20
21
00
0
0
200
100
53°10 53°10
SHELL/ESSO 49/26 AMOCO 49/27
20
2200
00
Gas /water contact

Depths in metres
scale 1 100,000
00
21
21
49/26.1 00
53°05 53°05
12
00
100
80 0
0
20
10
00
00
20 100
10
20
100
20
00 0
00
0
00
00
0
210
2000
2°00 2°20
Present interpretation of Leman Gas-field, showing contours on top of Rotliegendes in feet below sea-level
Figure 37 (a) The Leman Field as it Appeared to be When The Exploration Well Was
The Leman field as it appeared to be when the exploration well was drilled
Drilled.
2°00 2°10 2°20 2°30
53°10 SHELL/ESSO 49/26 AMOCO 49/27

53°10
Depth in feet
0 1 Miles
0 1 2 KMS
70
Gas /water contact

00
A permanent platform
63
00 63
00
53°05 53°05
620
0 6400
6300
69
00
610
6900 0
6300 6
90 0
690
0 64
69
0
00
0
6300
70 69 6400
00 00
53°00 53°00
2°00 2°10 2°20 2°30
Present interpretation of Leman Gas-field, showing contours on top of Rotliegendes in feet below sea level.
Figure 37b Leman

Leman Field
field ten Tenafter
years Years After Discovery
discovery
The coverage of the reservoir has also changed effecting the equity associated with
the blocks. This illustrates the early benefits to be gained from drilling a number of
exploration wells. These equity agreements, are called unitisation agreements and such
agreements are shortened when good quality and comprehensive reservoir descrip-
tion data is available. Clearly there can never be sufficient description, however the

economics of project management will determine when decisions have to be taken
based on description to date. The value of extra information has to be balanced by
the cost of delay in going ahead with a project.
10. CONCLUSION
In order to accomplish these objectives the Petroleum Reservoir Engineer should

have a broad fundamental background both theoretically and practically in the basic
sciences and engineering. The basic areas are:

(i) The properties of petroleum reservoir rocks
(ii) The properties of petroleum reservoir fluids
(iii) The flow of reservoir fluids through reservoir rock
(iv) Petroleum reservoir drive mechanisms
It is also important that the Petroleum Reservoir Engineer has a thorough basic
understanding in general, historical and petroleum geology. The influence of geological
history on the structural conditions existing in a reservoir should be known and
considered in making a reservoir engineering study. Such a study may also help to
identify and characterise the reservoir as to its aerial extent, thickness and stratification
and the chemical composition, size distribution and texture of the rock materials.
In his latest text, Dake2 comments on some of the philosophy of approach to reser-
voir engineering, and identifies the importance of pinning down interpretation and
prediction of reservoir behaviour to well grounded laws of physics.
Reservoir forecasting has moved on considerably since wells were drilled with little
interest and concern into the production and forecasting of what was happening in
the reservoirs thousands of feet below. The approach to coping with uncertainty as
jokingly reflected in the cartoon below, (Figure 38) is no longer the case as sophisti-
cated computational tools enable predictions to be made with confidence and where
uncertainty exists the degree of uncertainty can be defined.
42
"We feed the geological data for the area, the computer produces a schematic topological
overview designating high probability key points, then we stick the printout on the wall and
Lever throws darts at it."
Figure 38 A Past Approach to Uncertainty!
REFERENCES
1. Craft, B.C. and Hawkins, M.F. Applied Reservoir Engineering, Prentice-Hall

Inc. 1959
2. Dake, L.P., The Practise of Reservoir Engineering. Elsevier. 1994
3. Society Of Petroleum Engineers. Reserves Definitions 1995.
4. Chierici,G.L. Principles of Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. Vol 1 Springer
Verlag 1994
5. Hollois,A.P. Some petroleum engineering considerations in the change over of
the Rough Gas field to the storage mode. Paper EUR 295 Proc Europec. 1982,
pg 175
6. API. A Statistical Study of the Recovery Efficiency. American Petroleum Institute.
Bull D14, 1st Edition ,1967
7. Archer,J.S. and Wall,C.G. Petroleum Engineering Principles and Practise, Graham
and Trotman ,1986.

Reservoir Pressures and Temperatures
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 ABNORMAL PRESSURES
3 FLUID PRESSURES IN HYDROCARBON

SYSTEMS
4 PRESSURE GRADIENTS AROUND WATER-

OIL CONTACT
5. TECHNIQUES FOR PRESSURE

MEASUREMENT
6. RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Having worked through this chapter the student will be able to:
• Define the terms; lithostatic pressure, hydrostatic pressure and hydrodynamic

pressure.
• Draw the normal hydrostatic pressure gradient for water systems.
• Define normal pressured reservoirs, overpressured reservoirs and underpressured

reservoirs
• Describe briefly and sketch the pressure gradients associated with overpressured
and underpressured reservoirs.
• Describe briefly , sketch and present equations for the pressures in a water
supported oil and gas bearing formation.
• Illustrate how a downhole formation pressure device can be used to discriminate

permeability layers after production has commenced.
• Comment briefly what geothermal gradient is in a reservoir where flow

processes occur at constant reservoir temperature.

1. INTRODUCTION
Determining the magnitude and variation of pressures in a reservoir is an important

aspect in understanding various aspects of the reservoir, both during the exploration
phase but also once production has commenced.
Oil and gas accumulations are found at a range of sub-surface depths. At these depths
pressure exists as a result of the depositional process and from the fluids contained
within the prous media. These pressures are called lithostatic pressures and fluid
pressures. These pressures are illustrated in figure 1.
The lithostatic pressure is caused by the pressure of rock which is transmitted through
the sub-surface by grain-to grain contacts. This lithostatic or sometimes called geostatic
or overburden pressure is of the order of 1 psi/ft. The lithostatic pressure gradient
varies according to depth, the density of the overburden, and the extent to which the
rocks are supported by water pressure. If we use this geostatic pressure gradient of
1 psi/ft. then the geostatic pressure Pov, in psig at a depth of D feet is
pov = 1.0D (1)
The geostatic pressure is balanced in part by the pressure of the fluid within the pore
space, the pore pressure, and also by the grains of rock under compaction. In un-
consolidated sands, loose sands, the overburden pressure is totally supported by the
fluid and the fluid pressure Pf is equal to the overburden pressure Pov . In deposited
formations like reservoir rocks the fluid pressure is not supporting the rocks above
but arises from the continuity of the aqueous phase from the surface to the depth D in
the reservoir. This fluid pressure is called the hydrostatic pressure. The hydrostatic
pressure is imposed by a column of fluid at rest. Its value depends on the density of
the water ρw, which is affected by salinity. In a sedimentary basin, where sediment
has settled in a region of water and hydrocarbons have been generated and trapped,
we can expect a hydrostatic pressure. For a column of fresh water the hydrostatic
pressure is 0.433 psi/ft. For water with 55,000 ppm of dissolved salts the gradient is
0.45 psi/ft; for 88,000 ppm of dissolved salts the gradient is about 0.465 psi/ft.
Its variation with depth is given by the equation.
Pf = ρwDg (2)
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
There is another fluid pressure which arises as a result of fluid movement and that
is called the hydrodynamic pressure. This is the fluid potential pressure gradient
which is caused by fluid flow. This however does not contribute to in-situ pressures
at rest.
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

14.7 Pressure (psia)
0
FP GP
Depth (Ft.)
Overpressure Overburden
Pressure (OP)
Underpressure Normal
(FP = Fluid Pressure, GP = Grain Pressure)

Figure 1 Gives the relationship between the lithostatic pressure and the hydrostatic
1
pressure.
Fluid pressure in hydrocarbon accumulations are dictated by the prevailing water

pressure in the vicinity of the reservoir. In a normal situation the water pressure at
any depth is:
dP
Pw =   x D + 14.7psia
 dD  water
(3)
where dP/dD is the hydrostatic pressure gradient
This equation assumes continuity of water pressure from the surface and constant
salinity. In most cases even though the water bearing sands are divided between
impermeable shales, any break of such sealing systems will lead to hydrostatic pres-
sure continuity, but the salinity can vary with depth.
Reservoirs whose water pressure gradient when extrapolated to zero depth give an
absolute pressure equivalent to atmospheric pressure are called normal pressured
reservoirs.
EXERCISE 1
If the average pressure gradient in a region is 0.47 psi/ft, calculate the pore
pressure in a normally pressurised formation at 7400ft. Convert the pressure from
psi to KPa, then express the pressure in MPa. What is the pressure gradient in
KPa/m?

2. ABNORMAL PRESSURE
Under certain conditions, fluid pressures may depart substantially from the normal
pressure. Overpressured reservoirs are those where the hydrostatic pressure is greater
than the normal pressure and underpressured reservoirs are below normal pressure.
Figure 1. They are called abnormal pressured reservoirs and can be defined by the
equation:
dP
Pw =   x D + 14.7 psia + C
 dD  water
(4)
where C is a constant, being positive for overpressured and negative for an under-
pressured system.
For abnormally pressured reservoirs, the sand is sealed off from the surrounding strata
so that there is not hydrostatic pressure continuity to the surface.
Conditions which cause abnormal fluid pressure in water bearing sands have been
identified by Bradley 2 and include (Figure 2):
FP-Too High
Upthrust
(a)
Original Deposition
Shale deposited too

(b) Dense Shale quickly to allow
fluid equilbrium
Reservoir
North Sea
Glacier
(c)
Normal Surface Greenland 3 km thick
1300 psi/1000 m ice
Figure 2 Causes of overpressurring
• Thermal effects, causing expansion or contraction of water which is unable

to escape ; an increase in temperature of 1˚F can cause an increase of 125 psi
in a sealed fresh water system.

• Rapid burial of sediments consisting of layers of sand and clay. Speed of burial
does not allow fluids to escape from pore space.
• Geological changes such as uplifting of the reservoir, or surface erosion both

of which result in the water pressure being too high for the depth of the burial.
The opposite occurs in a down thrown reservoir.
• Osmosis between waters having different salinity, the sealing shale acting as a
semi-permeable membrane. If the water within the seal is more saline than the
surrounding water, the osmosis will cause a high pressure and vice versa.
Overpressured reservoirs are common in Tertiary deltaic deposits such as the North
Sea, Niger delta and the Gulf Coast of Texas. In the North Sea one mechanism for
overpressure is the inability to expel water from a system of rapidly compacted
shales.
With abnormally pressured reservoirs a permeability barrier must exist, which inhibit
pressure release. These may be lithological or structural. Common lithological
barriers are evaporates and shales. Less common are the impermeable carbonates
and sandstones. Structure permeability barriers may result from faults which, in
some cases, seal. The subject on of abnormal pressures is covered more fully in
the Geology Module
If reservoirs are all normal pressured systems then the pressure gradient for these
reservoirs would be virtually all the same, other than from the influence of salinity.
The figure below shows the water pressure gradients for a number of reservoirs in
the North Sea and indicates the significant overpressuring in this region. Often these
overpressuring show regional trends. For example the fields depicted in figure 3
show an increase in abnormal pressure in the south east direction. Clearly if all these
reservoirs were normally pressured then the pressure depths values would lie on the
same gradient line with a zero depth pressure value of atmospheric pressure.

8,000
Statfjord OWC
Brent OWC
9,000
Thistle OWC
Cormorant
OWC
4
10,000
1
2
Subsea Depth (Feet)
Ninian
OWC
11,000 Heather
OWC
3
Lyell
5
12,000
Alwyn
N.W. Alwyn
S.W> Ninian
13,000 Note: Water gradient lines drawn

through known or projected
oil/water contacts
5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000
Pressure, psig
3
Figure 3 Examples of overpressured reservoirs in the North Sea
3. FLUID PRESSURES IN HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS
Pressure gradients in hydrocarbon systems are different from those of water systems
and are determined by the oil and gas phase in-situ specific gravities, ρo and ρg of
each fluid.
The pressure gradients are a function of gas and oil composition but typically are:
 dP  = (0.45 psi / ft)

 dD  water (5)

 dP  = (0.35 psi / ft) (6)

 dD  oil

 dP  = (0.08 psi / ft)

 dD  gas
(7)

For a reservoir containing both oil and a free gas cap a pressure distribution results,
as in the Figure 4 As can be seen, the composition of the respective fluids gives rise
to different pressure gradients indicated above. These gradients will be determined by
the density of the fluids which result from the specific composition of the fluids.
Depth (Ft.)
13
8500
12
0.17 psi/ft
ρf = 0.39 gm/cc
11
10
Gas-Oil Contact 9
8
8600 7
6
Depth (Ft.)
0.29 psi/ft
ρf = 0.67 gm/cc
5 Oil-Water Contact
8700
4
0.47 psi/ft
ρf = 1.09 gm/cc
3
2
8800 1
4000 4050 4100 4150
Formation Pressure (PSI)

Figure 4 Pressure distribution for an oil reservoir with a gas cap and an oil-water contact.
The nature of the pressure regime and the position and recognition of fluid contacts
are very important to the reservoir engineer in evaluating reserves, and determining
depletion policy.
The data used for these fluid contacts comes from:
(i) Pressure surveys

(ii) Equilibrium pressures from well tests
(iii) Flow of fluid from particular minimum and maximum depth
(iv) Fluid densities from reservoir samples
(v) Saturation data from wireline logs
(vi) Capillary pressure data from cores
(vii) Fluid saturation from cores
EXERCISE 2
If the pressure in a reservoir at the OWC is 3625 psi, calculate the pressure at the top
if there is a 600ft continuous oil column. If a normal pressure gradient exists outwith
the reservoir, calculate the pressure differential at the top of the reservoir. Redo the
calculations for a similar field, but this time containing gas.

4. PRESSURE GRADIENTS AROUND THE WATER-OIL CON-

TACT
Water is always present in reservoir rocks and the pressure in the water phase Pw
and the pressure in the hyrocarbon phase Po are different . If P is the pressure at the
oil/water contact where the water saturation is 100%, then the pressure above this
contact for the hydrocarbon and water are :
Po = P - ρogh (8)
Pw = P - ρwgh (9)
The difference between these two pressures is the capillary pressure Pc: see Chapter
8. In a homogenous water-wet reservoir with an oil-water contact the variation of
saturation and phase pressure from the water zone through the capillary transition
zone into the oil is shown in Figure 5). In the transition zone the phase pressure
difference is given by the capillary pressure which is a function of the wetting phase
saturation. (Chapter 8).
Oil Zone
Vertical Oil Phase Pressure
Depth po = pFWL - ρogh
D
Capilliary Oil Gradient

Transition
Zone pc
Sw
pc (Sw)
h=
∆ρg WOC Water Gradient
FWL
(pc = o)
Water Phase Pressure

Water Zone pw = pFWL - ρwgh
0 Swc 1 pFWL
Water Saturation, Sw Pressure, P

Figure 5 Pressure Gradients around the Water-Oil Contact
Pc = Po - Pw (10)
at hydrostatic equilibrium
Pc(Sw) = ∆ρgh
∆ρ = ρw-ρo

h = height above free water level

The free water level, FWL, is not coincident with the oil-water contact OWC. The
water contact corresponds to the depth at which the oil saturation starts to increase
from water zone. The free water level is the depth at which the capillary pressure
is zero.
The difference in depth between the oil-water contact and the free water level depends
on the capillary pressure which in turn is a function of permeability, grain size etc.
Providing the phase is continuous the pressures in the respective phases are:
Po = PFWL - ρogh (11)
Pw = PFWL - ρwgh (12)
On the depth-pressure diagram the intersection of the continuous phase pressure line
occurs at the free water level.
5. TECHNIQUES FOR PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Earlier tests for vertical pressure logging have been replaced by open-hole testing
devices that measure the vertical pressure distribution in the well, and recover for-
mation samples.
One such device which was introduced in the mid seventies which has established
itself in reservoir evaluation is the repeat formation tester RFT (Schlumberger trade
name). It was initially developed as a device to take samples. Over the years however
its main application is to provide pressure -depth profiles over reservoir intervals. The
device places a probe through the well mud cake and allows small volumes of fluid
to be taken and pressure measurements to be made (Figure 6). It can only be operated
therefore in an open hole environment. The unit can be set at different locations in
the well and the pressure gradient thereby obtained. This device has been superseded
by different tools provided by a number of wireline service providers. The principle
is the same of measuring with a probe in open hole the pressure depth profile.
10
Packer Mud Cake
Packer
Filter
Flow Line
Piston Formation
Pressure Guage
Equalising Valve
(To Mud Column) Flow Line
Chamber 1
Probe Closed
Chamber 2
Seal Valve Seal Valve

to Upper Chamber to Upper Chamber
Probe Open and
Sampling
Figure 6 Original Schematic of the RFT Tool
These open hole pressure measurements have proved valuable at both the appraisal
stage and can be used to establish fluid contacts. It has also proved particularly valu-
able during the development stage in accessing some of the dynamic characteristics
of the reservoir. The pressure changes in different reservoir layers resulting from
production reveal the amount of interlayer communication and these pressure meas-
urements can be a powerful tool in understanding the characteristics of the reservoir
formation.
By comparing current pressure information with those obtained prior to production,

important reservoir description can be obtained which will aid reservoir depletion,
completion decisions and reservoir simulation.
In 1980 Amoco3 published a paper with respect to the Montrose Field in The North
Sea which illustrates the application of pressure-depth surveys. Figure 7 shows the
pressure depth survey in 1978 of a well after production since mid 1976. Only the
top 45ft of the 75ft oil column had been perforated. The initial pressure gradient in-
dicates the oil and water gradients at the condition of hydrostatic equilibrium. The
second survey shows a survey after a period of high production rate, and reveals the
reservoir behaviour under dynamic conditions. The various changes in slope in the
pressure profile reveal the partial restricted flow in certain layers. Similar surveys
in each new development wells (Figure 8) show the similar profiles and enable the
detailed layered structure of the reservoir to be characterised which is important for
reservoir simulation purposes.
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 11

Gr% Sw%
0 100
Reservoir pressure - psig
100 0
θ%
0 50 2500 3000 3500 4000
Top paleocene
Perforations Original 8100
Layer 1 pressure
gradient
Layer 2
2500 8200
True vertical subsea depth - metres
Layer 3
8300
True vertical subsea depth - feet

2550
8400
Layer 4
8500
2600
8600
2650 Layer 5
8700
8800
14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Reservoir pressure - MPa
Figure 7 RFT Pressure Survey in Development Well of Montrose Field 3.
Reservoir pressure - psig

3000 3200 3400 8000
2450 A6
A8 Original
A15 A11 pressure
8100
A17
A18 gradient
True vertical subsea depth - metres
2500 8200
True vertical subsea depth - feet
8300
2550
8400
8500
2600
8600
2650 8700
symbol ?Well number Date
22/17-A6 05/04/77
A8 27/01/78 8800
A11 20/12/77
2700 A15 15/08/78
A17 02/11/78 8900
A18 28/03/79
9000
18 20 22 24 26 28
Reservoir pressure - MPa
Figure 8 RFT Pressure Syrveys on a number of Montrose Wells3.
12
6. RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the earth increases from the surface to centre. The heat flow out-
wards through the Earth’s crust generates a geothermal gradient, gc. This temperature
variation conforms to both a local and regional geothermal gradient, resulting from
the thermal characteristics of the lithology and more massive phenomenon associated
with the thickness of the earth’s crust along ridges, rifts and plate boundaries.
In most petroleum basins the geothermal gradient is of the order of 1.6˚F/100 ft.
(0.029 K/m) The thermal characteristics of the reservoir rock and overburden give
rise to large thermal capacity and with a large surface area in the porous reservoir
one can assume that flow processes in a reservoir occur at constant reservoir tem-
perature. The local geothermal gradient will be influenced by associated geological
features like volcanic intrusions etc. The local geothermal gradient can be deduced
from wellbore temperature surveys . However they have to be made under stabilised
conditions since they can be influenced by transient cooling effects of circulating
and injected fluids.
During drilling the local thermal gradient can be disturbed and by analysis of the
variation of temperature with time using a bottom hole temperature (BHT) gauge
the local undisturbed temperature can be obtained.
Without temperature surveys the temperature at a vertical depth can be estimated

using a surface temperature of 15 oC (60 oF) at a depth D.
T(D) = 288.2 + gcD (K)
Solutions to Exercises
EXERCISE 1
If the average pressure gradient in a region is 0.47 psi/ft, calculate the pore pressure
in a normally pressurised formation at 7400ft. Convert the pressure from psi to KPa,
then express the pressure in MPa. What is the pressure gradient in KPa/m?
Multiply KPa by 0.145 to get psi.

1 US foot = 0.3048m.
SOLUTION
Pressure in formation = 0.47 * 7400 = 3478 psi
Converting to KPa = 3478 / 0.145 = 23986 Kpa
Converting to MPa = 23986 / 1000 = 23.99 MPa
Pressure gradient = 0.47 psi/ft = (0.47 / 0.145) KPa/ft = 3.2414 KPa/ft

= (3.2414 /0.3048) KPa/m
= 10.63 KPa/M

EXERCISE 2
If the pressure in a reservoir at the OWC is 3625 psi, calculate the pressure at the top
if there is a 600ft continuous oil column. If a normal pressure gradient exists outwith
the reservoir, calculate the pressure differential at the top of the reservoir. Redo the
calculations for a similar field, but this time containing gas.
SOLUTION
Typical pressure gradients are (psi/ft):
Water – 0.45
Oil – 0.35
Gas – 0.08
Pressure at seal = 3625 - (600*0.35) = 3415 psi

To calculate the pressure differential across seal, look at fluid gradient differential
from OWC to seal 600ft above…
Differential = (0.45-0.35) * 600 = 60 psi
If the reservoir is gas then the differential becomes…
(0.45 – 0.08) * 600 = 222 psi higher in the reservoir than surrounding area
REFERENCES
1. Dake,L.P. Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering. Elsevier 1986
2. Bradley,J.S. Abnormal Formation Pressure. The American Association of

Petroleum Geologists Bulletin. Vol 59, No6, June 1975
3. Bishlawi,M and Moore,RL: Montrose Field Reservoir Management. SPE

Europec Conference, London,(EUR166) Oct.1980
14
Reservoir Fluids Composition
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 HYDROCARBONS
2.1 Chemistry of Hydrocarbons
2.2 Alkanes or Paraffinic Hydrocarbons
2.3 Isomerism
2.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
2.5 Napthene Series
2.6 Aromatics
2.7 Asphalts
3 NON-HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS
4 COMPOSITIONAL DESCRIPTION FOR

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
4.1 Definitions of Composition in Reservoir
Engineering
5 GENERAL ANALYSIS
5.1 Surface Condition Characterisation
5.2 Refractive Index
5.3 Fluorescence of Oil
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Describe briefly the origin, nature and appearance of petroleum fluids
• Be aware that the principal components of petroleum fluids to be

hydrocarbons.

• Draw a diagram illustrating the classification of hydrocarbons and to identify;
paraffin’s (alkanes ), aromatics and cyclic aliphatics ( napthas).
• List the non- hydrocarbon compounds which might be present in small qualities
in reservoir fluids.
• Define the black oil model description of the composition of a reservoir fluid.
• Explain briefly what PNA analysis is and its application.
• Describe briefly the concept of pseudo components in fluid composition

characterization.
• Be aware of general analysis descriptors for petroleum fluids e.g. oAPI, refractive
index and flourescence.
• Be able to calculate the API gravity given the specific gravity
• Calculate given the prerequisite data proved, probable and possible reserves.
• Describe in general terms reserve estimation.

1 INTRODUCTION
Petroleum deposits vary widely in chemical composition and depending on location

have entirely different physical and chemical properties. The very complex
characteristics are evident from the many products which can be produced from oil
and gas.
What is petroleum? Petroleum is a mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons

which may exist in the solid, liquid or gaseous states, depending on the conditions
of temperature and pressure to which it is subjected.1
Petroleum deposits occurring as a gaseous state are termed natural gas, in the liquid
state as petroleum oil or crude oil and in the solid state as tars, asphalts and waxes.
For a mixture with small molecules it will be a gas at normal temperature and pressure
(NTP). Mixtures containing larger molecules will be a liquid at NTP and larger
molecules as a solid state, for example, tars and asphalts.
The exact origin of these deposits is not clear but is considered to be from plant,
animal and marine life through thermal and bacterial breakdown.
The composition of crude oil consists mainly of organic compounds, principally

hydrocarbons with small percentages of inorganic non-hydrocarbon compounds. such
as carbon dioxide, sulphur, nitrogen and metal compounds. The hydrocarbons may
include the lightest (C1 methane ) to napthenes and polycyclics with high molecular
weights.
The appearance varies from gases, through very clear liquids, yellow liquids to a
dark, often black, highly viscous material, the variety obviously being a function of
composition. Although the principal elements are carbon (84-87%), and hydrogen
(11-14%), crude oil can vary from a very light brown liquid with a viscosity similar
to water to a very viscous tar like material .
Water is always present in the pore space of a reservoir, since the original depositional
environment for the rocks was water. This water has subsequently been displaced
by the influx of hydrocarbons but not totally since surface tension forces acting in
the rock pore space cause some of the water to be retained.
For reservoir engineering purposes the description of the composition is an important

characterisation parameter for the determination of a range of physical parameters
important in various reservoir volumetric and flow calculations. It is not the concern
of the reservoir engineer to determine the composition with respect to understanding
the potential to separate the material to a range of saleable products. For this reason
therefore simplistic characterisation approaches are used.
The two compositional characterisation approaches used are the compositional model
and the black oil model. The basis of the compositional model is a multicomponent
description in terms of hydrocarbons and the black oil model is a two component
description in terms of produced oil, stock tank oil and produced gas, solution gas.
The compositional model is the topic covered in this chapter and the black oil model
is covered in the liquid properties chapter.
2 HYDROCARBONS
2.1 Chemistry of Hydrocarbons

The compositional model uses hydrocarbons as the descriptor since hydrocarbons
represent the largest proportion in petroleum fluids. It is important to review briefly
the chemistry of hydrocarbons.
The hydrocarbon series is represented in figure 1 below
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic Aromatics
Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes Cyclic Aliphatics
(Paraffins) (Napthenes)
Figure 1 Classification of Hydrocarbon.
The hydrocarbons divide into two groupings with respect to the arrangement of the
carbon molecules and the bonds between the carbon molecules. The arrangement of
the molecules are open chain or cyclic and the bonds between the carbon are saturated
(single) bonds or unsaturated or (multiple) bonds.
2.2 Alkanes or Paraffinic Hydrocarbons

The largest series is the alkanes or paraffins which are open chain molecules with
saturated bonds. Carbon has a valance of four and therefore the formula for these
compounds is CnH2n+2. These saturated hydrocarbons include all the paraffins in
which the valence of the carbon atoms is satisfied by single covalent bonds. This type
of structure is very stable. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are those where the valence
of some of the carbon atoms is not satisfied with single covalent bonds so they are
connected by two or more bonds which make them less stable and more prone to
chemical change.
The paraffin series begins with methane (CH4), and its basic formula is CnH2n+2.
Pentane to pentadecane are liquids and the chief constituents of uncracked gasoline.
Its higher members are waxy solids. In a given bore hole the wax may clog the pore
space next to the hole as gas expands and cools.
The paraffins are the largest constituent of crude oil and are characterised by their
chemical inertness. Clearly they would not have remained as they are if this were not
so.
2.3 Isomerism
From methane to propane there is only one way to arrange the branched chains however
above propane there are alternative arrangements and these are called isomers.

Structural formulae do not represent the actual structure of the molecules. Isomers
are substances of the same composition that have different molecular structure and
therefore different properties, for example, normal butane and isobutane.
normal butane CH3CH2CH2CH3 - B.Pt. 31.1˚F
isobutane CH3CH CH3 - B.Pt. 10.9˚F

CH3
Pentane has three structures (isomers). Clearly the number of isomers increase as the
number of carbon atoms increases. Hexane has 5 isomers and heptane 9.
Table 1 below gives some of the basic physical properties of the more common
hydrocarbons of the paraffin series and Table 2 lists the state of the various pure
components demonstrating that components which might be solid on their own
contribute to liquid states when part of a mixture. Figure 2 gives some structural
formula for three paraffin compounds.
Density
Name Chemical Molecular Boiling Point Critical Gas Liquid
Formula Weight (°C) at normal Temp °C (air = 1) (water = 1)
conditions
sp.gr.
Methane CH4 16.04 -161.4 -82.4 0.554 0.415 (-614°)

Ethane C 2H 6 30.07 -89.0 32.3 1.038 0.54 (-88°)
Propane C 3H 8 44.09 -42.1 96.8 1.522 0.585 (-44.5°)
n-butane C4H10 58.12 0.55 153.1 2.006 0.601 (0°)
Isobutane C4H10 58.12 -11.72 134.0 2.006 0.557
n-pentane C5H12 72.15 36.0 197.2 2.491 0.626
Isopentane C5H12 72.15 27.89 187.8 2.491 0.6197
n-hexane C6H14 86.17 60.30 228.0 2.975 0.6536

Table 1 Physical properties of common hydrocarbons.

ALKANES or PARAFFIN HYDROCARBONS
Cn H 2n+2
No of carbon Name State (ntp)

atoms
1 Methane Gas
2 Ethane Gas
3 Propane Gas
4 Butane Gas
5 Pentane Liquid
6 Hexane Liquid
7 Heptane Liquid
8 Octane Liquid
9 Nonane Liquid
10 Decane Liquid
C5-C17 Liquid
C18+ Solid
Table 2 Alkanes or Paraffin Hydrocarbons Cn H 2n + 2
PARAFFINS H
H H C H H H H H H H H H
H H
H C H H C C C C C C C C H
H C C C H
H H H H H H H H H
H H H
Methane Iso-butane n-octane
Figure 2 Gives some standard formula for saturated hydrocarbons
2.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

These are hydrocarbons which have double or triple bonds between carbon atoms.
They have the potential to add more hydrogen or other elements and are therefore
termed unsaturated. There are termed the olefins, and there are two types, alkenes,
for example ethylene, CH2=CH2, which have a carbon-carbon double bond and
alkynes, for example acetylene,CH=CH which have a carbon carbon triple bond.
Both compound types being unsaturated are generally very reactive and hence are
not found in reservoir fluids.
2.5 Napthene Series

The napthene series (CnH2n) sometimes called cycloparaffins or alicyclic hydrocarbons
are identified by having single covalent bonds but the carbon chain is closed and is
saturated. They are very stable and are important constituents of crude oil. Their
chemical properties are similar to those of the paraffins. A crude oil with a high napthene
content is referred to as an napthenic based crude oil. An example is cyclohexane
C6H12. Figure 3 gives the structural formula for two napthenic compounds.

NAPHTHENES
H H H
H C H C
H H
H C C C
H H H H
C C H H
H H C C
H H H H
C C C
H H H H
Methyl
Cyclopentane Cyclohexane
Figure 3 Structural formula for two naphenic compounds.
2.6 Aromatics
The aromatic series (CnH2n-6) is an unsaturated closed-ring series, based on the benzene
compound and the compounds are characterised by a strong aromatic odour. Various
aromatic compounds are found in crude oils. The closed ring structure gives them
a greater stability than open compounds where double or triple bonds occur. Figure
4 gives the structural formula for two aromatic compounds.
AROMATICS
H H H
C C C
H C C H H C C C H
H C C H H C C C H
C C C
H H H
Benzene Naphthalene
Figure 4 Structural formula for two aromtic compounds.
The aromatic-napthene based crudes are usually associated with limestone and dolomite
reservoirs such as those found in Iran, the Arabian Gulf and Borneo.
Some crude oils used to be described, more from a refining perspective, according
to the relative amount of these non paraffin compounds. Crude oils would be called
paraffinic, napthenic or aromatic. It is not a classification of value in reservoir
engineering.

Physical Properties of some Common Petroleum
Reservoir Fluid Constituents
Component Formula Melting Point Normal Boiling Point Density (g/cm3)

(˚C) (˚C) at 1 atm and 15˚C
Paraffins
Methane CH4 -184 -161.5 -
Ethane C2H6 -172 -88.3 -
Propane C3H8 -189.9 -42.2 -
n-Butane C4H10 -135 -0.6 -
Iso-Butane C4H10 -145 -10.2 -
n-Pentane C5H12 -131.5 36.2 0.626
n-Hexane C6H14 -94.3 69.0 0.659
Iso-octane C8H18 -107.4 99.3 0.692
n-Decane C10H22 030 174.0 0.730
Naphthenes
Cyclopentane C5H10 -93.3 49.5 0.745
Methyl cyclo-pentane C6H12 -142.4 71.8 0.754
Cyclohexane C6H12 6.5 81.4 0.779
Aromatics
Benzene C6H6 5.51 80.1 0.885
Toluene C7H8 -95 110.6 0.867
Xylene C8H10 -29 144.4 0.880
Naphthalene C10H8 80.2 217.9 0.971
Table 3 Physical properties of some common petroleum reservoir fluid constituents
2.7 Asphalts
Asphalt is not a series by itself. Asphalts are highly viscous to semi-solid, brown-
black hydrocarbons of high molecular weight usually containing a lot of sulphur
and nitrogen, which are undesirable components, and oxygen. Asphalts are closely
related to the napthene series and because of their high nitrogen and oxygen content
they may be considered juvenile oil, not fully developed.
3 NON-HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS
Although small in volume, generally less than 1%, non-hydrocarbon compounds have
a significant influence on the nature of the produced fluids with respect to processing
and the quality of the products.

The more common non-hydrocarbon constituents which may occur are:
sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen compounds, carbon dioxide and water.
Sulphur and its associated compounds represent 0.04% - 5% by weight. These

corrosive compounds include sulphur, hydrogen sulphide (H2S ),which is very toxic,
and mercaptans of low molecular weight ( these are produced during distillation and
require special metals to avoid corrosion). Non-corrosive sulphur materials include
sulphides. Sulphur compounds have a bad smell and both the corrosive and non-
corrosive forms are undesirable. On combustion these products produce S02 and S03
which are undesirable from an environmental perspective.

Oxygen compounds, up to 0.5% wt., are present in some crudes and decompose to
form napthenic acids on distillation, which may be very corrosive.
Nitrogen content is generally less than 0.1% wt., but can be as much as 2%. Nitrogen
compounds are complex . Gaseous nitrogen reduces the thermal quality of natural
gas and needs to be blended with high quality natural gas if present at the higher
levels.
Carbon Dioxide is a very common constituent of reservoir fluids, especially in gases

and gas condensates. Like oxygen it is a source of corrosion. It reacts with water to
form carbonic acid and iron to form iron carbonate. Carbon dioxide like methane has
a significant impact on the physical properties of the reservoir fluids.
Other compounds. Metals may be found in crude oils at low concentration and are
of little significance. Metals such as copper, iron, nickel, vanadium and zinc may be
present. Produced natural gas may contain helium, hydrogen and mercury.
Inorganic compounds The non-oil produced fluids like water will clearly contain
compounds arising from the minerals present in the rock, their concentration will
therefore vary according to the reservoir. Their composition however can have a
very significant effect on the reservoir behaviour with respect to their compatibility
with injected fluids. The precipitation of salts, scale, is a serious issue in reservoir
management.
Many of these salts need to be removed on refining as some generate HC1 when
heated with water.
4. COMPOSITIONAL DESCRIPTION FOR RESERVOIR ENGI-

NEERING
4.1 Definitions of Composition in Reservoir Engineering

In petroleum engineering, and specifically in reservoir engineering, the main issue
is one of the physical behaviour and characteristics of the petroleum fluids. The
composition of the fluid clearly has a significant impact on the behaviour and
properties. In petroleum engineering therefore the description of the composition is
a key to determine the physical properties and behaviour.
For the oil refiner or chemical manufacturer the composition of the fluid is the key to
determine what chemical products can be extracted or processed from the material.
The petroleum engineer is not concerned with the fact that the oil might contain, albeit
in small concentrations, hundreds of different components. The petroleum engineer
wants as simple a description as possible which still enables the determination of the
physical properties and behaviour under different temperature and pressure conditions.
Two models are used in this industry to describe the composition for physical property
prediction purposes, the black-oil model and the compositional model.
The black-oil model is a 2 component description of the fluid where the two components
are, the fluids produced at surface, stock tank oil and solution gas. Associated with
this model are black-oil parameters like solution gas-oil ratio and the oil formation
volume factor. These parameters are discussed in the chapter on liquid properties.

