❖ What is Op-Amp?

Op-amp stands for operational amplifier. Op-amp is a very high gain differential amplifier
with high input impedance & low output impedance. It has basically 2 inputs, non-inverting
input (Vp or V+) and inverting input (Vn or V-).
❖ Why it is called op-amp?
It can amplify DC as well as Ac input signals and design of performing mathematical
operations as addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation.

❖ Practical (Real) op-amp characteristics are

• Very high gain
• Very high input impedance
• Very low output impedance
• High CMRR
• High bandwidth
• Able to amplify both AC and DC
• Low noise

❖ Op-amp symbol

Vs+ : Positive Power Supply

Vs- : Negative Power Supply
V+ : Non-inverting input
V- : Inverting Input
Vout : Output

❖ Block diagram of an op-amp:

The Input Stage is a Intermediate Stage a Level The Output

dual input balanced is a dual input Shifting Stage Stage is usually
output differential unbalanced output is used to shift a complem-
amplifier which differential amp- the dc level to entary push-pull
provides most of the lifier. DC voltage zero. amplifier which
voltage gain of at the output stage increases output
amplifier and also will be above voltage swing
establishes the input ground potential and current
resistance of op- due to direct supplying
amp. coupling. capability of the
op-amp.
1. Function of input stage:
a. Provide most of the voltage gain of amplifier.
b. Stabilize the input resistance of op-amp.
 2. Intermediate stage:
a. The DC voltage of output of intermediate stage is well above the potential.
b. It is used for direct coupling.
3. Level shifting stage:
a. The level insulator is used to shift the DC level of intermediate stage.
4. Push-pull stage:
a. Increases the output swing & rise the current supply.

❖ Ideal Op-amp

An ideal op-amp is a concept (not really exists) which

enables us to state the characteristics of a perfect/ideal
amplifier.

❖ Internal circuit diagram: (Not necessary)

❖ Characteristics of an Ideal Op-amp

• Infinite open loop voltage gain
• Infinite input impedance
• Zero output impedance
• Infinite bandwidth
• Zero input offset voltage
• Zero common mode gain
• Infinite CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio)
• Zero DC output offset
• Zero noise contribution
• Infinite power supply rejection ratio
• Positive and negative voltage swings to supply rail
• Output swings instantly to the correct value
❖ Golden Rules of Op-amp:
These ideal characteristics of op-amp can be summarized as two golden rules.
• In a closed loop circuit, op-amp output will do whatever it can do to make the voltage
difference between the inputs zero.
• Op-amp inputs draws no current.

❖ Real Op-amp

Op-amp Equivalent Circuit Op-amp Transfer Characteristics

❖ Ideal vs Real op-amp:

❖ Input Offset Voltage:

It is the voltage that must be applied between two input terminals to nullify the output.
❖ Output offset voltage:
It is the dc voltage appearing at the output of the op-amp when the input terminals are
shorted to the ground.
❖ Input offset current:
Input offset current is the algebraic difference between currents through two input
terminals. Let IB1 be the current through non-inverting terminal and IB2 be the current through
inverting terminal. Then the input offset current is given by,

• Iio=|IB1 – IB2|
❖ Input bias current:
The input bias current IB is the average of the current that flow into non-inverting
terminal (IB1) and inverting terminal (IB2). IB= (IB1+ IB2)/2
❖ Slew Rate (SR)
SR is defined as the maximum rate of change of
output voltage per unit time. It is expressed in volts
per microsecond.

• SR = ΔV/Δ t (Unit is V/µS)

❖ Practical op-amp:
LM741/UA741 is the most popular op-amp IC and is designed by Dave Fullagar of
Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968.
❖ Pin diagram:

