Spread Spectrum

Spread spectrum is a communication technique that spreads a narrowband communication

signal over a wide range of frequencies for transmission then de-spreads it into the original data
bandwidth at the receive.

Spread spectrum is characterized by:

✔ wide bandwidth and
✔ low power
The main advantage of spread spectrum communication technique is to prevent
“interference” whether it is intentional or unintentional.

The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere and cannot be jammed. An
intruder with no official access is never allowed to crack them. Hence, these techniques are used for
military purposes.

A same code called pseudo-noise sequence must be used at the transmitter as well as at
receiver in order to recover the message is used in spread spectrum techniques.
 Narrow-band and Spread-spectrum Signals

Narrow-band Signals:

Features of Narrow-band Signals:

 Band of signals occupy a narrow range of

frequencies.
 Power density is high.

 Spread of energy is low and concentrated.

Though the features are good, these signals are

Spread Spectrum Signals prone to interference.

Features of spread spectrum signals:

 Band of signals occupy a wide range of

frequencies.
 Power density is very low.

 Energy is wide spread.

With these features, the spread spectrum signals

are highly resistant to interference or jamming.
 A signal that occupies a bandwidth of B, is spread out to occupy a bandwidth of Bss
 All signals are spread to occupy the same bandwidth Bss
 Signals are spread with different codes so that they can be separated at the receivers.
  Signals can be spread in the frequency domain or in the time domain.

Modulated Signal Bandwidth >> Message Signal Bandwidth

ie, B SS>>B
What can be gained from apparent waste of spectrum?
o Immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath distortion
o Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
o Several users can independently use the same higher bandwidth with very little interference

 Model of Spread Spectrum System

• Input fed into channel encoder

—Produces narrow bandwidth analog signal around central frequency
• Signal modulated using sequence of digits
—Spreading code/sequence
—Typically generated by pseudonoise/pseudorandom number generator
• Increases bandwidth significantly —spreads spectrum
• Receiver uses same sequence to demodulate signal
• Demodulated signal fed into channel decoder
 Applications of Spread Spectrum:

✔ Cordless Telephones
✔ Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
✔ Cell Phones
✔ Personal Communication Systems
✔ Wireless video cameras
✔ Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) . . .
 Two types :
 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies of
usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency hopping.

For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time. Now, after a
while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first frequency, which was
previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.

The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure
transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.
 Working:
FHSS is a transmission technology used in wireless networks. It’s a technique uses M different
carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal, through frequency shift keying
modulation (FSK) scheme. At one moment, the signal modulates one carrier frequency; at the next
moment, the signal modulates another carrier frequency. Although the modulation is done using one
carrier frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the long run. The bandwidth occupied by a
source after spreading is BFHSS>>B.
 The information signal is transmitted on different frequencies
 Time is divided in slots
 Each slot the frequency is changed
 The change of the frequency is referred to as slow if more than one bit is transmitted on one
frequency, and as fast if one bit is transmitted over multiple frequencies
 The frequencies are chosen based on the spreading sequences

 Transmitter operates in one channel at a time

 Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme
 At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is selected
Pseudo random Code Generator:
 Generated by algorithm using initial seed
 Deterministic algorithm —Not actually random —If algorithm good, results pass reasonable
tests of randomness
 Need to know algorithm and seed to predict sequence
  A PN code creates a k-bit pattern for every hopping period (T h). The frequency table uses the
pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period and passes it to the frequency
synthesizer.
In this case, M is 8 and k is 3.
The PN code generator will create 8
different 3- bit pattern which are
mapped to different frequencies in
the frequency table.

When the hopping sequence is completed, it is then repeated, and this process continues until the
information being communicated has been transferred.
Typically 2k carrier frequencies forming 2k channels
✔ The carrier then repeats this pattern in cyclic manner.
✔ During Dwell Time the carrier remains at a certain frequency.
✔ During Hop Time the carrier hops to the next frequency.
✔ The data is spread over 83 MHz in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
✔ This signal is resistant but not immune to narrow band interference.

Frquency Sythesizer:

Generates Carrier signal of frequency specified from the frequency table.

Modulator:

Modulates the Input signal with the carrier frequency generated by the frequency synthesizer

FHSS cycles:

 Advantages

o Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips

o Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only at knocking out a few bits.
 FHSS Using MFSK
Bandwidth sharing is shared among the number of users.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit of the user
data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code. This chipping code is nothing but the
spreading code which is multiplied with the original message and transmitted. The receiver uses the
same code to retrieve the original message.

In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code. In other words, each bit is
assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n times that of the data bit
 Input combined with spread code by XOR …
o input 0: spreading code unchanged …
o input 1: spreading code inverted

DSSS is implemented at the physical layer. DSSS uses 2.4 GHz ISM Band. The bit sequence uses
the entire bandwidth
 The transmitted information over the Spread Spectrum system cannot be recovered without
knowledge of the spreading code sequence. Thus, the privacy of individual user communications is
protected in the presence of other users.