The compositional model is a compositional description based on the paraffin series
CnH2n+2. The fluid is described with individual compositions of normal paraffins up
to a limiting C number. Historically C6, more common now to go up to C9, or even
higher. Components greater than the limiting C number are lumped together and
defined as a C+ component.
Isomers, normal and iso are usually identified up to pentane. Non paraffinic
compounds are assigned to the next higher paraffin according to its volatility. The
material representing all compounds above the limiting carbon number are called the
C+ fraction , so C7+ for a limiting value of C6 and C10+ for a limiting value of C9.
The physical properties of paraffins up to the limiting C number are well known
and documented. The C+ component is however unique to the fluid and therefore
two properties are used to characterise it, apparent molecular weight and specific
gravity.
The behaviour of some fluids are complex and the paraffin based description may
have difficulty in predicting properties under certain conditions. Consideration may
be required to also identify napthenic and aromatic compounds, (PNA analysis),
which could be contributing to complex behaviour. This is particularly the case for
gas condensates existing at high pressures and high temperatures.
Figure 4 illustrates the compositional model and its application as reservoir fluids are
produced to surface. Although the individual components contribute to a single liquid
reservoir phase for an oil, when the fluids are produced to surface they produce a gas
phase, solution gas, and a liquid phase, stock tank oil. The distribution characteristics
of the individual components is complex and not just a function of temperature and
pressure. For reservoir fluids the composition is also an influence on the distribution.
This makes it a difficult task to predict this distribution perspective since reservoir
fluid compositions are unique. This topic is further dealt with in the chapter on
vapour liquid equilibrium. Improved methods of chemical analysis make it possible
to describe the oil up to a C value of C29. Although such definitions provide a very
accurate description, the associated computer effort in using such a comprehensive
description does lead to the use of pseudo components. Pseudo components are
obtained by grouping the various C number compositions, thereby reducing the
description to 4 or 5 "pseudo components". A number of methods exist to group the
various C values and other components.
10
Reservoir Fluid Gas at Surface Conditions
Oil at Surface Conditions
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7+
The relative amounts of C1 - C7+ are a

function of :
Temperature, Pressure, Composition (particularly at high temperature)
Figure 5 Compositional Model
5. GENERAL ANALYSIS
5.1 Surface condition characterisation

Reservoirs as well as having unique compositions also exist at specific pressures and
temperatures. It is important therefore to provide a common basis for describing the
quantities of fluids in the reservoir and throughout the production process.
The basis chosen is the fluids at surface conditions, the surface conditions being 14.7
psia or 101.3 kPa and 60oF or 298K. These conditions are called standard conditions.
For gas therefore this yields standard cubic feet SCF or standard cubic meters SCM.
It is useful to consider these expression not as volumes but as mass, the volume of
which will vary according to density. For liquids we express surface conditions as
stock tank volumes either stock tank barrels STB or stock tank cubic meters STM3.
The relative amount of gas to oil is expressed by the gas-oil ratio GOR SCF/STB.
Since there are so many types of oil, each with a wide range of specific gravity, an
arbitrary non-linear relationship was developed by the American Petroleum Institute
(API) to classify crude oils by weight on a linear-scaled hydrometer. The observed
readings are always corrected for temperature to 60oF, by using a prepared table of
standard values.

Degrees API = 141.5 -131.5
Sp.Gr.at 60ºF (1)
Sp.Gr = specific gravity relative to water ar 60oF.
The API gravity of water is 10º. A light crude oil would have an API gravity of 40º,
while a heavy crude would have an API gravity of less than 20º. In the field, the API
gravity is readily measured using a calibrated hydrometer.
There are no definitions for categorising reservoir fluids, but the following table 5
indicates typical GOR, API and gas and oil gravities for the five main types. The
compositions show that the dry gases contain mostly paraffins, with the fraction
of longer chain components increasing as the GOR and API gravity of the fluids
decrease.
In chapter 4 we give a classification for the various reservoir fluid types in the context
of phase behaviour.
Type Dry Gas WetGas Gas Condensate Volatile Oil Black Oil
Appearance Colourless Colourless Colourless Brown liquid Black

at surface Gas Gas + + significant Some Viscous
clear liquid clear/straw Red/Green Liquid
Colour Liquid
Initial GOR No Liquids >15000 3000-15000 2500-3000 100-2500

(scf/stb)
ºAPI - 60-70 50-70 40-50 <40
Gas S.G. 0.60-0.65 0.65-0.85 0.65-0.85 0.65-0.85 0.65-0.85

(air=1)
Composition (mol %)
C1 96.3 88.7 72.7 66.7 52.6
C2 3.0 6.0 10.0 9.0 5.0
C3 0.4 3.0 6.0 6.0 3.5
C4 0.17 1.3 2.5 3.3 1.8
C5 0.04 0.6 1.8 2.0 0.8
C6 0.02 0.2 2.0 2.0 0.9
C7+ 0.0 0.2 5.0 11.0 27.9
Table 5 Typical values for different reservoir fluids
5.2 Refractive index

The refractive index provides another indicator of the density of produced oils. The
general refractive index range for oil is 1.39 to 1.49. The heavier the crude, the
higher the refractive index and the lower the API gravity. This can be measured with
a refractometer or by the same methods used in optical mineralogy with reference
gravity oils.
12
5.3 Fluorescence of oil

The fluorescence of oil which is measured by its colour under ultraviolet light provides
another indicator, and is often used by those analysing the cuttings as the well is
drilled. The rock sample should be placed as quickly as possible under ultraviolet
light since fluorescence of oil subsides with evaporation and the activity of ‘live’ oil
decreases. If whole core is being examined then the whole core should be passed
under UV light to determine the fluorescent colour and the pattern of oil-in-place in
the cored interval.
When possible, pictures should be taken of the core showing the fluorescence. These
are very useful when accompanying reports to the head office which may be hundreds
if not a few thousand miles away.
The degree of fluorescence is indicated below for different compositions as reflected
in the API gravity.
2˚ - 10˚ API non-fluorescent to dull brown

10˚ - 18˚ API yellow brown to gold
18˚ - 45˚ API gold to pale yellow
45˚ - above API blue-white to white
It should be pointed out that most oils increase in API gravity with depth in a given
lithologic column with the reason being that younger juvenile oils, heavier with a
lower API gravity, have not yet been transformed from the initial formation conditions
to higher petroleum members. Two well-known exceptions to this pattern are found
in the Burgan sands of Kuwait and the shallow sands of the Bibi Eibat field in the
USSR where the high-gravity members are found higher up in the stratified column
than the low-gravity members.

EXERCISE 1
Calculate the Specific Gravity (SG) of a 38o API oil. What is its density in lbs/cu.ft?
(62.32 lbs/cu.ft equals an SG of 1.0 and 43.28 API)
Now convert an oil with an SG of 0.744 to Degrees API.
EXERCISE 2
A reservoir oil is quoted as having a Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) of 604 scf/bbl. Convert
this to Standard Cubic Meters (SCM)gas per Stock Tank Cubic Meters (SM3)
1 Foot = 0.3048m
1 barrel = 5.615 cu ft.
1 barrel = 0.159 M3
EXERCISE 3
A reservoir is said to contain an ‘initial GOR’ of 11,000scf/bbl. What type of

reservoir is described, and what API oil could be typically expected from such a
field?
EXERCISE 4
Define the ‘Black Oil Model’ and the ‘Compositional Model’
14
EXERCISE 1
Calculate the Specific Gravity (SG) of a 38o API oil. What is its density in lbs/
cu.ft?
(62.32 lbs/cu.ft equals an SG of 1.0 and 43.28 API)
Now convert an oil with an SG of 0.744 to Degrees API.
SOLUTION
Convert using the equation 1:
API = (141.5 / SG) -131.5
38 = (141.5 / SG) -131.5
Sg = 141.5 / (131.5 + 38)
SG = 0.835
Similarly, to convert SG into API:
API = (141.5 / 0.744) -131.5

API = 58.7o
EXERCISE 2
A reservoir oil is quoted as having a Gas Oil Ratio (GOR) of 604 scf/bbl. Convert
this to Standard Cubic Meters (SCM)gas per Stock Tank Cubic Meters (SM3)
1 Foot = 0.3048m
1 barrel = 5.615 cu ft.
1 barrel = 0.159 M3
SOLUTION
604 scf/bbl = 604 * 0.30483 STM/bbl = 17.09 SCM/bbl= 107.48 SCM/STM3
EXERCISE 3
A reservoir is said to contain an ‘initial GOR’ of 11,000scf/bbl. What type of reservoir

is described, and what API oil could be typically expected from such a field?
SOLUTION
A reservoir with a GOR of 11,000 scf/bbl would be typically termed a ‘Gas Condensate
Reservoir’. The API gravity would probably be in the low 50’s.

EXERCISE 4
Define the ‘Black Oil Model’ and the ‘Compositional Model’
SOLUTION
Black Oil Model.

Two component description of the reservoir fluid consisting of stock tank oil and
solution gas. Compositional changes with varying pressure and temperature are
ignored. Terms such as ‘Gas Oil Ratio’ and ‘Formation Volume Factor’ are black
oil model terms.
Compositional Model.
The compositional model is based on the paraffin series CnH2n+2. To keep the number
of components in the model manageable, long chain members are grouped together
and given an average property. These compounds are termed collectively as the ‘C+
fraction’. Typically this covers the hydrocarbons above Heptane and therefore is
called the C7+ fraction, which is characterised using the terms Apparent Molecular
Weight and Specific Gravity.
REFERENCES.
1. Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., and Whiting, R.L."Petroleum Reservoir

Engineering", McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 1960
16
Phase Behaviour of Hydrocarbon Systems
CONTENTS
1 DEFINITIONS
2 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF PURE SUBSTANCES

2.1 The Phase Diagram
3 TWO COMPONENT SYSTEMS

3.1 Pressure - Temperature Diagrams
3.2 Pressure Volume Diagram
4 MULTI-COMPONENT HYDROCARBON
4.2 Pressure Temperature Diagram
4.3 Critical Point
4.4 Retrograde Condensation

5 MULTI-COMPONENT HYDROCARBON
5.1 Oil Systems (Black Oils and Volatile Oils)
5.2 Retrograde Condensate Gas
5.3 Wet Gas
5.4 Dry Gas
6 COMPARISON OF THE PHASE DIAGRAMS OF

RESERVOIR FLUIDS
7 RESERVOIRS WITH A GAS CAP
8 CRITICAL POINT DRYING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
General
• Define; system, components, phases, equilibrium, intensive and extensive
properties.
Pure Components
• Sketch a pressure-temperature (PT) diagram for a pure component and illustrate
on it; the vapour-pressure line, critical point, triple point, sublimation-pressure
line, the melting point line, the liquid, gas and solid phase zones.
• Define the critical pressure and critical temperature for a pure component.
• Describe briefly with the aid of a PT diagram the behavior of a pure component
system below( left|) and above ( right) of the critical point.
• Sketch the pressure- volume (PV) diagram for a pure component illustrating the
behavior above the bubble point, between the bubble and dewpoint and below
the dewpoint.
• Sketch a series of PV lines for a pure component with a temperature below, at
and above the critical temperature.
• Sketch the three dimensional phase diagram for pure component systems.

Two Components
• Plot a PV diagram for a 2 component system and identify key parameters.
• Plot a PV diagram for a 2 component system and identify key parameters and
the relationship to the vapour pressure lines for the two pure components.
• Sketch the critical point loci for a series of binary mixtures including methane
and indicate how a mixture a mixture of methane and another component can
exist as 2 phases at pressures much greater than the 2 phase limit for the two
contributing components.
• Draw a PT diagram for a two component system, to illustrate the cricondentherm,
cricondenbar and the region of retrograde condensation.
• Define the terms cricondentherm and cricindenbar.
• Explain briefly what retrograde condensation is.

Multicomponent Systems
• Sketch a PT and PV diagrams to illustrate the behaviour at constant temperature
for a fluid in a PVT cell. Identify key features.
• Draw a PT diagram for a heavy oil, volatile oil, retrograde condensate gas,
wet gas and dry gas. Illustrate and explain the behaviour of depletion from the
undersaturated condition to the condition within the phase diagram.
• Describe briefly with the aid of a sketch, the reasons for and the process of gas
cycling, for retrograde gas condensate reservoirs.
• Plot a PT diagram for a reservoir with a gas cap to illustrate the gas at dew point
and oil at bubble point.
Miscellaneous
• With the aid of sketch explain the process of critical point drying.

Oil and gas reservoir fluids are mixtures of a large number of components which when
subjected to different pressure and temperatures environments may exist in different
forms, which we call phases. Phase behaviour is a key aspect in understanding the
nature and behaviour of these fluids both in relation to their state in the reservoir and
the changes which they experience during various aspects of the production process.
In this chapter we will review the qualitative aspects of the behaviour of reservoir
fluids when subjected to changes in pressure and temperature.
1 DEFINITIONS
Before we consider the effect of temperature and pressure on hydrocarbon systems

we will define some terms:
• System - amount of substances within given boundaries under specific conditions

composed of a number of components. Everything within these boundaries are
part of the system and that existing outside of the boundaries are not part of the
system. If anything moves across these boundaries then the system will have
changed.
• Components - those pure substances which produce the system under all
conditions.
For example, in the context of reservoir engineering, methane, ethane, carbon dioxide
and water are examples of pure components.
• Phases - This term describes separate, physically homogenous parts which are
separated by definite boundaries.1 Examples in the context of water are the three
phases, ice, liquid water and water vapour.
• Equilibrium - When a system is in equilibrium then no changes take place with

respect to time in the measurable physical properties of the separate phases.
• Intensive and extensive properties - physical properties are termed either

intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are independent of the quantity
of material present. For example density, specific volume and compressibility
factor are intensive properties whereas properties such as volume and mass are
termed extensive properties; their values being determined by the total quantity
of matter present.
The physical behaviour of hydrocarbons when pressure and temperature changes

can be explained in relation to the behaviour of the individual molecules making up
the system. Temperature, pressure and intermolecular forces are important aspects
of physical behaviour.
The temperature is an indication of the kinetic energy of the molecules. It is a physical

measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules. The kinetic energy increases
as heat is added. This increase in kinetic energy causes an increase in the motion of
the molecules which also results in the molecules moving further apart.


The pressure reflects the frequency of the collision of the molecules on the walls of
its container. As more molecules are forced closer together the pressure increases.
Intramolecular forces are the attractive and repulsive forces between molecules. They
are affected by the distance between the molecules. The attractive forces increases
as the distance between the molecules decreases until however the electronic field of
the molecules overlap and then further decrease in distance causes a repulsive force,
which increases as the molecules are forced closer together.
The molecules in gases are widely spaced and attractive forces exist between the
molecules whereas for liquids where the molecules are closer together there is a
repelling force which causes the liquid to resist further compression.
The hydrocarbon fluids of interest in reservoir systems are composed of many compo-
nents however in understanding the phase behaviour of these systems it is convenient
to reflect on the behaviour of single and two component systems.
2 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF PURE SUBSTANCES
2.1 The Phase Diagram

It is beneficial to study the behaviour of a pure hydrocarbon under varying pressure
and temperature to gain an insight into the behaviour of more complex hydrocarbon
systems.
Phase diagrams are useful ways of presenting the behaviour of systems. They are
generally plots of pressure versus temperature and show the phases that exist under
these varying conditions.
Figure 1 gives a pressure - temperature phase diagram for a single-component system

on a pressure temperature diagram and the following points are to be noted.

1 2
C
Critical Point
oint
Solid Liquid
Melting P
Pressure
e
s ur 3
es
Pr
ur
po
Va
Vapour Gas
a tion
blim
Su
Triple Point
Temperature

Figure 1 Pressure temperature diagram for a single component system
• Define the black oil model description of the composition of a reservoir fluid.
• Explain briefly what PNA analysis is and its application.
Vapour Pressure Line

The vapour pressure line divides regions where the substance is a liquid, 2, from
regions where it is a gas, 3. Above the line indicates conditions for which a substance
is a liquid, whereas below the line represent conditions under which it is a gas. Con-
ditions on the line indicate where both liquid and gas phases coexist.
Critical Point
The critical point C. is the limit of the vapour pressure line and defines the critical
temperature, Tc and critical pressure, Pc of the pure substance. For a pure substance
the critical temperature and critical pressure represents the limiting state for liquid and
gas to coexist. A more general definition of the critical point which is both applicable
to multi component as well as single component systems is; the critical point is the
point at which all the intensive properties of the gas and liquid are equal.
Triple Point
The triple point represents the pressure and temperature at which solid, liquid and
vapour co-exist under equilibrium conditions. Petroleum engineers seldom deal
with hydrocarbons in the solid state, however, more recently solid state issues are a
concern with respect to wax, asphaltenes and hydrates.
Sublimitation-Pressure Line
The extension of the vapour-pressure line below the triple point represents the con-
ditions which divides the area where solid exists from the area where vapour exists
and is also called the sublimation - pressure line.

Melting Point Line
The melting line divides solid from liquid. For pure hydrocarbons the melting point
generally increases with pressure so the slope of the line is positive. (Water is ex-
ceptional in that its melting point decreases with pressure).
3 USE OF PHASE DIAGRAMS
3.1 Pressure -Temperature Diagrams (PT)

Consider the behaviour of a cell charged with a pure substance and the volume varied
by the frictionless displacement of a piston as shown in figure 2, below.
P1 Pb P Pd P2
Liquid
Gas
Figure 2 Phase Changes With Pressure at Constant Temperature
For example, following the path 1 - 2 in figure 3 on the pressure-temperature diagram,

ie holding temperature constant and varying pressure by expansion of the cylinder.

E F
Pc c
1
A G
B
oint Line
Solid Liquid
Pressure
P
Melting -
ne 4
e li
ssur
pre
u r-
po Gas
Va 2
Tc
Temperature
Figure 3 Pressure-Temperature Diagram for a Single-Component System
As the pressure is reduced, the pressure falls rapidly until a pressure is reached lying
on the vapour pressure line. A gas phase will begin to form and molecules leave the
liquid. At further attempts to reduce the pressure the volume of gas phase increases,
while liquid phase volume decreases but the pressure remains constant. Once the
liquid phase disappears further attempts to reduce pressure will be successful as the
gas expands.
Above the critical temperature, following the path 3 - 4, a decrease in pressure will
cause a steady change in the physical properties, for example a decrease in density but
there will not be an abrupt density change as the vapour pressure line is not crossed.
No phase change takes place.
Consider the behaviour of the system around the critical point. If we go from point
A to point B, by increasing the temperature, we go though a distinctive phase change
on the vapour pressure line where two phases, liquid and gas co-exist. If we now go
a different route to B, starting with the liquid state at ‘A’ increase the pressure iso-
thermally (constant temperature ) to a value greater than Pc at E. Then keeping the
pressure constant increase the temperature to a value greater than Tc at point F. Now
decrease the pressure to its original value at G. Finally, decrease the temperature
keeping the pressure constant until B is reached. The system is now in the vapour
state and this state has been achieved without an abrupt phase change. The vapour
states are only meaningful in the two phase regions. In areas far removed from the
two phase region particularly where pressure and temperature are above the critical
values, definition of the liquid or gaseous state is impossible and the system is best
described as in the fluid state.
The pressure-temperature diagram for ethane is given in Figure 4.

800
c
700
Pressure - PSIA
Liquid
600
Vapor
500
400
40 60 80 100 120
Temperature - º F
Figure 4 Pressure-Temperature diagram of Ethane
3.2 Pressure Volume Diagram (PV)

The process just described in 3.1 can also be represented on a pressure-volume dia-
gram at constant temperature (Figure 5). As the pressure is reduced from 1, a large
change in pressure occurs with small change in volume due to the relatively low
compressibility of the liquid. When the vapour pressure is reached gas begins to
form. This point is called the bubble point, ie the point at which the first few mol-
ecules leave the liquid and form small bubbles of gas. As the system expands more
liquid is vaporised at constant pressure. The point at which only a minute drop of
liquid remains is called the dew point. Sharp breaks in the line denote the bubble
point and dew point.

PVT CELL PV DIAGRAM
All Liquid
T > Tc SINGLE PHASE
1
Liquid state-rapid change of
pressure with small volume change
First Gas Bubble T < Tc Pressure remains constant while
both gas and liquid are present
Pressure
Dew Point
Last Drop of Liquid T2 > Tc
Gas
Bubble Point
2
TWO PHASE REGION
All Gas
Volume
Figure 5 Pressure-Volume diagram for a Single-Component System
For a pure substance vapour pressures at bubble point and dew point are equal to the
vapour pressure of the substance at that temperature. Above the critical point, ie 3
- 4 , the PV behaviour line shows no abrupt change and simply shows an expansion
of the substance and no phase change. This fluid is called a super critical fluid.
A series of expansions can be performed at various constant temperatures and a

pressure volume diagram built up and the locus of the bubble point and dew point
values gives the bubble point and dew point lines which meet at the critical point.
Conditions under the bubble point and dew point lines represent the conditions
where two phases coexist whereas those above these curves represent the conditions
where only one phase exists. At the critical temperature the P,T curve goes through
the critical point. Figure 6

T = Tc 3
Liquid state rapid
change of temperature
with small volume change
T > Tc
1
SINGLE PHASE
T < Tc
Critical Point
4
Pressure
De
Curve
w
Po
in
t
Pressure remains constant while Cur
Point
ve 2
both gas and liquid are present
Bubble
TWO PHASE REGION
Volume
Figure 6 Series of PV lines for a pure component
The pressure volume curve for pure component ethane is given in figure 7
The locus of the bubble points and dew points form a three-dimensional diagram
when projected in to a P-T diagram give the vapour pressure line (Figure 8).
900
800
C
700
Pressure - PSIA
11
0
ºF
600 90
ºF
Liquid Two Phase Region

Vapor
500 60 º
A D B F
400
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Specific Volume - Cu. Ft. per lb.
Figure 7 Pressure-Volume Diagram of Ethane
10
Bubble Point Line
uid
Liq
Critical Point
Dew Point Line
id
qu
Pressure
Li
d
s
an
G
as
Ga
Vo
lu u id Critical Point
me
tur
e Liq
ra
pe
Vapor Pressure Curve
Te m
Pressure
s
Ga ure
rat
m pe
Te
Figure 8 Three Dimensional Phase Diagram for a Pure Component System
4 TWO COMPONENT SYSTEMS

Reservoir fluids contain many components but we will first consider a system con-
taining two components, such a system is called a binary.

The behaviour of a mixture of two components is not as simple as for a pure sub-
stance. Figure 9 shows the P-V diagram of a two-component mixture for a constant
temperature system.
Liquid
Pressure
Liquid
and
Gas
Bubble Point
Ga
s
Dew Point
Volume
Figure 9 Pressure-Volume Line for a Two-Component System at Constant Temperature

The isotherm is very similar to the pure component but the pressure increases as the
system passes from the dew point to the bubble point. This is because the composi-
tion of the liquid and vapour changes as it passes through the two-phase region. At
the bubble point the composition of the liquid is essentially equal to the composi-
tion of the mixture but the infinitesimal amount of gas is richer in the more volatile
component. At the dew point the composition of vapour is essentially the mixture
composition whereas the infinitesimal amount of liquid is richer in the less volatile
component. Breaks in the line are not as sharp as for pure substances.
The pressure-volume diagram for a specific n-pentane and n-heptane mixture is given
in Figure 10. Clearly a different composition of the two components would result
in a different shape of the diagram.
600
500
Critical point
45 45
0º 4º
F
400
Pressure - PSIA
Bubble Point Line
425
º
400
300 º
Dew Point Line

350
200 º
300
º
100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Specific Volume - Cu. Ft. per lb.
Figure 10 Pressure-Volume Diagram for N-Pentane and N-Heptane (52.4 mole %

Heptane) ref. 4
4.2 Pressure Temperature Diagram

Compared to the single line representing the vapour pressure curve for pure substances
there is a broad region in which the two phases co-exist. The two-phase region of
the diagram is bounded by the bubble point line and the dew point line, and the two
lines meet at the critical point. Points within a loop represent two-phase systems
(Figure 11).
Consider the constant temperature expansion of a particular mixture composition. At

1 the substance is liquid and as pressure is reduced liquid expands until the bubble
point is reached. The pressure at which the first bubbles of gas appear is termed the
bubble point pressure. As pressure is decreased liquid and gas co-exist until a minute
amount of liquid remains at the dew point pressure. Further reduction of pressure
causes expansion of the gas.
12
By carrying out a series of constant temperature expansions the phase envelope is

defined and within the envelope contours of liquid to gas ratios obtained. These are
called quality lines and describe the pressure and temperature conditions for equal
volumes of liquid. The quality lines converge at the critical point.
4.3 Critical Point

In the same way as pure components, when more than one component is present
liquid and gases cannot coexist, at pressures and temperatures higher than the criti-
cal point. The critical point for a more than one component mixture is defined as a
point at which the bubble point line and dew point line join, ie. it is also the point
at which all the intensive properties of the liquid are identical. This aspect is a very
severe test for physical property prediction methods.
If the vapour pressure lines for the pure components are drawn on the P-T diagram
then the two-phase region for the mixture lies between the vapour pressure lines.
In the figure 11 the critical temperature of the mixture TcAB lies between TcA and TcB
whereas the critical pressure PcAB lies above PcA and PcB. It is important to note that
the PcAB and TcAB of the mixture does not necessarily lie between the Pc & Tc of the
two pure components.
1
PCAB Critical Point
% Liq.
Liquid
PCA 100
CA
75
50
CB
PCB e
t Li n 25
P o in
- 0
b ble
Bu
2
Pressure
t Gas
Poin
Dew
TCA TCAB TCB

Temperature
Figure 11 Pressure-Temperature Diagram for a Two Component System
A specific mixture composition will give a specific phase envelope lying between the
vapour pressure lines. A mixture with different proportions of the same components
will give a different phase diagram. The locus of the critical point of different mix-
ture compositions is shown in Figure 12 for the ethane and n-heptane system, and in
Figure 13 for a series of binary hydrocarbon mixtures. Figure 13 demonstrates that
for binary mixture e.g. Methane and n-decane two phases can coexist at conditions
of pressure considerably greater than the two phase limit, critical conditions for the
separate pure components. Methane is a significant component of reservoir fluids.

1400
C2
Composition
No Wt % Ethane
1200 C 100.00
C1 90.22
C2 50.25
C3 9.78
C7 N-Heptane
1000
C1
Pressure, lbs./Sq. In. ABS
800
C
C3
A1
600
e
in
an e
L
i nt
Po
E th
A le
400 bb C7
Bu
e
li n
200 A2
i
an
nt
Po
e
pt
De
w He
N-
B2 B3
A3
B1 B
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature º F
Figure 12 Pressure-Temperature Diagram for the Ethane-Heptane System 2
14
6000
Single Phase
5000
4000
Pressure Lbs. (psia) 3000 Two Phases
2000
1000
ne
e e
ha
an ne ne an xane ptane
Eth pa uta ent
et
M Pro N-B N- P N-He N-He ane

N-Dec
0
0 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Temperature º F
Figure 13 Critical Point Loci for a Series of Binary Hydrocarbon Mixtures 2
4.4 Retrograde Condensation

Within the two phase region our two component system there can be temperatures and
pressures higher than the critical temperature where two phases exist and similarly
pressures. These limiting temperatures and pressures are the cricondentherm and
cricondenbar . The cricondentherm can be defined as the temperature above which
liquid cannot be formed regardless of pressure, or expressed differently, as the maxi-
mum temperature at which two phases can exist in equilibrium. The cricondenbar
can be defined as the pressure above which no gas can be formed regardless of tem-
perature or as the maximum pressure at which two phases can exist in equilibrium.
(Figure 14).
These limits are of particular significance in relation to the shape of the diagram in
figure 14.
Consider a single isotherm on Figure 14. For a pure substance a decrease in pressure
causes a change of phase from liquid to gas. For a two-component system below Tc
a decrease in pressure causes a change from liquid to gas.

We now consider the constant temperature decrease in pressure, 1-2-3 , in figure 14 at
a temperature between the critical temperature and the cricondentherm. As pressure
is decreased from 1 the dew point is reached and liquid forms, i.e., at 2 the system is
such that 5% liquid and 95% vapour exists, i.e. a decrease in pressure has caused a
change from gas to liquid, opposite to the behaviour one would expect. The phenom-
ena is termed Retrograde Condensation. From 2 - 3, the amount of liquid decreases

and vaporisation occurs and the dew point is again reached where the system is gas.
Retrograde condensation occurs at temperatures between the critical temperature and
cricondentherm. The retrograde region is shown shaded in the figure.

Region of retrograde condensation
Cricondenbar 1
Liquid % Liq.
100
Pressure
75
ne
Li
2
t
in
50
Po
Cricondentherm
e l
bb
25
Bu
10
5 3
e
Dew Point Lin Gas
0
Temperature
Figure 14 Phase Diagram Showing Conditions for Retrograde Considerations

5. MULTI-COMPONENT HYDROCARBON
Using two component systems we have examined various aspects of phase behaviour.
Reservoir fluids contain hundreds of components and therefore are multicomponent
systems. The phase behaviour of multicomponent hydrocarbon systems in the liq-
uid-vapour region however is very similar to that of binary systems however the
mathematical and experimental analysis of the phase behaviour is more complex.
Figure 15 gives a schematic PT & PV diagram for a reservoir fluid system. Systems
which include crude oils also contain appreciable amounts of relatively non-volatile
constituents such that dew points are practically unattainable.
16
PVT CELL PHASE DIAGRAM
All Liquid
Liqu
id "a"
Critical Point
First Gas Bubble
Bubble Point
Bubble Point
uid
Liq
i ne
tL
Gas / 40% Liquid
%
in
80
Po
%
60
le
bb
%
Bu
40
Pressure
Pressure
% Lin
e
Last Drop of Liquid 20 int
Po Dew Point
w
De
Dew Point
All Gas
Temperature Volume
Figure 15 Phase Diagrams for Multicomponent Systems
We will consider the behaviour of several examples of typical crude oils and natural
gases:
Low-shrinkage oil (heavy oil - black oil)

High-shrinkage oil (volatile oil)
Retrograde condensate gas
Wet gas
Dry Gas
Figure 16 is a useful diagram to illustrate the behaviour of the respective fluid types
above. However it should be emphasised that for each fluid type there will be different
scales. The vertical lines help to distinguish the different reservoir fluid types.
Isothermal behaviour below the critical point designates the behaviour of oil systems
and the fluid is liquid in the reservoir, whereas behaviour to the right of the critical
point illustrates the behaviour of systems which are gas in the reservoir.

Single Phase Region (Liquid) Single Phase Region (Gas)
Black Volatile Gas
Oil Oil Condensate Gas
P
m
P
b
CP
e
t Lin
in
Po
b ble
Bu
% Liquid TM
100
2
Pressure
Two Phase Region

75 Where:
P = Bubble point pressure

b
at indicated temperature
P = Maximum pressure at which

m
50 two phases can coexist
T = Maximum temperature at
m
25 which two phases can coexist
20 e
15 t Li n C = Critical conditions
Poin
10 Dew X = Cricondentherm
5 Gas 5
0 Single Phase Region X5
Temperature
Figure 16 Phase diagram for reservoir fluids
5.1 Oil Systems ( Black Oils and Volatile Oils)

Figures 17&18 illustrate the PT phase diagrams for black and volatile oils.
The two-phase region covers a wide range of pressure and temperature. Tc is higher
than the reservoir temperature. In figure 17 the line 1-2-3 represents the constant
reservoir temperature pressure reduction that occurs in the reservoir as crude oil is
produced for a black oil. These oils are a common oil type. The dotted line shows
the conditions encountered as the fluid leaves the reservoir and flows through the
tubing to the separator.
If the initial reservoir pressure and temperature are at 2, the oil is at its reservoir
bubble point and is said to be saturated, that is, the oil contains as much dissolved
gas as it can and a further reduction in pressure will cause formation of gas. If the
initial reservoir pressure and temperature are at 1, the oil is said to be undersaturated,
i.e. The pressure in the reservoir can be reduced to Pb before gas is released into the
formation. For an oil system the saturation pressure is the bubble point pressure.
18
1 Undersaturated
Mole % Liq.
100
Liquid Critical Point
2 Saturated
Pb
Pressure
e
3
Lin
int
Po
75
le
bb
line
Sep.
Bu
int
Po
w
50 Gas
De
25
0
Temperature

Figure 17 Phase Diagram for a Black Oil
As the pressure is dropped from the initial condition as a result of production of flu-
ids, the fluids remain in single phase in the reservoir until the bubble point pressure
corresponding to the reservoir temperature is reached. At this point the first bubbles
of gas are released and their composition will be different from the oil being more
concentrated in the lighter ( more volatile) components. When the fluids are brought
to the surface they come into the separator and as shown on the diagram, the separa-
tor conditions lie well within the two phase region and therefore the fluid presents
itself as both liquid and gas. The pressure and temperature conditions existing in the
separator indicate that around 85% liquid is produced, that is a high percentage and as
a result the volume of liquid at the surface has not reduced a great amount compared
to its volume at reservoir conditions. Hence the term low-shrinkage oil.
As the pressure is further reduced as oil is removed from the reservoir, point 3 will
be reached and 75% liquid and 25% gas will be existing in the reservoir. Strictly
speaking once the reservoir pressure has dropped to the bubble point, beyond that the
phase diagram does not truly represent the behaviour of the reservoir fluid. As we will
see in the chapter on drive mechanisms, below the bubble point gas produced flows
more readily than the associated oil and therefore the composition of the reservoir
fluid does not remain constant. The system is continually changing in the reservoir
and therefore the related phase diagram changes.
The summary characteristics for a black oil sometimes termed a heavy oil or low
shrinkage oil are as follows.
Broad-phase envelope
High percentage of liquid
High proportion of heavier hydrocarbons
GOR < 500 SCF/STB

Oil gravity 30˚ API or heavier
Liquid - black or deep colour
Volatile oil contains a much higher proportion of lighter and intermediate hydocar-
bons than heavier black oil and therefore they liberate relatively large volumes of gas
leaving smaller amounts of liquid compared to black oils. For this reason they used
to be called high shrinkage oils. The diagram in figure 18 shows similar behaviour to
the black oil except that the lines of constant liquid to gas are more closely spaced.
Points 1 and 2 have the same meaning as for the black oil. As the pressure is reduced
below 2 a large amount of gas is produced such that at 3 the reservoir contains 40%
liquid and 60% gas.
At separator conditions 65% of the fluid is liquid, i.e. less than previous mixture.
The summary characteristics for a volatile sometimes termed a heavy oil or high
shrinkage oil when compared to black oils are as follows.
Not so broad phase envelope as black oil

Fewer heavier hydrocarbons
Deep coloured
API < 50˚
GOR < 8000 SCF/STB
Liquid 2
Critical Point
Mole % Liq.
100
75
Pressure
3
e
lin
int
Sep.
po
le
50 40
bb
Bu
e
in
Gas
tl
in
po
w
25
De
Temperature

Figure 18 Phase Diagram for a Volatile Oil
Clearly, for these fluids, it is the composition of the fluid that determines the nature
of the phase behaviour and the relative position of the saturation lines, (bubble point
and dew point lines), the lines of constant proportion of gas/liquid and the critical
point.
20
For both of these fluids types one can prevent the reservoir fluid going two phase
by maintaining the reservoir pressure above its saturation pressure by injecting flu-
ids into the reservoir. The most common practise is the use of water as a pressure
maintenance fluid.

5.2 Retrograde Condensate Gas
If the reservoir temperature lies between the critical point and the cricondentherm a
retrograde gas condensate field exists and Figure 19 gives the PT diagram for such
a fluid. Above the phase envelope a single phase fluid exists. As the pressure de-
clines to 2 a dew point occurs and liquid begins to form in the reservoir. The liquid
is richer in heavier components than the associated gas. As the pressure reduces to
3 the amount of liquid increases. Further pressure reduction causes the reduction of
liquid in the reservoir by re-vaporisation. It is important to recognise that the phase
diagram below for a retrograde condensate fluid represents the diagram for a constant
composition system.
Before production the fluid in the reservoir exists as a single phase and is generally
called a gas. It is probably more accurate to call it a dense phase fluid. If the reservoir
drops below the saturation pressure the dew point, then retrograde condensation oc-
curs within the formation. The nature of this condensing fluid is only in recent years
being understood. It was previously considered that the condensing fluid would be
immobile since its maximum proportion was below the value for it to have mobil-
ity. It was considered therefore that such valuable condensed fluids would be lost to
production and the viability of the project would be that from the ‘wet’ gas.
Liquid
Critical Point
ine 2
tL
P oin
e
bl
ub
Pressure
3
B
Mole % Liq.
100
75
Sep.
50
25 e
t Lin Gas
oin
10
De wP
5
0
Temperature
Figure 19 Phase Diagram for a Retrograde Condensate Gas
One of the development options for such a field therefore is to set in place a pressure
maintenance procedure whereby the reservoir pressure does not fall below the
saturation pressure. Water could be used as for oils but gas might be trapped behind
the water as the water advances through the reservoir. Gas injection, called gas

cycling ( Figure 20 ), is the preferred yet very expensive option. In this process the
produced fluids are separated at the surface and the liquid condensates, high value
product relative to heavy oil, are sent for export, in an offshore situation probably by
tanker. The ‘dry’ gas is then compressed and reinjected into the reservoir to maintain
the pressure above the dew point. Clearly with this process the pressure will still
decline because the volume occupied by the gas volume of the exported liquid is
not being replaced. Full pressure maintenance is obtained by importing dry gas
equivalent to this exported volume from a nearby source. Eventually the injected dry
gas displaces the ‘wet’ gas and then the field can be blown down as a conventional
dry gas reservoir, if a suitable export route for the gas is then in place. The process
described is very costly and carries with it a number of risks not least the possibility
of early dry gas breakthrough.
Imported Gas
Gas Dry Gas Reinjection
Surface Separation
Condensate Sales
Injection Well
Production Well
Gas Water Contact
Figure 20 Gas cycling process
Recent research has shown that the nature of oil forming in porous media by this ret-
rograde process may not be as first considered. The isolation of condensing liquids in
porous rock is dependant on the relative strength of the interfacial tension and viscous
forces working in the rock. If the relative magnitude of these is high then the fluid
will be trapped however if they are low as a result of low interfacial tension, which
is the case nearer the critical point, then the condensing liquids may be mobile and
move as a result of viscous and gravity forces. Condensate liquids have been able
to flow at saturations well below the previously considered irreducible saturation
proportion. Established relative permeability thinking is having to be reconsidered in
the context of gas condensates. The phenomena just described may give explanation
to the observation sometimes made of an oil rim below a gas condensate field.
Looking at the PT phase diagram one might consider that "blowing the reservoir down"
22
quickly might be an option and as a result vaporise the condensed liquids in the for-
mation. This is not a serious option since once the reservoir pressure falls below the
dew point the impact of the increasing liquid proportion remaining in the reservoir
causes the phase diagram to move to the right relative to reservoir conditions, and any
vaporising will be of the lightest components which are likely to be in good supply
and therefore not of significant value.

