NPTEL – Electrical Engineering – Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

Module 6: A.C. Electrical Machines for Hybrid and

Electric Vehicles
Lecture 17: Induction motors, their configurations and
optimization for HEV/EVs
Fundamentals of Electrical Machines
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Electrical Machines in EVs and HEVs
 Physical Concepts of Torque production
 Why Should the Number of Poles on Stator Equal to the Number of Poles on
Rotor
 How Continuous Torque is Produced by a Motor
 Rotating Magnetic Field
 How to Create the Second Magnetic Field
 Electrical and Mechanical Angle
Electrical Machines in EVs and HEVs
Vehicle propulsion has specific requirements that distinguish stationary and onboard
motors. Every kilogram onboard the vehicle represents an increase in structural load. This
increase structural load results in lower efficiency due to increase in the friction that the
vehicle has to overcome. Higher efficiency is equivalent to a reduction in energy demand
and hence, reduced battery weight.
The fundamental requirement for traction motors used in EVs is to generate
propulsion torque over a wide speed range. These motors have intrinsically neither
nominal speed nor nominal power. The power rating mentioned in the catalog and on the
name plate of the motor corresponds to the maximum power that the drive can deliver.
Two most commonly used motors in EV propulsion are Permanent Magnet (PM) Motors
and Induction Motors (IM). These two motors will be investigated in detail in the coming
lectures. However, before going into the details of these machines some basic
fundamentals of electrical machines, such as torque production, are discussed in this
chapter.

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Physical Concepts of Torque Production

In Figure 1a a stator with 2 poles and a cylindrical rotor with a coil are shown. When
only the stator coils are energized, stator magnetic flux is set up as shown in Figure 1a.
The magnetic field for case when only the rotor coil is energized is shown in Figure 1b.
In case when both the stator and rotor coils are energized, the magnetic resultant
magnetic field is shown in Figure 1c. Since in this case the magnetic flux lines behave
like stretched band, the rotor conductor experiences a torque in the direction shown in
Figure 1c. From Figure 1c it can be seen that the stator S pole attracts the rotor N pole
and repels the rotor S pole, resulting in clockwise torque. Similarly stator N pole attracts
rotor S pole and repels rotor N pole, resulting again in clockwise torque.

Rotor

Stator

Figure 1a: Magnetic field when only stator is energised

Rotor

Stator

Figure 1b: Magnetic field when only rotor is energised Figure 1c: Magnetic field when both stator and rotor are
energised

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The total torque is shown in Figure 1c. This torque is developed due to the interaction of
stator and rotor magnetic fields and hence is known as interaction torque or
electromagnetic torque. The magnitude of the electromagnetic torque ( Tem ) or interaction
torque is given by
Tem   H s  H r  sin  (1)
where
H s is the magnetic field created by current in the stator winding
H r is the magnetic field created by current in the rotor winding
 is the angle between stator and rotor magnetic field
Another configuration of the motor, with the flux lines, is shown in Figure 2a. Since the
magnetic flux has a tendency to follow a minimum reluctance path or has a tendency to
shorten its flux path, the rotor experiences an anti-clockwise torque. From Figure 2a it
can be seen that the flux lines will have a tendency to align the rotor so that the reluctance
encountered by them is reduced. The least reluctance position of the rotor is shown in
Figure 2b.

Figure 2a: Magnetic field when rotor axis is aligned with Figure 2b: Magnetic field when rotor axis is not aligned with
stator poles stator poles

To realign the rotor from the position shown in Figure 2a to position shown in Figure
2b, a torque is exerted by the flux lines on the rotor. This torque is known as the
reluctance or alignment torque.

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Why Should the Number of Poles on Stator Equal to the Number of Poles on Rotor?
In the previous section it has been shown that to produce electromagnetic torque, the
magnetic field produced by the stator has to interact with the magnetic field produced by
the rotor. However, if the number of poles producing the stator magnetic field is not
equal to the number of rotor poles producing the rotor magnetic field, then the net
torque produced by the motor will be zero. This is illustrated by the motor configuration
shown in Figure 3. In this motor the stator has two poles ( N s , Ss ) and the rotor has four
poles ( Nr1 , Sr1 , Nr 2 , Sr 2 ). The angle between the stator poles is 180o and the angle between
the rotor poles is 90o. From the arrangement shown in Figure 3 it can be seen that the
angle between N r1 and N s is equal to the angle between N r 2 and S . Hence, a repulsive
force exists between N r1 and N s in clockwise direction and an attractive force exists
between N r 2 and S in the anticlockwise direction. Both, the attractive and repulsive
forces are of same magnitude and the resultant of these forces is zero.

N r1 S r1

Ns Ss
Rotor
Sr 2 Nr 2

Stator

Figure 3: Configuration of a motor with unequal number of stator and rotor poles

Now consider the pole pairs ( N s , Sr 2 ) and ( S s , S r1 ), the angle between the pole pairs is
same. Hence, the force of attraction between N s and Sr 2 is same as the force of repulsion
between S s and S r1 and thus, the resultant force acting on the rotor is zero. Therefore, in
this case no electromagnetic torque is developed.

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From the above discussion it can be seen that the resultant electromagnetic torque
developed due to two stator poles and 4 rotor poles is zero. This leads to the conclusion
that in all rotating electric machines, the number of rotor poles should be equal to
number of stator poles for electromagnetic torque to be produced.
How Continuous Torque is Produced by a Motor
In the previous section it has been seen that to produce electromagnetic torque, following
two conditions have to be satisfied:
 Both stator and rotor must produce magnetic field
 The number of magnetic poles producing the stator magnetic field must be same
as the number of magnetic poles producing the rotor magnetic field.
Now an important question that arises is how to create continuous magnetic torque? To
produce continuous torque the magnetic field of the stator should rotate continuously. As
a result, the rotor’s magnetic field will chase the stator’s magnetic field and this result in
production of continuous torque. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figures 4a-4d. In
Figure 4 a two pole machine is depicted and the rotors magnetic field is created by the
permanent magnets. It is assumed that the stator’s magnetic field rotates at a speed of 60
revolutions per minute (60 rpm) which is equivalent 1 revolution per second (1rps). To
start the analysis it is assumed that at time t  0 , the stator’s magnetic field axis aligns
itself with the x  axis and the rotor’s magnetic field axis makes an angle  with the
stator’s magnetic axis (Figure 4a). At time t  0.25s , the stator’s magnetic field moves by
90o and the rotor’s magnetic field chases the stator’s field and aligns as shown in Figure
4b. Similarly the locations of the magnetic field axis at time t  0.5s and t  0.75s are
shown in Figures 4c and Figure 4d.
From the above discussion and observing Figure 4 the following conclusions can be
drawn:
 The rotor’s magnetic field chases the stator’s magnetic field.
 The angle (  ) between the stator’s magnetic axis and the rotor’s magnetic axis
remains constant. Hence, the rotor’s speed of rotation is same as that of the
stator’s magnetic field.

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However, an important question that still remains unanswered is How to create a rotating
magnetic field?

y  axis y  axis

Ss

Sr  Nr

Ns Ss
 x  axis x  axis
Nr Sr

Ns

Figure 4a: Stator’s magnetic field at time t 0 Figure 4b: Stator’s magnetic field at time t  0.25

y  axis y  axis

Ns

Nr
Sr
Ss 
Ns
x  axis x  axis
Sr Nr 

Ss

Figure 4c: Stator’s magnetic field at time t  0.5 Figure 4d: Stator’s magnetic field at time t  0.75

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Rotating Magnetic Field

To understand the rotations of magnetic field consider a 2-pole 3-phase stator as shown in
Figure 5a. The three phase windings a, b and c are represented by three coils aa , bb and
cc . A current in phase a winding establishes magnetic flux directed along the magnetic
axis of coil aa . Similarly, the currents in phase b and c windings will create fluxes
directed along the magnetic axes of coils bb and cc respectively. The three phase currents
flowing the winding is shown in Figure 5a. At time instant 1, the currents of each phase
are

Im I
ia  I m ; ib   ; ic   m
2 2
where (2)
I m  maximum value of the current

Since, ib and ic are negative, crosses must be shown in coil-sides b and c and dots in the
coil sides b and c .The right hand thumb rule gives the flux distribution as shown in
Figure 5b. In Figure 5b and the following figures, the thicker line indicates higher
magnitude to flux. The

At instant 2, the currents are

Im I
ia  ; ib  m ; ic   I m (3)
2 2

The magnetic flux distribution created by the currents at instant 2 is shown in Figure 5c.
Eventually at instant 3, the currents are

Im I
ia   ; ib  I m ; ic   m (4)
2 2

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The magnetic flux distribution created by the phase currents given by equation 4 is
shown in Figure 5d. From Figure 5b to 5c it can be seen that the 2 poles produced by the
resultant flux are seen to have turned 60o. At other instants of time, i.e. as time elapses,
the two poles rotate further. In this manner a rotating magnetic field is produced. The
space angle traversed by a rotating flux is equal to the time angle traversed by currents.
After having discussed the production of rotating magnetic field, an important issue that
still remains unresolved is: How to create the second magnetic field that will follow the
rotating magnetic field created by the stator? This question is answered in following
section.