741 Op-amp – Pinout

No. Name

1 Offset Null

2 Inverting Input

3 Non-inverting Input

4 -V

5 Offset Null

6 Output

7 +V

8 NC – No Connection

i) Voltage Gain (Av): is the ratio of output voltage (Vi) and input voltage (Vo)
So, Av = Vo/Vi
ii) what is CMMR?
CMMR stands for Common Mode Rejection Ratio and it is defined as the ratio of
differential voltage gain to common mode voltage gain
CMMR = Ad/Ac
Where Ad is Differential voltage gain and Ac is common mode voltage gain
iii) that CMRR is infinite for ideal op-amp.
Let V1 and V2 be input voltages and Vo be output voltage Being a differential amplifier
Vo=V2-V1 .....(also known as differential output)
 Common mode basically means that both the inputs are common to Op-Amp therefore, in
our case V2=V1 so Vo becomes ZERO and thus Common mode voltage gain is ZERO (for
ideal Op-Amp) but as discussed above
CMMR= Ad/Ac Ac=0 (again, for ideal Op-Amp)
therefore, CMMR is infinite for ideal Op-Amp

iv) how to calculate it?

CMMR is calculated in decibels 20log (CMMR)
e.g. if CMMR is 10000, then CMMR in db = 20log (10000) =80db
❖ Roll off:
Gain decreases as frequency increase. f1=Av.fc here, Av is max. gain & fc is cut off
frequency.
❖ What is Cut off frequency?
The cut of frequency is defined as the frequency at which the ratio of input and output has
a magnitude of 0.707 (3dB point).
❖ Determine the cut of frequency of an op-amp having f1= 1MHz and gain Av=200
V/mV.
Sol.:
Given that, f1=1MHz=106 Hz. and gain Av= 200 V/mV= 200x103
We know, f1=Av. fc. So, fc= f1/Av =106 Hz/200x103 = 5 Hz (Ans)
❖ For an op-amp having slew rate SR=2 V/µs, what is the maximum voltage gain that
can be used when the input varies by 0.5v in 10 µs.
Sol.:
Given that, SR=2 V/µs; voltage change ΔV= 0.5v and Δ t = 10 µs.
We know, Gain Av= Vo/Vi
Or, Vo = Av. Vi
Or, Vo/ ΔV= (Av. Vi)/ΔV
Or, SR = Av. (Vi/ ΔV)
Or, Av= SR/ (Vi/ ΔV) = (2 V/µs)/ (0.5v/10 µs.) = 40 (Ans)
❖ . if differential voltage gain Ad = 20mV and common-mode voltage gain Ac=2000µV
than calculate CMRR in db.
Sol.:
Given that, differential voltage gain Ad = 20mV and common-mode voltage gain
Ac=2000µV.
We know, CMRR in db. =20log (CMMR)= 20 log (Ad/Ac) = 20 log (20mV/2000 µV)
=20db.
❖ Op-amp application
a. Linear application: output change in accordance with input. e.g. inverting amplifier,
non- inverting amplifier, voltage buffer.
b. Non-linear application: output shape is different from input, e.g. differentiator,
integrator, comparator, zero crossing detector.
❖ Inverting Operational Amplifier Configuration:

Only Formula
❖ Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier Configuration:
❖ What is unity-gain amplifier/ voltage follower?
A voltage follower (also called a unity-gain amplifier, a buffer amplifier, and an isolation
amplifier) is an op-amp circuit which has a
voltage gain of 1. This means that the op amp
does not provide any amplification to the
signal. The reason it is called a voltage
follower is because the output voltage directly
follows the input voltage.

Virtual Ground:
A virtual ground is a terminal that can be considered to have zero voltage and which does not
sink any current. The virtual ground is not actually at 0V has a finite voltage of an externally
small value across the resistance in the branch.
❖ Summing amplifier: the output voltage of a summing amplifier is proposonal to the
negative of the algebraic of its input voltage. Here,

❖ Integrator:
 Here, I = ic

❖ Differentiator:

Here, ic = iR
❖ Comparator:
1. Square wave generator:

2. Zero crossing detector:

 555 timer IC.
The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element.

555 IC pin functions:

Pin-1: Ground Pin-5: Control voltage
Pin-2: Trigger Pin-6: Threshold
Pin-3: Output Pin-7: Discharge
Pin-4: Reset Pin-8: Vcc
The 555 generally operates in 3 modes:
▪ Astable
▪ Mono-stable
▪ Bi-stable modes.