The summary characteristics for a retrograde gas condensate fluid are as follows.
Contains more lighter HC’s and fewer heavier HC’s than high-shrinkage oil
API up to 60˚ API
GOR up to 70,000 SCF/STB
Stock tank oil is water-white or slightly coloured

5.3 Wet Gas
The phase diagram for a mixture containing smaller hydrocarbon molecules lies
well below the reservoir temperature. Figure 21. The reservoir conditions always
remain outside the two-phase envelope going from 1 to 2 and therefore the fluid ex-
ists as a gas throughout the reduction in reservoir pressure. For a wet gas system,
the separator conditions lie within the two-phase region, therefore at surface heavy
components present in the reservoir fluid condense under separator conditions and this
liquid is normally called condensate. These liquid condensates have a high propor-
tion of light ends and sell at a premium. The proportion of condensates depend on
the compositional mix of the reservoir fluid as represented by the iso-volume lines
on the PT diagram.
Liquid
1
Critical Point
Pressure
Mole % Liq.
100
2
75 Sep.
50
25
5 Gas
0
Temperature

Figure 21 Phase Diagram for a Wet Gas
The reference wet gas, clearly does not refer to the system being wet due to the pres-
ence of water but due to the production condensate liquids.

In some locations where there are natural petroleum leakages at the surface, when
condensates are produced they are sometimes called white oil.
The summary characteristics for wet gas are as follows.

GOR < 100,000 SCF/STB
Condensate liquid > 50˚ API
5.5 Dry Gas

The phase envelope of the dry gas, which contains a smaller fraction of the C2-C6
components, is similar to the wet gas system but with the distinction that the separator
also lies outside the envelope in the gas region (Figure 22). The term dry indicates
therefore that the fluid does not contain enough heavier HC’s to form a liquid at
surface conditions.
The summary characteristics for a dry gas are as follows.
GOR > 100,000 SCF/STB
1
Pressure
Critical Point
2
75
Liquid
50 Sep.
25
Gas
Temperature

Figure 22 Phase Diagram for a Dry Gas
6 COMPARISON OF THE PHASE DIAGRAMS OF RESERVOIR FLU-

IDS
Figure 16 gave a rather simplistic representation of the various types of fluids with
respect to the relative position of reservoir temperature with respect to the phase
diagram. In reality it is the phase diagram which changes according to composition
and the relative position of the reservoir temperature and separator conditions, and
these determine the character of the fluid behaviour. Figure 23 gives a better indica-
tion of the various reservoir types with respect to a specific pressure and temperature
24
scales. As the proportion of heavier components in the respective fluids increases

the phase envelope moves to the right.
Pressure
Separator
Gas
Wet Gas Condensate Volatile Black
Dry Gas Oil Oil
Temperature (ºC)
Critical Point

Figure 23 Relative positions of phases envelopes
7 RESERVOIRS WITH A GAS CAP
Figure 24 illustrates a simplification of the phase diagrams associated with an oil

reservoir with a gas cap. The phase diagram for the gas cap fluid, the oil reservoir
fluid and for a fluid representing the combination fluid of a mixture of gas and liquid
in the same proportions as they exist in the reservoir are presented.

Reservoir Temperature
Reservoir Gas Total Reservoir Fluid
CG
C
Reservoir
Liquid
Pd=Pb CL
Initial
Pressure
Reservoir
Pressure
Separator
Temperature
Figure 24 Phase Diagram for an Oil Reservoir with a Gas Cap
The diagram illustrates that at the gas-oil contact the gas is at its dew pressure, the oil
is at its bubble point pressure and the combination fluid lies on the constant propor-
tion quality line representing the ratio of the gas and oil as they exist in the reservoir
system. The gas cap may be dry, wet or condensate depending on the composition
and phase diagram of the gas.

8 CRITICAL POINT DRYING
Although not part of the topic of phase behaviour in the context of reservoir fluids it
is useful to illustrate the application in a very practical application in the context of
the evaluation of rock properties. Critical point drying has been used by a number
of sciences to prepare specimens of delicate materials for subsequent micro visual
analysis where conventional preparation techniques will destroy delicate fabric.
Critical point drying takes advantage of the behaviour of fluids around the critical
point where one can go from one phase type, like liquid to gas without a visually
observed phase change.

In the 1980’s it was observed in a UK offshore field that the interpreted permeability
for a well sand in the zone where water injection was proposed was different from
well injectivity tests when compared to the core analysis value where the value was
many times more. The extent of this difference was such that permeabilities from
the well test gave values which would prevent injection to take place whereas those
from the core tests would result in practical injectivities. Clearly the difference was
important.
26
The company concerned embarked on a more sophisticated core recovery and analy-
sis process suspicious that perhaps the fabric of the rock was being affected by core
preparation methods. They resorted to critical point drying.
The core recovered from the water zone of the reservoir from a subsequent new well
was immersed and transferred to the test laboratory submerged in ‘formation water’.
At the laboratory a core plug sample was extracted, cut to size and loaded into a
core holder still submerged in the water. The core was then mounted in a flow rig
(figure 25) and an alcohol which is miscible with water displaced the water in the
core. Carbon dioxide at a pressure and temperature where it is in the liquid state was
then introduced which miscible displaced the alcohol. The temperature and pressure
was then adjusted taking them around the critical point rather than across the vapour
pressure line of the PT phase diagram (figure 26) ending up with a temperature and
pressure below the vapour pressure line with the fluid now in a gaseous state. After
this process the permeability was measured to be of the same order as that interpreted
from the well injectivity test.
The reason for this difference was subsequently demonstrated to be a very fragile
clay which during conventional core recovery and cleaning was damaged to an extent
that its pore blocking structure was destroyed.
T
P
Core In Holder
Figure 25 Critical point drying system
Critical Point Drying Route
Critical Point
Pressure
LIQUID
Vapour
Pressure Line
GAS
Temperature
Figure 26 Critical point drying


REFERENCES
1. Fig 1 Daniels, F Farrington: “Outlines of Physical Chemistry,” John Wiley

& Sons,Inc New York, 1948
2. Fig 2 Brown,GG et al. “ Natural Gasoline and Volatile Hydrocarbons,”

Natural Gasoline Association of America, Tulsa, Okl., 1948.
Fig 10 Sage, S.G.,Lacy,W.N. Volumetric and Phase Behaviour of Hydrocarbons,
Gulf Publishing Co.Houston 1949
28
Behaviour of Gases
CONTENTS
1 IDEAL GASES
1.1 Boyle's Law
1.2 Charles' Law
1.3 Avogadro's Law
1.4 The Equation of State For an Ideal Gas
1.5 The Density of an Ideal Gas
1.6 Standard Conditions
1.7 Mixtures of Ideal Gases
1.7.1 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
1.7.2 Amagat's Law
1.8 Apparent Molecular Weight
1.9 Specific Gravity of a Gas
2 BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES

2.1 Compressibility Factor For Natural Gases
2.2 Law of Corresponding States
2.3 Pseudocritical Properties of Natural Gases
2.4 Impact of Nonhydrocarbon Components on
z Value
2.5 Standard Conditions For Real Reservoir
Gases
3 GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
4 COEFFICIENT OF ISOTHERMAL
COMPRESSIBILITY OF GASES
5 VISCOSITY OF GASES
5.1 Viscosity
5.2 Viscosity of Mixtures
6 EQUATIONS OF STATE
6.1 Other Equations-of-State
6.2 Van de Waals Equation
6.3 Benedict - Webb - Rubin Equation (BWR)
6.4 Redlich - Kwong Equation
6.5 Soave, Redlich Kwong Equation
6.6 Peng Robinson Equation of State
6.7 Application to Mixtures
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Present the ideal equation of state, PV=nRT.
• Calculate the mass of an ideal gas given PV 7T values.
• Derive an equation to calculate the density of an ideal gas.
• Convert a mixture composition between weight and mole fraction.
• Present an equation and calculate the apparent molecular weight of a mixture.
• Define and calculate the specific gravity of a gas.
• Present the equation of state, EOS, for a ‘real gas’ and explain what ‘Z’ is,
PV=ZnRT.
• Define the pseudocritical pressure and psuedocritical temperature and be able

to use them to determine the ‘Z’ value for a gas mixture.
• Express and calculate reservoir gas volumes in terms of standard cubic

volumes.
• Define the gas formation volume factor and derive an equation fore it using the
EOS.
• Calculate the volume of gas in a reservoir in terms of standard cubic volumes

given prerequisite data.
• Calculate the viscosity of a gas of a specific composition given perquisite

equations and figures.
• Be aware of the development of EOS’s to predict reservoir fluid properties.

Behaviour of Gases
INTRODUCTION
A gas is a homogenous fluid that has no definite volume but fills completely the vessel
in which it is placed. The system behaviour of gases is vital to petroleum engineers
and the laws governing their behaviour should be understood. For simple gases these
laws are straightforward but the behaviour of actual hydrocarbon gases particularly
at the conditions occurring in the reservoir are more complicated.
We will review the laws that relate to the pressure, volume and temperatures of gases
and the associated equations. These relationships were previously termed gas laws;
it is now more common to describe them as equations of state.
1 IDEAL GASES
The laws relating to gases are straightforward in that the relationships of pressure,
temperature and pressure are covered by one equation. First consider an ideal gas.
An ideal gas is one where the following assumptions hold:
• Volume of the molecules i.e. insignificant with respect to the total volume of
the gas.
• There are no attractive or repulsive forces between molecules or between
molecules and container walls.
• There is no internal energy loss when molecules collide.
Out of these assumptions come the following equations.
1.1 Boyle’s Law

At constant temperature the pressure of a given weight of a gas is inversely proportional
to the volume of a gas.
i.e.
1
V α or PV = constant, T is constant
P (1)
P = pressure, V = volume, T = temperature.
1.2 Charles’ Law

At constant pressure, the volume of a given weight of gas varies directly with the
temperature:
i.e.
V
V α T or = constant, P is constant
T (2)
The pressure and temperature in both laws are in absolute units.

1.3 Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s Law can be stated as: under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure equal volumes of all ideal gases contain the same number of molecules. That
is, one molecular weight of any ideal gas occupies the same volume as the molecular
weight of another ideal gas at a given temperature and pressure.
Specifically, these are:
(i) 2.73 x 1026 molecules/lb mole of ideal gas.

(ii) One molecular weight (in lbs) of any ideal gas at 60˚F and 14.7 psia
occupies a volume of 379.4 cu ft.
One mole of a material is a quantity of that material whose mass in the unit system
selected is numerically equal to the molecular weight.
eg. one lb mole of methane CH4 = 16 lb

one kg mole of methane CH4 = 16kg
1.4 The Equation of State for an Ideal Gas

By combining the above laws an equation of state relating pressure, temperature and
volume of a gas is obtained.
PV
= constant
T (3)
R is the constant when the quantity of gas is equal to one mole.
It is termed the Universal Gas Constant and has different values depending on the
unit system used, so that;
cu ft psia
10.732
R in oilfield units = lb mole R

Table 1 gives the values for different unit systems.
p V T n R
psia cu ft R lb - mole 10.73

atm cu ft K lb - mole 1.3145
atm cc K gm - mole 82.06
atm litre K gm - mole 0.08206
atm cu ft R lb - mole 0.730
mm Hg litre K gm - mole 62.37
in.Hg cu ft R lb - mole 21.85

Table 1 Values of R for different unit systems

Behaviour of Gases
For n moles the equation becomes:
PV = nRT (4)
T= absolute temperature oK or oR where

ºK=273 +oC and oR=460 +oF
To find the volume occupied by a quantity of gas when the conditions of temperature
and pressure are changed from state 1 to state 2 we note that:

PV PV PV
n = is a constant so that 1 1 = 2 2
RT T1 T2

EXERCISE 1.
A gas cylinder contains methane at 1000 psia and 70°F. If the cylinder has a vol-
ume of 3 cu.ft assuming methane is an ideal gas calculate the mass of methane in
the cylinder.
1.5 The Density of an Ideal Gas

Since density is defined as the weight per unit volume, the ideal gas law can be used
to calculate densities.
m
ρg = weight / volume =
V
where ρg is the gas density
For 1 mole m = MW MW = Molecular weight
RT
V =
P
MW.P
∴ ρg =
RT (5)
EXERCISE 2.
Calculate the density of the gas in the cylinder in exercise 1.

1.6 Standard Conditions
Oil and gas at reservoir conditions clearly occur under a whole range of temperatures
and pressures.
It is common practice to relate volumes to conditions at surface, ie 14.7 psia and

60˚F.
ie
Pres Vres P V
= sc sc
Tres Tsc (6)
sc - standard conditions res - reservoir conditions
This relationship assumes that reservoir properties behave as ideal. This is NOT the
case as will be discussed later.
EXERCISE 3.
Assuming methane is at the conditions of exercise 1, calculate the volume the gas
would occupy at standard conditions.
1.7 Mixtures of Ideal Gases

Petroleum engineering is concerned not with single component gases but mixtures
of a number of gases.
Laws established over early years governing ideal gas mixtures include Dalton’s
Law and Amagat’s Law.
1.7.1 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures
exerted by its components. The partial pressure is the contribution to pressure of
the individual component.
Consider a gas made up of components A, B, C etc

The total pressure of the system is the sum of the partial pressures
ie
P = PA + PB + PC + ..... (7)
where A, B and C are components.
therefore

Behaviour of Gases
RT RT RT
P = n A + n B + nC
V V V
RT
i.e. P = Σn j
V
Pj n
∴ = j = y j
P n
(8)

where yj = mole fraction of j component.
th
The pressure contribution of a component, its partial pressure, is the total pressure
times the mole fraction.
1.7.2 Amagat’s Law

Amagat’s Law states that the volume occupied by an ideal gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the volumes that the pure components would occupy at the same temperature
and pressure. Sometimes called the law of additive volumes.
i.e.
V = VA + VB + VC (9)
RT RT RT
V = n A + n B + n C
P P P
RT
V = Σn j
P
Vj n
i.e. = j = y j
V n (10)
i.e, for an ideal gas the volume fraction is equal to the mole fraction.
It is conventional to describe the compositions of hydrocarbon fluids in mole terms.

This is because of the above laws. In some circumstances however weight compositions
might be used as the basis and it is straight forward to convert between the two.
EXERCISE 4.
A gas is made up of the following components; 25lb of methane, 3 lb of ethane and

1.5 lb of propane. Express the composition of the gas in weight and mole fractions.

1.8 Apparent Molecular Weight
A mixture does not have a molecular weight although it behaves as though it had a
molecular weight. This is called the apparent molecular weight. AMW
If yj represents the mole fraction of the jth component:
(
AMW = Σ y j × MWj )
AMW for air = 28.97, a value of 29.0 is usually sufficiently accurate.
EXERCISE 5.
What is the apparent molecular weight of the gas in exercise 4

1.9 Specific Gravity of a Gas
The specific gravity of a gas, γg is the ratio of the density of the gas relative to that of
dry air at the same conditions.
ρg
γ g =
ρair (11)
Assuming that the gases and air are ideal.
MgP
M M
γ g = RT = g = g
M air P M air 29
RT
Mg = AMW of mixture, Mair = AMW of air.
EXERCISE 6.
What is the gas gravity of the gas in exercise 4 ?
2 BEHAVIOUR OF REAL GASES
The equations so far listed apply basically to ideal systems. In reality, however,
particularly at high pressures and low temperatures the volume of the molecules are
no longer negligible and attractive forces on the molecules are significant.

Behaviour of Gases
The ideal gas law, therefore, is not too applicable to light hydrocarbons and their
associated fluids and it is necessary to use a more refined equation.
There are two general methods of correcting the ideal gas law equation:
(1) By using a correction factor in the equation PV = nRT

(2) By using another equation-of-state
2.1 Compressibility Factor for Natural Gases

The correction factor ‘z’ which is a function of the gas composition, pressure and
temperature is used to modify the ideal gas law to:
PV = znRT (12)
where the factor ‘z’ is known as the compressibility factor and the equation is known
as the compressibility equation-of-state or the compressibility equation.
The compressibility factor is not a constant but varies with changes in gas composition,
temperature and pressure and must be determined experimentally (Figure 1).
To compare two states the law now takes the form:
P1V1 PV
= 2 2
z1T1 z 2 T2 (13)
z is an expression of the actual volume to what the ideal volume would be.
i.e.
Vactual
z =
Videal (14)
nt
ta
Compressibility factor, Z
ns
1.0
co
=
e
ur
r at
pe
m
Te
0.5
0
0 PRESSURE, P
Figure 1 Typical plot of the compressibility factor as a function of pressure at constant

temperature.

Although all gases have similar shapes with respect to z the actual values are component
specific. However through the law of corresponding states all pure gases are shown
to have common values.
2.2 Law of Corresponding States

The law of corresponding states shows that the properties of many pure liquids and
gases have the same value at the same reduced temperature (Tr) and pressure (Pr)
where:
T P
Tr = and Pr =
Tc Pc (15)
Where, Tc and Pc are the pure component critical temperature and pressure.
The compressibility factor ‘z’ follows this law. It is usually presented vs Tr and Pr.
Although in many cases pure gases follow the Law of Corresponding States, the gases
associated with hydrocarbon reservoirs do not. The Law has however been used to
apply to mixtures by defining parameters called pseudo critical temperature and
pseudocritical pressure .
For mixtures a pseudocritical temperature and pressure, Tpc and Ppc is used such
that:
Tpc = Σy jTcj and Ppc = Σ y j Pcj

(16)
where y is the mole fraction of component j and Tcj and Pcj are the critical temperature
and pressure of component j.
It should be emphasised that these pseudo critical temperature and pseudocritical

pressures are not the same as the real critical temperature and pressure. By definition
the pseudo values must lie between the extreme critical values of the pure components
whereas the actual critical values for mixtures can be outside these limits, as was
observed in the Phase Behaviour chapter.
EXERCISE 7.
Calculate the pseudo critical temperature and pseudocritical pressure of the mixture
in exercise 4 .

For mixtures the compressibility factor (z) has been generated with respect to natural
gases 1, where ‘z’ is plotted as a function of pseudo reduced temperature, Tpr and
pseudo reduced pressure Ppr where
10
Behaviour of Gases
Compressibility Factors for Natural Gases as a

Function of Pseudoreduced Pressure and Temperature.
Pseudo Reduced Pressure, Pr

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1.1 1.1
Pseudo Reduced Temperature
3.0
2.8
1.0 2.6 1.0
2.4 1.05
2.2
2.0 5 1.2
1. 1.3 0.95
1.9
0.9 1.8
1.1
4
1.7 1.
1.6
05
0.8
1.
1.7
1.5
1
1.
1.45
Compressibility Factor, z
0.7 1.4 1.6
2
1.
1.35
3
1.3
1.
0.6 4 1.5
1.25 1.
1.5
1.2
1.7
0.5 1.6
1.9 1.4
1.8
1.15
2.0 2.2
0.4 1.3
1.1 2.4
2.6
3.0
0.3 1.2
1.05
0.25 3.0
2.8
1.1 1.1
2.6 2.4
Compressibility of
Natural Gases
2.2
2.0 1.9 1.2 (Jan. 1, 1941)
1.0 1.0
1.8 1.1
1.7 1.05
1.6 1.4
1.3
0.9 0.9
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Pseudo Reduced Pressure, Pr

Figure 2 Compressibility factors for natural gas1 (Standing & Katz, Trans AIME, 1942)

T P
Tpr = and Ppr =

Tpc Ppc (17)
The use of this chart , figure 2 ,has become common practise to generate z values for
natural gases. Poettmann and Carpenter 2 have also converted the chart to a table.
Various equations have also been generated based on the tables.
EXERCISE 8.
For the gas of exercise 4 determine the compressibility factor at a temperature of

150°F and a pressure of 3500psia.
2.3 Pseudocritical Properties of Natural Gases

The pseudocritical properties of gases can be computed from the basic composition
but can also be estimated from the gas gravity using the correlation presented in
Figure 3.
Pseudocritical Properties of Natural Gases

700
Pseudocritical Pressure, psia
Miscellaneous
G ases
Condens
650 ate Wel
l Fluid
s
600
550
500
s
Pseudocritical Temperature, R
se
s Ga
450 e ou
an
ell
sc
Mi
ids
400 Flu
W ell
e
sat
n den
Co
350
300
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Gas Gravity (air = 1)

Figure 3 Pseudocritical properties of natural gases 3

12
Behaviour of Gases
2.4 Impact of Nonhydrocarbon Components on z value.

Components like hydrogen sulphide, and carbon dioxide have a significant impact
on the value of z. If the method previously applied is used large errors in z result.
Wichert and Aziz 4 have produced an equation which enables the impact of these
two gases to be calculated.
T'pc = Tpc - e (18)
and

p pc Tpc′
p′pc =

Tpc + yH 2 S 1 − yH 2 S e ( ) (19)
T'pc and p'pc are used to calculate Tpr and ppr. The value for ε is obtained from
the figure 4 from the Wichert and Aziz paper
80
15
70
60
PER CENT C02
50
E
20
40
25
30
30
20
30
25
10
20
15
10
5 34.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
PER CENT H2S
Figure 4 Adjustment factors for pseudocritiacl properties for non hydrocarbon

gases(Wichert & Aziz)

EXERCISE 9.
Calculate the pseudo critical properties of the gas in exercise 4 if it also contained 3
lb of hydrogen sulphide, 10lb of carbon dioxide and 2.5lb of nitrogen
Gas Weight Wgt Mol lb moles Mole pc-psi Tc °R ppc Tpc

Components fraction weight fraction psia
1 Methane 25 0.56 16.04 0.035 0.743 667.00 344 495.8 255.70

2 Ethane 3 0.07 30.07 0.002 0.048 708.00 550 33.7 26.17
3 Propane 1.5 0.03 44.09 0.001 0.016 616.00 666 10.0 10.81
Hydrogen 3 0.07 34.08 0.002 0.042 1306 673 54.8 28.25
4
sulphide
Carbon 10 0.22 44.01 0.005 0.108 1071 548 116.1 59.38
5
Dioxide
6 Nitrigen 2.5 0.06 28.02 0.002 0.043 493 227 21.0 9.66
Total 45 1.00 0.0466 1.000 731 390

From Wichert & Azis chart for compositions of H2S and CO2 ε = 19

Tpc′ = Tpc - e = 371o R
p pc Tpc′
p′pc =
(
Tpc + yH 2 S 1 − yH 2 S e )
Ppc′ = 694.3
2.5 Standard Conditions for Real Reservoir Gases

As indicated in section 1.6 for ideal gases it is convenient to describe the quantity of
gas to a common basis and this is termed the standard conditions, giving rise to the
standard cubic foot and the standard cubic metre. The petroleum engineer is primarily
interested in volume calculations for gaseous mixtures. Throughout the industry gas
volumes are measured at a standard temperature of 60˚F (15.6˚C) and at a pressure of
14.7 psia (one atmosphere). These conditions are referred to as standard temperature
and pressure STP. Standard Cubic Feet, the unit of volume measured under these
conditions is sometimes abbreviated SCF or scf (SCM is Standard Cubic Metres). It
is helpful to consider these expressions not as volumes but as an alternate expression
of the quantity of material. For example a mass of gas can be expressed as so many
standard cubic feet or metres.
EXERCISE 10.
Express the quantity of 1 lb mole of a gas as standard cubic feet.
14
Behaviour of Gases
EXERCISE 11.
Express the mass of gas in exercise 4 as standard cubic feet.
3 GAS FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
The petroleum industry expresses its reservoir quantities at a common basis of surface
conditions which for gases is standard cubic volumes. To convert reservoir volumes
to surface volumes the industry uses formation volume factors. For gases we have
Bg, the gas formation volume factor, which is the ratio of the volume occupied at
reservoir temperature and pressure by a certain weight of gas to the volume occupied
by the same weight of gas at standard conditions. The shape of Bg as a function of
pressure is shown in figure 5.
volume occupied at reservoir temperature and pressure

Bg =
volume occupied at STP
The gas formation volume factor can be obtained from PVT measurements on a gas
sample or it may be calculated from the equations-of-state discussed previously.
One definition of the gas formation volume factor is: it is the volume in barrels
that one standard cubic foot of gas will occupy as free gas in the reservoir at the
prevailing reservoir pressure and temperature.
Depending on the definition the units will change and the units will be; rb free
gas/scf gas or rm3 free gas/scm gas
.008
.006
Bg
rb/scf
.004
.002
1000 2000 3000

PRESSURE (psig)
Figure 5 Gas Formation Volume Factor, Bg

For example Bg for a reservoir at condition 2 is;
V2 P Tz
Bg = = sc 2 2
Vsc P2 Tsc zsc (20)
‘sc’ refers to standard conditions. z at standard conditions is taken as 1.0
The reciprocal of Bg is often used to calculate volumes at surface so as to reduce the

possibility of misplacing the decimal point associated with the values of Bg being
less than 0.01, ie:
volume at surface 1
= =E

volume in formation Bg
E is sometimes referred to as the expansion factor.
Usually the units of Bg are barrels of gas at reservoir conditions per standard cubic
foot of gas, ie bbl/SCF or cubic metres per standard cubic metre.
VR
Bg =
Vsc (21)
R and sc are reservoir and standard conditions respectively.
znRT
VR =
P (22)
T and P at reservoir conditions:
zsc nRTsc
Vsc =
Psc (23)
z = 1 for standard conditions
T Psc cu. ft
∴ Bg = z . .
Tsc P SCF (24)
Since Tsc = 520˚Rm Psc = 14.7 psia for most cases
zT cu. ft
Bg = 0.0283
P SCF
zT cu. ft bbl
Bg = 0.0283 ×
P SCF 5.615 cu ft

or
zT res bbl
Bg = 0.00504
P SCF
16
Behaviour of Gases
zT cu. ft bbl
Bg = 0.0283 ×
P SCF 5.615 cu ft
or
zT res bbl
Bg = 0.00504
P SCF (25)
EXERCISE 12.
Calculate the gas formation factor for a gas with the composition of exercise 4
existing at the reservoir conditions given in exercise 8.
EXERCISE 13.
A reservoir exists at a temperature of 150°F (as for exercise 8) suitable for storing
gas. It has an areal size of 5 miles by 2 miles and is 200ft thick. The average porosity
is 20% and there is no water present. How much gas of the composition of exercise
4 can be stored at a pressure the same as in exercise 8 i.e. 3500 psia ? (1 mile=
5280 ft.)

4 Coefficient of Isothermal Compressibility of Gas-
es
The compressibility factor, z, must not be confused with the compressibility which is
defined as the change in volume per unit volume for a unit change in pressure, or

1  ∂V  1  ∂Vm 
cg = −   or = −  
V  ∂P  Vm  ∂P  (26)

Vm is the specific volume or volume per mole.
cg is not the same as z, the compressibility factor.
For an ideal gas:
PV = nRT or:
 dV  = − nRT
 dP  P2
1 − nRT  1
cg =    =
 V   P 2  P (27)
For real gases:
znRT
V =
P

dz
P −z
 ∂V 
  = nRT dP2
 ∂P  T P
P  nRT  ∂z 
cg = −  2 
P − z 
nRTz  P  ∂P 
1 1 ∂z
cg = − .
P z ∂P (28)
dz/dP can be obtained from the slope of the z vs P curve.

The Law of Corresponding states can be used to express the above equation in
another form
P = Ppc Ppr
∂z  ∂Ppr   ∂z 
= 
∂P  ∂P   ∂Ppr 
∂Ppr 1
=
∂P Ppc
∂z  1   ∂z 
=
∂P  Ppc   ∂Ppr 

Combining this equation with eqn 28 above yields
1 1  ∂z 
cg = −
Ppc Ppr zPpc  ∂Ppr 
Tpr
1 1  ∂z 
c g Ppc = −
Ppr z  ∂Ppr 
Tpr
(29)
Units of cg = P-1, and cgPc is dimensionless
cpPpc is called pseudo reduced compressibility, cpr
18
Behaviour of Gases
Since the pseudo reduced compressibility is a function of ‘z’ and pseudo reduced
pressure, the graph of Figure 2 can be used with Equation 29 to calculate values of
cpr.
5 VISCOSITY OF GASES
5.1 Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to flow. It is given in units of centipoise.
A centipoise is a gm/100 sec.cm. The viscosity term is called dynamic viscosity
whereas kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density.
dynamic viscosity
kinematic vis cos ity =
density
Kinematic viscosity has units of cm2/100 sec and the term is called centistoke.
Gas viscosity reduces as the pressure is decreased. At low pressures an increase in

temperature increases gas viscosity whereas at high pressures gas viscosity decreases
as the temperature increases. Figure 6 gives the values for pure component ethane.
1000
900
800 Viscosity of ethane
700
600
500 Pressure, psia
Viscosoty, micropoises
400 5000
4000
3000
300 2000
15000
200
750 1000
600
100 14.7
90
80
70
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature, deg F
Figure 6 Viscosity of ethane
The viscosity of gases at low pressures can be obtained from correlations presented
by different workers.

0.024
m
0.022 liu
He
n
ro ge
Nit
Air
0.020
e
x id
n Dio
0.018
rbo
Ca
id e
0.016 ulf
nS
ge
dro
Viscosity, cp
Hy
0.014 e
han
M et
e
ylen
Eth
0.012
ane
Eth
e
pan
0.010 pr o
ta e
n
ntan
e
i-Bu n-pe
t ane x ne
a
n-Bu n-He
tane ane
n-H ep n-Oct
0.008 N on ane
n-
ne
n-Deca
0.006
0.004
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature, ?ºF
Figure 7 Viscosity of paraffin hydrocarbon gases at one atmosphere
Figure 7 and Figure 8 give the viscosities of individual components and paraffin
hydrocarbons at one atmosphere. For systems greater than 1 atmos the viscosities
can be obtained from the literature. Another way is by calculating the reduced
temperature and reduced pressure and use the chart developed by Carr6 which gives
a ratio of µ at reservoir conditions. This is given in Figure 9 in terms of pseudo
reduced conditions.
20
Behaviour of Gases
Gas Gravity (Air = 1)

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
0.016
N2 1.5 CO2
0.015
Correction added to
Correction added to
0.0015 1.0 0.0015
G = 20
Viscosity, c.p.
Viscosity, c.p.
1.5
0.014 0.0010 0.0010 G = 20 1.0
G = 06
Viscosity, at 1 atm, µ1, centipoise 0.013 0.0005 0.0005
G = 06
0.012 0
0 5 10 15
0
0 5 10 15
400
ºF Mole per cent N2 Mole per cent CO2
0.011
300
º F
0.010
0.009 200
º F
H2S
0.008
Correction added to
0.0015
100
Viscosity, c.p.
º F
0.007 0.0010
G = 20 1.5
1.0
0.006 0.0005
G = 06
0.005 0
0 5 10 15
Mole per cent H2S
0.004
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Molecular Weight
Figure 8 Viscosity of gases at atmospheric pressure6
6.0
5.0 µ = Viscosity at operating temperature

and pressure, centipoises
µA = Viscosity at 14.7 psia (1atm) and

operating temperatures, centipoises
4.0
3.5
3.0
Viscosity, µ / µA
20
ps
15 eu
do
2.5 red
uc
ed
10 pre
s su
8 re ,p
2.0 R
6
4
3
1.5
2
1.0
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4
Pseudoreduced Temperature, TR
Figure 9 Viscosity ratio vs pseudo reduced temperature and pseudo pressure.

5.2 Viscosity of Mixtures
Another formula that is used for mixtures is:

Σµ j y j M j
µ mix =
Σy j M j
(30)
j = 1, n
where:
y j = mole fraction of jth component
M j = molecular weight of component
µ j = the viscosity of jth component
n = number of components
The presence of other gases can also make a significant difference on the viscosity
(Figure 7).
EXERCISE 14.
Calculate the viscosity of the gas mixture in exercise 4 at 200°F and a pressure of
one atmosphere.
EXERCISE 15.
Use the gas gravity method to calculate the viscosity of the gas in exercise 4
EXERCISE 16.
Determine the viscosity of the gas in exercise 4 at 150°F and 3500 psia (ref ex 4, 7,
&8)
22
Behaviour of Gases
6 EQUATIONS OF STATE
6.1 Other Equations-of-State

As indicated at the start of section 2 the compressibility factor evolved out of the
need to use an equation derived out of ideal gas behaviour and incorporating it
into it a correction factor to suit real gas behaviour. One of the difficulties of the
compressibility equation:
PV = ZnRT
to describe the behaviour of gases is that the compressibility factor is not constant and
therefore mathematical manipulations cannot be made directly but must be carried out
through graphical or numerical techniques. Rather than use this modified equation
of state many have developed equations specifically to represent the behaviour of
real gases. It is an irony however that because of the long use of the equation above
incorporating z many of the real gas equation of states have been worked to calculate
z for use in the above equation.
6.2 Van de Waals Equation 1873

The well known van der Waal’s equation was one of the earliest equations to represent
the behaviour of real gases. This most basic EOS, which corrects for the volume of the
molecules and attractive and collision forces using empirical constraints a and b.
(P + a/V2) (V-b) = RT (31)
The two corrective terms to overcome the limiting assumptions of the ideal gas
equation are:
(i) The internal pressure or cohesion term , which accounts for the cohesion forces,
is a/V2.
(ii) The co-volume b, which represents the volume occupied by one mole at infinite
pressure and results from the repulsion forces which occur when the molecules
move close together.
The equation can also be written as:
V3 - (+ b) V2 + (a/P)V - ab/P = 0
Such equations are therefore called cubic equations of state.

The equation written to solve for z, the compressibility factor , becomes:
Z3 - Z2 (1 + B) + Z A - AB = 0 (32)
where
aP bP
A= 2
and B =
( RT ) RT (33)

Values of a and b are positive constants for a particular fluid and when they are
zero the ideal gas equation is recovered. One can calculate P as a function of V for
various values of T. Figure 10 is a figure of 3 isotherms. Also drawn is the curve
for saturated liquid and saturated vapour.
Isotherm T1 is the single phase isotherm, Tc is the critical isotherm and T2 gives the
isotherm below the critical temperature.
T1>Tc
P
Tc
Psat
T2<Tc
Vsat (liq) Vsat (vap)

V

Figure 10 PV behaviours of pure components predicted by EOS.
At the critical point , for a pure substance , the equation of state should be such
that:
 ∂P   ∂ 2P
  =  2 =0
 ∂V  T = Tc  ∂V  T = T
c
That is the critical isotherm exhibits a horizontal inflection point at the critical
point.
24
Behaviour of Gases
The application of these conditions to the van de Waals equation yields:
27 R2 Tc2 RT
a= and b =
64 Pc 8 Pc (34)
EXERCISE 17.
Calculate the critical constants for n- heptane.
For the curve, T2<Tc, the pressure decreases rapidly in the liquid region with increasing
V; after crossing the liquid saturated line a minimum occurs, rises to a maximum
and then decreases at the saturated vapour line. Real behaviour does not follow this
behaviour. They contain a horizontal segment where saturated liquid and saturated
vapour coexist in varying proportions.

This equation is not able to represent gas properties over a wide rage of temperatures
and pressures and over subsequent years many equations have been developed. A
number are given including those which are finding favour in their application in
this industry.
6.3 Benedict-Webb - Rubin Equation (BWR) 1940

This equation developed for pure light hydrocarbons found considerable application
in predicting thermodynamic properties of natural gases, since natural gases are
essentially mixtures of light hydrocarbons and it can be written in a form similar to
Van der Waals equation.
PT Bo RT − Ao − Co / T 2 bRT − a
P= + + +
V V2 V3
aα C γ −γ
+ 3 o 2 1 + 2  exp 2 
V
6
V T  V  V  (35)

where a, b, c, Ao, Bo and Co are constants for a given gas.
These equations are derived for pure components for which the empirical parameters
need to be obtained. For mixtures mixing rules are required to obtain these
constants.
6.4 Redlich-Kwong Equation 1949

Numerous equations were developed with increasing numbers of constants specific to
pure components. More recently there has been a move back to the cubic equations
like van der Waals. We will describe briefly those which have found favour in the
oil and gas sector.
This modern development of cubic equations of state started in 1949 with the Redlich
and Kwong equation which involves only two empirical constants.

RT a( T )
P = −
V - b V (V + b ) (36)
where a and b are functions of temperature.
The term a(T) depends on the temperature and Redlich Kwong expressed this as a
function of the reduced temperature Tr using

ac
a(T ) =

TR

By applying the limiting condition at the critical points yields values of ac and b
related to critical constants. Such that ;

R2 Tc2 RT
ac = 0.42748 and b = 0.08664 c
Pc Pc (37)
6.5 Soave, Redlich Kwong equation

Soave, in 1972, modified the Redlick-Kwong (RK) equation and replaced the a/T0.5
term with a temperature dependent term aT where aT = acα. .
The Soave, Redlich-Kwong (SRK) equation is therefore:
RT acα
P= −

(V − b) [V (V + b)] (38)
where
α is a non dimensionless temperature dependent term which has a value of 1.0 at the
critical temperature.
α is obtained from
[ ( )]
2
α = 1 + m 1 − Tr
where m = 0.480 + 1.574ω - 0.176ω 2
where ω is the Pitzer accentric factor .

8
6.6 Peng Robinson Equation of State 1975

Peng and Robinson modified previous equations in relation to the attractive term.
They introduced it to improve the predictions of the Soave modification in particular
for the calculation of liquid densities.
26
Behaviour of Gases
RT acα
P= −

V − b [V (V + b) + b(V − b)] (39)
R2 Tc2 RT
ac = 0.457235 and b = 0.0778 c
Pc Pc (40)
and
α is the same function as for the Soave equation except the ω function is
different;
where m = 0.37464 + 1.54226w - 0.26992w2
These equations, in particular the SRK and PR equation are widely used in simulation
software used to predict behaviour in reservoirs, wells and processing. There are
other equations of state which are as competent at predicting physical properties
which have been developed mainly focusing on the need to improve the accuracy of
liquid volumes predictions. There is, however, great reluctance to change from those
presently used because of the investment in their associated parameters. An excellent
review of these equations and application is given by Danesh 9.
6.7 Application to Mixtures

When properties of mixtures are required mixing rules are required to combine the
data from pure components.
For both the SRK and PR equation
b = ∑ y j b j and a = ∑ ∑ yi y j ai aj 1 − kij ( )
j i j (41)
where the term kij is termed the binary interaction coefficients which are independent
of pressure and temperature. Values of binary interaction coefficients are obtained
by fitting equation of state (EOS) predictions to gas-liquid data for binary mixtures.
They have NO physical property significance. Each equation has its own binary
interaction coefficient.
Effort is underway and methods exist to not use binary interaction parameters but to
use physical property related parameters to enable good quality predictions.