Phase A Phase B Phase C

a

Im
c
b
t

60o 60o
Instant 1 Instant 2 Instant 3

b
c

Figure 5a: Three phase currents given to stator windings Figure 5b: Magnetic flux at instant 1

a
a

c
c b
b

b
b
c
c

a
a

Figure 5c: Magnetic flux at instant 2 Figure 5d: Magnetic flux at instant 3

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How to Create the Second Magnetic Field

From equation 1 it can be seen that to produce torque two magnetic fields are required.
The rotating magnetic field created by the stator has been discussed in the previous
section and this section deals with the generation of rotor magnetic field. There are
multiple ways to produce the rotor magnetic field namely:
 Having windings on the rotor and exciting then with dc current to produce
magnetic field (known as Synchronous Machines).
 Having permanent magnets on the rotor to produce the rotor magnetic field
(known as Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines).
 Utilize the Faradays law of induction to induce electromotive force (e.m.f) in the
rotor coils. The induced e.m.f will result in flow of current through the rotor
conductors and these currents will produce a magnetic field. These machines are
known as Induction Machines or asynchronous machines.
Synchronous Machines
The general configuration of synchronous machine is shown in Figure 6. It can be seen
from Figure 6 that the rotor has a coil (denoted by a dot and a cross) and through this coil
a dc current flows. Due to this dc current a pair of magnetic poles is created. The stator
windings also create two magnetic fields that rotate with time and hence, the rotor’s
magnetic poles chase the stator’s magnetic field and in the process electromagnetic
torque is produced. The speed of rotation of rotor depends on the speed with which the
stator’s field rotates and hence, these machines are known as synchronous machine.

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Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines (PMSM)

In case of PMSM, the rotor field is created by permanent magnets rather than dc current
passing through a coil (Figure 7). The principle of operation of PMSM is same as that of
synchronous machine.
a
a

c N
b c
b

b b
c c S

a a

Figure 6: Synchronous machine Figure 7: Permanent Magnet Synchronous machine

Induction Machine (IM)

Like synchronous machine, the stator winding of an induction machine is excited with
alternating currents. In contrast to a synchronous machine in which a field winding on the
rotor is excited with dc current, alternating currents flow in the rotor windings of an
induction machine. In IM, alternating currents are applied to the stator windings and the
rotor currents are produced by induction. The details of the working of the IMs are given
in the following lectures.
After having discussed the general features of the electrical machines, the question that
arises is: how to analyse the machines? The analysis of electrical machines becomes
simple by use of electrical equivalent circuits. The electrical equivalent circuits for the
machines are discussed in the next section. One last concept that is relevant to electrical
machines is principle of electrical and mechanical angle which is explained in the next
section.

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Electrical and Mechanical Angle

In Figure 8, it is assumed that the field winding is excited by a dc source and a coil
rotates in the air gap at a uniform angular speed. When the conductor is aligned along
y  y axis, the e.m.f induced is zero. Along x  x axis the induced e.m.f is maximum. In
one revolution of the coil, the e.m.f induced is shown in Figure 9. If the same coil rotates
in a 4 pole machine (Figure 10), excited by a dc source, the variation in the magnetic
flux density and the induced e.m.f is shown in Figure 11. From Figure 11 it can be seen
that in one revolution of 360 mechanical degrees, 2 cycles of e.m.f (720 electrical
degrees) are induced. The 720 electrical degrees in a 4 pole machine can be related to 360
mechanical degrees as follows
4
720 electrical degrees =   360 mechanical degrees 
2 (5)
4
 elec   mech
2

y
Induced emf

0 60 120 180 240 300 360

x x

Rotor Angle [o ]

Figure 8: A two pole machine Figure 9: Induced e.m.f in the rotor coils of a two pole machine

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Induced emf
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Rotor Angle [o ]

Figure 10: A four pole machine Figure11: Induced e.m.f in the rotor coils of a four pole machine

For a P-pole machine, P/2 cycles of e.m.f will be generated in one revolution. Thus, for a
P pole machine
P
 elec   mech
2
d P d mech
 elec  (6)
dt 2 dt
P
 elec  mech
2
In a 4 pole, in one revolution 2 cycles of e.m.f are generated. Hence, for a P pole
machine, in one revolution P/2 cycles are generated. For a P-pole machine, in one
revolution per second, P/2 cycles per second of e.m.f will be generated. Hence, for a P
P
pole machine, in n revolutions per second  n cycles/second are generated. The
2
quantity cycles/second is the frequency f of the generated e.m.f. Hence,

P PN
f   n Hertz  f  Hertz
2 120
where (7)
N  the speed in rpm

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Suggested Reading:
[1] M. G. Say, The Performance and Design of Alternating Current Machines, CBS
Publishers, New Delhi
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, McGraw Hill, 2005

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Lecture 18: Induction motor drives, their control and

applications in EV/HEVs
Induction Motor for EV and HEV Application
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Traction Motors
 Principle of Operation of Induction Motor (Mathematical Treatment)
 Principle of Operation of Induction Motor (Graphical Treatment)
 Fluxes and MMF in Induction Motor
 Rotor Action
 Rotor e.m.f and Equivalent Circuit
 Complete Equivalent Circuit
 Simplification of Equivalent Circuit
 Analysis of Equivalent Circuit
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Principles of Operation of Induction Motor (Mathematical Treatment)
In Figure 1 a cross section of the stator of a three phase, two pole induction motor is
shown. The stator consists of three blocks of iron spaced at 120° apart. The three coils are
connected in Y and energized from a three phase system. When the stator windings are
energized from a three phase system, the currents in the coils reach their maximum
values at different instants. Since the three currents are displaced from each other by 120°
electrical, their respective flux contributions will also be displaced by 120° electrical. Let
a balanced three phase current be applied to the stator with the phase sequence A-B-C
I A  I m cos t
 2 
I B  I m cos  t   (1)
 3 
 4 
I C  I m cos  t  
 3 
The instantaneous flux produced by the stator will hence be
 A  m cos t
 2 
B  m cos  t   (2)
 3 
 4 
C  m cos  t  
 3 

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The resultant flux at an angle  from the axis of phase A is

2 4
T  A cos( )  B cos(  )  C cos(  ) (3)
3 3
Substituting equation 2 into equation 3 gives
2 2 4 4
T  A cos( ) cos(t )  B cos(  ) cos(t  )  C cos(  ) cos(t  )
3 3 3 3
3 (4)
 T  m cos(  t )
2
From equation 4 it can be seen that the resultant flux has amplitude of 1.5 m , is a
sinusoidal function of angle  and rotates in synchronism with the supply frequency.
Hence, it is called a rotating field.

Figure 1: Cross section of a simple induction motor

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Principles of Operation of Induction Motor (Graphical Treatment)

Let the synchronous frequency  be 1rad/sec. Hence, the spatial distribution of resultant
flux at t=0sec, t=60sec, t=120sec, t=180 sec, t=240sec and t=300sec and are shown in
Figure 2. The explanation of the flux creation is as follows
 At t=0, phase A is a maximum north pole, while phase B and phase C are weak
south poles, Figure (2a).
 At t=60, phase C is a strong south pole, while phase B and phase A are weak
north poles Figure (2b).
 At t=120, phase B is a strong north pole, while phase A and phase C are weak
south poles Figure (2c).
 At t=180, phase A is a strong south pole, while phase B and phase C are weak
north poles Figure (2a).
 At t=240, phase C is a strong north pole, while phase A and phase B are weak
south poles Figure (2e).
 At t=300, phase B is s strong south pole, while phase C and phase A are weak
north poles Figure (2f).

Phase A
1.5 m N N

Angle around the

Phase A Phase B
periphery of motor
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Phase B Phase C
-1.5 m
S Phase C
t=0 S
Figure 2a: Magnetic poles position at t=0 t=60 poles position at t=60
Figure 2b: Magnetic

Phase B N N
1.5 m
Phase B
Phase C
Angle around the Angle around the
periphery of motor periphery of motor

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Phase A Phase C
S
Phase A
S
t=120
Figure 2c: Magnetic poles position at t=120 Figure 2d: t=180
Magnetic poles position at t=180

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N N
Phase C

Phase A Phase C
Angle around the Angle around the
periphery of motor periphery of motor

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Phase A Phase B

S Phase B S

t=240poles position at t=240 t=300

Figure 2e: Magnetic Figure 2f: Magnetic poles position at t=300

Fluxes and MMF in Induction Motor

Although the flux generated by each coil is only alternating flux, the combined flux
contributions of the three coils, carrying current at appropriate sequential phase angles,
produces a two pole rotating flux. The rotating flux produced by three phase currents in
the stationary coils, may be linked to the rotating field produced by a magnet sweeping
around the rotor (Figure 3a). The rotating field cuts the rotor bars in its anti clockwise
sweep around the rotor. According to Lenz’s law, the voltage, current and flux generated
by the relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field will be in a direction to
oppose the relative motion. From Figure 3a it can be seen that the bars a and b are just
under the pole centers and have maximum electromotive force (e.m.f) generated in them
and this is indicated by large cross and dots. The bars away from the pole centers have
reduced magnitude of generated e.m.fs and these are indicated by varying sizes of dots
and crosses. If the rotor circuit is assumed purely resistive, then current in any bar is in
phase with the e.m.f generated in that bar (Figure 3a). The existence of currents in the
rotor circuit gives rise to rotor mmf F2 , which lags behind airgap flux m by a space angle
of 90°. The rotor mmf causes the appearance two poles N 2 and S 2 .The relative speed
between the poles N1 , S1 and the rotor poles N 2 , S 2 is zero. Rotating pole N1 repels N 2
but attracts S 2 . Consequently the electromagnetic torque developed by the interaction of
the airgap flux m and the rotor mmf F2 is in the same direction as that of the rotating
magnetic field (Figure 3b). The space phase angle between F2 and m is called the load
angle and for this case it is 90° (Figure 3b). The torque produce is given by

Te  k F2 sin( )  k F2 (5)
2

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Rotating Airgap Flux Rotating Airgap Flux

S2

a b S1 N1 a b S1
N1

N2

Figure 3a: Rotating airgap flux Figure 3b: Rotor and Stator fields

In actual machine, the rotor bars are embedded in the iron, hence the rotor circuit has
leakage reactance. Thus the rotor current in each bar lags behind the generated e.m.f in
that bar by rotor power factor angle:
x2
 2  tan 1 (6)
r2
From Figure 4 it is seen that bars a and b under the poles have a maximum generated
e.m.fs. On account of the rotor reactance ( x2 ), the currents in these bars will be maximum
only when the poles N1 , S1 have traveled through an angle  2 (Figure 4). The rotor current

generates rotor mmf F2 is space displaced from the air gap flux m by a load angle  2   .
2
The torque produced by the motor in this situation is

Te  k F2 sin(   2 ) (7)
2

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Greater the value of x2 , greater is the departure of load angle from its optimal value of 
2
and lesser is the torque. To generate a high starting torque,  2 should be made as small as
possible and this is done by increasing rotor resistance r2 .
S2
Axis of stator field

N1 a b S1

Axis of rotor field

N2
Figure 4: Axis of rotor and stator fields in case of rotor with inductance
Rotor Action
At standstill, rotor conductors are being cut by rotating flux wave at synchronous speed ns
. Hence, the frequency f 2 of the rotor e.m.f and current is equal to the input voltage
frequency f1 . When the rotor rotates at a speed of nr rotations per second (r.p.s) in the
direction of rotating flux wave, the relative speed between synchronously rotating flux
and rotor conductors becomes ( ns  nr ) r.p.s, i.e.,
P(ns  nr )
f2 
2 (8)
where P is the number of poles of the machine
Hence, the slip of the machine is defined as
ns  nr
s (9)
ns
Thus, the rotor frequency is defined as
P  s  ns
f2   sf1 (10)
2

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At standstill the rotor frequency is f1 and the field produced by rotor currents revolves at

a speed equal to 2 f1 w.r.t. rotor structure. When the rotor rotates at a speed of nr,
P
the rotor frequency is sf1 and the rotor produced field revolves at a speed of
2( sf1 )
 sns w.r.t. rotor structure. The rotor is already rotating at a speed of nr w.r.t.
P
stator. Hence, the speed of rotor field w.r.t. to stator is equal to the sum of mechanical
rotor speed nr and rotor field speed sns w.r.t. rotor. Hence, the speed of the rotor field
with respect to stator is given by
nr  sns  ns (1 s)  sns  ns r.p.s (11)
The stator and rotor fields are stationary with respect to each other at all possible rotor
speeds. Hence, a steady torque is produced by their interaction. The rotor of an induction
motor can never attain synchronous speed. If does so then the rotor conductors will be
stationary w.r.t. the synchronously rotating rotor conductors and hence, rotor m.m.f.
would be zero.
Rotor e.m.f and Equivalent Circuit
Let the rotor e.m.f. at standstill be E2 . When the rotor speed is 0.4ns , the slip is 0.6 and
the relative speed between rotating field and rotor conductors is 0.6ns . Hence, the induced
e.m.f. , per phase, in the rotor is
E2
0.6ns  0.6 E2 (12)
ns
In general, for any value of slip s , the per phase induced e.m.f in the rotor conductors is
equal to sE2 . The other quantities of the rotor are given as
The rotor leakage reactance at standstill is x2  2 f1L2 (13a)
The rotor leakage reactance at any slip s is 2 sf1L2  sx2 (13b)

The rotor leakage impedance at standstill is r22  x22 (13c)

At any slip s rotor leakage impedance is r22  ( sx2 )2 (13d)

E2
The per phase rotor current at standstill is (13e)
r22  x22
sE2 E2
The per phase rotor current at any slip s is  (13f)
r22  ( sx2 )2 2
 r2 
   ( x2 )
2

s

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Based on equation 13f the equivalent circuit of the rotor is shown in Figure 5.

x2

i2 r2
E2 s

Figure 5: Equivalent circuit of rotor

Complete Equivalent Circuit

The rotating air gap flux generates back e.m.f. ( E1 ) in all the three phases of the stator.
The stator applied terminal voltage V1 has to overcome back e.m.f. E1 and the stator
leakage impedance drop:
V1  E1  I1 (r1  jx1 ) (14)
The stator current I1 consists of following two components, I1 and I m . The component I1
is the load component and counteracts the rotor m.m.f. The other component I m
creates the resultant air gap flux m and provides the core loss. This current can be
resolved into two components: I c in phase with E1 and I lagging E1 by 90o. In the
equivalent circuit of the stator shown in Figure 6, I c and I are taken into account by a
parallel branch, consisting of core-loss resistance Rc in parallel to magnetizing reactance
X .

r1 x1 x2
im
i1 i2

Rc
r2
V1 Xc
s
ic i

Figure 6: Equivalent circuit of stator

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The rotor e.m.f. E2 when referred to stator becomes

E2 '
E1  N1
N 2' (15)
where N1' and N 2' are number of turns in the stator and rotor respectively
The rotor leakage impedance when referred to the stator is
2
r  N  r
' '
Z 2   2  jx2   1'   2  jx2'
s   N2  s
where (16)
2 2
 N   N 
r2   1  r2 ; x2   1  x2
 N 2   N 2 
After referred the rotor quantities towards stator, the combined equivalent circuit of the
machine is shown in Figure 7. For simplicity the prime notations will not be used in the
further discussions and all the rotor quantities henceforth will be referred to the stator
side. Moreover, all the quantities are at stator frequency.
r1 x1 x2
im
i1 i2

E1
r2
V1 Rc X c
s
ic i

Figure 7: Complete equivalent circuit of Induction Motor

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Simplification Equivalent Circuit

The use of exact equivalent circuit is laborious; hence some simplifications are done in
the equivalent circuit. Under normal operating conditions of constant voltage and
frequency, core loss in induction motors is usually constant. Hence, the core loss
component can be omitted from the equivalent circuit, Figure 8. However, to determine
the shaft power, the constant core loss must be taken into account along with friction,
windage and stray load losses. It should be noted that all the quantities used in the
equivalent circuit are per phase quantities. Steady state performance parameters of the
induction motor, such as current, speed, torque, losses etc. can be computed from the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 8.
r1 x1 x2

i1 i2
r2
V1 Xc
s

Figure 8: Simplified equivalent circuit of Induction Motor

Analysis of Equivalent Circuit

The total power transferred across the air gap ( Pg ) from the stator is
r 
Pgap  n ph i22  2 
s
  1 s  
 n ph  i22 r2  i22 r2   (17)
  s 
where n ph is the number of phases
Hence, the rotor Ohmic loses and the internal mechanical power are given as
Protor  nph i22 r2  nph sPgap (18)
 1 s 
Pmech  n ph i22 r2   (19)
 s 
The internal (gross or air gap or the electromagnetic torque) torque developed per phase
is given by
P (1  s) Pgap Pgap
Te  mech  
r (1  s)s s (20)
where r is the rotor speed and s is the synchronous speed

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The output or the shaft power is

Pshaft  Pmech  Mechanical losses
or (21)
Pshaft  Pgap  Rotor Ohmic losses  Mechanical losses
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor
When the torque-slip or power-slip characteristics are required, application of Thevenin’s
theorem to the induction motor equivalent circuit reduces the computation complexity.
For applying Thevenin’s theorem to the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 8, two points
a, b are considered as shown in Figure 9. From these points the voltage source V1 is
viewed and the equivalent voltage at point a and b is
V1  jX c 
Veq  (22)
R1  j  X 1  X c 
The equivalent impedance of the circuit as seen from points a and b is

Z eq 
 R1  jX1  jX c  (23)
R1  j  X 1  X c 
For most induction motors ( X1  X c ) is much greater than R1 . Hence, R1 can be neglected
from the denominator of equation 22 and equation 23. The simplified expression for Veq
and Z eq are
V1  jX c  V1 X c
Veq   (24)
j  X1  X c  X1  X c
R1 X c jX1 X c
Zeq  Req  jX eq   (25)
X1  X c X1  X c
From the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, the rotor current can be determined as
Veq
I2  (26)
 r2 
 Req    j  X eq  X 2 
 s

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The airgap torque produced by the motor is

n ph Veq2 r2
Te 
s  r2 
2

 Req     X eq  X 2 
2 s
 s
Kt r2
 2
 r2  s (27)
 Req    X
2

 s
where
n phVeq2
Kt  and X  X 2  X eq
s
A typical torque versus slip curve for IM obtained from equation 27 is shown in Figure
10.
r1 x1 x2

r2
V1 s

Figure 9: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

160

140

120

100
Torque [Nm]

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Slip

Figure 10: Torque vs. Slip curve of IM

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Suggested Reading:
[1] M. G. Say, The Performance and Design of Alternating Current Machines, CBS
Publishers, New Delhi
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, McGraw Hill, 2005

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Lecture 19: Permanent magnet motors, their configurations

and optimization
Control of Induction Motors
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Speed Control of Induction Motor
 Constant Volts/Hz control
 Implementation of Constant Volts/Hz Control
 Steady State Analysis of IM with Constant Volts/Hz Control
Speed Control of Induction Motor (IM)
Speed control of IM is achieved in the inverter driven IM by means of variable
frequency. Besides the frequency, the applied voltage needs to be varied to keep the air
gap flux constant. The induced e.m.f in the stator winding of an ac machine is given by
E1  4.44kw1m f s N1
where
kw1 is the stator winding factor
(1)
m is the peak airgap flux
f s is the supply frequency
N1 is the number of turns per phase in the stator
The stator applied terminal voltage V1 (Figure 1) has to overcome back e.m.f. E1 and the
stator leakage impedance drop (refer Lecture 17):
V1  E1  i1 (r1  jx1 ) (2)

r1 x1 x2
im
i1 i2

E1 Rc X 
r2
V1
s
ic i

Figure 1: Equivalent circuit of IM

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If the stator impedance ( r1  jx1 ) is neglected, the induced e.m.f approximately equals the
supply phase voltage. Hence,
V1  E1 (3)
Substituting for E1 from equation 1 into equation 2 gives the flux as
V1
m 
Kb f s
where (4)
kb  4.44kw1 N1 is the flux constant
Since the factor kb is constant, from equation 4 it can be seen that the flux is
proportional to the ratio between the supply voltage and frequency. Hence,
V1
m   kvf
fs (5)
where kvf is the ration bewteen V1 and f s
From equation 5, it is seen that, to maintain the flux constant kvf has to be maintained
constant. Hence, whenever the stator frequency ( f s ) is changed for speed control, the
stator input voltage ( V1 ) has to be changed accordingly to maintain the airgap flux ( m )
constant. A number of control strategies have been developed depending on how the
voltage to frequency ratio is implemented:
 Constant volts/Hz control
 Constant slip-speed control
 Constant air gap control
 Vector Control
The constant volts/Hz strategy is explained in this lecture.

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Constant Volts/Hz Control

The equation 2 is converted into per unit (p.u) as
V1 E1  I1 (r1  jx1 )

Vb Vb
 V1n  E1n  I1n  r1n  jx1n 
where
V1 I Ir
V1n  ; I1n  1n ; r1n  b 1
Vb Ib Vb
E1 jX  i j L i j L i     
E1n    s    s    j    s  (6)
Vb Vb Vb bb  b  b 
I x IL
x1n  b 1  b s 1s  L1nsn
Vb Vb
Vb  bb
Vb is the base voltage
I b is the base current
b is the flux linkage (flux linkage is rate of change of flux with repect to time)
Hence, equation 2 in p.u form is written as
V1n  E1n  i1n (r1n  jx1n )  i1n r1n  jsn  L1ni1n   n 
where
(7)
E1n  jL nsni n   nsn
 n  jL ni n
The magnitude of the input voltage ( V1 ) is given as

 i1n r1n    2  L1ni1n  n 

2 2
V1n  sn
(8)

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For a constant air gap flux linkages of 1pu, the pu applied voltage vs. p.u stator frequency
is shown in Figure 2. The values of r1n and x1n used to obtain the plot of Figure 2 are
0.03 and 0.05 pu respectively.
1.2
i1n=0.25
i1n=1
Stator input voltage V1n [pu]

1
i1n=2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Stator frequency, s [pu]
Figure 2: PU stator phase voltage vs. pu stator frequency

From equation 8 it can be seen that the volts/Hz ratio needs to be adjusted in dependence
on the frequency, the air gap flux magnitude, the stator impedance and the magnitude of
the stator current. The relationship between the applied phase voltage and the frequency
is written as
V1n  Von  kvf f sn (9)
From equation 8 the parameters Vo and kvf is obtained as
Von  i1n r1n
kvf  sn   n  L1ni1n 
(10)

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The parameter Vo is the offset voltage required to overcome the stator resistive drop. In
case the IM is fed by a DC-AC converter, the fundamental r.m.s phase voltage for 180o
conduction is given by (refer Lecture 15):
vas 2 Vdc
V1    0.45Vdc
2  2
where (11)
Vdc is the input dc voltage to DC-AC converter
The equation 11 can be written in pu form as
V
V1n  1  0.45Vdcn (12)
Vb
Substituting the value of V1n into equation 9 gives
0.45Vdcn  Von  kvf f sn
Implementation of Constant Volts/Hz Control
The implementation of volts/Hz strategy is shown in Figure 3.

DC AC
Vin Vdc IM
DC DC

kdc
f s
Tach
Vo ++ kvf
1
Limiter 2
PI Controller
Te sl
++

r
 
r
+ -
Figure 3: Closed loop induction motor drive with constant volts/Hz control strategy [1]

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The working of the closed loop control shown in Figure 3 is as follows:

a. The actual rotor speed ( r ) is compared with its desired value r and the error is
passed through a PI controller.
b. The output of the PI controller is processed through a limiter to obtain the slip-
speed command   . The limiter ensures that   is within the maximum allowable
sl sl

slip speed of the induction motor.

c. The slip speed command is added to electrical rotor speed r to obtain the stator
frequency command f s .
d. The frequency command f s is enforced in the inverter and the corresponding dc
link voltage ( Vdc ) is controlled through the DC-DC converter.
e. The offset voltage V1 is added to the voltage proportional to the frequency and
multiplied by kdc to obtain the dc link voltage.
Steady State Performance of IM with Constant Volts/Hz Control
The steady state performance of the constant-volts/Hz controlled induction motor is
computed by using the applied voltage given in equation 9. Using the equivalent circuit
of IM, the following steps are taken to compute the steady state performance:
a. Start with a minimum stator frequency and a very small slip
b. Compute the magnetization, core-loss, rotor and stator phase current
c. Calculate the electromagnetic torque, power, copper and core losses
d. Calculate the input power factor and efficiency.
e. Increase the slip and go to step b unless maximum desired slip is reached.
f. Increase the stator frequency and go to step a unless maximum desired frequency
is reached.
In Figure 4 the characteristics of volts/Hz control of an IM is shown. The parameters of
the IM are as follows:
Applied stator line to line voltage Vll  200V
Frequency of applied voltage f s  50Hz
Rated Output Power Pout  3kW
Stator resistance r1  0.3
Stator leakage inductance L1  0.001H
Rotor resistance r2  0.2
Rotor leakage inductance L2  0.0015H
Efficiency   0.8
Power factor pf  0.85

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Connection of phases: Y
Based on the above parameters of the motor, the base quantities are determined as
follows:
Base speed base  2 f S  2    50  314.16 rad / s

Base voltage Vbase  Vph  200  115.47 V

3
Base power Pbase  Rated Output Power  3000 W

Base current Ibase  Pbase

 12.74 A
3  Vbase   pf  Vbase

Base Torque Tbase  Pbase  3000  9.55 Nm

base 314.16
After having calculated the base values, the torque produced by the IM is calculated
using the following expression (equation 27 of Lecture 17):
n ph Veq2 r2
Te  (13)
s  r2 
2

 Req     X eq  X 2 
2 s
 s
The pu torque Ten is given by
Te
Ten  (14)
Tbase
In order to obtain the curve shown in Figure 4, the torque is calculated for different
values of slip and frequency as described algorithm above. Using the constant volts/Hz
control, the IM can be operated up to rated frequency. However, if it is required to
operate the motor beyond rated speed then Flux weakening operation is used.
3 fs=10Hz
fs=20Hz
2.5
fs=30Hz
2 fs=40Hz
Torque pu

fs=50Hz
1.5

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Speed pu
Figure 4: Torque vs. Speed Curve for Constant volts/Hz control of IM

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From Figure 4 the following points can be observed:

 As the frequency of the stator input voltage increases, the maximum speed of
the motor increases.
 With increase in frequency, the maximum torque produced by the motor also
increases.

The starting torque (torque at zero speed) does not vary much with increase in
frequency.
In Figure 5 the Torque vs. Speed curve for higher offset voltage Vo  7i1n r1n is shown. It
can be seen that using a higher offset voltage:
 the starting torque has increased.
 the maximum torque produced by the motor at different frequencies is almost
constant.
Here the motor is operated at 10Hz between the rotor speeds r1 and r 2 , at 20 Hz
between r 2 and r 3 and so on. With this operation constant torque is maintained almost
up to rated speed.
4
f s  10Hz f s  20Hz f s  30Hz f s  40Hz f s  50Hz

3
Torque pu

0
r1 r 2 r 3 r 4 r 5
Speed pu
Figure 5: Constant Torque vs. Speed Curve for Constant volts/Hz control of IM

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Utilizing the second point, a constant torque can be obtained from starting condition up to
rated speed as shown in Figure 6.
3 fs=10Hz
fs=20Hz
2.5
fs=30Hz
2 fs=40Hz
Torque pu

fs=50Hz
1.5

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Speed pu
Figure 6: Torque vs. Speed Curve for Constant volts/Hz control of IM at higher offset voltage

The power factor vs. slip, stator current vs. slip curves and torque vs. slip for constant
volts/Hz control are shown in Figure 7, 8 and 9 respectively. From Figures 7-9 the
following can be observed:
 As the slip increases (speed decreases) the power factor of the motor
decreases. It attains a maximum value at a small slip ( s pf ) value and then
drops sharply.
 As the frequency increases the slop of the power factor between s pf and unity
slip increases.
 For any given slip, the magnitude of the stator current increases as the
frequency increases. The magnitude of torque at a given slip also increases
with increase in slip with the exception of unity slip (starting condition).
1.2 fs=10Hz fs=20Hz
fs=30Hz fs=40Hz
fs=50Hz
1
Power Facror

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Slip
Figure 7: Power factor vs. Slip Curve for Constant volts/Hz control of IM

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90 fs=10Hz fs=20Hz
fs=30Hz fs=40Hz
80 fs=50Hz
70
Stator Current [A]

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Slip
Figure 8: Stator Current vs. Slip Curve for Constant volts/Hz control of IM

3 fs=10Hz
fs=20Hz
2.5
fs=30Hz
2 fs=40Hz
Torque pu

fs=50hz
1.5

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Slip
Figure 9: Torque vs. Slip Curve for Constant volts/Hz control of IM

References:
[1] R. Krishnan, Electric motor drives: modeling, analysis, and control, Prentice Hall,
2001

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Lecture 20: Permanent magnet motor drives, their control and

applications in EV/HEVs
Modeling of Induction Motor
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Voltage Relations of Induction Motor
 Torque Equation in Machine Variables
 Equation of Transformation for Stator Variables
 Equation of Transformation for Rotor Variables
 Voltage and Torque Equations in Arbitrary Reference Frame Variables
Voltage Relations of Induction Motor
A 2 pole, 3 phase, Y connected symmetrical IM is shown in Figure 1. The stator
windings are identical with N s number of turns and the resistance of each phase winding
is rs . The rotor windings, may be wound or forged as squirrel cage winding, can be
approximated as identical windings with equivalent turns N r and resistance rr . The air gap
of IM is uniform and the stator and rotor windings are assumed to be sinusoidally
distributed. The sinusoidal distribution of the windings results in sinusoidal magnetic
field in the air gap.

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bs axis
as
br axis

cs
ar
cr ar axis

cr as axis
br
bs ar

cs
as
cs axis
cr axis
Figure 1: Two pole, 3 phase, wye-connected symmetrical induction motor

Since the windings are symmetric, the self inductances of stator windings are equal; that
is
Lasas  Lbsbs  Lcsc s
Lasas  Lls  Lms
where
Lls is the leakage inductance of phase A or B or C of stator winding (1)
Lms is the stator magnetizing inductance
Lasas , Lbsbs , Lcsc s are the self inductances of stator phases
Similarly, the mutual inductances between the phases of the stator wind are same; that is
1
Lasbs  Lbscs  Lcs as   Lms (2)
2

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Based on the above discussion, the rotor self inductances and the mutual inductances
between the rotor phases are
Larar  Lbrbr  Lc r c r
Larar  Llr  Lmr
where (3)
Llr is the leakage inductance of phase a of rotor winding
Lmr is the rotor magnetizing inductance
1
Larbr  Lbrcr  Lc rar   Lmr (4)
2
There exists mutual inductance between the stator and rotor windings. This mutual
inductance is not constant because as the rotor rotates, the angle between the stator and
rotor windings changes. Hence, the mutual inductance between the stator and rotor
windings can be expressed as:
Lasar  Lbsbr  Lcsc r  Lsr cos  r 
 2 
Lasbr  Lbscr  Lcsar  Lsr cos   r   (5)
 3 
 2 
Lascr  Lbsar  Lcsbr  Lsr cos   r  
 3 
The voltage equations for the IM shown in Figure 1 are
d as
vas  rs ias 
dt
d bs
vbs  rs ibs 
dt
d cs
vcs  rs ics 
dt
d ar (6)
var  rr iar 
dt
d ar
vbr  rr iar 
dt
d cr
vcr  rr icr 
dt

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The equation 4 can be expressed in matrix form as

v abs =rs i abcs +pλ abcs
v abr =rr i abcr +pλ abcr
where
 vabcs    vas vbs vcs 
T

 vabcr    var vbr vcr 

T

(7)
 iabcs   ias ibs ics 
T

 iabcr   iar ibr icr 

T

d
p
dt
In the above equation the subscript s refers to stator and r refers to rotor. For a
magnetically linear system, the flux linkages may be expressed as
 λ abcs   Ls Lsr  iabcs 
 λ abcr    L T L  iabcr  (8)
 sr r 

The stator and rotor windings inductances consist of self and mutual inductances and is
represented as
 1 1 
 Lls  Lms  2 Lms  2 Lms 
 1 1 
Ls    Lms Lls  Lms  Lms  (9)
 2 2 
 1 1 
  Lms  Lms Lls  Lms 
 2 2 
 1 1 
 Llr  Lmr  2 Lmr  2 Lmr 
 1 1 
L r    Lmr Llr  Lmr  Lmr  (10)
 2 2 
 1 1 
  Lmr  Lmr Llr  Lmr 
 2 2 
 2 2 
 cos( r ) cos( r  ) cos( r  ) 
3 3
 2 2  
Lsr  Lsr  cos( r  ) cos( r ) cos( r  )  (11)
 3 3 
 2 2 
cos( r  ) cos( r  ) cos( r ) 
 3 3 

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The expression of voltage equation becomes convenient if all the rotor variables are
referred to stator windings using the turns ratio:
Nr
iabcr  i abcr
Ns
N
vabcr  r vabcr (12)
Ns
Nr
 
abcr abcr
Ns
The magnetizing and mutual inductances are associated with the same magnetic flux
path; hence,
2 2
N  N 
Lr   s  Lr ; Llr   s  Llr
 r
N  Nr 
 1 1 
 Llr  Lms  2 Lms  Lms
2  (13)
 1 1 
Lr    Lms Llr  Lms  Lms 
 2 2 
 1 1 
  Lms  Lms Llr  Lms 
 2 2 
Using equation 13, the flux linkages given by equation 8 can be expressed as
 λ abcs   Ls Lsr  iabcs 
 λabcr    L T L  iabcr  (14)
 sr r 

and using equation 14, the voltage equation (equation 7) can be written as
 vabcs   rs +pLs pLsr  i abcs 
 vabcr  =  p  L T r +pL  i abcr 
 sr r r
2 (15)
N 
where rr   s  rr
 Nr 
Torque Equation in Machine Variables
The conversion into machine variables can be done using the principle of magnetic
energy. In a machine, the stored magnetic energy is the sum of the self-inductance of
each winding. The energy stored due to stator winding is:
1
Ws   iabcs   Ls -Lls I  iabc
T

2
where (16)
I is the identity matrix
Similarly, the energy stored due to rotor winding is
1
Wr   iabcr   Lr -Llr I  iabcr
T
(17)
2

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The energy stored due to mutual inductance between the stator and rotor windings is
Wsr   iabcs  Lsr iabcr
T
(18)
Hence, the total energy stored in the magnetic circuit of the motor is
W f  Ws  Wsr  Wr
1 1 (19)
  i abcs   Ls -Lls I  i abc   iabcs  Lsr iabcr   iabcr   Lr -Llr I  iabcr

T T T

2 2
Since the magnetic circuit of the machine is assumed to be linear (the of B vs. H), the
stored energy in the magnetic field W f is equal to the co-energy Wco . The electromagnetic
torque produced by the IM is given by
 P  W  P  W f
Te    co   
 2   r  2   r (20)
where  r is the rotor angle at any given point of time.
Since the inductances Ls , Lls , Lr , Llr are not functions of  r and only Lsr is a function of  r
(equation 11), substituting the equation 19 into equation 21 gives
P T 
Te     iabcs   Lsr  iabcr (21)
2  r
Linear Transformations
From equation 6 it can be seen that in order to study the dynamic behaviour of IM, a set
of six equations have to be solved. If the number of equations to be solved is reduced, the
computational burden will be reduced. In order to reduce the number of equations linear
transformation is carried out. It is very common to use linear transformation to solve
problems and one of the most common examples of it is logarithm. The logarithms are
used to multiply or divide two numbers. Similarly, the Laplace transform is also a linear
transformation. It transforms the time-domain equations to s  domain equation and after
manipulations, one again gets the required time-domain solution. The process of referring
secondary quantities to primary or primary to secondary in a transformer is also
equivalent to a linear transformation. It should be noted that the transformation from old
to new set of variables is carried out for simplifying the calculations.
Linear transformations in electrical machines are usually carried out to obtain new
equations which are fewer in number or are more easily solved. For example, a three
phase machine are more complicated because of the magnetic coupling amongst the three
phase windings as seen from equation 11, but this is not the case after the
transformation.

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Transformation from Three Phases to Two Phases (a, b, c to  ,  ,0 )

A symmetrical 2 pole, 3 phase winding on the rotor is represented by three coils A, B, C
each of N r turns and displaced by 120o is shown in Figure 2.
F
Fb


B ib
i
120o A
o
Fa 90o 
120
F
120o ia
ic i

Fc
Figure 2: A symmetrical 2 pole 3phase winding on the rotor Figure 3: A balanced 2phase winding of the rotor

Maximum values of mmfs Fa , Fb , Fc are shown along their respective phase axes. The
combined effect of these three mmfs results in mmf of constant magnitude rotating at a
constant angular velocity depending on the poles and frequency. If the three currents in
the rotor are:
 2   4 
ia  I m cos(t ); ib  I m cos  t   ; ic  I m cos  t   (22)
 3   3 

The currents given in equation 22 produce a mmf of constant magnitude 3I m N r rotating

2
with respect to three phase winding at the frequency of  . In Figure 3, a balanced two
phase winding is represented by two orthogonal coils  ,  on the rotor. For the sake of
convenience the axes of phase A and  are taken to be coincident. The two phase currents
flowing in the winding is given by
 
i  I m cos(t ); i  I m cos  t   (23)
 2

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These two phase currents result in a mmf of constant magnitude I m N r rotating with
respect to the two phase windings at the frequency of the currents. The mmf of three
phase and two phase systems can be rendered equal in magnitude by making any one of
the following changes:
i. By changing the magnitude of the two phase currents
ii. By changing the number of turns of the two phase windings
iii. By changing both the magnitude of currents and number of turns
In the following subsections each of the three cases are discussed.
Changing the magnitude of two phase currents
In this case the number of turns in the two phase winding is N r which is same as that of
the three phase windings. Hence, in order to have equal mmf, the new magnitude of the
current in the two phases must be determined. To obtain the new values of the two phase
currents the instantaneous three phase mmfs are resolved along the  axis shown in
Figure 3:
 2 4  1
i N r   ia cos   ib cos  ic cos  N r  i  ia   ib  ic  (24)
 3 3  2
Similarly, the resolving the three phase currents along the  axis gives
 2 4   3 3 
i N r   ia sin   ib sin  ic sin  N r  i   ib  ic  (25)
 3 3   2 2 
For a balanced three phase system the sum of three currents is zero, that is
ia  ib  ic  0 (26)
Using equation 26 into equation 24 gives
3
i  ia (27)
2
Substituting the values of ia , ib and ic from equation 22 into equations 25 and 27 gives
3 3
i  I m cos t  ; i  I m sin t  (28)
2 2

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From equation28 it can be seen that the magnitude of the two phase currents is 3/2 times
the magnitude of the three phase currents. Since the number of turns per phase is same in
both the three and two phase windings, the magnitude of phase e.m.fs of the two and
three phase windings would be equal. The power per phase of the two phase system is
3/ 2VI m and the power per phase of a three phase winding is VI m . However, the total power
produced by a two phase system is ( 2  3/ 2 VI m  3VI m ) and that produced by a three phase
system is 3VI m . Thus, the linear transformation is power invariant. The only disadvantage
is that the transformation of current and voltage will differ because of presence of factor
3/2 in the current transformation. As factor 3/2 appears in current transformation and not
in voltage transformation, the per phase parameters of the two phase and three phase
machine will not be the same.
Changing the number of turns of two phase winding
If the number of turns of two phase winding is made 3/2 times that of the three phase
winding, then for equal mmfs the following relation between the two phase and three
phase currents holds:
3  2 4  3 1 3
i N r   ia cos   ib cos  ic cos  N r  i  ia   ib  ic   ia  i  ia (29)
2  3 3  2 2 2
3  2 4  2 3 3 
i N r   ia sin   ib sin  ic sin  N r  i   ib  ic  (30)
2  3 3  3 2 2 
Substituting the values of ia , ib and ic from equation 22 into equations 29 and 30 gives
i  I m cos t  ; i  I m sin t  (31)
Since, the number of turns in the two phase winding is 3/2 times that of three phase
winding, the per phase voltage of the two phase machine will be 3/2 times the per phase
voltage of the three phase systems. Hence,
3
The power per phase in two phase system= VI m
2
Total in two phase system= 3VI m
The power per phase in three phase system= VI m
Total in three phase system= 3VI m
Here again the power invariance is obtained, but, as in the previous case, the
transformation of current and voltage will differ because of the factor 3/2 in the voltage
transformation. In this case the per phase parameters of the machine will be different for
two and three phase systems.

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Changing both the number of turns and magnitude of current of two phase winding
In this case both the magnitude of currents and number of turns of the two phase system
are changed to obtain identical transformation for voltage and current. To do so the
number of turns in the two phase winding is made 3 times that of three phase
2
winding. Then for equal m.m.f the following holds
3  2 4 
i N r   ia cos   ib cos  ic cos  Nr
2  3 3 
2 1 1  3
 i   ia  ib  ic   i  I m cos(t )
3 2 2  2
(32)
3  2 4 
i N r   ia sin   ib sin  ic sin  Nr
2  3 3 
2 3 31  3
(33)
 i   0  ib  ic   i  I m sin(t )
3 2 2 2  2

3
Since the number of turns in the two phase winding is times that of three phase
2
3
winding, the voltage per phase of the two phase winding is times that of the three
2
3
phase winding. Hence, the phase voltage and current of the two phase system are
2
times that of three phase system. This results in identical transformations for both the
voltage and current and the per phase quantities of the machine, such as the impedance
per phase, will be same for two and three phase systems.
Hence, the transformation equations for converting three phase currents into two phase
currents, given by equations 32 and 33, can be expressed in matrix form as
 1 1
1    ia 
i  2 2 2 i 
i   3  
3 b
(34)
  0 3

  ic 
2 2 

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The transformation matrix in equation 34 is singular and hence ia , ib and ic cannot be

obtained from i , i . The matrix can be made square matrix if a third equation of
constraint between ia , ib and ic is introduced. Since, the magnitude and direction of the
mmf produced by two and three phase systems are identical, the third current in terms of
ia , ib and ic should not produce any resultant air gap mmf. Hence, a zero sequence current
is introduced and it is given by
1
i0   ia  ib  ic  (35)
3
Due to the fact that sum of three phase currents in a balanced system is zero (equation
26), the zero sequence current does not produce any rotating mmf. Using the equation 35
the matrix representation given in equation 34 can be written as
 1 1 
1   
2 2
i    i 
i   2 0 3 3  a
 ib
  3 2 2  i  (36)
0
i  1 1 1  c
 
 2 2 2 
The transformation matrix now is non-singular and its inverse can be easily obtained.

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Transformation from Rotating Axes (  ,  ,0 ) to Stationary Axes ( d , q,0 )

In Figure 3, three phase and two phase windings are shown on the rotor and hence both
the windings rotate at the same speed and in the same direction. Hence, both the two
phase and three phase windings are at rest with respect to each other.
In this section the transformation of rotating  ,  ,0 quantities to stationary d , q,0
quantities is carried out. When transformation is carried out from rotating to stationary
axes, the relative position of rotating axes varies with respect to stationary or fixed axes.
Hence, the transformation matrix must have coefficients that are functions of the relative
position of the moving  ,  and fixed d , q axes. In Figure 4 the rotating  ,  axes are
shown inside the circle and the stationary d , q axes are shown outside. The angle  r shown
in Figure 4 is such that at time t  0 , r  0 , that is, the  ,  axis is aligned with the d , q
axis.
Fq

Q
iq 

i
 D
Fd
id

i 

Figure 4: The d and q axis on the rotor

At any time t , r  r t , where r is the angular speed of the rotor. Assuming same
number of turns in the  ,  and d , q windings, the mmfs F and F can be resolved along
the d , q axis as
Fd  F cos  r  F sin  r  N r id  N r i cos  r  N r i sin  r
 id  i cos  r  i sin  r (37)
iq  i sin  r  i cos  r

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The equation 37 can be expressed in the matrix form as

id   cos  r sin  r  i 
 iq     sin  cos  r  i 
   r
and (38)
i  cos  r  sin  r  id 
i    sin  cos  r   iq 
   r

Let the currents in d , q axis winding be

id  I m sin t   
iq  I m cos t   
(39)
where
 is a constant arbitrary phase angle
Using equation 38 and equation 39, the currents i , i are obtained as
i  I m sin    r   
i  I m cos    r   
 i  I m sin t  r t   
(40)
i  I m cos t  r t   
where
  t
In case the frequency of the d and q axis current is same as the speed of rotation of the
rotor, then
i  I m sin  
(41)
i  I m cos  
Thus, time varying currents in stationary d , q axis result in mmf which is identical to the
mmf produced by constant currents (or d.c.) in rotating  ,  axis.
In the above transformation the zero sequence current is not transformed and it can be
taken into account by an additional column in the equation 38.
id   cos  r sin  r 0  i 
 iq     sin  cos  0  i  (42)
   r r
 
 o 
i 0 0 1  io 

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Substituting the values of i , i , i0 from equation 32 into equation 42 gives

  2   2  
 cos  r cos   r  3  cos   r  3  
    
id  i 
 iq   2   2   2   a 
 sin  r  sin   r    sin   r   ib
  3  3   3   i 
 o
i   c
 1 1 1 
 2 2 2 

i iq i0   K s  ia ib ic 
T T
d

where (43)
  2   2  
cos  r cos   r  3  cos   r  3  
    
2  2   2 
Ks  sin  r sin   r   sin   r  
3  3   3 

 1 1 1 
 2 2 2 

The inverse transformation matrix is given by

 1 
 cos  r  sin  r 
 2
2  2   2  1 
K S1   cos   r    sin   r   (44)
2
    
3 3 3

cos    2   2  1 
  r 3   sin   r  
  3  2 
The above transformation is valid for any electrical quantity such as current, voltage, flux
linkage, etc. In general the three phase voltages, currents and fluxes can be converted into
dqo phases using the following transformation matrices

f   K s  f abc 
T T
qdo

where (45)
f  f o  ;  f abc    f a f b f c 
T
  f q f d
T
qdo

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Transformation of Induction Motor Quantities into Stationary d , q Axis

The three phase stator and rotor wind axis are shown in Figure 5a. In Figure 5a, the
subscript s represents stator quantities and r represents rotor quantities. For the stator
 ,  axis and d , q axis are coincident as shown in Figure 5b and hence there is no
difference between  ,  and d , q stator quantities. Examination of Figure 5a and 5b
reveals that phase As coincides with the phase  axis or phase d axis of the 2 phase
machines. As a result of this, the results obtained for d axis quantities apply equally well
to the  phase of the 2 phase machine. The conversion of 3 phase stator winding to 2
phase stator winding is given by equation 36 as
 1 1 
1   
2 2
i s    ias 
i s   2 0 3
-
3  i 
  3 2  i  (46)
bs
2
 0s 
i  1 1 1   cs 
 
 2 2 2 
Since the  ,  and d , q axis both lie on the stator are stationary with respect to each other,
the transformation from  ,  to d , q axis is given by
ids  1 0 i s 
iqs   0 1  i s  (47)
    

s

r

s

r

Figure 5a: Equivalent 2 phase induction machine in ,  axis

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Qs

Qr

Dr Ds

Figure 5b: Equivalent 2 phase induction machine in d , q axis

In case of rotor currents, the transformation from 3 phase to 2 phase is given by

 1 1 
1   
2 2
i r    iar 
i r   2 0 3
-
3  i 
  3 2  i  (48)
br
2
i0 r   1 1 1   cr 
 
 2 2 2 
The transformation 2 phase rotor currents from rotating  ,  to stationary d , q axis is
given by
idr   cos  sin   i r 
iqr     sin  cos   i r  (49)
    
The rotor voltages are related by identical expressions. The frequency of the currents in
3phase rotor windings or in 2phase rotor windings is the slip frequency sf . Since the d , q
axes windings are stationary, the frequency of rotor currents idr and iqr is the line
frequency f .

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The Machine Performance Equations

The general voltage equation for the machine shown in Figure 5b is
 vds   rds  Lds p 0 Md p 0  ids 
 vqs   0 rqs  Lqs p 0 M q p  iqs 
   
vdr   M d p  M qr rdr  Ldr p  Lqr r  idr 
vqr   M d r Md p Ldr r rqr  Lqr p  iqr  (50)
d
where p 
dt
The following points about the IM are to be considered:
 Stator and rotor both have balanced winding configurations, hence:
rds  rqs  rs =resistance of each stator coil

rdr  rqr  rr =resistance of each rotor coil

 Since the air gap is uniform, the self inductances of d and q axis of the stator
winding are equal and that of the rotor windings are also equal, that is
Lds  Lqs  Ls =self inductance of the stator winding

Ldr  Lqr  Lr =self inductance of the rotor winding

 The d and q axis coils are identical, the mutual inductance between the stator and
rotor d axis coils is equal to the mutual inductance between stator and rotor q axis
coils, that is
M d  M q  Lm
In an induction machine the rotor windings are short circuited, therefore no emf exists in
the winding of the rotor and vdr  vqr  0 . Since the rotor winding is short circuited, the
direction of idr and iqr are reversed and this has to be taken into account in the general
voltage equations.
Based on the above discussion, the general voltage equation becomes:
vds   rs  Ls p 0  Lm p 0  ids 
vqs   0 rs  Ls p 0  Lm p  iqs 
  L p  Lmr   rr  Lr p 
 
Lr r  idr  (51)
0  m
 0   Lmr Lm p  Lr r   rr  Lr p   iqr 

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The voltage equations given in equation 51 can be written as:

V  [ R]I  [ L] pI  [G ]r I
where
 vds  ids   rs 0 0 0 
v  i  0 r 0 0
V    ; I    ;  R   
qs qs s
vdr  idr   0 0 rs 0  (52)
     
 vq   iq   0 0 0 rs 
 Ls 0 Lm 0  0 0 0 0
0 L 0 L   0 0 0 0 
 L   L 0s L 0m  ; G    0  L 0 Lr 
m r m
   
 0 Lm 0 Lr   m
L 0  Lr 0
The instantaneous input power to the machine is given by
P  I TV  I T  R I  I T  L pI  I T G r I (53)
In equation 53 the term I T  R  I represents the stator and rotor resistive losses. The term
I T  L pI denotes the rate of change of stored magnetic energy. Hence, what is left of the
power component must be equal to the air gap power given by the term I T G r I . The
air gap torque is given by
mTe  I T G r I
Np
r  m
2
Np
 Te  I T G  I (54)
2
where
m is the mechanical speed of the rotor and
N p is the number of poles
Substituting the value of G  from equation52 into equation 54 gives

Lm  iqs idr  idsiqr 

Np
Te  (55)
2
The torque given by equation 55 can also be written as

Lm  qr idr  dr iqr 

Np
Te  (56)
2

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References:
[1] R. Krishnan, Electric motor drives: modeling, analysis, and control, Prentice Hall,
2001
[2] P. C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, S. D. Sudhoff, Analysis of electric machinery, IEEE
Press, 1995

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Lecture 21: Switch reluctance motors, their configurations and

optimization
Field Oriented Control of Induction Motor
Introduction
The topics covered in this chapter are as follows:
 Field Oriented Control (FOC)
 Direct Rotor Oriented FOC
 Indirect Rotor Oriented FOC
Field Oriented Control (FOC)
In an Electric Vehicle, it is required that the traction motor is able to deliver the required
torque almost instantaneously. In an induction motor (IM) drive, such performance can
be achieved using a class of algorithms known as Field Oriented Control (FOC). There
are varieties of FOC such as:
 Stator flux oriented
 Rotor flux oriented
 Air gap flux oriented
Each of the above mentioned control method can be implemented using direct or indirect
methods.
The basic premise of FOC may be understood by considering the current loop in a
uniform magnetic field as shown in Figure 1a. From Lorenz force equation, it can be
seen that the torque acting on the current loop is given by
Te  2 BiNLr sin 
where
B is the flux density
i is the current (1)
N is the number of turns
L is the length of the coil
r is the radius of the coil

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Current
vector
s
iqdr qdr
s

r θ
B
θ

r q axis

d axis
Figure 1a: A coil in a magnetic field Figure 1b: Orientation of magnetic field in IM

From equation 1 it is evident that the torque is maximised when the current vector is
perpendicular to the magnetic field. The same conclusion can be applied to an IM. In
Figure 1b orientations of magnetic fields and currents in an IM are shown. The rotor
current and flux linkage vectors are shown in Figure 1 at some instant of time. Hence,
the torque produced by the motor (refer to Lecture 19) is given by

Te 
3P
22
 qr idr  dr iqr  (2)

The equation 2 can be re-written as

3P
Te    iqdr
qdr  sin  (3)
22
The equation 3 is analogous to equation 1. Hence, for a given magnitude of flux linkage,
torque is maximised when the flux linkage and current vectors are perpendicular.
Therefore, it is desirable to keep the rotor flux linkage perpendicular to rotor current
vector.

In the analysis of FOC the following convention will be used:

 The parameters with a superscript “ s ” are in stator frame of reference.
 The parameters with a superscript “ e ” are in synchronous frame of reference.
 The parameters with subscript “ r ” indicate rotor parameters.
 The parameters with subscript “ s ” indicate stator parameters.
 All rotor quantities are referred to stator using the turns ratio of the windings
(Lecture 17) and hence “ ' ” is dropped.

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In case of singly excited IMs (in singly excited IM, the rotor winding is not fed by any
external voltage source. In case of wound rotor machines, they are short circuited using
slip rings. For cage IMs, the rotor bars are short circuited at the terminals), the rotor
flux linkage vector and rotor current vector are always perpendicular. The voltage
equations for the IM (refer to Lecture 19) in synchronous frame of reference are
v qse  rs iqse  e dse  pqse
v dse  rs idse  e qse  pdse
vose  rs iose  pose
v qre  rr iqre  e  r   dre  p qre
v dre  rr idre  e  r  qre  p dre (1)
vore  rr iore  pore
where
e is the rotational speed of synchronous frame of reference
In case of singly excited IM, the rotor voltages are zero, that is ve  0 , vdre  0 and vore  0 .
qr

Hence, the rotor currents can be obtained as

1
0  rr iqre  e  r  dre  pqre  iqre   e  r  dre  pqre
rr
1
0  rr idre  e  r  qre  pdre  idre  e  r  qre  pdre
rr (2)
pe
0  rr iore  pore  iore   or

rr
Since steady state operation of IM is considered, the time derivative term of flux linkage
in equation 2 will vanish. Hence, the rotor currents are:
1
iqre   e  r  dre
rr
1
idre  e  r  qre (3)
rr
ior  0
e

The dot product of the rotor flux linkage and rotor current vectors may be expressed as
qdr
e e
.iqdr  qre .iqre  dre .idre (4)

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Substituting the values of iqre and idre from equation 3 into equation 4 gives
qre dre
qdr
e e
.iqdr  e  r  dre  e  r  qre  0 (5)
rr rr
Form equation 5 it can be seen that the dot product between the rotor flux and rotor
current vectors is zero in case of singly excited IM. Hence, it can be concluded that the
rotor flux and rotor current vectors are perpendicular to each other in steady state
operation. The defining feature of FOC is that this characteristic (that the rotor flux and
rotor current vectors are perpendicular to each other) is maintained during transient
conditions as well.
In both direct and indirect FOC, the 90o shift between the rotor flux and rotor current
vector can be achieved in two steps:
 The first step is to ensure that
qre  0
(6)
 The second step is to ensure that
idre  0 (7)
By suitable choice of  s on an instantaneous basis, equation 6 can be achieved. Satisfying
equation 7 can be accomplished by forcing d -axis stator current to remain constant. To
see this, consider the d -axis rotor voltage equation
0  rr idre  e  r  qre  pdre (8)
Since qre  0 , equation 8 can be written as
0  rr idre  pdre (9)
The d -axis rotor flux linkage is given by (refer Lecture 19):
dre  Llr idre  Lm  idse  idR
e
 (10)
Substituting the value of dre from equation 10 into equation 9 gives:
rr e Lm e
pidre   idr  pids (11)
Llr Llr

If idss is held constant, then pidse  0 and the solution of equation 11 becomes
 r 
 r t
 Llr 
i  Ce
e
dr
 

where (12)
C is a constant of integration

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It is evident from equation 12 that the rotor current idre will decay to zero and stay at zero
regardless of other transients that may be taking place. Hence, the torque (from equation
2) is given by
3P e e
Te  dr iqr (13)
22
The q -axis rotor flux is given by (refer Lecture 19)
qre  Llr iqre  Lm  iqse  iqre  (14)
Since, qre  0 , the q -axis rotor current is given by
Lm e
iqre   iqs (15)
Llr
Combining equations 13 and 15 gives
3 P Lm e e
Te  dr iqs (16)
2 2 Llr
The d -axis rotor flux is given by (refer Lecture 19)
dre  Llr idre  Lm  idse  idre  (17)
The equation 7 gives idre  0 , hence equation 17 can be written as
dre  Lmidse (18)

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Together, equation 19 and equation 21 suggest the generic rotor flux oriented control
shown in Figure 2.

DC
Inverter IM
Source
iˆabcs
Current
control

Te e
iqs
4 Lrr ,est Te
3PLm.est dr
'e
dr
e

e
ids
e 1
dr
Lm, est
e
Figure 2: Generic Field Oriented Control (FOC) [1]

In Figure 2 the variables of the form x , x and x̂ denote command, measured and
estimated values respectively. In case of parameters that are estimated, a subscript ”est”
is used. The working of the controller is as follows:
i. Based on the torque command ( Te ), the assumed values of the parameters and the
estimated value of d -axis rotor flux ˆdrs is used to formulate a q -axis stator
current command iqss .
ii. The d -axis stator current command idss is calculated such as to achieve a rotor flux
command drs (using equation 12).s
iii. The q -axis and d -axis stator current command is then achieved using a current
source control.
The above description of rotor flux oriented FOC is incomplete with determination of ˆdrs
and  s . The difference between direct and indirect FOC is in how these two variables are
determined.

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Direct Rotor Oriented FOC

In direct FOC, the position of the synchronous reference frame (  e ) is determined based
on the values of q -axis and d -axis rotor flux linkages in the stationary reference frame.
The relation of flux linkages in synchronous reference frame and stationary reference
frame is
qre  cos  e  sin  e  qrs 
 e    sin  cos    s 
dr   e e   dr 

where (19)
qrs is the rotor q-axis flux linkage in stationary frame of reference
drs is the rotor d -axis flux linkage in stationary frame of reference
In order to achieve qre  0 , it is sufficient to define the position of the synchronous
reference frame as
 qrs  
e  tan  s
1
  (20)

 dr  2
The difficulty with this approach is that qrs and drs are not directly measurable quantities.
However, they can be estimated using direct measurement of air gap flux. To measure the
air gap flux, hall-effect sensors are placed in the air gap and used to measure the air-gap
flux in q -axis and d -axis. Since the hall-effect sensors are stationary, the flux measured
by them is in stationary reference frame. The flux measured by the sensors is the net flux
in the air gap (combination of stator and rotor flux). The net flux in the air gap is given
by:
qm
s
 Lm  iqss  iqrs 
where (21)
Lm is the magnetization inductance
From equation 21, the rotor q -axis current is obtained as
qm
s
 Lm iqss
i 
s
qr (22)
Lm
The q -axis rotor flux linkage is given by
qrs  Llr iqrs  Lm  iqss  iqrs  (23)

Substituting the rotor q -axis current from equation 22 into equation 23 gives
Llr s
qrs  qm  Llr iqss (24)
Lm

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An identical derivation for d -axis gives

Llr s
drs  dm  Llr idss (25)
Lm
The implementation of this control strategy is shown in Figure 3a and b.
L'rr , est
ˆ s
qm Lm, est

ˆqr
e

iˆqs L'lr ,est  ˆqr    ˆdr 

s 1 2 2
 rfc s  1 ˆqr
e

 ˆ   2
1
iˆds
s
L'lr ,est  rfc s  1 angle ˆ 
qr  jdr e

ˆdr
e

L'rr , est
ˆdm
s
Lm, est

Figure 3a: Rotor flux calculation in Direct FOC [1]

ˆqdm
s
DC
Inverter IM
Source

iˆabcs
Current Rotor flux
K ss
control calculator
e
iqs
e
4 Lrr ,est Te
Te
3PLm.est dr
'e

e
ˆdr
e

e
ids
dr 1
Lm, est

Figure 3b: Control strategy for Direct FOC [1]

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Indirect Rotor Oriented FOC

The direct FOC is problematic and expensive due to use of hall-effect sensors. Hence,
indirect FOC methods are gaining considerable interest. The indirect FOC methods are
more sensitive to knowledge of the machine parameters but do not require direct sensing
of the rotor flux linkages.
The q -axis rotor voltage equation in synchronous frame is
0  rr iqre  e  r  dre  pqre (26)
Since qre  0 for direct field oriented control, equation 26 becomes
0  rr iqre  e  r  dre
iqre (27)
 e  r  rr
 e
dr

Substituting the values of iqre and dre from equation 15 and 18 respectively into equation
27 gives
e
rr iqs
e  r  (28)
Llr dse
From equation 28 it can be observed that instead of establishing  e using the rotor flux
as shown in Figure 3, it can be determined by integrating e given by equation 28 where
e is given as:
e
rr iqs
e  r  (29)
Llr dse
The equation 29 does satisfy the conditions of FOC. In order to check it, consider the
rotor voltage equations for the q -axis and d -axis:
0  rr iqre  e  r  dre  pqre (30)
0  rr idre  e  r  qre  pdre (31)
Substituting e from equation 29 into equations 30 and 31 gives
e
rr iqs e
0  rr iqre    pqre
e dr (32)
Llr ids
e
rr iqs e
0  rr idre  qr  pdre (33)
Llr idse

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Substituting the value of d -axis rotor flux from equations 17 into equation 33 gives
 qre  Lm iqse*  e rr iqse
e  lr dr
0  rr   iqr  L i e*  Lmidse*   pqre (34)
 L L i
 lr  lr ds

e
rr iqs e
0  rr idre  qr  p  Llr iqre  Lmidse*  (35)
Llr idse
If the d -axis rotor current is held constant, then pidre*  0 and rearranging equations 34
and 35 gives
rr e i e*
pqre   qr  rr qse* idre (36)
Llr ids
e*
rr e rr iqs e
pi   dr 
e
dr dr (37)
Llr Lllr idse*
The solution of equations 37 and 38 will decay to zero (same argument as used for
equation 12), hence qre and iqre will eventually become zero. In Figure 4 the
implementation of indirect FOC is shown and it is much simpler than the direct FOC.

DC
r
Inverter IM
Source
T1  T 6
Current iabcs
control

e
iqs
4 Lrr ,est Te
Te
3PLm.est dr 'e

Reset
e N e
e
dr 1 ids
N rr,est s
Lm, est D Lrr ,est +
D
Figure 4: Indirect FOC [1]

References:
[1] P. C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, S. D. Sudhoff, Analysis of electric machinery, IEEE
Press, 1995

Suggested Reading

[1] R. Krishnan, Electric motor drives: modeling, analysis, and control, Prentice Hall,
2001

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