 Astable mode:
This means there will be no stable level at the output. So, the output will be swinging
between high and low. This character of unstable output is used as a clock or square wave
output for many applications.
 Mono-stable mode
Mono means one so this type of multivibrator produces an output that has only one
state. If you give external trigger then the circuit will change the state temporarily and after
some time output will return back to the original state.
 Bi-stable mode
BI means two so this will produce output that has two stable states. So, if you give
external trigger the output will change the state permanently. Let's say it is now 5 volts. Now
it will remain in that state. To change the state of output again we have to again give an
external trigger. Then it will change state from 5v to let's say -5 volts. Thus, it has two stables
states 5 and -5.

➢ Voltage Regulator:
The function of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant DC voltage at the output
irrespective of voltage fluctuations at the input and (or) variations in the load current.
Voltage regulators are also available in Integrated Circuits (IC) forms. These are called
as voltage regulator ICs.
➢ There are two types of voltage regulators -
• Fixed voltage regulator
• Adjustable voltage regulator
 Filter & feedback circuit

❑ Active element: Active element those devices or components which produce energy in the form of
voltage or current are called as Active Components. Example-generators, batteries, and operational
amplifiers.
Frequency: Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. The formula
for frequency is: f (frequency) = 1 / T (period). f = c / λ = wave speed c (m/s) / wavelength λ (m). The
formula for time is: T (period) = 1 / f (frequency). λ = c / f = wave speed c (m/s) / frequency f (Hz).

Cut off frequency: A cut off frequency, corner frequency, or

break frequency is a boundary in a system's frequency response
at which energy flowing through the system begins to be
reduced (attenuated or reflected) rather than passing through.

❑ Filter:

An electrical filter is a circuit which can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all the undesired
frequencies of an electrical signal and pass only the desired signals.
In other words, we can say that an electrical filter is usually a frequency selective network that passes
a specified band of frequencies and blocks signals of frequencies outside this band.

➢ Depending on the type of element used in their construction filters are classified into two types.
❖ Passive Filters: A passive filter is built with passive components such as resistors, capacitors
and inductors.
 ❖ Active Filters: An active filter makes use of active elements such as transistors, op-amps in
addition to resistor and capacitors.

➢ Depending on the operating frequency range filters can be subdivided into four categories.

❖ High pass filter. ❖ Band pass filter, and

❖ Low pass filter. ❖ Band stop filter

Low pass filter: A low pass filter is a filter which passes low-frequency signals and blocks, or
impedes, high-frequency signals.
Formula for RC frequency= 1/2πRC

High-pass filter: A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency
higher than a certain cut-off frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cut-off
frequency. The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design.

Band-pass: A band-pass filter, also bandpass filter or BPF, is a device that passes frequencies within a
certain range and rejects (attenuates) frequency outside that range.
Stop-band: A Stop-band filter is a device that stop frequencies within a certain range and pass
frequencies outside that range.

❑ Assignment on
Difference between Active filter and passive filter.

❑ Feedback: Feedback is defined as the process in which a part of output signal (voltage or current) is
returned back to the input.
➢ The fed back signal can be in phase with or out of phase with the original input signal
❑ Types of Negative Feedback:
➢Depending on the type of sampling and mixing networks, the feedback amplifiers are
classified into four categories:
1. Voltage series feedback 3. Current shunt feedback
2. Current series feedback 4. Voltage shunt feedback

Voltage Series & Shunt Feedback Amplifier:

➢When the feedback circuit is allied in shunt

through the output, then the o/p impedance will
be reduced and the i/p impedance is enlarged
because of the series connection with the input.

➢When the feedback circuit is allied in shunt

through the o/p as well as the input, then both the
o/p impedance & the i/p impedance will be
decreased

Current Series & Shunt Feedback Amplifier:

➢When the feedback circuit is allied in series
through the o/p as well as the input, then both the o/p
impedance & the i/p impedance will be increased.

➢When the feedback circuit is allied in series

through the o/p however in parallel with the input,
then the o/p impedance will be increased & because
of the parallel connection with the i/p, the i/p
impedance will be decreased.