EXERCISE 18.
A PVT cell contains 0.01 cu ft ( 300cc) of gas with at composition of ; methane 0.67
mol.frac, ethane 0.235 and n-butane 0.05. The temperature is increased to 300°C.
Use the SRK equation to calculate the pressure at this increased temperature. Use
binary interaction coefficients of C1-nC4 0.02, C2-nC4 0.01 and C1-C2 0.0

EXERCISE 1.
A gas cylinder contains methane at 1000 psia and 70 oF. If the cylinder has a volume
of 3 cu.ft assuming methane is an ideal gas calculate the mass of methane in the
cylinder.
SOLUTION
PV = nRT
n = m/M
where n = number of moles
m = mass
M = molecular weight
m = PMV/RT
lb 
(1000 psia)16.04 (3cuft )
m= lbmole 
10.73 psia.cuft  530 o R
 lbmole.o R 
( )

Mass of methane, m = 8.46 lb
28
Behaviour of Gases
EXERCISE 2.
Calculate the density of the gas in the cylinder in exercise 1.
SOLUTION
MW.P
ρg =
RT
lb 
(1000 psia)16.04
ρg = lbmole 
10.73 psia.cuft  530 0 R
 lbmole.oR 
( )
lb
Density of gas, ρg = 2.82
cu. ft.
EXERCISE 3.
Assuming methane is at the conditions of exercise 1, calculate the volume the gas
would occupy at standard conditions.
SOLUTION
P1V1 PV P V
= 2 2 = sc sc
T1 T2 Tsc
P1 Tsc V
Vsc =
Psc T1
1000 psia 520 o R

Vsc = o
x3ft 3
14.7 psia 530 R
Vsc = 200.23 scf
EXERCISE 4.
A gas is made up of the following components; 25lb of methane, 3 lb of ethane and 1.5
lb of propane. Express the composition of the gas in weight and mole fractions.

SOLUTION
Gas A B C D
Components Weight Mol weight lb moles Mole fraction
1 Methane 25 16.04 1.559 0.921
2 Ethane 3 30.07 0.100 0.059
3 Propane 1.5 44.09 0.034 0.020
Totals 29.05 1

EXERCISE 5.
What is the apparent molecular weight of the gas in exercise 4
SOLUTION
Gas A B C
Components Mol weight Mol fraction
mw yi A*B
1 Methane 16.04 0.921 14.77
2 Ethane 30.07 0.059 1.77
3 Propane 44.09 0.020 0.89
1.000 17.43
Apparent Molecular weight= 17.43

EXERCISE 6.
What is the gas gravity of the gas in exercise 4 ?
SOLUTION
Mg M
γg = = g
Mair 29
Μg = AMW = 17.43
Gas gravity = 0.6
EXERCISE 7.
Calculate the pseudo critical temperature and pseudocritical pressure of the mixture
in exercise 4 .

30
Behaviour of Gases
SOLUTION
Gas A B C D.
Components Mol weight Mole fraction pc-psi Tc °R ppc Tpc
mw yi
1 Methane 16.04 0.921 667.00 344 614.3 316.81

2 Ethane 30.07 0.059 708.00 550 41.7 32.42
3 Propane 44.09 0.020 616.00 666 12.4 13.39
Total 1.0 668.4 362.6
Pseudocritical pressure = 668.4 psia

Pseudocritical temperature = 362 oR
EXERCISE 8.
For the gas of exercise 4 determine the compressibility factor at a temperature of 150
o
F and a pressure of 3500psia.
SOLUTION
Ppr = P/Ppc, Tpr = T/Tpc
From exercise 6 Ppc = 668 psia, Tpc = 362.6°R
P = 3500 psia, and T = 150°C ie. 610°R
Ppr = 5.24, and Tpr = 1.68
From standing Katz chart, figure 2
Compressibility factor, z = 0.88
EXERCISE 9.
Calculate the pseudo critical properties of the gas in exercise 4 if it also contained 3
lb of hydrogen sulphide, 10lb of carbon dioxide and 2.5lb of nitrogen
Gas Weight Wgt Mol lb moles Mole pc-psi Tc °R ppc Tpc

Components fraction weight fraction psia
1 Methane 25 0.56 16.04 0.035 0.743 667.00 344 495.8 255.70

2 Ethane 3 0.07 30.07 0.002 0.048 708.00 550 33.7 26.17
3 Propane 1.5 0.03 44.09 0.001 0.016 616.00 666 10.0 10.81
4 Hydrogen 3 0.07 34.08 0.002 0.042 1306 673 54.8 28.25
sulphide
5 Carbon 10 0.22 44.01 0.005 0.108 1071 548 116.1 59.38
Dioxide
6 Nitrigen 2.5 0.06 28.02 0.002 0.043 493 227 21.0 9.66
Total 45 1.00 0.0466 1.000 731 390

From Wichert & Azis chart for compositions of H2S and CO2 ε = 19


Tpc′ = Tpc - e = 371o R
p pc Tpc′
p′pc =
( )
Tpc + yH 2 S 1 − yH 2 S e
Ppc′ = 694.3
EXERCISE 10.
Express the quantity of 1 lb mole of a gas as standard cubic feet.
SOLUTION
Equation of state PV = RT for 1 mole

R = 10.732 psia. cu.ft/lb.mole °R T = 60+460 = 520 °R, P = 14.65 psia
or V for 1 lb.mole = RT/P = 380.9 scf/lb.mole.
EXERCISE 11.
Express the mass of gas in exercise 4 as standard cubic feet.
SOLUTION

Total mass of gas = 29.5 lb.
Apparent mol.wgt of gas exercise 5 = 17.43 lb./lb.mole
lb.moles of gas = 1.6924
Standard cubic feet of gas = 380.9 x 1.6924
= 644.68 scf
EXERCISE 12.
Calculate the gas formation factor for a gas with the composition of exercise 4 existing
at the reservoir conditions given in exercise 8.
SOLUTION
T = 150 oF ie 610 oR and P = 3500 psia

Compressibility factor at these conditions from exercise 8 = 0.88
Bg using equation above = 0.0008 res bbl/scf
32
Behaviour of Gases
EXERCISE 13.
A reservoir exists at a temperature of 150oF (as for exercise 8) suitable for storing
gas. It has an areal size of 5 miles by 2 miles and is 200ft thick. The average porosity
is 20% and there is no water present. How much gas of the composition of exercise
4 can be stored at a pressure the same as in exercise 8 i.e. 3500 psia. ? (1 mile=
5280 ft.)
SOLUTION
Volume of reservoir pore space = 5x2 x (5280)2 x 200 x 0.2

= 11,151,360,000 cu. ft.
=1,985,994,657 bbls
Bg , exercise 11 =0.00077299 res. bbls/SCF
Volume of gas =2.56923E+12 scf
EXERCISE 14.
Calculate the viscosity of the gas mixture in exercise 4 at 200°F and a pressure of
one atmosphere.
SOLUTION
Gas Mol Weight Mole fraction Viscosity

Components yj from fig 7 √Mj yj√Mj µjyj√Mj
µj
Methane 16.04 0.921 0.013 4.0050 3.6884 0.0470

Ethane 30.07 0.059 0.0112 5.4836 0.3233 0.0036
Propane 44.09 0.020 0.0098 6.6400 0.1335 0.0013
1.000 SUM 4.1451 0.529
Σµ j y j M j
µ mix =
Σy j M j

µmix = 0.0529/4.1451
µmix =0.01275 cp
EXERCISE 15.
Use the gas gravity method to calculate the viscosity of the gas in exercise 4
SOLUTION
Gas Mol Weight Mole fraction

Components mw yj
Methane 16.040 0.921 14.7720

Ethane 30.070 0.059 1.773
Propane 44.090 0.020 0.886
0.000 1.000 17.431


γg=AMW/Mair γg=AMW/29 Temperature = 150°F
Mol weight air = 29.000
AMW of gas = 17.431
Gas Gravity = 0.601
µg = 0.01265 from fig 8
EXERCISE 16.
Determine the viscosity of the gas in exercise 4 at 150oF and 3500 psia (ref ex 4, 7,
&8)
SOLUTION
From exercise 7
Ppc = 668.4
Tpc = 362.6
3500
Pr = P P = = 5.24
c 668.4
610
Tr = T T = = 1.68
c 362.6
From Lee correlation

µ / µatmos = 1.75
Viscosity at atmospheric pressure

From exercise 13 and 14 = 0.01275 cp
Viscosity at conditions = 0.0223 cp
EXERCISE 17.
Calculate the critical constants for n- heptane.
SOLUTION
R = 10.732. Tc for heptane = 973 oR and Pc = 397 psia

Using equations above a = 115,872 cu ft 2/lb mole
and b = 3.2878 cu ft./lb mole
34
Behaviour of Gases
EXERCISE 18.
A PVT cell of volume 0.01 cu ft ( 300cc) contains 0.008 lb mole. of gas with
a composition of; methane 0.67 mol.frac, ethane 0.235 and n-butane 0.05. The
temperature is increased to 300°C. Use the SRK equation to calculate the pressure
at this increased temperature. Use binary interaction coefficients of C1-nC4 0.02,
C2-nC4 0.01 and C1-C2 0.0
SOLUTION
Calculate the constants a and b for each component
R2 Tc2 RT
ac = 0.42748 and b = 0.08664 c
Pc Pc
where m = 0.480 + 1.574ω - 0.176ω 2
[ ( )]
2
α = 1 + m 1 − Tr

Components y Tc°R) pc bj ac ω m a a=a*α
Methane 0.67 344 667 0.4759 8735 0.0104 0.49635 0.57546 5027
ethane 0.235 550 708 0.7223 21036 0.0979 0.63241 0.79033 16625
n-butane 0.05 766 551 1.2926 52429 0.1995 0.78701 1.00619 52753

Now calculate the mixture values.
b = ∑ y j b j and a = ∑ ∑ yi y j ai aj 1 − kij ( )
j i j

where a ij = (1- k ij )(a i a j )0.5
Components yi b kij kij kij aij aij aij sum

Methane ethane n-butane Methane ethane n-butane
Methane 0.67 0.312 0.00 0.00 0.02 2123.7 1485.5 1037.29 4646.52
ethane 0.235 0.181 0.00 0.01 1485.5 1039.1 732.969 3257.56
n-butane 0.05 0.129 0.00 1037.3 732.97 527.535 2297.8
1 0.622 sum 10201.9
Now use SRK to calculate pressure.

RT acα
P= −
(V − b) [V (V + b)]
Vm = 1.25 cu ft / lb mole
b = 0.622 a cα = 10201.9
P = 8617.6 psia
REFERENCES
1. Standing MB and Katz DL Density of Natural Gases. Trans AIME, 146(1942).

p140
2. Poettmann FH and Carpenter PG The Multiphase Flow of Gas and Water through
Vertical Flow Strings with Application to the Design of Gas Lift Installations.
API Drilling and Production Practise. 1952, pp 279-91
3. Brown GG et al. Natural Gasoline and Volatile Hydrocarbons” National Gasoline

Assoc. of America, Tulsa, Okl. 1948
4. Wichert, E and Aziz,K “ Calculate Z’s for sour gases” Hyd Proc.(May 1972)
51, 119-122
5. Katz, D.L., Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, McGraw Hill, NY, 1959
6. Carr N et al. Viscosity of natural gases under pressure. Trans AIME 201, 264,
(1954)
7. Lee et al “The viscosity of natural gases.” Trans AIME 1966 237, 997-1000
8. Pitzer K S et al The Volumetric and Thermodynamic Properties of Fluids II.

Compressibility Factor, Vapour Pressure and Entropy of Vaporisation. J .Am.
Chem. Soc. (1955) 77, No 13,3433-3440
9. Danesh, A PVT and Phase Behaviour of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids. 1998

Elsevier ISBN:0 444 82196 1 p129-162
36
Properties of Reservoir Liquids
CONTENTS
1 COMPOSITION BLACK OIL MODELS
2 GAS SOLUBILITY, Rs
3 OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR, Bo
4 TOTAL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR, BT
5 BELOW THE BUBBLE POINT
6 OIL COMPRESSIBILITY
7 BLACK OIL CORRELATIONS
8 FLUID DENSITY
8.1 Specific Gravity of a Liquid
8.2 Density Based on Ideal Solution Principles
9 FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR OF GAS

CONDENSATE, Bgc
10 VISCOSITY OF OIL
11 INTERFACIAL TENSION
12 COMPARISON OF RESERVOIR FLUID

MODELS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Define gas solubility, Rs and plot vs. P for a reservoir fluid.
• Define undersaturated and saturated oil.
• Explain briefly flash and differential liberation
• Define the oil formation volume factor Bo, and plot Bo vs. P for a reservoir
fluid.
• Define the Total Formation Volume factor Bt, and plot Bt vs. P alongside a Bo
vs. P plot.
• Present an equation to express Bt in terms of Bo, Rs and Bg.
• Express oil compressibility in terms of oil formation volume factor.
• Use black oil correlations and their graphical form to calculate fluid
properties.
• Calculate the density of a reservoir fluid mixture, using ideal solution principles,
at reservoir pressure and temperature, using density correction chart for C1 &
C2 and other prerequisite data.
• Define the formation volume factor of a gas condensate
• Calculate the reserves and production of gas and condensate operating above
the dewpoint, given prerequisite data.
• Use viscosity equations and correlations to calculate viscosity of fluid at reservoir

conditions.
• Calculate the interfacial tension of equilibrium gas-oil systems given prerequisite

equations and data.
• List the comparisons of the black oil and compositional model in predicting
liquid properties

1 COMPOSITION - BLACK OIL MODEL
As introduced in the chapter on Composition, petroleum engineers are requiring

a compositional description tool to use as a basis for predicting reservoir and well
fluid behaviour. The two approaches that are commonly used are the multicomponent
compositional model described in the earlier chapter and the two component black oil
model. The latter simplistic approach has been used for many years to describe the
composition and behaviour of reservoir fluids. It is called the “Black Oil Model”.
The black oil model considers the fluid being made up of two components - gas dissolved
in oil and stock tank oil. The compositional changes in the gas when changing pressure
and temperature are ignored. To those appreciating thermodynamics this simplistic
two component model is difficult to cope with. The Black Oil Model, illustrated in
Figure 1, is at the core of many petroleum engineering calculations, and associated
procedures and reports.
Associated with the black oil model are Black Oil model definitions in relation to
Gas Solubility and Formation Volume Factors.
Reservoir Fluid
Solution Gas
/ = Rs
Stock Tank Oil
/ = Bo
Bo = Oil Formation Volume Factor

Rs = Solution Gas to Oil Ratio

Figure 1 "Black Oil Model"

2 GAS SOLUBILITY
Although the gas associated with oil and the oil itself are multicomponent mixtures
it is convenient to refer to the solubility of gas in crude oil as if we were dealing with
a two-component system.
The amount of gas forming molecules in the liquid phase is limited only by the
reservoir conditions of temperature and pressure and the quantity of light components
present.
The solubility is referred to some basis and it is customary to use the stock tank
barrel.
Solubility = f (pressure, temperature, composition of gas

composition of crude oil)
For a fixed gas and crude, at constant T, the quantity of solution gas increases with
p, and at constant p, the quantity of solution gas decreases with T

Rather than determine the amount of gas which will dissolve in a certain amount of
oil it is customary to measure the amount of gas which will come out of solution as
the pressure decreases. Figure 2 illustrates the behaviour of an oil operating outside
the PT phase diagram in its single phase state when the reservoir pressure is above
its reservoir bubble point at 1. Fluid behaviour in the reservoir is single phase and
the oil is said to be undersaturated . In this case a slight reduction of pressure causes
the fluid to remain single phase. If the oil was on the boundary bubble point pressure
line at 2 then a further reduction in pressure would cause two phases to be produced,
gas and liquid. This saturated fluid is one that upon a slight reduction of pressure
some gas is released. The concept of gas being produced or coming out of solution
gives rise to this gas solubility perspective. Clearly when the fluids are produced to
the surface as shown by the undersaturated oil in figure 2 the surface conditions lie
within the two phase area and gas and oil are produced. The gas produced is termed
solution gas and the oil at surface conditions stock tank oil. These are the two com-
ponents making up the reservoir fluid, clearly a very simplistic concept.
The gas solubility Rs is defined as the number of cubic feet (cubic metre) of gas
measured at standard conditions, which will dissolve in one barrel (cubic metre)
of stock tank oil when subjected to reservoir pressure and temperature.
In metric units the volumes are expressed as cubic metre of gas at standard conditions
which will dissolve in one cubic metre of stock tank oil.

Solution Gas
Rsi scf/stb
Surface
Pi 1
2
+
Pressure
P
Stock Oil Tank
1 st b. oil
Temperature
Phase Diagram
Oil Reservoir
Oil and Dissolved Gas

Bo rb.oil

Figure 2 Production of reservoir hydrocarbons above bubble point
Figure 3 gives a typical shape of gas solubility as a function of pressure for a reser-
voir fluid at reservoir temperature. When the reservoir pressure is above the bubble
point pressure then the oil is undersaturated, i.e. capable of containing more gas. As
the reservoir pressure drops gas does not come out of solution until the bubble point
is reached, over this pressure range therefore the gas in solution is constant. At the
bubble point pressure, corresponding to the reservoir temperature, two phases are
produced, gas and oil. The gas remaining in solution therefore decreases.
The nature of the liberation of the gas is not straight forward. Within the reservoir
when gas is released then its transport and that of the liquid is influenced by the relative
permeability of the rock ( discussed in Chapter 10). The gas does not remain with its
associated oil i.e. the system changes. In the production tubing and in the separator
it is considered that the gas and associated liquid remain together i.e. the system is
constant. The amount of gas liberated from a sample of reservoir oil depends on the
conditions of the liberation. There are two basic liberation mechanisms:

600
Rsi
Rs scf/stb
400
200
Pb
1000 2000 3000

Pressure (psig)

Figure 3 Solution Gas - Oil Ratio as a Function of Pressure.
Flash liberation - the gas is evolved during a definite reduction in

pressure and the gas is kept in contact with the liquid
until equilibrium has been established.
Differential liberation - the gas being evolved is being continuously

removed from contact with the liquid and the liquid is in
equilibrium with the gas being evolved over a finite
pressure range.
The two methods of liberation give different results for Rs. This topic is covered in
more detail in the PVT analysis chapter.
Production of a crude oil at reservoir pressures below the bubble point pressure occurs
by a process which is neither flash or differential vaporisation. Once enough gas is
present for the gas to move toward the wellbore the gas tends to move faster than the
oil. The gas formed in a particular pore tends to leave the liquid from which it was
formed thus approximating differential vaporisation, however, the gas is in contact with
liquid throughout the path through the reservoir. The gas will also migrate vertically
as a result of its lower density than the oil and could form a secondary gas cap.
Fluid produced from reservoir to the surface is considered to undergo a flash process
where the system remains constant.
3 OIL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR, B o
The volume occupied by the oil between surface conditions and reservoir or other
operating changes is that of the total system; the ‘stock tank oil’ plus its associated
or dissolved ‘solution gas’. The effect of pressure on the complex stock tank liquid
and the solution gas is to induce solution of the gas in the liquid until equilibrium is
reached. A unit volume of stock tank oil brought to equilibrium with its associated

gas at reservoir pressure and temperature will occupy a volume greater than unity
(unless the oil has very little dissolved gas at very high pressure).
The relationship between the volume of the oil and its dissolved gas at reservoir
condition to the volume at stock tank conditions is called the Oil Formation Volume
Factor Bo. The shape of the Bo vs. pressure curve is shown in Figure 4. It shows
that above the bubble point pressure the reduction in pressure from the initial pres-
sure causes the fluid to expand as a result of its compressibility. This relates to the
chapter on Phase Behaviour where for an oil the PV diagram shows a large decline
in pressure for a small increase in volume, being again an indication of the com-
pressibility of the liquid. Below the bubble point pressure this expansion due to
compressibility of the liquid is small compared to the ‘shrinkage’ of the oil as gas is
released from solution.
The oil formation volume factor, is the volume in barrels (cubic metres) occupied in
the reservoir, at the prevailing pressure and temperature, by one stock tank barrel
(one stock tank cubic metre) of oil plus its dissolved gas.
Units - rb (oil and dissolved gas)
1.2
Bo rb./stb
1.1
Pb
1.0
1000 2000 3000
Pressure (psig)
Figure 4 Oil formation volume factor
These black oil parameters, Bo and Rs are illustrated in Figure 5 a,b,&c from Craft
and Hawkins 1 reservoir engineering text., where they present the Rs and Bo curve for
the Big Sandy field in the USA. The visual concept of the changes during pressure
and temperature decrease is also presented.

PA PA
P
PB
P01 Free Gas Free Gas
(a) Free Gas 676 Cu. Ft. 567 Cu. Ft.
2.990 Cu. Ft.
1,310 BBL 1,333 BBL 1,210 BBL 1,040 BBL 1,000 BBL
P01 = 3500 PSIA PB = 2500 PSIA P = 1200 PSIA PA = 14.7 PSIA PA = 14.7 PSIA
T01 = 160º F T01 = 160º F T01 = 160º F T01 = 160º F T01 = 60º F
A B C D E
600
567SCF/STB
500
BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE
Solution Gas, SCF/STB
AT 1200 PSIA
INITIAL PRESSURE
400 RS = 337
300
(b)
200
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Pressure, PSIA
Figure 5 Gas to oil ratio and oil formation volume factor for Big Sandy Field reservoir
oil 1.
1.40
2500 PSIA 3500 PSIA
Formation Volume Factor, BBL/STB
BOB = 1.333 BOI = 1.310
1.30
BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE
1200 PSIA
INITIAL PRESSURE
BO = 1.210
1.20
(b)
1.10 14.7 PSIA & 160º F
BO = 1.040
14.7 PSIA & 60º F

BO = 1.000
1.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Pressure, PSIA
Figure 5b

The reciprocal of the oil formation volume factor is called the ‘shrinkage factor bo
1
bo =
Bo

The formation factor Bo may be multiplied by the volume of stock tank oil to find
the volume of reservoir required to produce that volume of stock tank oil. The
shrinkage factor can be multiplied by the volume of reservoir oil to find the stock
tank volume.
It is important to note that the method of processing the fluids will have an effect
on the amount of gas released and therefore both the values of the solution gas-oil
ratio and the formation volume factor. A reservoir fluid does not have single Bo or Rs
values. Bo & Rs are dependant on the surface processing conditions. This simplistic
reservoir model (Figure 6) demonstrates that the black oil model description of the
reservoir fluids is an after the event, processing, description in terms of the produced
fluids. This simplistic approach to modelling reservoir fluids becomes more difficult
to consider when one is involved in reservoirs which become part of a total reservoir
system (Figure 7).
Rs
BO
Figure 6 Black oil description of reservoir fluid

Multi Reservoir System
Bo
?
Rs
Rs 1
Rs 2
Bo 1
Bo 2
Rs 3
Rs 4
Bo 3
Bo 4
Figure 7 Integrated system of reservoir common pipeline and final collection system.
4 TOTAL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR, Bt
In reservoir engineering it is sometimes convenient to know the volume occupied

in the reservoir by one stock tank barrel of oil plus the free gas that was originally
dissolved in it. A factor is used called the total formation-volume factor Bt, or
the two-phase volume-factor and is defined as the volume in barrels that 1.0 STB
and its initial complement of dissolved gas occupies at reservoir temperature and
pressure, i.e. it includes the volume of the gas which has evolved from the liquid
and is represented by:
Bg (Rsb - Rs)
i.e. Bt = Bo + Bg (Rsb - Rs) (1)
Rsb = the solution gas to oil ratio at the bubble point
10
Gas
Bg(Rsb-Rs)
B0b Oil
Bt
Oil B0
Hg

Figure 8a Total formation volume factor or two phase volume factor
Its application comes from the Material Balance equation (Chapter 15) where it is
sometimes used to express the volume of oil and associated gas as a function of pres-
sure. It is important to note that Bt does not have volume significance in reservoir
terms since the assumption in Bt is that the system remains constant. As mentioned
earlier if the pressure drops below the bubble point in the reservoir then the gas
coming out of solution moves away from its associated oil because of its favourable
relative permeability characteristics.
Figure 8b gives a comparison of the total formation-volume factor with the oil for-
mation-volume factor. Clearly above Pb the two values are identical since no free
gas is released. Below Pb the difference between the values represents the volume
occupied by free gas.
Bt Bo
Pressure Pb

Figure 8b Total and oil formation volume factor

The value of BT can be estimated by combining estimates of BO and calculation of
Bg and known solubility values for the pressures concerned.

5 BELOW THE BUBBLE POINT
Figure 9 depicts the behaviour below the bubble point when produced gas at the
surface comes from two sources, the solution gas associated with the oil entering the
wellbore plus free gas which has come out of solution in the reservoir and migrated to
the wellbore. The total producing gas to oil ratio is made up of the two components
solution gas Rs and the free gas which is the difference. The diagram illustrates the
volumes occupied by these two in the reservoir, the solution gas being part of Bo and
the free gas volume through Bg.
Free Gas
R= Rs + (R - Rs)
& Solution Gas
Pi
Surface +
Pressure
Stock Oil Tank

P
1 st b. oil
Temperature
Oil Reservoir
Reservoir
Gas Oil
Bo rb (oil and dissolved gas) /stb
(R - Rs) Bg rb (free gas) /stb

Figure 9 Production of reservoir hydrocarbons below bubble point
6 OIL COMPRESSIBILITY
The volume changes of oil above the bubble point are very significant in the context
of recovery of undersaturated oil. The oil formation volume factor variations above
the bubble point reflect these changes but they are more fundamentally embodied
in the coefficient of compressibility of the oil, or oil compressibility.
The equation for oil compressibility is
1  ∂V 
co = −  
V  ∂P  T

in terms of formation volume factors this equation yields
12
1  ∂Bo 
co = −  
Bo  ∂P  T
Assuming that the compressibility does not change with pressure the above equation
can be integrated to yield ;
V2
co ( P2 − P1 ) = − ln
V1

where P1 & P2, and V1 & V2 represent the pressure and volume at conditions 1 & 2.
7 BLACK OIL CORRELATIONS
Over the years there have been many correlations generated based on the two com-
ponent based black oil model characterisation of oil. The correlations are based
on data measured on the oils of interest. These empirical correlations relate black
oil parameters, the variables of Bo and Rs to; reservoir temperature, and oil and gas
surface density. It is important to appreciate that these correlations are empirical and
are obtained by taking a group of data for a particular set of oils and finding a best fit
correlation. Using the correlation for fluids whose properties do not fall within those
for the correlation can result in significant errors. Danesh 2 has given an excellent
review of many of these correlations
A number of empirical correlations, based on largely US crude oils, and other loca-
tions across the world have been presented to estimate black oil parameters of gas
solubility and oil formation volume factor. The most commonly used is Standing’s
3
correlation. Other correlations include, Lasater 4, and recently Glaso 6

Pb = f (Rs, γg, po, T)
where Pb = bubble point pressure at ToF

Rs = solution gas-oil ratio (cu ft/ bbl)
γg= gravity of dissolved gas
ρo = density of stock-tank oil .(specific gravity)

Standing’s correlation for the calculation of Pb, bubble point pressure is:
 R  0.83 
Pb = 18.2   10 (0.00091T − 0.0125( API )) − 1.4 
 s
 γ g  
(2)

His correlation for the oil formation volume factor is;
1.2
  γ g  0.5 
Bo = 0.9759 + 0.000120  Rs   + 1.25T 
  ρo  
(3)

Standing's correlations have been presented as nomographs enabling quick look
predictions to be made. Figures 10 & 11 give the nomogram forms of these correlations
for gas solubility and oil formation volume factor. Standing’s correlation is based on
a set of 22 California crudes.
Other correlations have been presented by Lasater 4 based on 137 Canadian ,USA
and South American crudes, Vasquez and Beggs5 using 6000 data points, Glaso 6 us-
ing 45 North Sea crude samples, and Mahoun 7 who used 69 Middle Eastern crudes.
Danesh2 gives a very useful table showing the ranges covered by the respective black
oil correlations
14
2000
Tank oil gravity, ºAPI
1500 50 30 10
1000
900
800
700
600
10
1.
500
bl
r b 400
pe
20
ft 1.90
1.
300
, cu
tio 1.80
ra
il
-o 200
30
1.70
as
1.
G
150 1.60
40
1.
50
100 1.50
1.
90
80
70
1.40
60
50
Temperature, ºF
40
100 1.30
120
30 140
160
180
200 il
20 220
ko
240
1.20
Gas gravity Air=1
260
1.00
an
0.90
ft
0.80
lo
0.70
bb
0.60
0.50
er
lp
bb
1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10

1.03 1.05 1.07 1.09
Formation volume of bubble-point liquid
Figure 10 Oil-formation volume factor as a function of gas solubility, temperature, gas

gravity and oil gravity (Standing)

1.20 1.30
16
1.10 1.40 20
1.00 1.50
0.90
0.80
0.70 30
0.60
0.50 40
G 50
10
12 as 60
14
16 70
18
gr
20 av 80
22 90
24 ity
26 100
28
G
Ai
30
32
r=
as
-
34 1
36
oi
l
38 150
40 Ta
ra
42
ti
44 nk
200
o,
46
48
c
oi
50
u
52
lg
ft
54 ra
56 300
58
pe
vi
r
60 ty,
bb
ºA
l
PI 400
500
600
700
800
gravity
900
1000
200
1500
2000
300
Te
m
pe
400
ra
t
ur
Bubble-point
e
500
,º
F
600
Pr
e
700
ss
u
800
re
,
900
ps
1000
ia
Figure 11 Gas solubility as a function of pressure. Temperature, gas gravity and oil
1500
2000
3000
(STANDING)
4000
5000
6000
240 60
220 80
260 100
200 120
180 140
160
Correlation Standing Lasater Vasquez-Beggs Glaso Marhoun

Ref 3 4 5 6 7
Bubble - point pressure (psia) 130-7000 45-5780 15-6055 165-7142 130-3573
Temperature, °F 100-258 82-272 162-180 80-280 74-240
Bo 1.024-2.15 1.028-2.226 1.025-2.588 1.032-1.997
Gas - oil ratio (scf/stb) 20-1425 3-2905 0-2199 90-2637 26-1602
Oil Gravity, oAPI 16.5-63.8 17.9-51.1 15.3-59.5 22.3-48.1 19.4-44.6
Gas Gravity 0.59-0.95 0.574-1.22 0.511-1.651 0.65-1.276 0.752-1.367
Separator Pressure 265-465 15-605 60-565 415
Searator Temperature °F 100 36-106 76-150 125
Table 1 Black oil correlation and their ranges at application 2
8 FLUID DENSITY
Liquids have a much greater density and viscosity than gases, and the density is affected
much less by changes in temperature and pressure. For petroleum engineers it is
important that they are able to estimate the density of a reservoir liquid at reservoir
conditions.
8.1 Specific Gravity of a Liquid
ρo
γo =
ρw (4)
The specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of its density to that of water both at the
same T & P. It is sometimes given as 60˚/60˚, i.e. both liquid and water are measured
at 60˚ and 1 atmos.
The petroleum industry uses another term called ˚API gravity where
141.5
° API = − 131.5
γo (5)
where γo is specific gravity at 60˚/60˚.
There are several methods of estimating the density of a petroleum liquid at reservoir
conditions. The methods used depend on the availability and nature of the data of
data. When there is compositional information on the reservoir fluid then the density
can be determined using the ideal solution principle. When the information we have
is that of the produced oil and gas then empirical methods can be used to calculate
the density of the reservoir fluid.
8.2 Density based on Ideal Solution Principles

Mixtures of liquid hydrocarbons at atmospheric conditions behave as ideal solutions.
An ideal solution is a hypothetical liquid where no change in the character of the
liquids is caused by mixing and the properties of the mixture are strictly additive.

Petroleum liquid mixtures are such that ideal-solution principles can be applied for the
calculation of densities and this enables the volume of a mixture from the composi-
tion and the density of the individual components. The principle is illustrated using
the following exercise. Data for the specific components are given in the tables at
the end of the chapter
Exercise 1.
Calculate the density at 14.7psia and 60 ºF of the hydrocarbon liquid mixture with
the composition given below:
Component Mol.
fract.
1b mol.
nC4 0.25
nC5 0.32
nC6 0.43
1.00
Solution Exercise 1
Solution
Component Mol. Mol. Weight Liquid Liquid
density
fract. weight 1b Density at volume

1b mol. 1b/1b at 60˚F and 14.7 cu ft
mol. psia
1b/cu ft
nC4 0.25 58.1 14.525 36.45 0.3985

nC5 0.32 72.2 23.104 39.36 0.5870
nC6 0.43 86.2 37.066 41.43 0.8947
____ _____ _____
1 74.695 1.8801
Liquids at their bubble point or saturation pressure contain large quantities of dis-
solved gas which at surface conditions are gases and therefore some consideration
for these must be given in the additive volume technique. This physical limitation
does not impair the mathematical use of a “pseudo liquid density “ for methane and
ethane since it is only a step in its application to determine a reservoir condition
density. This is achieved by obtaining apparent liquid densities for these gases and
determining a pseudoliquid density for the mixture at standard conditions which can
then be adjusted to reservoir conditions.
Standing & Katz 8 carried out experiments on mixtures containing methane plus other
compounds and ethane plus other compounds and from this were able to determine
a pseudo-liquid (fictitious) density for methane and ethane
18
Correlations have been obtained by experiment giving apparent liquid densities of

methane and ethane versus the pseudoliquid density (Figure 12).
Apparrent density of of Ethane, g/cc

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.4
Apparrent density of Methane, g/cc
0.3
0.2
Ethane - N - Butane
Ethane - Heptane
Ethane - Crystal oil
0.1 Methane - Cyclo Hexane
Methane - Benzene
Methane - Pentane
Methane - Hexane
Methane - Heptane
Methane - Propane
Methane - Crystal oil
Methane - Crude oil
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Density of system, 60ºF B atm. pressure
Figure 12 Variation of apparent density of methane and ethane with density of the system 8.
To use the correlations a trial and error technique is required whereby the density of
the system is assumed and the apparent liquid densities can be determined. These
liquid densities are then used to compute the density of the mixture by additive vol-
umes and the value checked against the initial assumption. The procedure continues
until the two values are the same.
When non hydrocarbons are present, the procedure is to add the mole fractions of
the nitrogen to methane, the mole fraction of carbon dioxide to ethane and the mole
fraction of hydrogen sulphide to propane.

Exercise 2:
Calculate the “surface pseudo liquid density” of the following reservoir
composition.
Component Mole percent
Methane 44.04
Ethane 4.32 Properties of
Propane 4.05 heptane +
Butane 2.84 API gravities = 34.2
Pentane 1.74 SG = 0.854
Hexane 2.9 Mol wt = 164
Heptane + 40.11
Solution Exercise 2
Estimate ρο 44.65 lb/cu ft. 0.716 gm/cc lb/cuft

From fig 12 Density 0.326 20.3424
C1
Density 0.47 29.328
C2
Component Mole Mol Weight Liq Liquid

fraction Weight Density Volume
lb/lb lb at 60°F &
mole 14.7 psia
lb/cu.ft cu ft.
z M zM ρo zM/ρo
Methane 0.4404 16 7.0464 20.3424 0.34639
Ethane 0.0432 30.1 1.30032 29.328 0.04434
Propane 0.0405 44.1 1.78605 31.66 0.05641
Butane 0.0284 58.1 1.65004 35.78 0.04612
Pentane(n&i) 0.0174 72.2 1.25628 38.51 0.03262
Hexane(n&i) 0.029 86.2 2.4998 41.43 0.06034
Heptane+ 0.4011 164 65.7804 53.26 1.23508
Total 1 81.31929 1.8213
Density = 81.32 lb / 1.82 cu ft

= 44.65 lb/cu.ft

This trial and error method is very tedious so Standing and Katz devised a chart which
removes the trail and error required in the calculation. The densities have been con-
verted into the density of the heavier components, C3+, and the weight percent of the
two light components, methane and ethane in the C1+ and C2+ mixtures. Figure 13.
20
70
50 40 30 20 10 0
Density of propane plus, lb/cu ft
terial
60
a
lus m
ne p
50 70
etha
Density of system including methane and ethane, lb/cu ft

e in
0
than
40 %e
Wt 60
10
em
st
sy
30 e 50
tir
en
in
ne 20
ha
et
m 40
t%
W
30
30
20
10
Figure 13 Pseudo-liquid density of systems containing methane and ethane 10.
We shall examine through examples various ways of calculating downhole reservoir

fluids densities dependant on the data available.
The three considered are:
1. The composition of the reservoir fluid is known.
2. The gas solubility , the gas composition and the surface oil gravity is known
3. The gas solubility, and gas and liquid gravities are known.
1. The composition of the reservoir fluid is known.

The procedure is illustrated using the following two exercises .

Exercise 3.
Calculate the surface density of the mixture in exercise 2 using the chart of figure 13
The pseudodensity is converted to reservoir conditions firstly by taking the effect

of pressure and secondly accounting for the effect of temperature. The variation of
density with respect to pressure and temperature has been investigated and it has
been demonstrated that thermal expansion is not affected by pressure. Standing &
Katz took National Petroleum Standards data and with supplementary data produced
correction factors for pressure and temperature to convert atmospheric density to
reservoir density.
The compressibility and thermal expansion effects have been expressed graphically
in Figures 14 and 15.
10
9
Density of pressure minus density at 60ºF β 14.7 psia lb/cu ft
15
8
,0
00
7
10
,00 8,000
0
6
6,0 5,0 4,0
5
00
Pr
es
su
00 00
4
re
, ps
ia
3,
3
000
2,
00
2 0
1,0
00
1
0
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Density at 60ºF and 14.7 psia, lb/cu ft
Figure 14 Density correction for compressibility of liquids 8.
22
10
8
Density at 60ºF minus density at temperature, lb/cu ft
7
24
0
5
22
0
Te
mp
0 e ra
20
4 ture
18 ºF
0
3 16
0
140
2 120
100
1
80
60
0
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Density at 60ºF and pressure P, lb/cu ft
Figure 15 Density correction for thermal expansion of liquids 10.
Exercise 4.
Calculate the density of the reservoir liquid of exercise 3 at a reservoir temperature

of 5,500 psia and 180 oF
Full compositional data may not always be available and the characterisation of the
produced fluids will vary from full compositional analysis to a description of the
fluids in terms of gas and oil gravity. The procedure just described is for the situa-
tion where the composition of the reservoir fluid is known. The procedures which
follow cover the situation where a less comprehensive analysis is available. These
methods make use of empirical correlations.

2. Reservoir Density when the Gas Solubility , the gas composition and the surface
oil gravity are known
By considering surface liquid as a single component and knowing the composition

of the collected gas the techniques previously discussed can be used to determine
reservoir liquid density. Again we will illustrate the procedure with an example
Exercise 5.
A reservoir at a pressure of 4,000 psia and a temperature of 200oF has a producing

gas to oil ratio of 600 scf/STB. The oil produced has a gravity of 42 oAPI. Calculate
the density of the reservoir liquid. The produced gas has the following composition
Component Mole Fraction

Methane 0.71
Ethane 0.13
Propane 0.08
Butane 0.05
Pentane 0.02
Hextane 0.01
3. The Gas Solubility, and Gas and Liquid gravities are known.
Katz has produced a correlation (figure 16) to enable densities to be determined when
the only information on the gas is its solubility and its gravity. The figure gives ap-
parent liquid densities of gases against gravity for different API crudes
45
Apparent Liquid density of Dissolved Gas at
40
60 F and 14.7 psia, lb/cu. ft.
35 20 API Crude
30
30
40
50
25 60
20
15
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Gas Gravity
Figure 16 Apparent liquid densities of natural gases
24
Exercise 6.
Use the correlation of Katz to calculate the reservoir fluid density of a field with
a GOR of 500scf/STB with a gas gravity of 0.8 and a 35oAPI oil for reservoir
conditions of 4,000psia and a temperature of 180oF.
Katz method
9 FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR OF GAS CONDENSATE
The situation for a wet gas or gas condensate is different for a conventional oil when
one is considering the volume changes taking place upon release to surface condi-
tions. For a wet gas or condensate system liquid at surface is gas in the formation.
The comparison therefore with respect to conditions in the reservoir to those at the
surface is distinctly different from an oil system, where an oil in the reservoir produces
gas and liquids at the surface. For a wet gas or condensate, a gas in the reservoir
produces gas and liquids at the surface.
The formation-volume factor therefore for a condensate, Bgc is defined as the

volume of gas in the reservoir required to produce 1.0 STB of condensate at the
surface. The units are generally barrels of gas at res. conditions per barrel of stock
tank oil. There are a number of methods of estimating Bgc.
To calculate the properties of the reservoir fluid from the information on the produced
fluids requires a combination of the quantities and characteristics of these fluids. The
methods used depends on the level of detail of the characteristics of the produced
fluids. A number of methods are presented using examples which vary according
to the level of detail.
Exercise 7.
A gas condensate produces gas and liquids with the compositions detailed below,
with a producing GOR of 30,000 SCF/STB. Determine the composition of the
reservoir gas.
Component Composition
Gas Liquid
Methane 0.84
Ethane 0.08
Propane 0.04 0.15
Butane 0.03 0.36
Pentane 0.01 0.28
Hexane 0.12
Heptane + 0.09
1.00 1.00

Exercise 8.
The gas condensate reservoir above is contained in reservoir sands with an

average pay thickness of 100ft, with a porosity of 0.18 and a connate water
saturation of 0.16. The aerial extent of the field is 5 sq. miles. The initial reservoir
pressure is 5,000 psia and the reservoir temperature is 180 oF. Determine the initial
reserves of the field in terms of condensate and gas.
Exercise 9.
Calculate the gas condensate formation factor for the example in exercise 8.
10 VISCOSITY OF OIL
The viscosity of oil at reservoir temperature and pressure is less than the viscosity
of the dead oil because of the dissolved gases and the higher temperature. Correla-
tions are available which enable the dissolved gas and pressure effect on the dead
oil viscosity to be determined. Danesh 2 has given a good review of many of the
empirical approaches. The favoured correlations are those of Beggs and Robinson
11
,
Egbogah and Ng 12 ,Vazquez and Beggs13 , and Labedi14 . Figure 17 gives plots,
presented by McCain 17 , of the correlation of dead oil viscosity from Egbogah and
Ng 12 , and figure 18s the impact of dissolved gas from the Beggs and Robinson 11
correlation.
1000
800
700
600
500
400
300
200 100º
100
80
70 150º
Viscosity of Gas-Free Oil, µoD, cp
60
50
40 200º
30 R
250º es
20 er
300º vo
irT
10
8
em
7 pe
6 ra
5 tur
e,
4
ºF
3
1
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
10 20 30 40 50
Stock - Tank Oil Gravity, ºAPI

Figure 17 Dead oil viscosities 17.

26
200
0
100
80
70
60 0
50 10
40
Viscosity of Gas-Saturated Oil, µoD, cp

30 0
20
20
io
0
at
10
50
il R
8
7
-O
6
as
5
00
G
4
10
n
io
3
0
t
150
lu
So
2 0
20 0
1
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.4 0.6 0.81 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 60 80100 200 300
Viscosity of Gas-Free Oil, µoD, cp

Figure 18 Viscosities of saturated black oils 11.
Beggs and Robinson 11 examined 600 oil samples over a wide range of pressure and
temperature and came up with the following correlation.

µod = 10A - 1 (6)
where, log A = 3.0324 - 0.0202oAPI -1.163 log T

µod is the dead oil viscosity in cp and T is in oF.
Egbogah and Ng 12, had a different expression for A

log A = 1.8653 - 0.025086oAPI -0.56441 log T
Examination of these correlations has shown that they are not very reliable with
errors of the order of 25% (DeGetto15)
Beggs and Robinson 11 gave a correlation to give the impact of dissolved gas.
µob = CµodB
(7)
where C = 10.715 (Rs + 100)-0.515

and B = 5.44 (Rs + 150)-0.338
µob is the saturated oil viscosity
Vazquez and Beggs13 presented an equation to take into account pressure on viscosity
above the saturation pressure.

µo = µob (P/Pb)D
(8)
where D = 2.6 P 1.187
e -11.513-8.98 x10-5P
This is presented in figure 19 from McCain 17.
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
Bubble Point pressure, Pb, psia
4,000
3,000
Pre
2.000 ssu
50 re
00 60
00
40 psi
00 a
1.000
900 30
800 00
700
600
20
500
00
400
100
300
500
0
200 200
100
60 100
90
80
40 70
60
50
40
20
Viscosity of Oil Above Bubble Point, µo, cp
30
20
10
6 p
Point, c
10
Bubble
9
f Oil At
8
4 yo
Viscosit
7
6
5
4
2
3
2
1
0.6 1.0
0.9
0.8
0.4 0.7
0.6
0.5
0.2 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
Figure 19 Viscosities of undersaturated black oils 17.
Labedi (ref 14) also produced an empirical correlation to determine viscosity at pres-
sures above the bubble point

µo= µob + (P/Pb-1)(10-2.488µob0.9036 Pb0.6151 /100.0197oAPI ) (9)
Danesh 2 in his text compared the various correlations from a published experimental
viscosity value in a well known PVT report, using the following exercise.
28
Exercise. 10
Calculate the viscosity of oil in the PVT report of chapter 12 at a pressure of

5,000psig and 220°F. The °API of the oil is 40.1 and the GOR, Rs is 795 scf/ST
Beggs and Robinson
µod = 10A -1
Log A = 3.0324 - 0.0202°API - 1.163 log Tx
µod = dead oil viscosity cp.
(Beggs 3.0324 0.0202 1.163)
(Egbogah 1.8653 0.025086 0.56441)
Beggs Egbolgah
API = 40.1
T = 220
Rs = 795
P = 5,000 psig
Pb = 2,635 psig
log A = -0.5031 -0.46
A = 0.3140 0.34
Viscosity
dead oil = 1.06 cp 1.21 cp
Measured value = 1.29 cp
Viscosity at bubble point

Beggs
µob = CµobB
µob = oil viscosity at bubble point pressure
C = 10.715 (Rs + 100) -0.515
B = 5.44 (Rs + 150) -0.338
C = 0.3234
B = 0.5369
µob = 0.3584 cp
Viscosity at pressure of 5015 psig

Vazquez - Beggs
µo = µob (P/Pb)D
-5
D = 2.6p 1.187 e -11.513 - 8.98x 10 p
e function = -11.9633
D = 0.4663 cp
Labed, correlation
o
µo= µob + (P/Pb-1)(10 -2.488µob0.9036 Pb0.6151 /10 0.0197 API )
µo = 0.4304 cp

11 INTERFACIAL TENSION
In recent years interfacial tension has become to be realised as an important physical

property in the context of the recovery of reservoir held hydrocarbons, in particular
for gas condensates. Interfacial tension, arises from the imbalance of molecular
forces at the interface between two phases. For many years it has been neglected but
more recently it has been realised that in gas injection and condensation processes
the magnitude of the various forces; surface, gravitational and viscous forces can
have a significant impact on the mobility of the various phases. A major advance in
knowledge has been that in the context of gas condensates where it was considered
that in the tradition of relative permeability knowledge liquid formation by retrograde
condensation would be immobile. Recent research has shown that such fluids are
mobile because of the associated low interfacial tension 16. Danesh 2 in his text covers
the topic of interfacial tension extensively. Mentioned briefly below are some of the
techniques which are currently used in predicting IT for reservoir fluids.
Interfacial tension decreases as temperature and pressure increases as shown for the
effect of temperature for pure components in figure 20 from McCain’s text 17 adapted
from Katz19 data.
35
30
Surface Tension, dynes per cm
25
20
Mol wt.
240
220
15 200
180
160
10 140
0
-200 -200 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Temperature, ºF
Methane Ethane Propane n - Pentane n - Heptane
l - Butane n - Hexane
n - Octane
n - Butane
Figure 20 Interfacial tensions of hydrocarbons. (Adapted from Katz, et al., J. Pet. Tech.,
Sept. 1943.)
30
There are several methods for predicting IFT, and they require experimentally determined
parameters. Work on pure compounds have shown that IFT can be related to density,
compressibility and latent heat of vaporisation. The multicomponent perspective of
reservoir fluid properties has made use of the IFT/density relationships.
The Parachor method of McLeod 18 has gained acceptance where the IFT between
vapour and liquid is related to the density difference of the respective phases.

4
 ρ − ρg 
σ =  Pσ L 
 M 

(10)
where ρL and ρg are the density of the liquid and gas phases, and M is the molecular
weight. σ is the IFT . Pσ is called the parachor.
Katz19 has provided the parachors for pure components as shown in the table below and
they are also presented in the figure 21 prepared by MaCain using Katz’s19 data.
Parachors, Ps, for IFT
Component Parachor
Methane 77
Ethane 108
Propane 150.3
i-Butane 181.5
n-Butane 189.9
i-Pentane 225
n-Pentane 231.5
n-Hexane 271
n-Heptane 312.5
n-Octane 351.5
Hydrogen 34
Nitrogen 41
Carbon dioxide 78

Parachors have been shown to have a linear relationship with molecular weight ac-
cording to the relationship;
Pσ = 21.99 + 2.892M (11)
and also to the critical properties

600
500
400
Parachor, P
300
i - C5
200
i - C4
100
0 50 100 150 200
Molecular Weight
Figure 21 Parachors for computing interfacial tension of normal paraffin hydrocarbons 19.
Pσ = 0.324Tc1/4vc7/8
where Tc is in K and the critical volume vc is in cm3/gmol.
To apply the parachor approach to mixtures the molar averaging approach of Weinaug
and Katz20 can be used.
4
  ρ ρ 
σ = ∑ Pσ  x j L − yj g  
 j  ML Mg  

(12)
xj and yj are the mole fractions of the components in the liquid and gas phases.
Firoozabadi 21 has provided parachors to enable calculations to be made for heavy

components using the following equation.
Ps= -11.4 + 3.23M-0.0022M2

(13)
where M is the molecular weight of the heavy component. Figure 22.
32
1400
1200
1000
Parachor. P
800
600
400
200
0 100 200 300 400 500

Molecular weight
Figure 22 Parachors of heavy fractions for computing interfacial tension of reservoir

liquids. McCain17
This method is illustrated using an example from McCain 17.
Exercise 11.
Calculate the IFT of the following volatile oil mixture at 2315 psia and 190°F for
the oil with the following composition.
12 COMPARISON OF RESERVOIR FLUID MODELS
It is useful to summarise the differences between the Black Oil Model approach
compared to the Compositional Model in predicted fluid properties.
The suitability of the two approaches is largely related to the nature of the fluid. For
heavier oils where there are low GOR’s as compared to volatile oils with high GOR’s,
black oil models are likely to be suitable. For the more volatile systems where there
are more significant compositional variations in a reservoir as pressure is depleted,
compositional models are considered more capable of predicting fluid behaviour.
The computational requirements of compositional models used to be a restriction when

carrying out large reservoir simulation. The continued development of computing
and associated equations of state modelling reduces these former restrictions.

Companies are now focusing their attention on being capable of modelling the total
process from fluid extraction from the reservoir, through well production and facil-
ity treatment. At present separate modelling occurs, and many of these models are
not compatible. The black oil approach is certainly considered by many to be from
a former era.
The list below gives a summary comparison of the two approaches.
Black Oil Models

• 2 components - solution gas and stock tank oil
• Bo, Rg, etc.
• Empirical correlations
• After the event description of fluid properties
Compositional Models
• N components based on paraffin series
• Equation of state based calculations
• Feed forward calculation of fluid properties
In a subsequent chapter on vapour liquid equilibria we will describe how the volumes
and compositions of vapour and liquid equilibrium mixtures can be calculated when
a mixture is processed at a particular pressure and temperature. These calculations
although calculation intensive can be considered feed forward calculations and en-
able the effects of temperature and pressure changes to be determined on a particular
feed mixture.
The black oil approach which has been a major theme of this chapter uses the char-
acteristics of the produced fluids to determine the composition and properties of the
feed reservoir mixture, i.e. a back calculation. As will be seen in the section on PVT
reports, the quantities and characteristics of the produced fluids are dependant on the
pressure and temperature conditions used to separate the fluid.
At the back of this chapter are tables of physical properties which are useful in many
of the procedures described.
34

36

38
Exercise 1.
Calculate the density at 14.7psia and 60 ºF of the hydrocarbon liquid mixture with
the composition given below:
Component Mol.
fract.
1b mol.
nC4 0.25
nC5 0.32
nC6 0.43
1.00

Solution Exercise 1
Solution
Component Mol. Mol. Weight Liquid Liquid
density
fract. weight 1b Density at volume

1b mol. 1b/1b at 60˚F and 14.7 cu ft
mol. psia
1b/cu ft
nC4 0.25 58.1 14.525 36.45 0.3985

nC5 0.32 72.2 23.104 39.36 0.5870
nC6 0.43 86.2 37.066 41.43 0.8947
____ _____ _____
1 74.695 1.8801
Exercise 2:
Calculate the “surface pseudo liquid density” of the following reservoir
composition.
Component Mole percent
Methane 44.04
Ethane 4.32 Properties of
Propane 4.05 heptane +
Butane 2.84 API gravities = 34.2
Pentane 1.74 SG = 0.854
Hexane 2.9 Mol wt = 164
Heptane + 40.11

Solution Exercise 2
Estimate ρο 44.65 lb/cu ft. 0.716 gm/cc lb/cuft

From fig 12 Density 0.326 20.3424
C1
Density 0.47 29.328
C2

lb/lb lb at 60°F &
mole 14.7 psia
lb/cu.ft cu ft.
z M zM ρo zM/ρo
Methane 0.4404 16 7.0464 20.3424 0.34639
Ethane 0.0432 30.1 1.30032 29.328 0.04434
Propane 0.0405 44.1 1.78605 31.66 0.05641
Butane 0.0284 58.1 1.65004 35.78 0.04612
Pentane(n&i) 0.0174 72.2 1.25628 38.51 0.03262
Hexane(n&i) 0.029 86.2 2.4998 41.43 0.06034
Heptane+ 0.4011 164 65.7804 53.26 1.23508
Total 1 81.31929 1.8213
Density = 81.32 lb / 1.82 cu ft

= 44.65 lb/cu.ft

Exercise 3.
Calculate the surface density of the mixture in exercise 2 using the chart of figure
13
Solution Exercise 3

lb/lb lb at 60°F &
mole 14.7 psia
lb/cu.ft cu ft.
z M zM ρo zM/ρo
Methane 0.4404 16 7.0464
Ethane 0.0432 30.1 1.30032
Propane 0.0405 44.1 1.78605 31.66 0.05641
Butane 0.0284 58.1 1.65004 35.78 0.04612
Pentane(n&i) 0.0174 72.2 1.25628 38.51 0.03262
Hexane(n&i) 0.029 86.2 2.4998 41.43 0.06034
Heptane+ 0.4011 164 65.7804 53.26 1.23508
1
Weight of propane + 72.97
lbs. = Volume = 1.43
Density of propane + = 51.01 lb cu ft
Weight per cent ethane in
ethane + 1.75
Weight per cent methane in 8.67
methane +
From figure 13 pseudo liquid
density = 45 lb/cu ft

40
Exercise 4.
Calculate the density of the reservoir liquid of exercise 3 at a reservoir temperature

of 5,500 psia and 180 oF
Solution Exercise 4
Density of following reservoir liquid at 6,000 psia and 180˚F.
Step 1
Pseudoliquid density at standard conditions
from exercise 3 ρo = 45 lb/cu ft
Step 2
Adjust to 60˚F and 5,500 psia
i.e. correction = +1.9 lb/cu ft (Figure 14)
i.e. ρo = 45 + 1.9 = 46.9 lb/cu ft at 60˚F 6,000 psi
Step 3
Adjust to 180˚F. (Figure 15)
i.e. thermal correction = -3.18 lb/cu ft
ρo = 46.9 - 3.18 = 42.32 lb/cu ft at 180˚ and 6,000 psia
ρo = 42.32 lb/cu ft @ 180˚F and 6,000 psia
Exercise 5.
A reservoir at a pressure of 4,000 psia and a temperature of 200oF has a producing gas
to oil ratio of 600 scf/STB. The oil produced has a gravity of 42 oAPI. Calculate the
density of the reservoir liquid. The produced gas has the following composition
Component Mole Fraction

Methane 0.71
Ethane 0.13
Propane 0.08
Butane 0.05
Pentane 0.02
Hextane 0.01

Calculation of pseudo density of gas.
From PV=znRT, Solubility of gas, Rs = 600 scf/STB
1 lb mole = 379 scf
Oil = 42 API
Density of crude = 50.87 lb/cuft 285.62 lb/STB
Density of water = 62.37 lb./cuft
Component Mole Solubility Mol Weight Liq Density Liquid Volume

fraction Weight
volume scf lb/lb mole lb/STB at 60°F
fraction gas/STB & 14.7 psia
lb/cu.ft cu ft/STB.
z zRs M zRsM/379 ρo zm/ρo
Methane 0.71 426 16 17.98
Ethane 0.13 78 30.1 6.19
Propane 0.08 48 44.1 5.59 31.66 0.176
Butane 0.05 30 58.1 4.60 35.78 0.129
Pentane(n&i) 0.02 12 72.2 2.29 38.51 0.059
Hexane(n&i) 0.01 6 86.2 1.36 41.43 0.033
Oil 42 API 285.62 5.615
Totals 600 323.63 lb 6.01 cu ft
Density of propane + = 323/6.01/lb cuft = 49.81 lb/ cu ft

Weight % C2+ = 2.315
Weight% C1+ = 5.557
From Figure 13 Pseudoliquid density of reservoir fluid at 60°F & 14.7 psia = 46.5 lb / cu ft
Correction for pressure Fig 14 = 1.23 + = 47.73

Correction for temperature Fig 15 3.55 - = 44.18
Density of Reservoir Fluid = 44.18 lb/cu ft
Exercise 6.
Use the correlation of Katz to calculate the reservoir fluid density of a field with a
GOR of 500scf/STB with a gas gravity of 0.8 and a 35oAPI oil for reservoir condi-
tions of 4,000psia and a temperature of 180oF.
Katz method
Solution Exercise 6.
Mass o f gas per STB.

Molecular weight of gas = molecular weight air x 0.8 = 29.2 x 0.8 = 23.2
scf lb. mole 23.2 lb

Mas og gas / STB = 500 x x = 30.61 lb / STB
stb 379 scf lb mole
42
Component Weight Liq Density Liquid Volume

lb/STB at 60ºF cu ft/STB.
& 14.7 psia
lb/cu.ft
Gas 30.61 26.3 1.164
Oil 297.62 from chart 5.615
328.23 6.779
Pseudodensity
of reservoir fluid= 328.23 / 6.779 = 48.42
Correction for pressure at Fig 14 +1.13 = 49.55
Correction for pressure at Fig 15 -2.9 = 46.65
Reservoir density= 46.65 lb/cu ft
Exercise 7.
A gas condensate produces gas and liquids with the compositions detailed below,
with a producing GOR of 30,000 SCF/STB. Determine the composition of the
reservoir gas.
Component Composition
Gas Liquid
Methane 0.84
Ethane 0.08
Propane 0.04 0.15
Butane 0.03 0.36
Pentane 0.01 0.28
Hexane 0.12
Heptane + 0.09
1.00 1.00

Solution Exercise 7
Liquid
Component Mol. Fractn Mol.Wgt. Wgt. Liquid Liquid
lb mole lb/lb mol lb/lb mole density volume
lb/cu ft cu ft
C3 0.15 44.1 6.615 31.66 0.223
C4 0.36 58.1 20.916 35.78 0.585
C5 0.28 72.2 20.216 38.51 0.506
C6 0.12 86.2 10.344 41.3 0.25
C7+* 0.09 114.2 10.278 43.68 0.235
* C8 used for C7+ 68.369 1.799
Mol.Wgt. 68.369
liq.
Density of liquid= 38.00 lb/cu ft
GOR= 30000 scf/STB 213.39 lb/STB
= 79.16 lb mole gas/STB 3.12 lb mole /STB
Note: 1 lb mole = 379 SCF
GOR = 25.36 lb mole gas/lb mole liquid
2. Recombination according to the above GOR of 25.36 lb mole gas / lb moleliquid
Component Composition lb mole gas/ lb moles Composition

Gas Liquid lb mole oil Res fluid Res Fluid
lb mole lb mole 25.36
y x 25.36y 25.36y + x
Methane 0.84 21.30 21.30 0.808
Ethane 0.08 2.03 2.03 0.077
Propane 0.04 0.15 1.01 1.16 0.044
Butane 0.03 0.36 0.76 1.12 0.043
Pentane 0.01 0.28 0.25 0.53 0.020
Hexane 0.12 0.12 0.005
Heptane + 0.09 0.09 0.003
1 1 25.36 26.36 1.000

Exercise 8.
The gas condensate reservoir above is contained in reservoir sands with an average
pay thickness of 100ft, with a porosity of 0.18 and a connate water saturation of 0.16.
The aerial extent of the field is 5 sq. miles. The initial reservoir pressure is 5,000 psia
and the reservoir temperature is 180 oF. Determine the initial reserves of the field in
terms of condensate and gas.
44
Solution Exercise 8
Component Mol. Fract. Critical Temperature Critical Pressure

R R psia psia
lb mole yj Tcj yjTcj Pcj yjPcj
C1 0.808 344 278.00 667 539.026
C2 0.077 551 42.41 708 54.491
C3 0.044 666 29.42 616 27.210
C4 0.043 750 31.89 540 22.960
C5 0.020 838 16.96 489 9.899
C6 0.005 914 4.16 437 1.989
C7+ 0.003 1025 3.50 360 1.229
Totals 1 406.34 656.80
Tpc= 406.34 Ppc = 656.80
Reservoir pressure = 5000 psia

Reservoir temperature = 180 F = 640 R
Pseudo reduced pressure = 7.61

Pseudo reduced temperature = 1.58
Compressibility factor from Standing & Katz chart figure 2 Gas properties chapter
z= 0.98
R= 10.73 cu ft. psi/lb.mol R
Volume of the reservoir = 5 square miles x 100 feet (1 mole = 5280 ft)
Volume of the reservoir = 2.1076 x 109 cu ft
PV=znRT
V/n=zRT/P
Specific volume at reservoir conditions = 1.3460 cu ft/lb.mol
No of lb moles in reservoir= 1.5658 x 109 lb moles
No. of standard cubic feet of gas in reservoir = 5.9345 x 1011 SCF (1 lb mole 379 scf)
Reserves in reservoir in terms of produced fluids
From previous exercise GOR of = 30,000 SCF/STB
= 25.36 lb mole gas/lb mole condensate
For each 26.36 lb mole of reservoir fluid 25.36 lb mol is produced gas
and 1 lb mole is condensate
Reserves in terms of produced fluids
Gas 1.506428 x 109 lb moles = 5.70936 x 1011 SCF
Condensate 1.9643E+09 lb moles = 6.2935E+08 STB

Exercise 9.
Calculate the gas condensate formation factor for the example in exercise 8.
Solution Exercise 9.
Bgc = bbls of gas in reservoir/STB condensate
Volume of gas in reservoir = 6.9696 x 1010 cu ft = 1.2412 x 1010 bbls
Condensate = 6.2935 x 106 STB
Bgc = 1972.2 bbls res gas/STB condensate
In some cases full compositional information may not be available but only black
oil descriptions of the oil and gas gravity for the gas. In this case correlations can be
used to provide the necessary data to calculate the same data as for exercise 8 & 9.

Exercise 10
Calculate the viscosity of oil in the PVT report of chapter 12 at a pressure of 5,000psig
and 220°F. The °API of the oil is 40.1 and the GOR, Rs is 795 scf/ST
Beggs and Robinson
µod = 10A -1
Log A = 3.0324 - 0.0202°API - 1.163 log Tx
µod = dead oil viscosity cp.
(Beggs 3.0324 0.0202 1.163)
(Egbogah 1.8653 0.025086 0.56441)
Beggs Egbolgah
API = 40.1
T = 220
Rs = 795
P = 5,000 psig
Pb = 2,635 psig
log A = -0.5031 -0.46
A = 0.3140 0.34
Viscosity
dead oil = 1.06 cp 1.21 cp
Viscosity at bubble point

Beggs
µob = CmobB
µob = oil viscosity at bubble point pressure
C = 10.715 (Rs + 100) -0.515
B = 5.44 (Rs + 150) -0.338
C = 0.3234
B = 0.5369
µob = 0.3584 cp
Viscosity at pressure of 5015 psig

Vazquez - Beggs
µo = µob (P/Pb)D
-5
D = 2.6p 1.187 e -11.513 - 8.98x 10 p
e function = -11.9633
D = 0.4663 cp
Labed, correlation
o
µo= µob + (P/Pb-1)(10 -2.488µob0.9036 Pb0.6151 /10 0.0197 API )
µo = 0.4304 cp
46
Exercise 11
Calculate the IFT of the following volatile oil mixture at 2315 psia and 190°F for
the oil with the following composition.
Solution Exercise 11
Component Liquid Composition Gas Composition

Mole fraction Mole fraction
Carbon dioxide 0.0159 0.0259
Nitrogen 0.0000 0.0022
Methane 0.3428 0.8050
Ethane 0.0752 0.0910
Propane 0.0564 0.0402
i - Butane 0.0097 0.0059
n - Butane 0.0249 0.0126
i - Pentane 0.0110 0.0039
n - Pentane 0.0140 0.0044
Hexane 0.0197 0.0040
Heptanes plus 0.4303 0.0049

Properties of heptanes plus of liquid

Specific gravity = 0.868
Molecular weight = 217 lb/lb mole
Density of liquids and gas from previous methods
PL = 0.719 g/cc
Pg = 0.137 g/cc
Molecular weight ML = 110.1 g/s mole

Mg = 21.1 g/g mole
Component xj yi Pσ Equation 12
Co2 0.0159 0.0259 78.0 -0.0050
N2 0.0000 0.0022 41.0 -0.0006
C1 0.3428 0.8050 77.0 -0.2301
C2 0.0752 0.0910 108.0 -0.0108
C3 0.0564 0.0402 150.3 0.0161
i-C4 0.0097 0.0059 181.5 0.0046
n-C4 0.0249 0.0126 189.9 0.0154
i-C5 0.0110 0.0039 225.0 0.0105
i-C5 0.0141 0.0044 231.5 0.0147
C6 0.0197 0.0040 271.0 0.0278
C7+* 0.4303 0.0049 *586.6 1.6297
1.000 1.000 1.4723

from figure 23

REFERENCES
1. Craft,BC & Hawkins, MF. Applied Reservoir Engineering” 1959 Prentice Hall,
NY
2. Danesh, A, PVT and Phase Behaviour of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids. 1998
Elsevier. pp 66-77
3. Standing MB “A pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlation for Mixtures of
Californian Oils and Gases”, Drill & Prod, Proc.275-287 (1947)
4. Lasater, J.A. “ Bubble Point Correlation “, Trans AIME, 213,379-381 (1958).
5. Vasquez,M and Beggs,HD “Correlations for Fluid Physical Property Prediction
“ JPT,968-970, (June 1980)
6. Glaso, O “Generalised Pressure Volume Temperature Correlations” JPT,785
795 (May 1980)
7. Marhoun,MA, “PVT Correlations for Middle East Crude Oils” JPT, 650-665
(May 1988)
8. Standing, M.B. and Katz,D.L. “ Density of Crude Oils Saturated with Natural
Gas” Trans AIME 146, 159 (1942)
9. Kessler, MG and Lee,BI,: “Improved Prediction of Enthalpy of Fractions,” Hyd
Proc.(Mar.1976) 55,153-158.
10. Standing,M “Volumetric and Phase Behaviour of Oil Field Hydrocarbon Systems”
SPE Dallas 1951
11. Beggs,HD. and Robinson,JR: Estimating the Viscosity of Crude Oil Systems”
JPT,27,1140-1141 (1975)
12. Egboghah,EO and Ng,JT: ‘An improved Temperature Viscosity Correlations
for Crude Oil Systems”, J.Pet Sci and Eng.,5,197-200 (1990)
13. Vasquez,M. and Beggs,HD :” Correlations for Fluid Physical Property Predictions”.
JPT,968 (June 1980)
14. Labedi,R: “Use of Production Data to Estimate Volume Factor, Density and
Compressibility of Reservoir Fluids”, J.of Pet.Sci and Eng. 4.375-90,(1990)
15. DeGhetto,G.,Paone,F. and Villa,M.: “Reliability Analysis of PVT Correlations
“,SPE 28904, Proc of Euro.Pet Conf. Lndn, 375-393 (Oct.,1994)
16. Danesh,A.,Krinis,D.,Henderson G.D., and Peden,J>M> “Visual Investigation
of Retrograde Phenomena and Gas Condensate Flow in Porous Media” 5th
European Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery ,Budapest (1988)
17. McCain,WD., “The Properties of Petroleum Fluids” Pennwell Books ,Tulsa,
Ok 1990. ISBN 0-87814-335-1
18. Macleod, DB., “On a Relation Between Surface Tension and Density,” Trans.,
Faraday Soc. (1923) 19,38-42.
19. Katz,DL.,”Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering”, McGraw Hill Book Co
Inc., New Yk,(1959)
20. Weinaug,KG and Katz,DL,: “Surface Tension of Methane-Propane Mixtures”.
I&EC,239-246 (1943)
21. Firoozabadi,A , Katz,D.L., Soroosh,H.M and Sajjadian,V.A.: “Surface Tension
of Reservoir Crude-Oil/Gas Systems Recognising the Asphalt in the Heavy
Fraction,” SPE Res Eng.(Feb) 1988,3,No 1, 265-272.
48
fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESERVOIR ROCKS 7. SURFACE KINETICS

7.1 Capillary Pressure Theory
2. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF 7.2 Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks
RESERVOIR ROCKS 7.3 Impact of Layered Reservoirs
3. POROSITY 8. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY

3.1 Range of Values 8.1 Definition
3.2 Factors Which Affect Porosity 8.2 Water Displacement of Oil
3.2.1 Packing and Size of Grains 8.2.1 Water - Oil Relative Permeability
3.2.2 Particle Size Distribution 8.3 Gas Displacement of Oil and Gas - Oil
3.2.3 Particle Shape Relative Permeability
3.2.4 Cement Material
3.3 Subsurface Measurement of Porosity
3.3.1 Density Log
3.3.2 Sonic Log
3.3.3 Neutron Log
3.4 Average Porosity
4. PERMEABILITY
4.1 Darcy's Law
4.2 Factors Affecting Permeability
4.3 Generalised Form of Darcy's Law
4.4 Dimensions of Permeability
4.5 Assumptions For Use of Darcy's Law
4.6 Applications of Darcy's Law
4.7 Field Units
4.8 Klinkenberg Effect
4.9 Reactive Fluids
4.10 Average Reservoir Permeability
5. STRESS EFFECTS ON CORE

MEASUREMENTS
5.1 Stress Regimes
5.2 Compressibility of Poros Rock
5.3 Types of Compressiblilty
5.4 Measurements of Pore Volume
Compressiblity
5.5 Effect of Stress on Permeability
6. POROSITY - PERMEABILITY
RELATIONSHIPS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Define porosity and express it as an equation in terms of pore, bulk and grain
volume.
• Explain the difference between total and effective porosity.
• Define permeability and present an equation, Darcy’s Law, relating flow rate to
permeability in porous media.
• List the assumptions for the applicability of Darcy’s Law.
• Derive an equation based on Darcy’s Law relating flow of gas in a core plug
and the upstream and downstream pressures.
• Derive an equation relating flow rate to permeability for a radial incompressible
system.
• Comment on the difference between gas and liquid permeability (Klinkenberg
effect ).
• Sketch a figure relating liquid permeability to gas permeabilities plotted as a
function of reciprocal mean pressure.
• Briefly describe the impact of reservoir stresses on permeability and porosity
• Draw a sketch demonstrating the result of interfacial tension between oil, water
and a solid, and locate the contact angle and define its values for wetting and
non-wetting phases.
• Express the capillary pressure Pc as two equations, one in terms of interfacial
tension, contact angle and pore radius, and the other in terms of height and
density of fluids.
• Define the free water level.
• Draw the Pc or height vs. saturation capillary pressure curve and identify
significant features.
• Sketch and explain the impact of saturation, history, density difference and
interfacial tension in capillary pressure curves.
• Sketch the impact of capillary pressure effects on the saturation distribution of
stratified formations
• Define effective and relative permeability and plot typical shapes.
• Define imbibition and drainage in the context of capillary pressure and relative
permeability curves.
• Sketch the pore doublet model and use it to explain the retention of trapped oil
in large pores and briefly relate it to the principle behind some enhanced oil
recovery methods.
• Define mobility ratio.
• Sketch a shape for gas- oil relative permeability curves.

Introduction
The properties of reservoir rocks with respect to the fluids they contain and with respect
to the fluids which will be injected into them are important when characterising a
reservoir in terms of its reserves and the mobility of the fluids. This next section gives
a brief over view of these properties, and is followed by chapters on their measurement
and variation. In relation to the detailed description of rock characteristics the reader
is referred to the Geology module of this Petroleum Engineering course.
The reservoir engineer is concerned with the quantities of fluids contained within the
rocks, the transmissivity of fluids through the rock and other related properties.

1. Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks
The specifications of a reservoir rock are such that there must be a large enough
capacity to store economically viable amounts of hydrocarbon and the hydrocarbon
must flow at economical rates when penetrated by a well. The factors which may
affect the capacity and the flow properties are the porosity, permeability, capillary
pressure, compressibility and fluid saturation. In the case of a reservoir rock, these are
not standard characteristics determined before formation of the rock, but are closely
linked to the geological processes that brought the sediments together and deposited
them in the sequences and under the chemical and physical changes inherent in the
system.
In order to contain enough oil or gas to make production economically viable, a

reservoir rock must exceed: a minimum porosity, a minimum thickness, a minimum
permeability, and a minimum area.
In order to extract the fluids the rock must be permeable which requires that there be
sufficiently large, interconnecting pores.
Although a permeable rock must also be porous, a porous rock is not necessarily
permeable. Certain volcanic rocks are porous but not permeable because the voids are
not interconnecting; shale may be quite porous but impermeable because the pores are
extremely small, thereby preventing free movement of the fluids contained within.
2. Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks
Considering a common reservoir rock, sandstone, the grains making up this rock
are all irregular in shape. The degree of irregularity, or lack of roundness reflects
the source sediments and the physical and chemical processes to which they were
subsequently exposed. Violent crushing or grinding action between rocks causes
grains to be very irregular and sharp-edged. The tumbling action of grains along the
bottom of streams or seabeds smoothes sand grains. Wind-blown sand, as occurs in
moving dunes in deserts, results in sand grains that are even more rounded. Sand
grains that make up sandstone beds and fragments of carbonate materials that make
up limestone beds do not fit together congruently: the void space between the grains
forms the porosity.

The pore spaces (or interstices) in reservoir rock provide the container for the
accumulation of oil and gas and these give the rock its characteristic ability to absorb
and hold fluids. Most commercial reservoirs of oil and gas occur in sandstone,
limestone or dolomite rocks, however, some reservoirs occur in fractured shale and
even in basement rocks such as in Vietnam. Knowledge of the physical characteristics
of the pore space and of the rock itself (which controls the characteristics of the pore
space) is of vital importance in understanding the nature of a given reservoir.
For the reservoir engineer, porosity is one of the most important rock properties as
a measure of the space available for accumulation of hydrocarbon fluids.
3. Porosity
The first step in forming a sandstone, for example, is to have a source of material
which is eroded and transported to low lying depressions and basins such as would
be found off the coasts of a landmass. The material would consist of a mixture of
minerals, but for a sandstone, the majority would be made of quartz in the form of
grains. When these were deposited, they would be surrounded by sea water or brine,
and as the sediment thickness increased, the weight or the pressure produced by the
overlying sediments would force the grains together. Where they contacted each other
large stresses would be produced and a phenomenon called pressure solution would
occur which dissolved the quartz at the points of contact between the grains until the
stresses reduced to a level which was sustainable by the grains. The dissolved material
would be free to precipitate in other regions of the sediment. In this way the initially
loose material would be solidified with discrete connections between the grains.
Initially, if subsea, the pore spaces would be filled with brine, and as the lithification
process occurred, some pore spaces would be isolated with the brine trapped inside.
If the vast majority were interconnected then the initial pore fluid would be free to be
swept through the rock by other fluids such as hydrocarbons. In this way the geometry
of the grains produces an assembly of solids with voids in between them. The grains
vary in diameter but may be from a few microns to several hundred microns. The
geometry of the pore spaces is such that they have narrow entrances (pore throats)
where the edges of the grains touch each other and larger internal dimensions (between
the grains). The complicated nature of these interconnected pores is illustrated in
figure 1 which is a metal cast of the pores in a sandstone rock.

Figure 1 Metallic Cast of Pore Spaces in a Consolidated Sand
One method of classifying reservoir rocks, therefore, is based on whether pore spaces
( in which the oil and gas is found) originated when the formation was laid down
or whether they were formed through subsequent earth stresses or ground water
action.
The first type of porosity is termed original porosity and the latter, secondary or
induced porosity. This is illustrated in figure 2.
Cementing material
Sand grain
Effective porosity 25%
Isolated porosity 5%
Total porosity 30%
Figure 2 Effective, isolated and total porosity
Secondary porosity in limestone beds occurred as a result of fracturing, jointing,

dissolution, recrystallisation or a combination of these processes.
Where water is present in a carbonate formation, there is a continuous process of

solution and deposition or recrystallization. If solution is greater than deposition in
any zone, porosity will be developed between the crystal grains. An important type

of porosity of this kind is found in dolomite zones which occur in conjunction with
large limestone deposits. Dolomite may be deposited originally as a sedimentary
rock, or it may be formed by replacing the calcium carbonate in limestone rock with
magnesium.
The impact of isolated pore space clearly cannot contribute to recoverable reserves
of fluid nor contribute to permeable pore space as illustrated in figure 3.
Total Pore Space
Effective Pore Space Isolated Pore Space
dead End
Permeable Pore Space
Pore
Figure 3 Total, effective, isolated permeable and dead end pore space
Porosity is defined as the ratio of the void space or pore space (Vp) in a rock to the
bulk volume (Vb) of that rock and it is normally expressed as a percentage of total
rock volume. The porosity is usually given the symbol φ. The matrix volume is the
volume of the solid grains, Vm.
Void volume
Porosity = x 100
Bulk volume
Bulk volume − Grain volume

Porosity = x 100
Bulk volume
pore volume
Porosity = × 100
void volume + grain volume

Bulk Volume Grain Volume Pore Volume

Representation Representation Representation
Figure 4 Representation of bulk, grain and pore volumes
These components are illustrated in figure 4 for monosize spheres.
Total porosity is defined as the ratio of the volumes of all the pores to the bulk of a
material, regardless of whether or not all of the pores are interconnected. Effective
porosity is defined as the ratio of the interconnected pore volume of a material.
If the grains are represented by spheres stacked together as in figure 4, then the pore
space can be seen between the solid grains.
Total Void Space

Total Porosity =
Vb
Interconnected Void Space

Effective porosity =
Vb
Induced or Secondary Porosity = porosity from fractures or vugs (large chambers formed
in certain carbonates and limestones caused by groundwater flow and dissolution).
3.1 Range Of Values

The maximum porosity of porous media can be considered in relation to an assembly
of spheres arranged as a cubic packing of spheres. If the sides of a cube are assumed
to be formed by the lines drawn from the centre of each sphere to the adjacent spheres,
the cube in figure 5 would be produced.

Figure 5 Cube defined by the centres of each adjacent sphere
The length of each side would be 2x radius, giving the bulk volume as:
Vb = (2r)3 = 8r3
The grain volume would be the equivalent of the volume of one sphere
4πr 3
Vm =
3
and the porosity (given the symbol φ) would be
4πr 3
8r 3 −
φ=
Vb − Vm
= 3 = 1 - π = 0.476
3
Vb 8r 6
If the spheres fit in the cusps generated by the lower layer then a porosity of 26%
occurs. For a size distribution of spheres the ultimate minimum porosity would be
zero which would be the case if sufficient grains were available to completely fill the
pore spaces as shown in figure 6 for part filling of the void.
Figure 6 Minimum porosity when all pore spaces are filled

Several factors may combine to affect the porosity of a rock, but the main distinction
to be made is as follows based on the amount of connected pore volume, and whether
the pore space has been altered by dissolution or by fracturing after deposition and
lithification.
3.2 Factors Which Affect Porosity

The porosity (and permeability) of sandstone depend upon many factors, among
which are the packing, size and shape of the grains, variations in size of grains,
arrangement in which grains were laid down and compacted, and amount of clay
and other materials which cement the sand grains together.
3.2.1 Packing And Size Of Grains

The absolute sizes of the sand grains which make up a rock do not influence the
amount of porosity occurring in the rock. However variations in the range of sand
grains sizes do influence considerably the porosity.

3.2.2 Particle Size Distribution
If spheres of varying sizes are packed together, porosity may be any amount from 48
per cent to a very small amount approaching 0 per cent as shown in figure 7.
3.2.3 Particle Shape

If the sand grains are elongated or flat and are packed with their flat surfaces together,
porosity and permeability may both be low we will discuss further in the context of
permeability.
Pore Space
Figure 7 Reduction in porosity due to a range of particle sizes
3.2.4 Cement Material

Sandstones are compacted and usually cemented together with clays and minerals. The
porosity and permeability of a sandstone are both influenced to a marked degree by
the amount of cementing material present in the pore space and the way this material
occupies the pore space between the sand grains. The cementing material may be
uniformly located along the pore channels to reduce both porosity and permeability

or the cementing material may be located at the pore throats which reduces the ability
of fluid to enter the pore, but may not reduce the overall porosity of the rock by a
significant amount.
Limestone formations may have intergranular porosity. However, the pore openings
are more often inter-crystalline, that is spaces between microscopic crystals. They also
may take the form of pits or vugs caused by solution and weathering, or by shrinkage
of the matrix. These forms of porosity are called secondary porosity. Another type of
secondary porosity is that caused by fracturing and is very important in that it permits
many limestone rocks of otherwise low porosity to become excellent reservoirs.
Porosity may range from 50% to 1.5% and actual average values are listed below:
Recent sands (loosely packed) 35 - 45%

Sandstones (more consolidated) 20 - 35%
Tight/well cemented sandstones 15 - 20%
Limestones (e.g. Middle East) 5 - 20%
Dolomites (e.g. Middle East) 10 - 30%
Chalk (e.g. North Sea) 5 - 40%
A point that needs to be emphasised is that the concept of ‘porosity’ is complex and
therefore difficult to define and determine. It may refer to spaces between sand grains
or it may refer to limestone caves: it may even exclude a fraction of the free water
(water not bound chemically) present in the rock. Sometimes good estimates, (i.e.
relevant to reservoir development problems) may be obtained from laboratory studies,
or core samples, and sometimes such measurements are irrelevant.
In summary, the amount of porosity is principally determined by shape and arrangement

of sand grains and the amount of cementing material present, whereas permeability
depends largely on the size of the pore openings and the degree and type of cementation
between the sand grains. Although many formations show a correlation between
porosity and permeability, the factors influencing these characteristics may differ widely
in effect, producing rock having no correlation between porosity and permeability.
3.3. Subsurface Measurement Of Porosity

Porosity is measured directly from recovered rock samples as part of core analysis
and also downhole by special tools which indirectly measure a property which can
be related to the formation porosity. These downhole measurement techniques are
very sophisticated in both their engineering and in their practice. For example, the
porosity of a formation can be logged while the hole is being drilled, giving almost
real time indications of the nature of the reservoir. Core analysis procedures will be
reviewed later.
In general the downhole porosity may be related to the acoustic and radioactive
properties of the rock.
3.3.1 Density Log

The density log is derived from the response of the atoms in the minerals in the
rock to bombardment with gamma radiation. The atoms accept energy of a specific
frequency and emit energy of a different frequency; this energy is detected. The
10
energy density is related to the number of atoms and therefore to the density of the
rock being bombarded. If the formation under test is known, for instance a sandstone,
then changes in the density measured within the sandstone result from a change in
the porosity of the formation rather than a change in the mineralogical nature of the
sandstone. This obviously relies on a good description of the geology of the formation.
In a porous formation, the pore fluid will also affect the response of the tool in that
the atoms of the fluid will also react to the bombardment and affect the energy
detected. With reference to calibration samples of different rock types, the effect of
both mineralogy and pore fluid content can be accounted for. Empirical relationships
have been developed to relate the porosity to the values of density which have been
logged. In the following relationship, the logged density, ρL, matrix density, ρm , and
the fluid density, ρf , are related to the porosity, φ
ρL = ρm (1- φ ) + ρf φ
ρ L − ρm
φ =
ρ f − ρm

The contribution of the matrix and the pore fluid are in relation to the relative amounts
of each, and these are related to the porosity. Typically, matrix densities and fresh
water density are as follows
ρQuartz = 2.65 gcm-3

ρLimestone = 2.71 gcm-3
ρWater = 1.00 gcm-3
3.3.2 Sonic Log

This log is similar in concept to the density log, however, it is acoustic energy which is
radiated into the formation from sonic transducers in the logging tool. These produce
compression waves which travel along the side of the borehole in the formation. The
time taken for the wave to travel from the transmitter to the receiver (travel time) is
related to the acoustic properties of the formation. As for the case of the density log,
if the formation is known and its mineralogy is not changing, then variations in the
travel time must result from the changes in the formation acoustic properties, the most
significant of which is the density which is related to the porosity. As with the density
tool, the density of the formation fluids in the pore spaces will affect the travel time
and this must be accounted for. Calibration samples of different rock types have lead
to an empirical relationship between the logged travel time, ∆TL , matrix travel time,
∆Tm , the fluid travel time, ∆Tf , and the porosity, φ .
∆TL = ∆Tm (1- φ ) + ∆Tf φ
∆TL − ∆Tm
φ =
∆Tf − ∆Tm

The contribution of the matrix and the pore fluid are in relation to the relative amounts
of each, and these are related to the porosity. Typically, matrix travel times and fresh

water travel time are as follows
∆TQuartz = 55µs ft-1

∆TLimestone = 47µs ft-1
∆TWater = 190µs ft-1

3.3.3 Neutron Log
This is another radioactive logging technique which measures the response of the
hydrogen atoms in the formation and can give an indication of the porosity. Neutrons
of a specific energy are fired into the formation and they disrupt the steady state
activity of hydrogen atoms. They then radiate energy which is detected by the tool:
the energy returned is related to the number of hydrogen atoms which is related to
the hydrocarbon and water in the pore spaces. By calibration, the porosity can be
determined.
3.4 Average Porosity

Porosity is normally distributed and an arithmetic mean can be used for averaging.
For unclassified data,
n
∑φ i
φa = i =1
n (1)
where φa is the mean porosity, φi is the porosity of the ith core measurement and n is
the number of measurements.
4 PERMEABILITY
4.1 Darcy's Law

The permeability of a rock is the description of the ease with which fluid can pass
through the pore structure.
At one extreme, the permeability of many rocks is so low as to be considered zero

even though they may be porous. Such rocks may constitute the cap rock above a
porous and permeable reservoir and they include in their members clays, shales,
chalk, anhydrite and some highly cemented sandstones.
The permeability is a term used to link the flowrate through and pressure difference
across a section of porous rock. The problem is complicated in that the number of
pore spaces, their size and the interconnections is not standard. Thus the application
of the general energy equation, for example as in the case of flow through pipes,
becomes very difficult for flow through porous media.
In petroleum engineering the unit of permeability is the Darcy, derived from the
empirical equation known as Darcy’s Law named after a French scientist who
investigated the flow of water through filter beds in 1856. His work provided the
basis of the study of fluid flow through porous rock.
12
k∆P. A
Q=
µL (2)
where:
Q = flow rate in cm3/sec

A = cross sectional area of sample in cm2
∆P = pressure different across sample, atm
µ = viscosity in centipoise
L = length of sample in cm
k = permeability in Darcy
Darcy’s law of fluid flow states that rate of flow through a given rock varies directly
with the pressure applied, the area open to flow and varies inversely with the viscosity
of the fluid flowing and the length of the porous rock. In terms of equating the
parameters, the constant of proportionality in the equation is termed the permeability.
The unit of permeability is the Darcy which is defined as the permeability which
will permit a fluid of one centipoise viscosity (= viscosity of water at 68°F) to flow
at a linear velocity of one centimetre per second under a pressure gradient of one
atmosphere per centimetre. Permeability has the units Darcys. Figure 8 illustrates
the concept and the units of permeability
∆p = 1 atmos
Q = 1 cm 3
sec 1cm 2
µ = 1 cp
L = 1 cm
k = 1 darcy
Figure 8 Concept of permeable rocks
Darcy’s Law experiment consisted of a sandpack through which water flowed at a

constant rate (figure 9).

Manometric
heads of water
Flowrate, Q
Sand
Length, L h1 h2
Flowrate, Q
Area of the end of the sandpack
Figure 9 Schematic of Darcy’s experiment
His results showed that the flowrate was directly proportional to the area open to flow,
the difference in pressure and inversely proportionate to the length of the sandpack,
i.e.
1
Q ∝ A, ∆h,
L
or
A(h1 − h2 )
Q=k
L
where Q is the flow rate, A is the area of the end of the core, h1 and h2 are the static
heads of water at the inlet and outlet of the core (the equivalent of the static pressure),
L is the length of the core. K is the constant of proportionality. It is constant for a
particular sand pack. When other workers replicated the experiment, the results were
different to those of Darcy. This was accounted for by inclusion of the viscosity of
the flowing fluid and the equation becomes:
kA(h1 − h2 )
Q=
µL
where the original terms have the same meaning and µ is the viscosity of the fluid
in centipoise.
On a more theoretical basis, Poiseuille formulated the relationship between flow rate
and pressure drop for fluid flowing in a pipe. The form of the relationship is
πr 4 ∆P
Q= (3)
8µL
where Q is the flowrate, r is the radius of the tube, µ is the viscosity of the fluid and
L is the length of the tube. In this case the dependence of the flowrate / pressure drop
relationship can be seen to be dependent on the radius of the tube. In a similar manner,
the radius of the pores in a rock dictate the nature of the relationship, specifically, the
14
radius of the pore throats is of most significance, since these are the smallest radii
and therefore affect the flowrate/ pressure drop relationship most.
The practical unit is the millidarcy (mD) which is 10-3 Darcy. Formation permeabilities
vary from a fraction to more than 10000 milli-Darcies. At the low end of the range,
clays and shales have permeabilities of 10-2 to 10-6 mD. These very low permeabilities
make them act as seals between more permeable layers.
4.2 Factors Affecting Permeability

Permeability along the flat surfaces will be higher, than the permeability in a direction
perpendicular to the flat surfaces of the grains. In a reservoir, the permeability
horizontally along the bed is usually higher than the permeability vertically across the
bed because the process of sedimentation causes the grains to be laid down with their
flattest sides in a horizontal position (minimising the area exposed to the prevailing
currents during deposition). Figure 10 illustrates the concept.
If sand grains of generally flat proportions are laid down with the flat sides non-
uniformly positioned and located in indiscriminate directions, both porosity and
permeability may be very high. To illustrate, if bricks are stacked properly, the space
between the bricks is very small; if the same bricks are simply dumped in a pile, the
space between the bricks might be quite large.
Horizontal permeability 400mD Horizontal permeability 900mD

Vertical permeability 200mD Vertical permeability 500mD
Porosity 16% Porosity 32%
Figure 10 Directional Permeability
The shape and size of sand grains are important features that determine the size of the
openings between the sand grains. If the grains are elongated, large and uniformly
arranged with the longest dimension horizontal, permeability to fluid flow through the
pore channels will be quite large horizontally and medium-to-large vertically. If the
grains are more uniformly rounded, permeability will be quite large in both directions
and more nearly the same. Permeability is found generally to be lower with smaller
grain size if other factors (such as surface tension effects) are not influential. This
occurs because the pore channels become smaller as the size of the grains is reduced,
and it is more difficult for fluid to flow through the smaller channels.

This directional perspective to any property is termed anisotropy. As shown above
permeability is a directional property and gives rise to different permeabilities
depending on the shape and depositional characteristics. Very dramatic anisotropy
is generated if a rock is fractured. These anisotropic perspectives are illustrated in figure
11. Porosity is a non directional property and therefore is isoptropic.
Sandstone Fractured Core
Figure 11 Directional permeability.
4.3 Generalised Form Of Darcy’s Law

A three dimensional rock can be defined within the co-ordinate system illustrated
in figure 12.
-Z
s Vs
+x
0
+y
+Z
Figure 12 Co-ordinate system for rock permeability
The x and y co-ordinates increase from zero to the left and out from the page; the
z co-ordinate increases downwards. The flow velocity in a particular direction can
be defined as the flowrate in that direction divided by the area open to flow. In any
direction, s, the flow velocity is termed Vs and is equated to the static pressure gradient
in that direction (i.e. the change in pressure, dP, over a small element of length, ds in
that particular direction) minus a contribution from the difference in head (because
of the difference in elevation) of the fluid across the section ds. Therefore,
k dp ρg dz
Vs = - ( − )
µ ds 1.0133 x10 ds
6
(4)
16
Q=k
L
kA(h1 − h 2 )
Q=
µL fundamental Properties of Reservoir Rocks
πr 4 ∆P
Q=
8µL
1 − h2 )
A(hand the change in elevation head is equal to the sine of the angle to the horizontal
k dp Q
ρg= k dzL
Vs = - ( − )
µ ds 1.0133x10 ds
6
= sine θ, where θ is in degrees.
kA(h1 − h 2 )
Q= The Darcy units are:
dz µL
= sin θ , where θ is in degrees.
ds
Vs = velocity along path s - cms-1
πr ∆P k 4
= permeability - Darcys
K dP Qρg= dz
µ = viscosity - centipoise
Vs = - ( − 8µL )
6
µ ds 1.0133x10 ds ρ = density of fluid - gcm-3
g = acceleration due to gravity - 980 cms-2
k dp ρg dz
L MVs = - µ ( M − 6
)
Vs = µ = ρ = ds3 1.0133x10 ds
L = 6pressure gradient along s−2- atm cm
-1
T LT
1.0133 x 10 converts from dynes cm to atmospheres
dz
M L dP = sinMθ , where θ is in degrees.
P = 2 g = ds = 2 4.4 Dimensions Of Permeability
LT
2
T ds LT
2
k dp ρg dz
Vs = - ( − )
From Darcy’s equation, µ ds 1.0133 x10 ds the dimensions of each
6
K dP ρg dz
L kLT M ML ( −can be deduced
Vs = - term 6 )in terms of length, L, mass, M and time, T
= ( 2 2 − 3 2 ) µ ds 1.0133x10 ds
T M LT LT
L M M
L K Vs = µ = ρ = 3
= L MT M LT L
T LT Vs = µ = ρ = 3
K = L2 T LT L
M L dP M
P = 2
g = 2 = 2 2
M LT
L dP M T ds LT
K dP P ρg
= 2 dz
g = 2 ρg
= 2 2 dz
Vs = - ( − LT ), T ds L T6 = zero
µ ds 1.0113x106 Therefore,
ds 1.0113x10
the equationds in terms of the dimensions (and keeping permeability as k)
is
L kLT M ML
Q = ( 2 2 − 3 2)
Vs = Vx = T M L LT L kLT
T M ML
A = ( 2 2 − 3 2)
L K T M LT LT
kA dP =
Q = - T LT
µ dx
K = L2 L K
=
T LT
L
kA P2 ρg ρg
Q∫ dx = - ∫ dP V = - K ( dP − dz
),
dz
= zero
µ P1 s
µ ds 6 6
0 K =1.0113x10
L2 ds 1.0113x10
ds (5)
kA
Q(L - 0) = - (P − P )
µ 2 1 It can Q be seen that the dimensions reflect the nature of the constant of proportionality
Vs = Vx and = it should not be confused with, for example, the area open to flow, A, of the end
kA(P1 − P2 )
Q = of aAcore or a sand pack. In terms of metric units, since 1 atm = 14.73 psi = 1.013
(6)
µL kA dP
Q = - bar and 1 cp = 10 Pas it follows that
-3
µ dx
ρg 1Ddz = 9.87 xdz10 m2 ~ 1 x 10 m
-13 -12 2
dP ρg
Vs = Vx = - k( − 1mD
6 ), = 9.876 x 10=-16m
zero
2
~ 1 x 10-15m2
ds L1.0113x10kA
P2ds 1.0113x10 ds
Q∫ dx = -
µ P∫1
Q dP
Vs = 0
A
kAof Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
Institute 17
kA dP Q(L - 0) = - (P2 − P1 )
Q = - µ
µ dx
Other units of inches2 or cm2 could be used but they are all too large for porous media
and they would also require conversion to relate to permeabilities quoted in other
units. Darcys and milliDarcys are most commonly used.
4.5 Assumptions For Use Of Darcys Law

The simple Darcy Law, as used to determine permeability, only applies when the
following conditions exist:
(i) Steady state flow

(ii) Laminar flow;
(iii) One phase present at 100% pore space saturation.
(iv) No reaction between fluid and rock;
(v) Rock is homogenous

1. Steady state flow, i.e. no transient flow regimes. This becomes unrealistic in
terms of flow in a reservoir where the nature of the fluids and the dimensions of
the reservoir may produce transient flow conditions for months or even years. For
laboratory based tests, the cores are small enough that transient conditions usually
last only a few minutes.
2. Laminar flow, i.e. no turbulent flow. For most reservoir applications this is valid
however near to the well bore when velocities are high for example in gas production
turbulent flow occurs. Sometimes it is termed non- darcy flow. Figure 13
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Q
A
Q k . ∆P
=
A µ L
Q . L .
∴ K = µ
A ∆P
∆P
L
Figure 13 Effect of Turbulent Flow on Measured Permeability
18
3. Rock 100% saturated with one fluid, i.e. only one fluid flowing.
In the laboratory this can be achieved by cleaning cores, however, there will be a
certain connate water saturation in the reservoir, and there may be gas, oil and mobile
water flowing through the same pore space. The concept of relative permeability can
be used to describe this more complex reservoir flow regime. Relative permeability
is discussed later.
4. Fluid does not react with the rock, i.e. it is inert and there is no change to the pore
structure through time.
There are cases when this may not happen, for example when a well is stimulated
during an hydraulic fracturing workover. The fluids used may react with the minerals
of the rock and reduce the permeability. In such cases, tests on the rock to determine
the compatibility of the treating fluids must be conducted before the workover.
5. Rock is homogeneous and isotropic, i.e. the pore structure and the material
properties should be the same in all directions and not vary. In reality, the layered
nature and large areal extent of a reservoir rock will produce variations in the vertical
and horizontal permeability.
4.6 Applications of Darcys Law

To examine the applicability of this simple relationship, approximations to the type
of flow encountered in a reservoir can be made: linear flow along a reservoir section
and radial flow into a wellbore. More complex geometries cannot be analysed using
this simple analytical equation and forms of approximating the geometry and flow
are required.
In the following expressions, the nomenclature is identical to that used above.
(i) Horizontal, linear, incompressible liquid system (figure 14)
Q
P2
L
P1
Figure 14 Linear flow regime
From the basic Darcy equation
K dP ρg dz ρg dz
Vs = - ( − ), = zero
µ ds 1.0113 x10 ds
6 6
1.0113 x10 ds

The flow rate and area open to flow is substituted for the flow velocity. The variables
are separated and integrated over the length (for the flow rate) and the pressures P1
to P2 for the change in pressure. The pressure drop P2 minus P1 is negative and is
corrected by the negative sign on the left hand side of the equation.
Q
Vs = Vx =
A
kA dP
Q = -
µ dx
L P
kA 2
Q ∫ dx = -
µ P∫1
dP
0
kA
Q(L - 0) = - ( P2 − P1 )
µ
kA( P1 − P2 )
Q =
µL (6)
The final form is as formulated by Darcy and the permeability will have the units of
Darcys if the other units are:
flow rate, Q - cm3s-1 pressure, P - atm

area open to flow, A - cm2 length, L - cm
viscosity, µ - centipoise
(ii) Horizontal, linear, compressible ideal gas system
The flow regime is the same as for the linear liquid system and from the basic Darcy
equation:
dP ρg dz ρg dz
Vs = Vx = - k ( − 6
), 6
= zero
ds 1.0113 x10 ds 1.0113 x10 ds
Q
Vs =
A
kA dP
Q = -
µ dx
In this case, the laboratory measurement of the gas flow would usually be conducted
downstream from the core at almost atmospheric conditions (i.e. there would not
be a large pressure drop across the flow meter). It is assumed that the gas used is
ideal, however, there needs to be a correction to the volumetric flow rate measured
to account for the higher pressure in the core. Figure 15.
20
P1 P2 Pb
P
L
A
Qb
Valve
Core Flow
measurement
Figure 15 Configuration for gas permeability measurements.
The flowrate measured, Qb at ambient pressure, Pb is related to the flowrate, Q in the

core at the pressure in the core, P via the ideal gas law. If the assumption is made
that the temperature is constant, then
QP = Q b Pb
Q b Pb
Q =
P
and substituting into the equation, separating the variables and integrating
produces
Q b Pb kA dP
=-
P µ dx
L P
kA 2
Q b Pb ∫ dx = -
µ P∫1
PdP
0
kA ( P22 − P12 )
Q b Pb (L - 0 = -
µ 2
kA( P12 − P22 )

Qb =
2 µLPb (7)
2 µQb Pb L
k=
A( P12 − P2 2 ) (8)
Comparing the two expressions equations 6 and 7, it is seen that the gas flow rate is
proportional to the difference in the pressure squared, whereas the liquid flowrate
is proportional to the difference in the pressure. In well testing, the flow rates are
measured at the surface and for gas wells one of the diagnostic plots is the flowrate
versus difference in pressure squared plot. Neglecting the fact that the gas is real, it
gives an indication of the ability of the reservoir to produce gas.

kA( P12 − P22 ) kA( P1 − P2 )
Gas Q b = Liquid Q =
2 µLPb µL
In certain circumstances, the mean flow rate,Q is measured at a mean pressure,P

which, in the case of a laboratory experiment on a core, is the mean of the upstream
and downstream pressure, i.e.
P1 + P2
P=
2
and

Q = Volume flow rate at P
P Q = PbQb
substituting this into the above gas equation 7.
kA( P12 − P22 )

Pb Q b = PQ =
2 µL
and since
1 1 kA
(P1 + P2 )Q = (P1 − P2 )(P1 + P2 )
2 2 µL
kA( P1 − P2 )
Q=
µL (9)
The ideal gas permeability can be calculated from the liquid equation using mean
flowrate, Q measured at mean pressure.
(iii) Horizontal, radial, incompressible liquid system (figure 16)
Radial flow
re
Pe
rw
re
Pw h
rw
Well
Plan Elevation
Figure 16 Radial geometry with radial flow from the outer boundary to the wellbore
22
re is the outer boundary radius

rw is the inner boundary radius (well)
Pe is the pressure at the external boundary
Pw is the pressure at the inner boundary
Starting from the basic Darcy expression again,
k dP ρg dz ρg dz
Vs = - ( − ), = zero
µ ds 1.0113 x10 ds 1.0113 x10 ds
6 6
Q
Substituting for flow velocity, Vs = Vr =
A
In this case the direction of flow is in the opposite sense to the co-ordinate system,
therefore
ds = -dr
For radial geometry, the area, A, is now radius dependent therefore
A = 2πrh
Substitution into the basic expression gives
Q k dP
= -
2πrh µ − dr (10)
separating the variables and integrating

r P
Q e dr k e
2πh r∫w r
= ∫ dP
µ Pw
Q k
(ln re − ln rw ) = ( Pe − Pw )
2πh µ
which gives the final form
2πkh( Pe − Pw )
Q =
r
µ ln e
rw (11)
(iv) Horizontal, radial, compressible real gas system
In this case the geometry is identical to that of the radial flow of incompressible
fluid with the modifications for the compressibility of a gas as per the linear gas
flow system.

k dP ρg dz ρg dz
Vs = - ( − ), = zero
µ ds 1.0113 x10 ds 1.0113 x10 ds
6 6
Q k dP
= -
2πrh µ − dr
If the assumption is made that the temperature is constant, then
QP = Q b Pb
Qb Pb
Q =
P
and substituting into the equation, 10
Q b Pb k dP
= 2πrh
P µ dr
separating the variables

re P
dr 2πkh e
Q b Pb ∫
µ P∫w
= PdP
r
rw
and integrating produces
 r  2πkh  Pe 2 − Pw 2 
Q bPb ln e  =
 rw  µ  2 

πkh
Qb =
r 
(Pe 2 − Pw 2 )
µPb ln  e 
 rw  (10)
4.7 Field Units

Measurements made in the field are often quoted in field units and to ensure
compatibility with the Darcy equation, a conversion is required. The field units are
usually as follows:
Flow rate, Q - bbl/day or ft3/day

Permeability, k - Darcy
Thickness or height of reservoir, h - feet
Pressure, P - psia
Viscosity, m - centipoise
Radius, r - feet
Length, L - feet
24
KA( P1 − P2 )
In order to convert the Darcy equation for liquid flow, Q =
µL
bbl 5.615 ft 3 1728in3 16.39cm 3 day hr

Q ( )( 3
)( 3
)( )( )
day bbl ft in 24hr 3600 s
929cm 2 atm
( K )( Aft 2 )( 2
)( ∆Ppsia)( )
ft 14.696 psia
=
30.48cm
( µ )( Lft )( )
ft
to oil field units, the following conversion factors are used:
bbl KA( P1 − P2 )
Q = 1.1271
day µL
and these produce the following version of Darcy’s equation in field units:
bbl KA( P1 − P2 )
Q = 1.1271
day µL (11)
4.8 Klinkenberg Effect

Darcy’s Law would indicate that the permeability should be the same irrespective
of the fluid transmitted, since viscosity is included in the equation. Measurements
made on gas as against liquid for some conditions give higher permeabilities than
the liquid.
This phenomenon is attributed to Klinkenberg, who attributed the behaviour to the

effect of the slippage of gas molecules along the solid grain surfaces. This occurs
when the diameter of the capillary opening (pore throat diameter) approaches the
mean free path of the gas (i.e. there is in effect only one gas molecule per capillary).
Darcys Law assumes laminar flow and viscous theory specifies zero velocity at the
boundary of the flow channel. This is not valid when the mean free path of the gas
approaches the diameter of the capillary and the result is that low pressure permeability
measurements are unrealistically high because there is insufficient gas molecules to
form a zero velocity boundary layer at the edges of the pores and to form a mass of
flowing gas within the pores. In this case, too many gas molecules flow through the
pores and the permeability appears to be higher than it actually is: the effect reported
by Klinkenberg.
Since the mean free path is a function of the size of the molecule, the permeability
is a function of the type of gas used in the permeability measurement. This gas
permeability is corrected for the Klinkenberg effect by plotting the gas permeability
at each reciprocal mean pressure. This is illustrated for hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide in figure 17:

100
80
Gas Permeability: Millidarcies
60
40
Hydrogen
Liquid permeability
Nitrogen
20
Carbon Dioxide
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Reciprocal Mean Pressure: (Atm.)
Figure 17 Variation in gas permeability with reciprocal mean pressure.
Pm is the mean pressure of the gas (the mean of the upstream and downstream pressures
either end of the core orp in figure 15). In effect, if the gas pressure is raised infinitely
high, the gas will perform as an incompressible liquid would, therefore if several
measurements of permeability are made at different mean pressures, the relationship
between mean pressure and permeability can be extrapolated to the equivalent
pressure conditions of a liquid. In reality, extrapolation to infinity is impossible, so
the reciprocal mean pressure is used and the results are extrapolated to zero reciprocal
mean pressure (i.e. 1/infinitely high mean pressure). This point corresponds to the
liquid permeability. The different gasses have different slopes, but they all extrapolate
to the same equivalent liquid permeability.
The form of the equation developed by Klinkenberg is of the form
kG
kL =
b
l+
Pm (12)
where
kL = equivalent liquid permeability
kG = permeability to gas
Pm = mean flowing pressure
26
b = Klinkenberg constant for a particular gas and rock (slope of the gas permeability,
inverse mean pressure relationship).
The Klinkenberg effect is greatest for low permeability rocks and low mean
pressures.
4.9 Reactive Fluids

Darcys Law assumes that the fluid does not react with the formation. Many
formation
waters react with clays in the rock to produce a lower permeability to liquid than
would be obtained with gas. Therefore the permeability to water in the formation
may be much lower than would be determined to gas in the laboratory. Any water
injected into the formation may severely reduce the permeability due to clay swelling.
The change in permeability may be substantial, for example from several hundred
millidarcys to less than one millidarcy.
4.10 Average Reservoir Permeability

Permeability is not normally distributed but has an exponential distribution, therefore
a geometric mean is used to obtain an average reservoir permeability.
The Geometric Mean of n numbers is the nth root of their product:
5 Stress Effects on Core Measurements
5.1 Stress Regimes

In reservoir engineering the impact of reservoir stresses on reservoir flow and capacity
parameters has been considered for a number of years but, increasingly, the interest
in stress related measurement has grown. The effect of removing a core from the
formation is to remove all the confining forces on the sample, allowing the rock
matrix to expand in all directions, partially changing the shapes of the fluid-flow
paths inside the core.
It is worth considering the stresses associated with reservoir rock parameters. Figure
18 illustrates the likely configuration of a core extracted from a vertical well, and the
orientation of the core plug extracted for permeability and porosity measurements.

Core plug
for horizontal
k measurement
Whole core Core plug

for vertical
k measurement
4 Inch
Formation
Figure 18 Trends in Reservoir Rock Characterisation
Within a reservoir the stresses in the formation can be expressed in three directions,
the major and two minor principal stresses. Figure 19a. The major principal stress
acting mainly in the vertical direction. Clearly the depositional environment and
formation structure will result in slight changes to these orientations.
28
Major Principal Stress
Minor Principal Stress (a)
Minor Principal Stress
Equal Stresses
Kh
(b)
(c)
Equal Stresses
Figure 19 Stress States in Reservoirs and Cores
In core analysis, service companies have been asked to measure porosity and
permeability under reservoir stress conditions. They have done this by applying
different stresses for the axial and radial stresses. As can be seen in Figure 19b for a
conventional plug the radial stress would be a combination of the major and a minor
principal stress. To enable the true stress field to be represented, a varying radial
stress distribution would be required. If a vertical plug was used, Figure 19c, then a
constant radial stress could be an acceptable value for the average minor stresses. In
this case, however, the permeability value would be Kv, the vertical permeability.
The effect of the overburden and the pore pressure on the matrix is to produce a net
force between the grains of the matrix (which, when the area over which the force
acts is accounted for produces a net stress). If the matrix is considered to be elastic,
that is, there is a unique relationship between the stress and the strain within the
matrix, then the matrix will strain as the stress is altered. If the stress increases, the

strain reduces the radius of the pore throats and reduces the volume of the pore space.
This effect may be different for different rock types and even within the same rock
type if the amount of cementing material is altered. The significant aspects of this
phenomenon are when cores are removed from subsurface to the laboratory (since
the overburden and pore pressure will change) and when the pore pressure in the
reservoir changes due to local pressure conditions around the wells (drawdown) and
within the reservoir as a whole as it is depressurised, for example. The impact of
the net overburden stress which increases as the reservoir pressure ( pore pressure )
decreases is illustrated in figure 20.
1.0
?Well Cemented
.8
Permeability: Fraction of Original
.6 ?Friable
?Unconsolidated
.4
.2
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Net Overburden Pressure: PSI
Figure 20 Permeability Reduction with Net Overburden Pressure
In general, the stress regime subsurface is considered to be hydrostatic (as in the case
of the pore fluid) and that the stresses can be resolved into one vertical stress, and
two horizontal stresses. For hydrostatic conditions, all of these are the same. In core
analysis, therefore, the porosity at equivalent subsurface conditions may be determined
by applying an external pressure to the core. This is usually done by inserting the core
into a cell rated for pressures up to 10000 psi (68.9MPa) and applying a stress to the
ends of the core and to the sides. The nature of these tests are such that usually the
stress applied to the sides of the core represents the horizontal stress and the stress
applied to the ends represents the vertical stress. Once trapped inside the cell, the
pore pressure may be increased to a representative level and measurements of pore
volume and permeability made under these stress conditions.
30
More recently, the effect of non-hydrostatic stress conditions has been shown to
be important in certain reservoir conditions, such as in tectonically active areas
(Columbia, South America where the formation of the Andes mountains is associated
with large horizontal stresses) or in areas associated with faults or very compressible
reservoir rocks such as some chalks. In this case the conventional test cells are not
appropriate and special true triaxial cells are required. In these cells the ends of the
core are subjected to the vertical stress as per the conventional cells, but the sides of
the core are wrapped in a cage of individual tubes which can be pressurised in banks
around the core to represent the different horizontal stresses.
In summary, when the properties of the cores are measured in the laboratory, they
can be subjected to
Zero stresses No effect of the stress on the property
Hydrostatic stresses The effect of the magnitude of the stresses are measured
Triaxial stresses The effect of stresses resolved in the three principal

directions are measured
Real stress behaviour The effect of the magnitude and direction of the stresses
are measured
This topic is covered in more detail in the subsequent chapter.
5.2 Compressibility Of Porous Rock

As the rock matrix is subjected to a stress, it will deform and alter the pore space
volume as the rock is compressed. For simplicity, the overburden will be considered
to produce hydrostatic stress (called the compacting stress) on the reservoir, i.e. a
grain-to-grain stress in the rock. Within the pores, fluid pressure acts on the surface
of the grains and reduces the grain-to-grain (or compacting) stress. Therefore in a
real reservoir there is a balance between the effect of the overburden stress and the
pore pressure. This can be described by the relationship
Pcompacting = Poverburden - Ppore pressure
where Pcompacting is the grain-to-grain stress, Poverburden is the stress produced by the
weight of the overburden at a particular depth and Ppore pressure is the pressure of the
fluids in the pores. The expression shows the balance between the overburden and
the pore pressure in compacting the rock matrix: if the pore pressure declines, the
compacting stress increases and the pore volume declines. This assumes that the
overburden remains constant which is logical over the time period of a producing
reservoir. The balance can be represented by figure 21:

Surface
Po
Cap Rock Depth
Pf and Pc
Reservoir
Pc Pc Enlarged view of the pore space
Pc Pf
Pc
Grains
Pc
Pc
Pore space filled with fluid
Figure 21 The balance between overburden & rock stress and fluid pressure
Po = Pf + Pc Po = overburden pressure
Pf = fluid pressure
Pc = compacting stress
The effect of the change in the balance between the overburden stress and the pore
pressure is to change the compacting stress. If there is an increase in pore pressure,
then the pore volume will increase, however, this is rare and in the main, pore
pressure declines during production and the pore spaces compact under the increasing
compact stress. Two issues are significant: the initial porosity in the reservoir (i.e.
to correctly define the volume of oil in place) and the reduction in that porosity (or
pore volume) as the pressure declines (for material balance and simulation studies).
Figure 22 shows the relationship between porosity and depth (or stress). As the depth
(and stress) increases, the porosity declines. Care needs to be taken when assessing
porosity values: were they measured under overburden or at ambient conditions?
The shale sample shows a large change in porosity as the plate-like clay minerals
are compacted and fit together in a more congruent manner.
32
50
40
Sandstone
Porosity, φ
30
20
10 Shale
0
0 3000 6000
Depth of burial (ft) or stress (psi)
Figure 22 Alteration in porosity with depth of burial (or stress)
The rate of change of pore volume with pressure change can be represented by an
isothermal compressibility (assuming temperature is constant):
1 dv
Cf = -
v dP (15)
where Cf is the isothermal compressibility, v is the volume, dv is the change in volume

and dP is the change in pressure (the negative sign accounts for the co-ordinate system:
as the pressure increases, the volume decreases).
5.3. Types Of Compressibility

An issue with regard to the compressibility is: which part of the reservoir is
being compressed and which part is significant in calculating the response of the
reservoir.
Three types of compressibility can be considered:
(i) Matrix volume compressibility - the change in volume of the rock grains. This is
very small and usually not of interest in sandstones since it is a purely mechanical
change in volume of the very stiff grains.
(ii) Bulk volume compressibility - the change in the unit volume of the rock. This
is of interest in reservoirs near the surface because of the problem of subsidence;
Changes in volume of the reservoir around faults which may cause the fault to slip
and alter the conductivity both through the fault and across it;
Reservoirs composed of unconsolidated or very weakly consolidated material where

the changes in porosity can be significant. The changes in the volume of the reservoir
both in a vertical sense leading to subsidence and in a horizontal sense leading to
shearing of the wellbore and the associated loss in integrity.
(iii) Pore volume compressibility - change in pore volume. This is of greatest interest
since the pore volume affects the porosity which affects reservoir performance.

For completeness, all aspects of the reservoir compressibility should be considered,
however, in many problems only specific aspects of the compressibility may be
required such as in a well cemented sandstone reservoir where the bulk volume
change is very small and the subsidence is negligible, but the pore compressibility
is an important feature of the drive mechanism.
5.4 Measurement Of Pore Volume Compressibility

The measurement of pore compressibility is usually conducted in a coreholder which
applies an equal compacting pressure around the core. An inner liner ensures the power
fluid (usually hydraulic oil) does not contaminate the pores of the sample. The pore
pressure is usually kept at ambient, i.e. the compacting pressure mimics the net effect
of the overburden and the pore pressure in the reservoir. This makes the test simpler,
however, there may be conditions where the compressibility of the grains themselves
plays a significant role in the system and the test may require to be conducted at
true overburden and pore pressure conditions. For the test at ambient pore pressure
conditions, an outlet is connected to the core holder and this is lead to a pipette or a
balance to measure the amount of pore fluid expelled. The pressure of the hydraulic
oil is increased in stages and for each stage the amount of fluid expelled is measured
after the rock has come to equilibrium. The data can then be analysed to indicate the
change in porosity or pore compressibility. Figure 23 shows the concept.
Pipette
Sealed core
Pump
Pressure vessel
Figure 23 Measurement of the reduction inpore volume as the external stress (or compact-
ing pressure) is increased
The results show the change in pore volume relative to the original pore volume,
for a given change in the compacting pressure (this assumes that changes in the
compacting pressure have the same effects as changes in the pore pressure) which
can be substituted in to the isothermal compressibility as
1 dv p
Cp = -

v p dPc
where:
Cp = pore volume compressibility
vp = initial pore volume
dvp = change in pore volume (amount of fluid expelled)
dPc = change in compacting pressure
34
Typical values of pore compressibility are in the range 3 x10-6 psi-1 to 10 \x10-6 psi-1,
however, soft sediments can have compressibilities in the range 10 \x10-6 psi-1 to 20x10-6
psi-1 or 30 *10-6 psi-1. Figure 24 illustrates the values determined for some limestones
and sandstones.
10
Pore compressibility 10-6 psi-1

9
Sandstone
8 Limestone
3
0 10 20
Porosity %
Figure 24 Compressibility of Sandstones and Limestones
5.5 Effect of stress on permeability

As the effect of a stress on the rock matrix affects the pore volume, it also affects the
pore throat radii and the permeability of the rock. In general, an increase in stress
reduces the pore throat radii and the permeability declines. For most rocks subjected
to an hydrostatic stress, this is the case as the stress is equal in all directions. Figure
25 shows typical permeability declines for increase in stress for sandstone.

Permeability stress sensitivity for various sandstones
1000
100
Permeability (mD)
10
1
0 20 40 60 80
Hydrostatic stress (MPa)
Figure 25 The reduction in permeability for a range of sandstone samples (the porosity is
in the range 15% to 22%)
Unconsolidated material has larger absolute changes in permeability as the total

strain is greater.
In true triaxial stress regimes, the stresses are not identical and the strain (and therefore
pore throat radii) may cause the sample to dilate in one direction and increase the
pore throat radii therefore enhancing the permeability. This can be illustrated better
by considering a fractured core (figure 26).
36
σv
Fracture
Permeability
σh maximum
Core Fracture closing under stress
σh maximum σh minimum
σh maximum perpendicular to fracture
σv
Fracture
Permeability
σ
h maximum
Core Fracture opening under stress
σh minimum σ
h maximum
σh maximum parallel to fracture

Figure 26 Triaxial stresses applied to a fractured core
If the largest horizontal stress acts across the fracture (i.e. perpendicular to the faces of
the fracture) then it will be clamped shut; if the largest horizontal stress acts parallel
to the fracture, then it may split open. In this way the anisotropy (or difference in the
properties) may lead to different permeabilities and porosities from the same sample
if the stresses are applied in different ways around the core.
6. Porosity-Permeability Relationships
Whereas for porosity there are a number of downhole indirect measurement methods,
the same is not the case for permeability. The downhole determination of permeability
is more illusive. Down hole permeability is mainly obtained by flow and pressure
determination and requires other characteristics for example the flowing interval.
There has been a continued interest in porosity-permeability correlations, on the
basis if one has a good correlation of laboratory measured porosity and permeability
then down hole measurements of porosity could unlock permeability values for
those formations where recovered core has not been practical. Although porosity is
an absolute property and dimensionless, permeability is not and is an expression of
flow which is influenced by a range of properties of the porous media, including the
shape and dimensions of the grains and the porosity. Since porosity is an important
parameter in permeability it is not surprising for those rocks which have similar particle
characteristics that a relationship exists between porosity and permeability. Figure
27 below gives examples of permeability correlations for different rock types.

1000
?Oolitic Limestone
Sucrosic Dolomite
Reef Limestone
Well Cemented
Hard Sand
100
Permeability: Millidarcies
Chalky
Limestone
10
Intercrystalline
Limestone and
Dolomite
Fine Grained
Friable Sand
1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Porosity: Percent
Figure 27 Permeability and Porosity Trends for Various Rock Types

(Core Laboratories Inc)
7 Surface Kinetics
If core for a particular section cannot be recovered, or for example is formed as a pile
of sand on the rig floor, then correlations like these in figure 27 are used. Porosity
measurements obtained indirectly from wireline methods can be used to obtain the
laboratory porosity vs down hole porosity cross plot. Using this laboration porosity
value the associated permeability value can be determined from an appropriate
correlation as in figure 27.
The simultaneous existence of two or more phases in a porous medium needs terms
such as the capillary pressure, relative permeability and wettability to be defined.
With one fluid only one set of forces needs to be considered: the attraction between
the fluid and the rock. When more than one fluid is present there are three sets of
active forces affecting capillary pressure and wettability.
Surface free energy exists on all surfaces between states of matter and between
immiscible liquids. This energy is the result of electrical forces. These forces cause
molecular attraction between molecules of the same substance (cohesion) and between
molecules of unlike substances (adhesion).
38
Surface tension (or interfacial tension) results from molecular forces that cause the
surface of a liquid to assume the smallest possible size and to act like a membrane
under tension.
7.1 Capillary pressure theory

The rise or depression of fluids in fine bore tubes is a result of the surface tension and
wetting preference and is called capillarity. Capillary pressure exists whenever two
immiscible phases are present, for example, in a fine bore tube and is defined as the
pressure drop across the curved liquid interface. The equilibrium in force between the
molecules of a single phase is disrupted at an interface between two dissimilar fluids.
The difference in masses and the difference in the distances between the molecules
of the different phases produces an initially unbalanced force across the interface. Figure
28 shows the interface between oil and water molecules.
W W W Different mass.
Different space
between molecules.
O O O
W: water molecule
O O: oil molecule
distance between molecules
Figure 28 Representation of an oil water boundary
Interfacial tension deforms the outer surface of immiscible liquids to produce droplets.
If the two liquids are present on a surface, the interfacial tension deforms the liquids
to produce a characteristic contact angle as shown in Figure 29.
A wetting phase is one which spreads over the solid surface and preferentially wets
the solid. The contact angle approaches zero (and will always be less than 90˚).
A non-wetting phase has little or no affinity for a solid and the contact angle will
be greater than 90˚

Interfacial tension, s, defined as force / unit length
σwo
Contact angle, θ
Oil θ
σso
Water σsw
Solid
σwo Interfacial tension between the water and oil
σ
sw Interfacial tension between the solid and water
σ Interfacial tension between the solid and oil
so
Figure 29 Interfacial tension between oil, water and a solid
The contact angle describes the nature of the interaction of the fluids on the surface:
for the oil-water system shown above: an angle less than 90˚ indicates that the surface
is water wet. If the angle were greater than 90˚ then the surface would be oil wet.
The composition of the surface also affects the interfacial tension. Figure 30 shows the
effect of octane and napthenic acid on a water droplet on silica and calcite surfaces.
The water is not affected by the change in surface in the water/octane system, however,
the napthenic acid causes the water to wet the silica surface, but to be non-wetting
on the calcite surface.
Octane Napthenic acid
30° 35°
Silica
Octane Napthenic acid

106°
30°
Calcite
Figure 30 The effect of a change in the surface on wetting properties
The Adhesion tension, At is defined as the difference between the solid water and
solid oil interfacial tension. This is equal to the interfacial tension between the water
and oil multiplied by the cosine of the contact angle,
At = σsw - σso = σwo Cos θwo
40
If a container of oil and water is considered as in figure 31, the denser water lies
below the oil.
σcosθ σ
θ
OIL
h
radius, r
.c
Water
Figure 31 Capillary rise in an oil/water system
If a glass capillary tube of radius, r is inserted such that it pierces the interface between
the oil and water, the geometry of the tube and the imbalance in forces produced
between the glass, oil and water cause the interface to be pulled upwards into the tube.
If non wetting fluids were used, the interface in the tube may be pushed downwards.
Under equilibrium conditions, i.e. after the tube has pierced the original interface,
the adhesion tension around the periphery (2πr) of the tube can be summed to give
the total force upwards. Since the interface is static, this force must be balanced by
the forces in the column of water drawn up the tube and the equivalent column of oil
outside the tube, i.e. at point C, the force (or pressure) must be the same in the tube
as outside, therefore the excess force produced by the column of water is balanced
by the adhesion tension.
net force upwards = 2πr σwoCosθ (16)
net force downwards = (ρwgh - ρogh)πr2 = gh(ρw - ρo)πr2 (17)
the interface is at equilibrium, therefore
2πr σwoCosθ=gh(ρw - ρo)πr2

(18)
The capillary pressure is the difference in pressure across an interface, therefore in

terms of pressure (the Pc, force acting on area pr2)

gh( ρw − ρo )πr 2 2πrσ wo Cosθ
= = Pc
πr 2 πr 2
2σ wo Cosθ
gh( ρw − ρo ) =
r
It can be seen from the equations, capillary pressure can be defined both in terms of
curvature and in terms of interfacial tension, as expressed by the hydrostatic head.
2σCosθ
Pc = = gh( pw po )
rc (19)
where
Pc = capillary pressure
σ = surface tension
θ = contact angle
rc = radius of the tube
h = height of interface
ρw = the density of water
ρo = the density of oil.
For a distribution of capillaries, therefore, the capillary pressure will give rise to a
distribution of ingress of wetting fluid into the capillaries. The relative position of the
capillary rise is given with respect to the free water level, FWL, i.e. the point of zero
capillary pressure. Figure 32 illustrates the effect of three different capillary radii on
the rise of water. Figure 33 shows the behaviour for a full assembly of capillaries
and alongside the associated capillary pressure curve. In this figure it is important
to note five aspects.
• The free water level-the position of zero capillary pressure

• The oil -water contact
• The 100% water saturation at a distance above the free-water level due to
the capillary action of the largest tube.
• The irreducible level representing the limit if mobile water saturation
• The different radii segregate the capillary pressure and therefore the height to
which the water is drawn into the oil zone.
The zone of varying water saturation with height above the 100% free water oil
contact is called the transition zone.
The formation containing irreducible water will produce only hydrocarbons whereas the
transition zone of varying water saturation will produce water and hydrocarbons.
The shape of the capillary pressure curves in the transition zone will depend on the
nature of the rock.
42
oil
oil
oil
θ oil
θ
h
FREE WATER
LEVEL
WATER WATER
Figure 32 Capillary Rise in Distribution of Capillaries
Oil
Irreducible Water
Transition Zone
Pc
Oil water contact
Water
OWC
0
FWL 0% Sw 100%
Water 100% So 0%
Free water level
Figure 33 Capillary Pressure Curve
It must be remembered that although concepts of capillary pressure were formulated

in terms of fine bore tubes, application in practice deals with a complex network of
interconnected pores in a matrix carrying surface chemical properties as illustrated
in figure 1 of the pore cast of the pore space.
The height at which a wetting liquid will stand above a free level is directly proportional
to capillary pressure which is related to the size and size distribution of the pores.
It is also proportional to interfacial tension and the cosine of the contact angle and

inversely proportional to the tube radius and difference in fluid density. The smaller
the pores ie. the lower the permeability, the higher the capillary pressure.
7.2 Fluid distribution in reservoir rocks

Water is retained by capillary forces as hydrocarbons accumulate in productive
reservoirs. The water is referred to as connate or interstitial water and in water wet
rocks it coats the rock surfaces and occupies the smallest pores, whereas hydrocarbons
occupy the centre of the larger pores. The magnitude of the water saturation retained is
proportional to the capillary pressure which is controlled by the rock fluid system.
Rock Fluid Wettability

Property Rock / Fluid Property
Sw _ 2σCosθ
~ Pc =
re
Rock Property
(Permeability and Porosity)
Water wet, coarse grained sand and oolitic and vuggy carbonates with large pores
have low capillary pressure and low interstitial water contents. Silty, fine grained
sands have high capillary pressures and high water contents.
Reservoir saturation reduces with increased height above the hydrocarbon-water

contact. At the base of the reservoir there will usually be a zone of 100% water
saturated rock. The upper limit of this is referred to as the water table or water
oil contact (WOC). However, there is a non identifiable level, the free water level
representing the position of zero capillary pressure.
Figure 34 shows the capillary pressure curve for a reservoir where the water saturation
reduces above the aquifer. The 100% water saturation continues some distance above
the free water level corresponding to the largest pores of the rock, hD. Above this level
both the oil and water are present and the reservoir water saturation decreases with
increased height above the hydrocarbon water contact, since the larger pores can no
longer support the water by capillary action and the water saturation falls. Between
the 100% WOC and the irreducible saturation level is termed the transition zone.
44
Oil
Sand
Grain
Pc
h
Transition Zone
WOC
hp
FWL
0% Water Saturation 100%
Water
Figure 34 Capillary Pressure Curve for Porous media
Consider the capillary pressure curves for the two rocks in figure 35. The first sample
(case 1) has a small range of connecting pore sizes. The second sample (case 2) has a
much larger range of connecting pore sizes, although the largest pores are of similar
size in both cases. Also, in case 2, the irreducible water saturation is reached at low
capillary pressure, but with the graded system, a much larger capillary pressure is
needed.

Pc = (Pw - Po) gh
High Pc needed to reach limiting

water saturation.
Case 1 Irreducible (or non - communicating)

Case 2 water approach at low Pc
I
h
Largest connecting pores
h about the same size.
Therefore simular h
D
X
h
D
Water saturation 100%

Irreducible
water saturation
Figure 35 Capillary Pressure Curves for Different Rocks
In addition to water transition zones, there can also be an oil/gas transition zone, but
this is usually less well defined.
Rock wettability influences the capillary pressure and hence the retentive properties
of the formation. Oil wet rocks have a reduced or negligible transition zone, and may
contain lower irreducible saturations. Low fluid interfacial tension reduces the transition
zone, while high interfacial tension extends it. Figure 36 illustrates this effect.
Height Above Water Level
High Interfacial Tension
A
Low Interfacial Tension
Interfacial Tension Effect 0 100

Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space
Figure 36 Interfacial Tension Effect
Saturation history influences the capillary pressure water saturation relationship

and therefore the size of the transition zone. Drainage saturation results from the
drainage of the wetting phase (water) from the rock as the hydrocarbons accumulate.
It represents the saturation distribution which exists before fluid production. The
level of saturation is dictated by the capillary pressure associated with the narrow
pore and is able to maintain water saturation in the large pore below. Imbibition
46
saturation results from the increase in the wetting phase (water) and the expulsion of
the hydrocarbons. In this case the saturation is determined by the large pore reducing
the capillary pressure effect and preventing water entering the larger pore. This is
the situation which occurs both when natural water drive imbibes into the formation
raising the water table level and in water injection processes. Clearly the two saturation
histories generate different saturation height profiles. Figure 37 shows the drainage
and imbibition effects on capillary rise.

Drainage
A
Imbibition
0 100
Drainage Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space Imbibition
Figure 37 Saturation History Effect
A large density difference between water and hydrocarbons (water-gas) suppresses

the transition zone. Conversely, a small density difference (water-heavy oil) increases
the transition zone. Figure 38 shows the differences in density for water/heavy oil and
water/gas on capillary rise. Transition zones between oil and gas are not significant
because of the large density difference between oil and gas.
Small Density Difference

(Water-Heavy Oil)
A Large Density Difference

(Water Gas)
0 100
Fluid Density Difference Effect Water Saturation: Percent Pore Space
Figure 38 Fluid Density Effect
7.3. Impact of Layered Reservoirs

A characteristic of reservoirs is the various rock types making up the reservoir section.
Each rock type has its own capillary pressure characteristics. Wells penetrating such
formations will show a water saturation distribution reflecting the specific capillary
effects of each formation type. In some cases a 100% water saturation will be above
a lower water saturation associated with a lower elevation material with a higher
permeability, Figure 39.

For example well A would only indicate 100% water. Well B would penetrate the
transition zone of the top layer then a region of 100% water saturation. The saturation
profiles for well B and C are illustrated in figure 39. The transition zone of the next
layer 2, followed by an interfacial of 100% saturation associated with layers 2, 3 and
4 then into 100% for the next two layers. Well D penetrates through the top and next
layer at the irreducible saturation level, into the transition zone for layer three, then
into irreducible saturation for the 4th layer.
A B C D
Water saturation
SHALE
Water saturation profile well C only
Height
profile
ES.
Well B only
NE R
m d
40
Transition K=
d
STO
m
19 0
zone 5
=1
0
K= d
D
5m
K=
SAN
25
0= 10 md
0= K=
200
30 SHALE
0=
FWL Free Water Level FWL

0 100% 0% Sw 100%
1
2
3
4 100% Water Level
Figure 39 Capillary Effects in Stratified Formations
8 EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY
8.1Definition
The idea of relative permeability provides an extension to Darcy’s Law to the
presence and flow of more than a single fluid within the pore space. When two or
more immiscible fluids are present in the pore space their flows interfere. Specific
or absolute permeability refers to permeability when one fluid is present at 100%
saturation. Effective permeability reflects the ability of a porous medium to permit
the passage of a fluid under a potential gradient when two or three fluids are present
in the pore space. The effective permeability for each fluid is less than the absolute
permeability. For a given rock the effective permeability is the conductivity of each
phase at a specific saturation. As well as the individual effective permeabilities being
less than the specific permeability, their sum is also lower.
48
If measurements are made on two cores having different absolute permeabilities

k1 and k2, there is no direct way of comparing the effective permeability kw and ko
curves since for the two cores they start at different points k1 and k2. This difficulty
is resolved by plotting the relative permeability krw and kro where
Relative Permeability =
permeability to one phase when one or more phases are present

permeability to one phase alone
ke
kr =
k
Relative permeability is dimensionless and is reported as a fraction or percentage.

On relative permeability plots the curves start from unity in each case, so direct
comparisons can be made.
A typical set of effective permeability curves for an oil water system is shown in
figure 40 and for a gas oil system in figure 41.
1.0
0.9
0.8
Relative Permeability
0.7
k ro
0.6
k rw
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
S , Water Saturation, Fraction
W
Figure 40 Relative permeability curves for water-oil sysrem

1.0
Relative Permeability, Fraction of Absolute
Connate Water plus Residual Oil Saturation

0.9
k rg
0.8
0.7
k ro
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Liquid Saturation = SO + SWO, %
Figure 41 Relative permeability curves for gas-oil sysrem
The following points are to be noted:
The introduction of a second phase decreases the relative permeability of the first
phase: for example, kor drops as Sw increases from zero. Secondly, at the point where
the relative permeability of a phase becomes zero there is still a considerable saturation
of the phase remaining in the rock. The value of So at kro = 0 is called the residual oil
saturation and the value of Sw at krw = 0 is called the irreducible water saturation.
The shapes of the relative permeability curves are also characteristic of the wetting
qualities of the two fluids (figure 42). When a water and oil are considered together,
water is almost always the wetting phase. This means that the water, or wetting phase,
would occupy the smallest pores while the non-wetting phase, or oil phase, would
occupy the largest pores. This causes the shape of the relative permeability curves
for the wetting and non-wetting phase to be different.
50
100
90 Water-Wet Drainage
(Decreasing S w )
80 Water-Wet Imbibition
(Increasing S w )
Oil-Wet Drainage
Relative Permeability, %
70 (Increasing S w )
K ro
60
50
40 Krw
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Water Saturation, S W
Figure 42 Oil and Water Relative Permeability Curves for Water-Wet and Oil-Wet
Systems (Core Laboratories Inc)
This is illustrated by looking at the relative permeability to one phase at the irreducible
saturation of the other phase. The relative permeability to water at an irreducible oil
saturation of 10% (90% water) is about 0.6, figure 40, whereas the relative permeability
to the non-wetting phase, oil, at the irreducible water saturation of 0.3 approaches 1.0.
In this case it is 0.95. One practical effect of this observation is that it is normally
assumed that the effective permeability of the non-wetting phase in the presence of
an irreducible saturation of the wetting phase is equal to the absolute permeability.
Consequently, oil flowing in the presence of connate water or an irreducible water
saturation is assumed to have a permeability equal to the absolute permeability.
Similarly, gas flowing in a reservoir in the presence of irreducible water saturation
is assumed to have a permeability equal to the absolute permeability.
Relative permeability characteristics are important in the displacement of hydrocarbons

by water, and in the displacement of oil and water by gas. Such displacements occur
during primary and secondary recovery operations, as well as during coring and core
recovery.
Relative permeability data when presented in graphical form are often referred to as
drainage or imbibition curves. (figure 42)
Imbibition relative permeability is displacement where the wetting phase saturation

is increasing. For example, in a water flood of a water wet rock, or coring with a
water base mud.

Drainage relative permeability is where the non-wetting phase saturation is increasing.
For example, gas expulsion of oil during primary depletion or gas expansion of fluids
during core recovery, and the condition existing in the transition zone at discovery.
Water displacement of oil differs from gas displacement of oil since water normally
wets the rock and gas does not. The wetting difference results in different relative
permeability curves for the two displacements.
8.2 Water displacement of oil

Prior to water displacement from an oil productive sand interstitial water exists as
a thin film around each sand grain with oil filling the remaining pore space. The
presence of water as previously stated has little effect on the flow of oil, and oil
relative permeability approaches 100%. Water relative permeability is zero.
Water invasion results in water flow through both large and small pores as the water
saturation increases. Imbibition relative permeability characteristics influence the
displacement. Oil saturation decreases with a corresponding decrease in oil relative
permeability. Water relative permeability increases as water saturation increases.
Oil remaining after flood-out exists as trapped globules and is referred to as residual
oil. This residual oil is immobile and the relative permeability to oil is zero. Relative
permeability to water reaches a maximum value, but is less than the specific permeability
because the residual oil is in the centre of the pores and impedes water flow.
8.2.1 Water-oil relative permeability

Accumulation of hydrocarbons is represented by drainage relative permeability curves
as the water saturation decreases from 100% to irreducible. Water relative permeability
reduces likewise from 100% to zero while oil relative permeability increases.
Subsequent introduction of water during coring or water flooding results in a different

set of relative permeability curves - these are the imbibition curves. The water curve
is essentially the same in strongly water wet rock for both drainage and imbibition.
The oil phase relative permeability is less during imbibition than during drainage.
The oil remaining immobile after a waterflood is influenced significantly by the

capillary pressure and interfacial tension effects of the system. It is of note that a
high residual oil saturation is a result of the oil ganglia being retained in the large
pores as a result of capillary forces. Figure 43 illustrates the pore doublet model
illustrating how oil can be trapped in a large pore. The forces to displace this droplet
have to overcome capillary forces and are too great to use pressure through pumping.
The force required can be reduced by reducing the interfacial tension which is the
basis for many enhanced oil recovery methods; for example, surfactant and miscible
flooding.
52
Water In Oil
Advancing water
Water In Oil
Water penetrating
smaller pores due to
capillary forces
Trapped oil
Water In Water
Figure 43 Pore Doublet Model
An important perspective in a displacement process is the concept of mobility ratio.

This relates the mobility of the displacing fluid relative to that of the displaced fluid.
It is therefore a ratio of Darcy’s Law for each respective fluid at the residual saturation
of the other fluid. In the context of water displacing oil.
krw ©/µ w
M = mobility ratio =
kro ©/µ o (20)
where krw is the relative permeability at residual oil saturation

kro is the relative permeability at the irreducible water saturation.
These relative permeabilities are sometimes referred to as end point relative

permeabilities. When M is less than 1 this gives a stable displacement whereas when
M is greater then 1 unstable displacement occurs.

This topic is covered extensively in the chapter on immiscible displacement
8.3 Gas displacement of oil and gas-oil relative permeability

Gas is a non-wetting phase and it initially follows the path of least resistance through
the largest pores. Gas permeability is zero until a ‘critical’ or ‘equilibrium’ saturation
is reached (figure 41).
Gas saturation less than the critical value is not mobile but it impedes the flow of
oil and reduces oil relative permeability. Successively smaller pore channels are
invaded by gas and joined to form other continuous channels. The preference of gas
for larger pores causes a more rapid decrease of oil relative permeability than when
water displaces oil from a water wet system. Figure 44 shows the alteration of relative
permeability as gas comes out of solution and flows at increasing saturation through
the oil reservoir. These gas/oil relative permeability curves are very significant in
relation to the drive mechanism of solution gas drive, which we will discuss in a
subsequent chapter.
54
Oil Water Gas
100 100 100
80 80 80
60 60 60

Kro Kro
Kro
40 40 40
Krg
20 20 20
Krg
Relative Permeability: Percent

Krg
0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Gas Saturation: Percent Pore Space Gas Saturation: Percent Pore Space Gas Saturation: Percent Pore Space
Gas Saturation: 5% of Pore Space Gas Saturation: 20% of Pore Space Gas Saturation: 45% of Pore Space
Figure 44 Gas Oil Relative Permeabilities ( Core Lab)

Specific Permeability (Ks): 250 md. Specific Permeability (Ks): 250 md. Specific Permeability (Ks): 250 md.
Effective Permeability to Oil (Ko): 183 md. Effective Permeability to Oil (Ko): 52 md. Effective Permeability to Oil (Ko): 6.2 md.
Effective Permeability to Gas (Kg): 0.0md. Effective Permeability to Gas (Kg): 10md. Effective Permeability to Gas (Kg): 70md.
Relative Permeability to Oil (Kro) = 183/250 = 0.73 Relative Permeability to Oil (Kro) = 52/250 = 0.21 Relative Permeability to Oil (Kro) = 6.2/250 = 0.025
Relative Permeability to Gas (Krg) = 0.0/250 = 0.0 Relative Permeability to Gas (Krg) = 10/250 = 0.04 Relative Permeability to Gas (Krg) = 70/250 = 0.28
Characteristic Sand During Oil Displacement Characteristic Sand During Oil Displacement Characteristic Sand During Oil Displacement
by Gas @ 5% Gas saturation by Gas @ 20% Gas saturation by Gas @ 45% Gas saturation
55
Rock Properties Measurement
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Core Analysis
1.2 Core Definitions
2. SAMPLE PREPARATION
2.1 Whole Core Scanning
2.2 Core Cleaning
3. POROSITY MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Methods
3.2 Whole core versus conventional versus
sidewall samples
4. PERMEABILITY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Impact of Stress
4.3 Steady State Permeability Methods
4.4 Unsteady State Permeability Measurements
5. FLUID SATURATION
5.1 Gas saturation
5.2 Oil saturation by retort
5.3 Water saturation
6. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Capillary Pressure Measurement Techniques
6.2.1 Porous Diaphragm (figure 22)
6.2.2 Centrifuge method ( Figure 23)
6.2.3 Dynamic method ( Figure 24)
6.2.4 Mercury Injection ( Figure 25)
6.3 Use of Laboratory Capillary Pressure Data
for Reservoir
6.4 Averaging capillary pressure data
7. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• List the various types of recovered core.
• Describe briefly the various methods of measuring porosity and permeability.
• Briefly describe the various stress conditions that can be imposed on a rock
sample.
• Understand how to convert laboratory based capillary pressure measurement

data to field related values of capillary pressure.
• Be able to determine the saturation distribution in a well made up of different

rock types given capillary pressure data.
Derive the Leverett J function and be aware of the major tortuosity related assumption
in its derivation.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Core Analysis

In this chapter we will focus on the laboratory based methods used to determine
some of the parameters outlined in the previous chapter. The topic is also covered
in other modules of the overall Petroleum Engineering programme in the context of
the specific module. Core recovery is covered in drilling and rock properties are also
covered in the Petrophysics module.
Cores obtained from the reservoir formation contain a considerable amount of

information about the nature of the rocks themselves and various properties. They
are also a source of material for investigating rock behaviour with respect to fluid
displacement and its reaction to various fluid types.
Cores are recovered from the formation of interest using an annular shaped coring
bit. The integrity of the recovered core depends on the nature of the rock and can
vary from rock which is well formed to that which is friable in character or even is
so unconsolidated that it would form a pile of sand on the rig floor when recovered
from the core barrel. The core from the core barrel provides a record, over the well
section recovered, of the properties of the formation. Figure 1 illustrates the wide
range of measurements and procedures carried out on core samples 1.
A comprehensive document on the procedures for generating some of the rock

properties through laboratory measurement is the API Recommended Practices for
Core Analysis 2. APR RP40 which was revised in 1998. This API document goes
into detail beyond that covered in this overview chapter
Routine Core Plug

Analysis
Government or • Porosity
Slabbed Core Regulatory Board • Permeability
• Photograph • Grain Density
• Sedimentology Sampling • As-Received
• Lithology Saturations
Curation
• Samples
Special Core Analysis

Thin Sections
• Preserved /Restored State
• Detail Pore Structure • Capillary Pressure
• Diagenesis • Relative Permeabilty
• Porosity Type • Electrical Properties
• Environmental • Acoustic Properties
Evidence • Compressive Properties
• Clay Chemistry Effects
• Specific Tests
Small Samples
• Grain Size Distribution Calbration of Wireline Logs
• Mineral Analysis
• X-Ray and SEM
Analysis
• Bio-Dating and
Association
Figure 1 Data Obtained From Cored Wells 1.

As covered in the previous chapter there are a number of properties in relation to
measurements possible on the cores as shown in the figure 1. In core analysis the
measurements can be divided into two parts; routine measurements which cover;
fluid saturations, porosity and permeability; special core analysis which covers a
wide range of measurements and special tests of special interest to the organisation
commissioning the testing. In this chapter we will focus on routine core analysis
and also cover briefly capillary pressure measurements.
1.2 Core definitions

Before examining some of the methods it is important to define the various core types
used in examining rock properties and their reaction to the transmission of fluids.
These definitions come from the API recommended RP 402.
Fresh Core
Any newly recovered core material preserved as quickly as possible at the wellsite
to prevent evaporative losses and exposure to oxygen. The fluid type used for coring
should be noted, e.g., fresh state ( oil-based drilling fluid), fresh state ( water -based
drilling fluid).
Preserved Core.
Similar to fresh core but some period of storage is implied. Preserved core is protected
from alteration by a number of techniques, from simple mechanical stabilisation using
bubble wrap or similar, freezing the core to lock in fluids which would otherwise
evaporate ( in this case the freezing may alter some of the rock properties), enclosure
in heat -sealable plastic laminates, and dips and coatings.
Cleaned Core.
Core from which the fluids have been removed by solvents. The cleaning process
(the specification and sequence of solvents, temperatures, etc) should be specified.
Some solvents could damage the fabric of the rock and special cleaning procedures
like critical point drying might be required for example with rocks containing friable
clays (figure 2).
Figure 2 Sandstone contains illite.

Restored - State Core

This is core that has been cleaned and then reexposed to reservoir fluids with the
intention of reestablishing the reservoir wettability condition. The conditions of
exposure to the crude oil, especially initial water saturation, temperature and time ,
can all affect the ultimate wettablity.
Pressure - Retained Core

This is material that has been kept, so far as possible, at the pressure of the reservoir
in order to avoid change in the fluid saturations during the recovery process.
2. SAMPLE PREPARATION
2.1 Whole Core Scanning

Prior to subdivision of the whole core for the various types of analysis a number of
procedures can take place to record the characteristics of the whole core and to relate
it to indirect down hole measurements. The purpose of this core examination and
description is to recognise lithological, depositional, structural and diagenetic features
of the whole core or slabbed core. Qualitative and quantitative core descriptions
provide the basis for routine core analysis sampling, facies analysis, and further
reservoir studies such as reservoir quality and supplementary core analysis. Besides
visual examination and generating a photographic record, these techniques provide
a means of relating to downhole measurements and to identify features of the core
which might otherwise if undetected generate unrepresentative data in subsequent
analysis.
The following analysis might be carried out on whole core. A core gamma log, an x-
ray analysis, a computer tomography CT scan and or an Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
NMR Scan.
Within a rock are naturally occurring gamma-ray emitters which can give a measurable
gamma-ray response that can be recorded with depth. If such a measurement can be
made on the whole core in the laboratory this whole core laboratory based measurement
can be used as depth check to relate to open hole measurements. Figure 3.

Scintillometer
Recorder
Lead Shield
Conveyor Belt
Core
Figure 3 Natural gamma scan on whole core. (Corelab).
A number of X-Ray techniques can be used which include, fluoroscopy, x-radiography

and computerised tomography (CT) scanning. In one method a continuous analysis is
where an attenuated x-ray beam directed through the core impinges on a fluorescent
screen and the captured image is recorded by video camera. In x-radiography the
attenuation of the beam is captured and recorded on sensitive film. In this procedure
the core is stationary. The advances in CT scanning in medical applications have
been used in CT scanning where the attenuated beam directed in multiple directions
by a rotating beam enables a reconstruction of density variations within the core. The
resolution of the image depends on the thickness of the beam and the size of pixel
used to construct the image. A sketch of CT scanning and the principal on which it
is based is shown in figure 4
Sample for h
measurement
Io I
Narrow incident Attenuated

Particle
beam beam
or energy
detector.
Shield
I = Ioe -µh
µ is a function of bulk density and atomic number
Figure 4(a) Computer aid tomography on whole core. Principal of attenuation.

Rotating energy
source and detector
Intensity profiles
Reconstruction algorithm
in computer.
Figure 4(b) Reconstructed cross section.
The main benefit of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, (NMR) imaging is that it is used
to provide a reconstruction of the fluids within a core, based on the frequency of the
excitation energy associated with a nudei. This excitation energy is supplied by an
oscillating magnetic field. The high energy attenuation associated with CT scanning
does not enable the distinctive density variations as possible with those from NMR
scanning.
These scans are able to identify localised variations in a core which if captured in
subsequent core analysis measurements could give rise to anomalous results.
2.2 Core Cleaning

Sample preparation is an important consideration in core analysis. Prior to samples
or plugs being used for the determination of porosity or permeability they must be
thoroughly cleaned to extract all of the oil and brine and then be properly dried, with
the exception of saturation measurements for the determination of porosity. This is
generally carried through flushing, flowing or contacting with various solvents to
extract hydrocarbons, water and brine.
Solvent extraction using centrifuge, Soxlet and Dean Stark refluxing solvent extractors
are commonly used to remove both oil and brine. No standard solvents are used and
organisations use their own preferences (figure 5).

Measurement of
collected water
Core plug
Figure 5 Porous diaphragm capillary-pressure system.
Care needs to be taken to dry the samples particularly when hydrateable minerals are
present in the sample that break down at high temperatures. The drying procedure
is critical in that the interstitial water must be removed with no mineral alteration.
Humidity -controlled ovens are used when drying clay bearing samples to maintain
the proper state of hydration. Critical point can drying be used to clear core continuing
delicate clays like illite (see Phase Behaviour chapter - section 8.1).
3. POROSITY MEASUREMENTS
3.1 Methods
Figure 6 illustrates the methods used for routine determination of porosity.

Valve
Vacuum Gauge
Displacement Pump
Boyles Law Porosimeter

Pore Volume Determination
Water Oil Gas
Porosity
Pressure Gauge
Outlet Valve Gas Inlet Valve
Sight Glass
Core Sample
Sample in Place,
Mercury Micrometer Scale
Stopcock Open
Plunger
Washburn Porosimeter Kobe Porosimeter
Sample Reference
Chamber Volume Pressure
Gauge
Valve Valve
Grain Volume Determination
Resaturation
Figure 6 Porosity measurement methods (Corelab)
(a) Bulk Volume
In all porosity methods a bulk core sample volume has to be determined and this may
be carried out either by displacement of liquid or by callipering a shaped sample and
computation by the appropriate formula. Figure 7 shows the displacement method,
and figure 8 shows a mercury displacement pump.

Adjustable fork
Thermometer
Reference mark
Core plug
Mercury vessel
Single pan
Weighted
balance
base
_
+ 0.01 gm
Figure 7 Archimedes mercury immersion apparatus (API)2
Volume
Pressure read-out
read-out
Sample
chamber
Displacement
plunger
Figure 8 Volumetric mercury displacement pump (API)2
(b) Summation of fluids
This method involves the independent determination of oil, gas and pure water
volumes of a fresh core sample. The oil and water can be obtained by retort ( Figure
9) and the gas by mercury injection. The pore volume is determined by summing the
three independent volumes.
10
Thermocouple
Insulated Oven
Heating Elements
Sample Cup
Screen
Condensing Tube
Water Bath
Water Inlet Temperature

Receiving Tube Controller
Figure 9 Oven retort (API)2

(c) Gas transfer
(i) The Boyles Law based porosity determination method involves the compression
of a gas into the pore space or the expansion of gas from the pores of a prepared
sample. Depending on the instrumentation and the procedure, either pore volume
or grain volume can be determined. Figure 10 shows a typical set up for this and
is the most common method for measuring the grain volume. It involves setting up
a pressure in a known reference volume and then expanding the pressure into the
space containing the sample. With suitable calibration the grain volume is determined
using the ideal gas relation that PV=constant.
P Reference P1
Sample
chamber volume
Gas in
Pressure
regulator
Figure 10 Boyle's law porosimeter.

(ii) The Washburn-Bunting method involves the vacuum extraction and collection
of the gas contained in the pores of a prepared sample. The method measures pore
volume.
(d) Liquid resaturation
The pores of a prepared sample are filled with a liquid of a known density. The
increase in weight of the sample divided by the fluid density is a measure of the
pore volume.
(e) Grain density
Total porosity is determined by this method as compared with effective porosity. The
sample is reduced to grain size after the dry weight and bulk volume are determined.
Grain volume is determined and subtracted from the bulk volume to yield the total
pore volume.
3.2 Whole core versus conventional versus sidewall samples

As well as coring using a coring bit and core barrel, it is also possible to recover samples
of the formation using wireline tools, these are termed sidewall coring. There are two
types of sidewall coring devices. One is based on exploding a core plug shaped piece
into the formation. Clearly samples recovered by this technique may be suitable for
mineral description but are not so suited to porosity and permeability analysis as a
result of the damage generated by the explosive force of the sampling device. Sidewall
corers which cut into the formation do not suffer from such mechanical damage.
Whole core porosities tend to be slightly lower than small plug samples in certain
rock types. The whole core is likely to include tighter material than would be included
in a more carefully sampled plug.
For samples with medium to high porosity, sidewall and conventional samples agree
within one or two percent. During sidewall sampling low porosity highly cemented
materials tend to shatter and yield values greater than the true porosity.
4. PERMEABILITY
4.1 Introduction
The API recommended practice for the determination of permeability is also detailed
in API RP 40 which is a considerable improvement on API RP27.
There are essentially two approaches to measuring the permeability, the steady state
method where the pressure drop for a fixed flow rate is measured, generally a gas, or
the unsteady state method where the flow in the transient regeme is measured.
In the latter there are two types of test , the ‘pulse-decay’ method where two pressures
are set up and downstream of the contained sample. A slight increase in the upstream
pressure is imposed and the decay of this pressure through the sample is monitored.
The advent of very high speed data acquisition systems and accurate pressure
12
transducers has made it possible to monitor these transient flow conditions. The other
approach is the pressure fall off method where a relatively low upstream pressure is
set and the decay of this pressure is monitored as it is released through the core to
the downstream open to atmosphere.
4.2 Impact of Stress

Over recent years the impact of reservoir stresses on rock properties and therefore the
interest in measuring rock properties under realistic stresses has grown in particular
in relation to permeability. Stress effects also have an impact on other properties
included porosity . In describing the various approaches to permeability measurement
we will also look at various procedures for imposing stress on the samples.
In figure 19 of the previous chapter we identified the various stress directions in

the context of permeability measurement. Figure 11 illustrates the core recovered
from a vertical well and the natural stresses imposed. It is important to distinguish
the different possible stress loadings that can be applied to core plugs and also the
configuration of the stresses in the natural state. In the natural state the stresses can
be considered to be resolved in three principal directions. The vertical direction being
the major principal stress and the two horizontal directions the two minor principal
stresses. Figure 11a
Core plug
Major for horizontal
principal stress k measurement
Whole core Core plug

for vertical
k measurement
Minor principal stresses

Inch
Formation
Figure 11 (a) Core recovered from vertical well and stress orientation in the reservoir.
If a core plug is recovered from a whole core recovered from a vertical well then the
stress orientations in a permeability test would be as shown in the sketch below. Figure
11b and 11c. These figures demonstrate that for a cylindrical horizontal core plug
it is difficult to impose a distinctive major principal stress on the core plug different
from one of the minor principal stresses whereas for a vertical orientated core plug
such distinctive stresses can be applied.

Major principal stress
Minor Minor principal stress

Minor principal Minor principal stress
stress
principal
stress
Figure 11 (b) Stress orientation for horizontal core plug.

Minor principal stress

Minor principal stress
Figure 11 (c) Stress orientation from vertical core plug
In requesting reservoir stresses to be applied to core plug measurements it is important

to examine that the stresses applied actually represent those which the rock would
be subjected to in the formation. The various modes of stressing a rock are shown
in figure 12 a-d
Isostatic Stress. Figure 12a. Under isostatic stress loading, equal stress is applied
to the sample in all directions, and sample strain can occur on all axes. Excessive
porosity reduction typically occurs when the imposed isostatic stress is equal to the
vertical reservoir stress ( i.e., the overburden stress).
14
A
σ1 ∆D
∆L
Sample
σ1 σ1
Isostatic stress L
σ1
D
Figure 12 (a) Isostatic Stress
Triaxial Stress. Figure 12b. Under the true triaxial stress conditions, unequal stress
is applied to the three major axes of the sample. In the general case, strains will be
different on each axis. Typically a cube or rectangular prism -shaped sample will
be used.
σ1
∆L1
Triaxial stress
σ2 σ3
∆L ∆L
Figure 12 (b) Triaxial Stress
Biaxial Stress. Figure 12c. Biaxial stress loading conditions are a special case of triaxial
stress loading. In the biaxial stress loading of a cylinder , the stress parallel to the
cylinder’s axis is different from the stress applied around the cylinder’s circumference.
Strains can occur parallel to both the axis and diameter of the cylinder.
C
σ1 ∆D
∆L
Sample
σ σ
Biaxial stress L
σ1
D
Figure 12 (c) Biaxial Stress

Uniaxial Strain. Figure 12d. Uniaxial strain compression is a special case of biaxial
stress loading; the stress applied to the circumference is just sufficient to maintain
the diameter constant as the stress parallel to the cylinder axis is increased. Strain
occurs only parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
σ1
∆L
Sample
Uniaxial stress σ σ L
σ1
D
Figure 12 (d) Uniaxial Stress
4.3 Steady State Permeability Methods

The most conventional permeability measurement approach has been to use the
measurement of the pressure drop associated with a fixed flow rate. To determine
specific permeability nitrogen or air is usually caused to flow through a prepared sample
of measured dimensions. The pressure differential and flow rates are measured and
the permeability calculated from the Darcy equation. A schematic set up is shown
in the sketch below . Figure 13
End view showing

radial stress
Pressure
∆p
transducer Differential
Pressure. _ P D
P1 +
qr @ Pr, Tr Pa
L
Pressure Flow meter
regulator
Sample holder
Figure 13 Schematic of steady state permeability measurement 2
The confining of the core in this case shows a Hassler type core holder where the radial
stress is low and is applied to ensure that flow of gas does not by-pass the core.
16
Figure 14 shows a high pressure core holder designed to impose reservoir stresses.
The slideable inlet tube enables the strain of the stress core to be taken up. The stress
loading for this arrangement is isostatic.
Inlet Port for

Confining Oil
Cavity for Outlet
Hydraulic Oil Flow Tube
Slidable Inlet to Produce Confining Rubber Retaining
Tube Stresses Sleeve Ring
End Plug Cylindrical End Plug

Core Plug
Figure 14 High pressure core holder for stress condition, isostatic 2
Figure 15 shows a sophisticated core holder where a different axial stress can be
applied compared to the radial stress. In this arrangement the end faces of the core
plug need to be machined accurately to ensure that the loading of the axial stress
is distributed over the whole face. If not the core is liable to fragment. The stress
loading for this core plug is biaxial.

Inlet Flow Port
Rubber Sleeve Port for Oil to Produce

Radial Confining Stress,
Core Plug or Vacuum to Dilate Sleeve
Reach Rod, X
Outlet
Ports
Port for Oil to Produce

Radial Confining Stress,
or Vacuum to Dilate Sleeve
Large Piston of Axial Stress
Intensifier
Cavity for
High Pressure
Nitrogen for
Axial Stress
N
Figure 15 High pressure core holder or biaxial loading 1.
Using a core plug removed from a horizontal well core it is possible using biaxial
stress loading to somewhat simulate the stress conditions, by considering the two minor
principal stresses as equal. However using biaxial stress conditions for a conventional
plug from a vertical well recovered core, then the stress conditions imposed do not
reflect those in the formation. The radial stress is a combination of the major principal
stress and one of the minor principal stresses and in the equipment these are equal.
If however, one is interested in measuring the vertical permeability from a sample
extracted from the whole core then biaxial stress conditions will reflect more readily
the reservoir stress condition.
A recent innovation has been the true triaxial cell 2 (Figure 16). In this arrangement
a series of axial tubes are hydraulically pressured between the confining rubber sleeve
of the core and the core holder body. This enables a stress pattern to be established
to represent a more realistic stress condition reservoir stress conditions.
18
Platen
Threaded
end cap
Trapped tube
A A
Core
Rubber
sleeve Aluminium
cell body
Hydraulically
Maximum principal stress pressured tubes
σ
σ

1
1

Face of
core plus
1
1

σ σ
Section AA
Figure 16 True trixial cell.
Although liquids could be used in permeability measurements it is common to use a

gas. Gas permeabilities need to be corrected for the Klinkenberg effect and reported
as equivalent liquid permeabilities.
The samples for analysis may be either the consolidated piece used for the porosity
determination or another sample but clearly it must be extracted and cleaned to
ensure that no water or oil are present. If interstitial water is very saline then it may
be necessary to remove salt.
Another recent innovation has been the probe permeameter. These devices were
initially invented to meet the need for a device to give indications of permeability of
an outcrop. The application of rock outcrops as analogues of subsurface formations
has been very valuable in developing geological/ reservoir modelling procedures. The

examination of the various levels of permeability measurement , (upscaling) , have
demonstrated the value of being able to measure the permeability over a small area
which the probe permeameter affords. Figure 17 shows an arrangement of a typical
probe permeameter . As well as back pack mounted version for use in outcrop studies
they can also be laboratory mounted and can automatically scan the permeability
variations in a slab of rock.
Flow
meter
Pressure
Pressure transducer
regulators
ri
Rock being ro
examined
Figure 17 Schematic of steady state probe permeameter.
The API RP40 document also describes a radial steady-state apparatus, figure 18,
where flow is from the outer to the inner radius. In this set up the preparation is not
easy and axial stresses are not balanced by radial stresses.
20
Rubber Gaskets
Calibrated
Gas Burette
Springs
Mercury Manometer
rw re
P1 P
L
Pivot Ball
Piston
Regulators
Air Supply
Figure 18 Radial flow steady state permeameter 2.
4.4 Unsteady State Permeability Measurements

The advent of high speed computers and data acquisition systems has enabled the
application of unsteady state permeability measurements. The principles are similar
to the behaviour of a well during a well test and the analysis of the pressures during the
unsteady state draw down or build-up period. Figure 19 gives a schematic of a pressure-
fall off system. An upstream gas reservoir of different volumes, to accommodate a
wide range of permeabilities, is pressured and then released to atmosphere via flow
through the core. The pressure just upstream of the core is accurately monitored. Full
details of the calculation procedure presented by Jones are given in the API RP40
practise document 2.

VT
Fill Vent
P1
Pc
VP Hydrostatic
confining
pressure
Figure 19 Schematic of pressure - fall of gas permeameter 2.
In the pulse decay method for permeability measurement a configuration of equipment

is as shown in figure 20. It consists of an upstream and downstream reservoir. The
two gas reservoirs are filled to a pressure. When equilibrium is reached with all valves
open, the joining valves are closed and the pressure in the upstream gas reservoir is
increased by 2-3% of the pressure set in the vessels. The valve 1 is then opened and the
pressure time behaviour of the transient flow behaviour is monitored. This procedure
lends itself to very low permeability values, 0.1-millidarcies to 0.01 microdarcies.
Calculation procedures are also given in the API practise document.
Fill/vac. Valve
∆p
+_
P
V1 VP V
Valve 1
Pc
Figure 20 Pulse decay apporatus axial flow of gas.
5. FLUID SATURATION
Core analysis is sometimes used to measure the fluid saturations associated with
the core. Because of the large pressure variations between the reservoir and the
surface these saturations are not too representative of the values that would exist
in the formation, unless precautions have been taken to prevent evaporation during
pressure decline. Such precautions could be the application of pressure coring where
the down hole pressure is held in the core barrel as it is recovered to surface. At the
22
surface prior to releasing the pressure the core in its container is frozen. It is then
slipped and stored in a frozen state. During controlled thawing of the core the fluids
produced and retained enable downhole saturation to be obtained.
5.1 Gas saturation

Conventional and sidewall core samples have gas saturation measured by injecting
mercury into the gas filled portions of the pores. The gas is compressed into a small
volume or forced into solution in the liquids in the pores using a mercury pump.
Measurement of the volume of mercury penetrated is a measure of the gas content
of the sample.
5.2 Oil saturation by retort

Oil distilled at atmospheric pressure gives a measure of the oil content of the plug.
The distillate is collected in a calibrated receiver. Temperatures up to 6500C are used
(Figure 9).
5.3 Water saturation

Samples can have their water content determined by atmospheric distillation
concurrently with the oil content determination. A distinction should be made between
the pore water and the water of hydration or crystallisation.
Water saturation can also be measured by a solvent refluxing method (Dean-Stark)

(figure 20). Toluene is the most commonly used solvent. The oil content of the sample
is obtained by difference of the weight of the sample before and after extraction and
drying less the weight of the water removed during solvent extraction.
Measurement of
collected water
Core plug
Figure 21 Dean Stark Apparatus

6. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
6.1 Introduction
The general laboratory procedure for capillary pressures to saturate a core sample
with a wetting phase and measure how much wetting measurement phase is displaced
from the sample when it is subjected to some given pressure of non-wetting phase.
Displacement takes place when the oil or non-wetting phase just exceeds the capillary
pressure corresponding to the largest pore. In other words the capillary force will
hold the water in the largest pore until the oil pressure is larger than the capillary
pressure of the largest pore.
The volume of the fluid displaced at a particular pressure also represents the pore
volume of all pores of that particular size. Once this pore volume has been displaced at
a particular pressure the pressure is increased and the new pore volume measured.
A plot of water volume displaced versus the displacement pressure will represent
a plot of the capillary pressure versus the percentage of the pores with a capillary
pressure greater than the subject capillary pressure.
Clearly a rock which contains a variety of pore sizes will have a capillary pressure
curve which is not discontinuous but is a smooth curve.
Since capillary pressure,
2σCosθ
Pc =
r
the curve can be calibrated to represent pore size versus percentage of pores less than
the subject pore size.
6.2 Capillary Pressure Measurement Techniques

There are four main methods for capillary pressure measurement
(i) Desaturation or displacement through a porous diaphragm.

(ii) Centrifuge or centrifugal method.
(iii) Dynamic capillary pressure method.
(iv) Mercury injection method.
6.2.1 Porous Diaphragm (figure 22)

In the porous diaphragm method there is a permeable membrane of uniform pore
size distribution containing pores of such a size that the selected displacing fluid will
not penetrate the diaphragm when the pressures applied to the displacing phase are
below some selected maximum pressure of investigation. Pressure applied to the
assembly is increased by small increments. The core is allowed to approach a state
of static equilibrium at each pressure level. The saturation of the core is calculated
at each point defining the capillary pressure curve. Any combination of fluids can be
used: gas, oil and/or water.
This procedure is closest to the actual saturation in the reservoir but the method is
time consuming varying from 10 to 40 days for a single sample.
24
Nitrogen Pressure
Saran Tube
Crude Oil
Neoprene Stopper
Scale of
Squared Paper
Nickel-Plated
Spring Seal of
Core Red Oil
Kleenex Paper
Ultra-Fine
Fritted Glass
Disk
Brine
Figure 22 Porous diaphragm capillary-pressure system.
6.2.2 Centrifuge method ( Figure 23)

The high accelerations in a centrifuge increase the field of force on a sample subjecting
it to an increased gravitational force. The core plug is mounted in a modified centrifuge
tube as shown and the desaturation of the sample is monitored with a strobe light.
When the sample is rotated at various constant speeds a complete capillary pressure
curve can be obtained. The advantage of the method is the increased speed of obtaining
the data in that the complete curve can be established in a few hours.
Seal Cap Core Holder Body Window
O-Ring Core Support Disk Tube Body
Figure 23 Centrifuge for determination of capillary pressure curves 5.
6.2.3 Dynamic method ( Figure 24)

A dynamic method has been used where a simultaneous steady-state flow of two
fluids is established in the core. The saturation is varied by regulating the quantity
of each fluid entering the core and the pressure difference between the two fluids
gives the capillary pressure.

Gas Gas
outlet inlet
∆po
∆pg pc
Core
Oil inlet
To atmosphere
Porcelain
plate
Oil burette
Figure 24 Dynamic capillary pressure equipment 5.
6.2.4 Mercury Injection ( Figure 25)

The most common procedure for determination of capillary pressure is using mercury
injection. The procedure was developed to accelerate the determination of the capillary
pressure-saturation relationship. Mercury is the non-wetting fluid. The core sample
is inserted into the mercury chamber of a mercury pump or a mercury porosimeter
and evacuated. Mercury is then injected into the core under pressure. The volume of
mercury injected at each pressure determines the non-wetting phase saturation. This
procedure is continued until the core sample is filled with mercury or the injection
pressure reaches some predetermined value. The procedure is used in a number of
industries to determine the pore size characteristics of the porous media.
The main advantages are that the test takes considerably less than the diaphragm
method, a matter of one or two hours. The disadvantages are the difference in wetting
properties and permanent loss of the core sample. Also there is concern on the
pore size to pressure relationship since the desaturation of some large pores may be
determined by access via smaller pores.
26
0-00 psi Pressure Guage
0-,000 psi Pressure Guage
Regulating Valve
Lucite Window To
Atmosphere
Cylinder
U-Tube
Manometer
Lucite Window
Figure 25 Mercury injection porosimeter 5.
6.3 Use of Laboratory Capillary Pressure Data for Reservoir

Saturation Distribution.
As we have noted above, laboratory capillary pressure tests can be made with a
variety of fluids that differ from reservoir fluids. It is necessary therefore to convert
laboratory based results to be applicable to the field where the fluids might be different.
We will examine the procedure for converting air-mercury data to water-oil data for
application in field determinations of saturation profiles.
As shown previously, capillary pressure saturation data can be converted to height

saturation data:
Pc
h=
( ρw − ρo )g (1)
Air/mercury capillary pressure curves are comparable in shape to air/brine or oil/brine

capillary pressure curves.
When converting capillary pressure curves to an equivalent height, the difference in

interfacial tension and contact angle between the laboratory and reservoir systems
must be accounted for. For example
surface tension (σ) of water = 70 dynes/cm

surface tension (σ) of mercury= 480 dynes/cm
contact angle (θ) water/solid = 0 degrees
contact angle (θ) mercury/solid = 140 degrees


2σCosθ
Pc =
r (2)
At corresponding saturations therefore
Pcair / mercury 480Cos140

= ≅5
Pc air / water 70Cos0
Pc air/mercury = 5 Pc air/water (3)
The interfacial tension and contact angle values will depend on the characteristics of
the fluids. The relationship between Pc mercury/air and Pc oil/water is often taken
as 10:1 but these interfacial tension and contact angle values should be checked
before converting data.
Pc air / mercury = 10 Pc water / oil (4)
The equations below give the procedure for generating a height saturation profile for
the reservoir from a laboratory based Pc vs saturation capillary pressure data.
Pc L (σCosθ ) R
(σCosθ ) L Pc R
h= =
( ρw − ρh )g ( ρw − ρh )g (5)
where:
h = height in feet above the free water level corresponding to zero capillary
pressure
PcR = capillary pressure at initial reservoir conditions (psi)
PcL = capillary pressure in the laboratory (psi)
(σCosθ)R = interfacial tension cosine of the contact angle (initial reservoir
conditions)
(σCosθ)L = interfacial tension cosine of the contact angle (laboratory conditions)
ρw = density of water at initial reservoir conditions
ρh = density of hydrocarbon at initial reservoir conditions
It should be noted that the interfacial tension of an oil/water system is approximately

10 times greater than that for an oil/gas system and that consequently capillary forces
are more important for the former system.
28
EXERCISE 1 – Calculation of water saturation distribution in a layered reservoir.
The purpose of this exercise is to show that in a well, the water saturation not only
varies with the height above the free water level, but also due to variations in rock
properties.
A well penetrates a reservoir which from cuttings is known to consist of rock types
A and B from which a set of air-mercury measured capillary pressure curves are
available, taken in a nearby well. Figure E1. During logging the lowest 100% Sw
was found at the bottom of the well in rock type B as indicated in the figure E2.
The porosity at this level is 15%.
Specific gravities of the water and oil are 1.03 and 0.80 respectively at reservoir
conditions. The density of water is 62.4 lbm/ft3.
Questions
1. Determine the Free Water level and locate it on figure E2.
2. Construct the water saturation profile.
3. Estimate permeabilities
4. Which intervals would you recommend for completion based on the criteria
Sw<50% and k<0.1mD.
What is the net pay (cumulative thickness having Sw<50%).

(mD) 1 . .0
Pc. (%) 1 10 10
h (psi)
(lt)
0
type A rock
type B rock
00
10
100
0
0
0 0 100%
Pore space unoccupied by mercury
Figure E1 Capillary pressure curves from nearby well.
30
Saturations
h Porosity 0 Oil 100%
Rock (ft) 1% 10
type (1 cm for 100 Water 0 k
10 ft) Unit No. (mD)
%
B 1%
10%
A
1%
B
%
%
A
%
%
B 1%
10%
A
1%
B
10%
100 Sw 1%
in B
type rock
found at
this level
Figure E2 Opposite
6.4 Averaging capillary pressure data
Capillary pressure measurements are not part of routine core analysis and a
comprehensive set of capillary pressure data is not always available. Leverett4 in 1941
generated a function which related capillary pressure to porosity and permeability,
which is commonly termed the Leverett J Function. The application of this function
was to be able to generate capillary pressure information when laboratory data was
not available. Capillary pressure data are obtained from core samples which represent
an extremely small part of the reservoir. The ‘J’ function is used to combine all the
capillary data to classify a particular reservoir.
The theory behind the J Function is outlined below and is based on figure 26 considering
flow through a core, which is assumed to be a bundle of capillary tubes.
Lcap
Lcore
Figure 26 Model of flow for Leverett J Function.
The laminar flow of fluid through a pipe is given by Poiseuille’s equation:
πr 4 ∆P
q=

8µL cap (6)
For n tubes
nπr 4 ∆P
qn =

8µL cap (7)
The porosity of the bundle of tubes is
nπr 2
φ=
A (8)
and the permeability is
qµL core
k=
A∆P (9)
32
If φA is substituted for nπr and then
8K L cap
r2 =
φ L core (10)
L cap
L core is the tortuosity of the bundle of tubes.
On the assumption that the reservoir rock has the same tortuosity at all points,
then
1
 K 2
r = constant  
φ (11)
and substituting for r in the definition of capillary pressure gives:,
2σCosθ
Pc = 1
 K 2
constant  
φ (12)
or
1
 K 2
Pc  
1 φ
= =J
constant σCosθ (13)
Sometimes the J function is written without the Cosθ term.
The capillary pressure measurements can therefore be normalised for differences in

permeabilities, porosities and fluids and used to measure the capillary pressure, i.e.
the J function is obtained independent of k, φ, σ and θ.
A set of capillary pressure data from a set of 9 core plugs taken from different depths
in a well is shown in figure 27 and shows the wide variation in shape of these curves
reflecting the different pore characteristics as given in the table below.
CAPILLIARY PRESSURE vs WATER SATURATION (Sw)
Sample Permeability Porosity

No. mD %
1 0. 1.
.10 .
. 0.
0. 0.
. .0
1,100.00 .
.00 .
.00 .
.10 1.

1
1
1
1
1
1
11
1
10
Pc (PSIG)
0
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100
Sw %
Figure 27 Set of capillary pressure curves.
A plot of the J function for a set of capillary pressure curves is given in figure 28 and
shows the impact of bringing together different rocks under one curve
34
100
1100
1000
00
00
00
_
1
k )
_
Pc( ϕ
00
00
00
00
00
100
10
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100
Sw %
Figure 28 Leverett J Function
The data for figure 27 however would not generate such a good function. The big
assumption in Leverett's model is that of constant tortuosity. Clearly different
rock types will have different tortuosities as a result of the pore characteristics and
composition of the rock. However within a rock type the J function could be a useful
route to obtain capillary pressure data if porosity, permeability and saturation data
is available.
Examination of field data has shown that by plotting J versus a better correlation
(Sw − Swc )
(1 − Swc ) is obtained suggesting that the S reflects the tortuosity variations within
wc
the various rocks. Figure 29

LEGEND
0
Different reservoir sand sequence
in a formation

K
φ

Dimensionless Capillary Pressure Pc
σ
0
1
1
1
1
10
0
0 0.1 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1.0
(
Normalised Wetting Phase Saturation Sw* = Sw-Swc
1-Swc (
Figure 29 Modified Leverett J Function Curves.
7. EFFECTIVE PERMEABILITY
It is not the intention of these notes to review in detail the various approaches
to measuring effective permeabilities to multiphase systems. There has been
considerable activity in this area for gas - oil, oil - water, and three phase gas - oil
- water systems.
There are two approaches to measuring relative permeability, using an unsteady state
method or a steady state method.
36
In the unsteady state method, a displacement process is set up where one fluid displaces
another and the flow rates and pressure drops are monitored as a function of time
for a fixed rate process. The saturations are obtained by calculation the remaining
volumes of the respective fluids. It is more difficult to generate relative permeabilities
as a function of saturation in this way and some would consider the method is more
suited to generate end-point effective permeability values.
In the steady state method a range of constant rate tests are set up and the pressure
drop noted when equilibrium has been achieved. Figure 30 gives a sketch of a typical
steady state set up.
Oil recycle system
Differential
pressure
transducer
∆P
Differential
pressure
transducer
∆P
Oil
Composite core Brine
Oil - water
separator and
production monitor
Brine recycle
system
Pressure
control
system
Figure 30 Steady state relative permeability.
The focus is again on three phase relative permeability which has been the subject
of many papers and correlations. It is however of great interest now that large WAG,
water - alternating gas injection processes are being used to improve recovery.

Solution to Exercise
EXERCISE 1 – Calculation of water saturation distribution in a layered reservoir.
The purpose of this exercise is to show that in a well, the water saturation not only
varies with the height above the free water level, but also due to variations in rod
properties.
A well penetrates a reservoir which from cuttings is known to consist of rock types
A and B from which a set of air-mercury measured capillary pressure curves are
available, taken in a nearby well. Figure E1. During logging the lowest 100% Sw
was found at the bottom of the well in rock type B as indicated in the figure E2. The
porosity at this level is 15%.
Specific gravities of the water and oil are 1.03 and 0.80 respectively at reservoir
conditions. The density of water is 62.4 lbm/ft3.
QUESTIONS
1. Determine the Free Water level and locate it on figure E2.
2. Construct the water saturation profile.
3. Estimate permeabilities
4. Which intervals would you recommend for completion based on the criteria Sw<50%
and k<0.1mD.
What is the net pay (cumulative thickness having Sw<50%).
SOLUTION
1. The first step is to convert the air-mercury capillary pressure data to oil-water.
Pc air/mercury = 10Pc water/oil (equation 4, page 26)
PcR = h (ρw - ρo) g (equation 5, page 27)
Conversion values:
lb f
Pcair/hg = 10 Pc water oil -
in 2
lb f 144in 2 lbm
Pc 2 2
= h ftx (1.03 − 0.8) x 62.4 3 xg
in ft ft
 lb f 144in 2  lbm
Pc oil / water  2  = h( ft ) x (1.03 − 0.8) 62.4 3 xg
n ft 
2
ft
38
1 lbf = 1 lbm xg
Pc oil/water psi = 0.1 ft oil/water
∴Pc air/mercury = 1 ft oil/water
The capillary pressure curves can now be rescaled. Figure E3.
Plotting hft = Pc air/mercury (psi) versus 0 - 100 % water saturation.
2. Free water level
This occurs in rock type B. φ = 15%. From capillary pressure curve 100% water
saturation at 15 psi i.e. 15 ft.
Free water level is 15 ft below this position, as indicated on Figure E4.
The free water level now provides the basis for the water saturation profile
determination.
3. Water Saturation Profile
The water saturation value is determined at each level where the rock properties
change but noting where the 100% water saturation value occurs for each rock type.
At the first change, the height is 20ft from rock type B, 15% φ to type B 10% φ
From the capillary pressure curves the respective saturations are 75% and 100%
Figure E4. For rock type B 10%, the 100% water saturation level is at 27ft when the
saturation decreases. The next rock change is at 41ft above the Free Water Level,
from rock type B 10% to type B 14% with a water saturation value of 73% and
44%. The 44% is based on an estimate of the capillary pressure curve for a value
of porosity of 14% between the 15% and 10% curves. This process is continued
through all the depths of the rock property changes and the total saturation profile
generated.
4. The estimates of permeability are based on porosity permeability trends from the
limited data given for the various rock types of the capillary pressure curves. In
unit 1 rock type B 15% the permeability is 35mD Unit 2, B 10% the permeability
is 15mD Unit 3 B 14%, interpolation suggests a value around 32mD and so on
through the units.
5. Completion intervals according to the criteria Sw<50% and k>0.1mD are

shaded on the figure E4.
6. Net pay adds up to around 125ft.

(mD) 1 . .0
Pc. (%) 1 10 10
h (psi)
(lt)
0' 0
type A rock
type B rock
00' 00
10' 10
100' 100
0' 0
0'
0' 0'
1 psi
0' 0
0 0 100%
Water saturation
Figure E3 Capillary pressure curves from nearby well
40
Saturations
Porosity
0 Oil 100%
Rock 1% 10
h
type 100 Water 0 k
(ft) Unit No. (mD)
0
1 0.0
A
1 0.0
B 00 1
1
1 1
A 1 0.
1
B 10
11 1
10 0.1
A 0.0
0.0
100
10
B
1

A 0.
0

B
10 mm
1
100% WL
1' 1
FWL
Figure E4

REFERENCES
1. Archer. S., Wall. C., Petroleum Engineering Principles and Practice, Graham
and Trotman 1986
2. Recommended Practices for Core Analysis. American Petroleum Institute.
Recommended Practise 40. Second Edition , Feb 1998.
3. Smart. B,
4. Leverett. M,C., Capillary Behaviour in Porous Solids. Trans AIME 1941
5. Amyx et al Petroleum Reservoir Engineering McCranhill 1960
42

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1 INTRODUCTION TO RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

2 RESERVOIR PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES

3 RESERVOIR FLUIDS COMPOSITION

4 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF HYDROCARBON SYSTEMS

6 PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR LIQUIDS

7 FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCKS

8 ROCK PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT

10 FLUID FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA

12 VAPOUR LIQUID EQILIBRIA

13 EQUILIBRIUM RATIO PREDICTION AND CALCULATION

15 MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

16 MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION APPLICATION

19 EXAMINATION AND MODEL SOLUTIONS

1.Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering. L.P.Dake. Elsevier. 1978

2.The Practise of Reservoir Engineering. L.P.Dake. Elsevier. 1994.

3.Principles of Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. G.H.Chierici. Springer-Verlag 1994.

5.Applied Reservoir Engineering B.C.Craft & M.F.Hawkins. Prentice Hall.

6.The Properties of Petroleum Fluids 2nd Ed W.D.McCain Pennwell Books . 1990

8.Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. J.W.Amyx,D.M.Bass & R.L.Whiting.

5 - Core material for examination purposes

Equations – It is not necessary to memorise complicated equations. Equations unless

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 3

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

1 INTRODUCTION 8. PRODUCTION OPERATIONS OPTIMISATION

2 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES 9. THE UNIQUENESS OF THE RESERVOIR

3 RESERVE ESTIMATING 10. CONCLUSIONS

5 VOLUME IN - PLACE CALCULATIONS

6 OTHER APPRAISAL ROLES

• Define the SPE definitions of reserves; proven reserves, unproved reserves;

• Describe in general terms reserve estimation.

• Sketch a diagram showing the probability versus recoverable reserves indicating,

• Present a simple equation for volumes of oil and gas in-place.

• Describe in general terms the evolution of reserves through successive

• Describe briefly the various elements of development planning: reservoir

• Illustrate with a sketch the impact of different technical parameters on the

• Describe in general terms in the context of production operations, optimization

• Draw a sketch showing the various phases of production from build up to

• Draw a sketch illustrating the various recovery scenarios from primary to

Dake2 has usefully specified the distinct technical responsibilities of reservoir

• Contributing, with the geologists and petrophysicists , to the estimation of

• Determining the fraction of discovered hydrocarbons that can be recovered.

• Attaching a time scale to the recovery.

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 

(i) Reserves Estimation

1.1 Reserves Estimation

1.2 Development Planning

1.3 Production Operations Optimisation

2 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 

Estimation of reserves is carried out under conditions of uncertainty. The method of

Reserves estimates will generally be revised as additional geologic or engineering

3.2 Proven Reserves

Proved reserves can be categorised as developed or undeveloped.

Establishment of current economic conditions should include relevant historical

3.2.1 Exercises - Reserve Definitions

STOIIP is: 950 500 400 MM stb

The Reserves are: 450 400 500 MM stb

Turn to page 9 for answers

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University 

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Insitute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University