Demerits :
The biggest demerit of using a SS technique is the complex circuitry involved in generation and
reception of spread signal waveforms. These results Increased cost of operation and maintenance. SS
involves using a larger bandwidth than that required to transmit the information. Thus the technique
is inherently bandwidth inefficient.
Comparison between FHSS and DSSS/CDMA
FHSS DSSS / CDMA

Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at any User frequency, once allotted is always the
instant of time same

Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender need not wait Sender has to wait if the spectrum is busy

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

Stronger and penetrates through the

It is weaker compared to FHSS
obstacles

It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive

This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used

STRUCTURE OF A SWITCH
Different switches used in circuit-switched and packet-switched networks.
Structure of Circuit Switches
Circuit switching today can use either of two technologies:
o Space-division switch
o Time-division switch.
Space-Division Switch
In space-division switching, the paths in the circuit are separated from one another spatially.
This technology was originally designed for use in analog networks but is used currently in both analog
and digital networks.
The advantage of space-division switching is that it is instantaneous. Its disadvantage is the number of
crosspoints required to make space-division switching acceptable in terms of blocking.
 Crossbar Switch
A crossbar switch connects n inputs to m outputs in a grid, using electronic microswitches
(transistors) at each crosspoint.
The major limitation of this design is the number of crosspoints required. To connect n inputs
to m outputs using a crossbar switch requires n × m crosspoints. For example, to connect 1000 inputs
to 1000 outputs requires a switch with 1,000,000 crosspoints. A crossbar with this number of
crosspoints is impractical. Such a switch is also inefficient because statistics show that, in practice,
fewer than 25 percent of the crosspoints are in use at any given time. The rest are idle.

 Multistage Switch
The solution to the limitations of the crossbar switch is the multistage switch, which combines
crossbar switches in several (normally three) stages.
In a single crossbar switch, only one row or column (one path) is active for any connection. So
we need N × Ν crosspoints.
Here it allows multiple paths inside the switch, so that it decreases the number of crosspoints.
Each crosspoint in the middle stage can be accessed by multiple crosspoints in the first or third stage.
To design a three-stage switch, the steps are :
1. Divide the N input lines into groups, each of n lines. For each group, use one crossbar of size n × k,
where k is the number of crossbars in the middle stage. In other words, the first stage has N/n
crossbars of n × k crosspoints.
2. Use k crossbars, each of size (N/n) × (N/n) in the middle stage.
3. Use N/n crossbars, each of size k × n at the third stage.
Then calculate the total number of crosspoints as follows:

In a three-stage switch, the total number of crosspoints is 2kN + k(N/n) 2

which is much smaller than the number of crosspoints in a single-stage switch (N 2).
Qus1 .Design a three-stage, 200 × 200 switch (N = 200) with k = 4 and n = 20.
Ans: In the first stage, there is N/n or 10 crossbars, each of size 20 × 4.
In the second stage, there is 4 crossbars, each of size 10 × 10.
In the third stage, there is 10 crossbars, each of size 4 × 20.
The total number of crosspoints is 2kN + k(N/n)2, or 2000 crosspoints.
This is 5 percent of the number of crosspoints in a single-stage switch (200 × 200 = 40,000).

Clos investigated the condition of nonblocking in multistage switches.

According to the Clos criterion:
n = (N/2)1/2
k > 2n – 1
Crosspoints ≥ 4N [(2N)1/2 – 1]
Qus 2: Redesign the previous three-stage, 200 × 200 switch, using the Clos criteria with a minimum
number of crosspoints.
 Ans: let n = (200/2)1/2, or n = 10.
calculate k = 2n − 1 = 19.
In the first stage, there is 200/10, or 20, crossbars, each with 10 × 19 crosspoints.
In the second stage, there is19 crossbars, each with 10 × 10 crosspoints.
In the third stage, there is 20 crossbars each with 19 × 10 crosspoints.
The total number of crosspoints is 20(10 × 19) + 19(10 × 10) + 20(19 ×10) = 9500.

A multistage switch that uses the Clos criteria and a minimum number of crosspoints still
requires a huge number of crosspoints. The number can be reduced if accept blocking. Today, telephone
companies use time-division switching or a combination of space- and time-division switches

Time-Division Switch
Time-division switching uses time-division multiplexing (TDM) inside a switch. The most popular
technology is called the time-slot interchange (TSI).
Time-Slot Interchange
Consider a system connecting four input lines to four output lines. Imagine that each input line wants to
send data to an output line according to the following pattern:

1 ➡3 2 ➡4 3 ➡1 4➡2

The figure combines a TDM multiplexer, a TDM demultiplexer, and a TSI consisting of random
access memory (RAM) with several memory locations. The size of each location is the same as the size
of a single time slot. The number of locations is the same as the number of inputs (in most cases, the
numbers of inputs and outputs are equal). The RAM fills up with incoming data from time slots in the
order received. Slots are then sent out in an order based on the decisions of a control unit.
Advantage of time-division switching:
 it needs no crosspoints.
Disadvantage of time-division switching:
 In the case of TSI, is that processing each connection creates delays.
 Each time slot must be stored by the RAM, then retrieved and passed on.
Time- and Space-Division Switch Combinations
The two switches that are optimized both physically (the number of crosspoints) and
temporally (the amount of delay). Multistage switches of this sort can be designed as time-space-time
(TST) switch.

A simple TST switch that consists of two time stages and one space stage and has 12 inputs and
12 outputs. Instead of one time-division switch, it divides the inputs into three groups (of four inputs
each) and directs them to three timeslot interchanges. The result is that the average delay is one-third
of what would result from using one time-slot interchange to handle all 12 inputs. The last stage is a
mirror image of the first stage. The middle stage is a space division switch (crossbar) that connects the
TSI groups to allow connectivity between all possible input and output pairs (e.g., to connect input 3 of
the first group to output 7 of the second group).

Qus 3: Compare time division and space division switch.