❑ Advantages (Feedback amplifier)

➢The amplifier’s gain can be stabilized by the negative feedback
➢The particular feedback configurations can be increased by the input resistance.
➢Output resistance will be decreased for particular feedback configurations.
➢The operating point is stabilized.
❑Disadvantages
➢Reduction in gain.
➢Reduction in input resistance in case of voltage shunt and current shunt type amplifiers.
➢Increase in output resistance in case of current shunt and current series feedback amplifiers.
❑Applications of negative feedback
➢In most all the electronic amplifiers.
➢In the regulated power supplies.
➢In wideband amplifiers (amplifiers having a large bandwidth).
❖ Working Principle of LED
The working principle of the Light emitting diode is based on
the quantum theory. The quantum theory says that when the
electron comes down from the higher energy level to the
lower energy level then, the energy emits from the photon.
The photon energy is equal to the energy gap between these
two energy levels. If the PN-junction diode is in the forward
biased, then the current flows through the diode. Working
Principle of LED The flow of current in the semiconductors
is caused by the both flow of holes in the opposite direction
of current and flow of electrons in the direction of the current.
Hence there will be recombination due to the flow of these
charge carriers. The recombination indicates that the
electrons in the conduction band jump down to the valence band. When the electrons jump
from one band to another band the electrons will emit the electromagnetic
energy in the form of photons and the photon energy is equal to the forbidden energy gap.
For an example, let us consider the quantum theory, the energy of the photon is the product of
both Planck constant and frequency of electromagnetic radiation. The mathematical equation
is shown
Eq = hf
Where h is known as a Planck constant, and the velocity of electromagnetic radiation is
equal to the speed of light i.e c. The frequency
radiation is related to the velocity of light as a f=
c / λ. λ is denoted as a wavelength of an
electromagnetic radiation and the above
equation will become as a Eq = he / λ From the
above equation, we can say that the wavelength
of electromagnetic radiation is inversely
proportional to the forbidden gap. In general
silicon, germanium semiconductors this
forbidden energy gap is between the condition
and valence bands are such that the total
radiation of electromagnetic wave during
recombination is in the form of the infrared
radiation. We can’t see the wavelength of
infrared because they are out of our visible range. The infrared radiation is said to be as a heat
because the silicon and the germanium semiconductors are not direct gap semiconductors
rather these are indirect gap semiconductors. But in the direct gap semiconductors, the
maximum energy level of the valence band and minimum energy level of conduction band does
not occur at the same moment of electrons. Therefore, during the recombination of electrons
and holes are a migration of electrons from the conduction band to valence band the momentum
of electron band will be changed.

❖ Principle of Lasers (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)

The principle of a laser is based on three separate features: a) stimulated emission within
an amplifying medium, b) population inversion of electronics and c) an optical resonator.

According to the quantum mechanics, an electron within an atom or lattice can have only
certain values of energy, or energy levels. There are many energy levels that an electron can
occupy, but here we will only consider two.
1. Absorption:
If a photon interacts with an orbital electron, given the appropriate conditions, the photon
is absorbed by the electron. When this occurs, the electron moves to a higher energy level.

Such an event is called absorption. When an electron moves to a higher energy level it is said
to be in an excited state.
1. Spontaneous emission
If an electron is in the excited state with the energy E2 it may spontaneously decay to the
ground state, with energy E1, releasing the difference in energy between the two states as a
photon. This process is called spontaneous emission, producing fluorescent light.

2. Stimulated emission:
Stimulated emission is the process by
which incident photon interacts with the
excited electron and forces it to return to the
ground state. In stimulated emission, the light
energy is supplied directly to the excited
electron instead of supplying light energy to
the ground state electrons. Unlike the
spontaneous emission, the stimulated emission
is not a natural process it is an artificial
process. In stimulated emission, two photons
are emitted (one additional photon is emitted),
one is due to the incident photon and another
one is due to the energy release of excited
electron. Thus, two photons are emitted.
3. Population inversion
Population inversion occurs when more electrons, in a particular situation, are in a higher
energy state than in a lower energy state. Population inversion can be thought of as an

inversion from the standard, since electrons are typically located in lower energy states.
❖ Difference between Spontaneous emission and Stimulated emission

❖ Instrumentation amplifier: