2.

1
IMPROPER DEFINITE INTEGRALS
Definite Integral

Consider a continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) defined over an

interval 𝑎, 𝑏 . Let us divide the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 into ′𝑛′ equal
(𝑏−𝑎 )
subintervals (parts) each of length 𝑕 so that 𝑕 = , or
𝑛
𝑛𝑕 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 . Let 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 be the points on the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
correponding to 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑕, 𝑎 + 2𝑕, … , 𝑎 + 𝑛𝑕 = 𝑏, and
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 be the corresponding points on the curve
𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 . Let 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , … , 𝐿𝑛 be the feet of the perpendiculars
from 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 −1 onto the line segments𝑃1 𝐴1 , 𝑃2 𝐴2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 𝐴𝑛 ,
respectively. Then the rectangles having
𝐴0 𝐴1 , 𝐴1 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 −1 𝐴𝑛 as bases have their width equal to 𝑕
each.

𝑌 𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑛−1
𝐿𝑛

𝑃2
𝑃1
𝑃0 𝐿2
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐿1

𝐴0 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛
0 𝑋
The height of the first rectangle 𝐴0 𝐴1 𝐿1 𝑃0 is 𝑃0 𝐴0 = 𝑓 𝑎 . As
such, the area of this rectangle is 𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 . The height of the
second rectangle 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐿2 𝑃1 is 𝑃1 𝐴1 = 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑕 ; as such the
area of this rectangle is 𝑕 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑕). Similarly, the areas of
the third, forth, and 𝑛𝑡𝑕 rectangles are 𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 + 2𝑕 , 𝑕𝑓 𝑎 +
3𝑕 , … , 𝑕 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑕) respectively. The sum of the areas of
all these rectangles is called the Riemann sum and is
denoted by 𝑅𝑛 . Thus,
𝑅𝑛 = 𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑕 + 𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 + 2𝑕 + ⋯ + 𝑕 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑛 − 1 𝑕 .
n 1
=  hf (a  rh)
r 0

The limit of 𝑅𝑛 as 𝑛 → ∞ (or equivalently 𝑕 → 0) is called the

b
definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑎 to 𝑏 and is denoted by  f ( x)dx.
a

Thus,
b n 1

 f ( x)dx  lim 𝑅𝑛 = lim

𝑛→∞ 𝑕→0
 f (a  rh)
r 0
a

We note that in the limiting case when the number of

subintervals into which the interval 𝑎, 𝑏 is divided is
infinitely large, the width of the rectangles tends to zero
and the sum 𝑅𝑛 becomes equal to the area below the curve
between the ordinates 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏.
 b

Thus, geometrically, the interval  f ( x)dx. represents the area

a

bounded by the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and the arc of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

between 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏.
Improper Definite Integrals
𝑏
From the definition of the definite integral 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and its
geometrical interpretation, it is understood that

i. Both the limits 𝑎 and 𝑏 are finite, and

ii. 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous in 𝑎, 𝑏
We now generalize the definition so as to include the case
of definite integrals for which either

i. 𝑎 or 𝑏 or both are infinite

ii. For which 𝑓(𝑥) becomes infinite at some point of the
interval 𝑎, 𝑏 i.e., there exists point 𝑐 of 𝑎, 𝑏 such
that 𝑓(𝑥) tends to ∞ as 𝑥 tends to 𝑐.
Integrals of this type are called Generalized, Improper or
infinite integrals.
Improper definite integrals of the first type:

i. Suppose that the upper limit ′𝑏′ is ∞. To obtain the

∞
value of the integral 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , we first evaluate the
t

definite integral  f ( x)dx,

a
where ′𝑡′ is a number > 𝑎.

We then examine the limit of the definite integral whose

value, of course, depends upon ′𝑡′ as 𝑡 → ∞.
Thus limit, if it exists finitely, is defined to be the value of
the symbol.


 f ( x)dx
a

In case the limit does not exist finitely, we cannot assign



any meaning to  f ( x)dx and

a
we, then, say this infinite

integral does not exist.

Example: To evaluate

1
 1 2
dx,
0 x
we first calculate the integral
𝑡 1
𝑑𝑥.
0 1 + 𝑥2

We have
t
1 𝑡
 1 2
dx  tan−1 𝑥 0 = tan −1 𝑡 − tan −1 0 = tan −1 𝑡
0 x
t
𝜋
⇒ lim  1 dx = lim tan −1 𝑡 =
𝑡→∞ 1 
2
𝑡→∞ 2
0 x

𝜋
⇒  1 dx =
1
2
2
0 x
 b
ii. Suppose that the lower limit is −∞. To obtain  f ( x)dx,

b
we first evaluate  f ( x)dx .
t

The limit of this integral, as 𝑡 → −∞, if it exists finitely,

is to be the value of the integral
b



f ( x)dx

iii. To examine and evaluate, if possible, the infinite

integral
∞
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
−∞

we examine the two integrals

a 

 f ( x)dx and  f ( x)dx, and then, if these two latter integrals

 a

 a 
exist finitely, we write  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
  a

Improper Definite Integrals of the Second Type:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) tend to infinity as 𝑥 tends to 𝑎 and at no other

point. Let 𝑕 be a positive number. We evaluate the proper
b

integral  f ( x)dx whose value is a function of 𝑕. If this

ah

function of 𝑕 tends to a finite limit as 𝑕 tends to 0, then

this finite limit is defined to be the value of the improper
integral
b

 f ( x)dx
a
In case the limit does not exist finitely, then
b

 f ( x)dx has no meaning.

a

Similarly, if 𝑓(𝑥) tends to infinity as 𝑥 → 𝑏 and for no

other point, we examine the limit of the proper integral
𝑏−𝑕
𝑎
𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

as 𝑕 tends to 0. This limit, if it exists finitely, is defined to

𝑏
be the value of 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

If 𝑓(𝑥) tends to infinity at some point 𝑥 = 𝑐 within the

interval 𝑎, 𝑏 , then we examine the two improper
integrals
c b

 f ( x)dx and  f ( x)dx

a c

And if they both exist finitely, we write

b c b

 f ( x)dx =  f ( x)dx +  f ( x)dx .

a a c

Example: Examine the improper integral

1
1
 dx
1 x
2
0

1
The integrand tends to infinity as 𝑥 tends to 1. To
1−𝑥 2
examine the value of the integral, we evaluate
1 h
1
 dx.
1 x
2
0
 1 h 1 h
1
We have  dx  sin x 

1
0
1 x
2
0

= sin−1 (1 − 𝑕) − sin−1 0
= sin−1 (1 − 𝑕).
1 h
1
⇒ lim  dx = lim sin −1 (1 − 𝑕)
𝑕 →0 0 1 x
2 𝑕 →0

= sin−1 1
𝜋
= .
2

1
1 𝜋
⇒  dx  . ■
0 1 x
2 2

It is not always possible to study the

convergence/divergence of an improper integral by
evaluating it as was done in the previous examples. We
now present some results (comparison tests) which can be
used to discuss the convergence or divergence of improper
integrals. In this case, we cannot find the value of the
improper integral that is the value to which it converges.
However, we may be able to find a bound of the integral.

Theorem: If 0 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) for all 𝑥, then

∞ ∞
i. 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 converges if 𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 converges.
∞ ∞
ii. 𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 diverges if 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 diverges.
Theorem: Suppose that 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are positive
𝑓(𝑥)
functions and let lim = 𝐿, 0 < 𝐿 < ∞. Then, the improper
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥)
∞ ∞
integrals 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and 𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 converges or diverge
together.

For improper integrals of second type we have the following

comparison tests.

Theorem: If 0 ≤ 𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 𝑔 𝑥 for all 𝑥 in 𝑎, 𝑏 , then

𝑏 𝑏
(i) 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 converges if 𝑎
𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 converges
𝑏 𝑏
(ii) 𝑎
𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 diverges if 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 diverges

Theorem: If 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 are two positive functions and

(i) 𝑎 is a point of infinite discontinuity such that

𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎+𝑕
lim+ = lim = 𝑙1 , 0 < 𝑙1 < ∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 𝑕 →0 𝑔 𝑎 + 𝑕
or
(ii) 𝑏 is a point of infinite discontinuity such that
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑏−𝑕
lim− = lim = 𝑙2 , 0 < 𝑙 2 < ∞
𝑥→𝑏 𝑔 𝑥 𝑕 →0 𝑔 𝑏 − 𝑕
𝑏 𝑏
then, the improper integrals 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑎
𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
converge or diverge together.
Absolute Convergence of Improper Integrals

In the previous sections, we had assumed that 𝑓 𝑥 is of

the same sign throughout the interval of integration. Now,
assume that 𝑓 𝑥 changes sign within the interval of
integration. In this case, we consider absolute convergence
of the improper integral.
𝑏
Absolute convergence The improper integral 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is
𝑏
said to be absolutely convergent if 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is convergent.

Theorem: An absolutely convergent improper integral is

b b
convergent, that is if  𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 converges, then  𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
a a

converges.

Note: Since, 𝑓 is always positive within the interval of

integration, all the comparison tests can be used to discuss
the absolute convergence of the given improper integral.
1
sin 1 𝑥
Example: Show that the improper integral  𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥𝑝

converges absolutely for 𝑝 < 1.

Solution: The integrand changes sign within the interval of
integration. Hence, we consider the absolute convergence of
the given integral. The function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑝 has a
point of infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0. We have
sin 1 𝑥 1
𝑓(𝑥) = ≤ .
𝑥𝑝 𝑥𝑝
1
1
Since  𝑑𝑥 converges for 𝑝 < 1, the given improper
0
𝑥𝑝

integral converges absolutely for 𝑝 < 1.

Problem 1: Discuss the convergence of the improper

integral  dxp
1 x

dx 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑏
Solution: We have  p
= lim𝑏→∞ 1 𝑥𝑝
= 𝑥1−𝑝 1 =
1−𝑝
1 x
1
𝑏1−𝑝 − 1 .
1−𝑝

∞, 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 < 1
Now, lim 𝑏1−𝑝 =
𝑏→∞ 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑝 > 1.

Therefore, the improper integral converges if 𝑝 > 1 and

diverges if 𝑝 < 1. For 𝑝 = 1, we have
 dx b dx 𝑏

1
 lim 
x 𝑏→∞ 1 x 𝑏→∞
 lim ln 𝑥 1 = lim ln 𝑏.
𝑏→∞

Since the limit does not exist, the improper integral

diverges. Hence, the given improper integral converges to
1
(𝑝 − 1) for 𝑝 > 1 and diverges for 𝑝 ≤ 1.
Problem 2: Discuss the convergence of the following
improper integrals.
   1
dx dx x tan x
(i)  (ii) 2 ln x , (iii) 
e x
x
, dx.
1
2
4 x
3
1 1

Solution:
1 1
i. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = and 𝑔 𝑥 = .
𝑒 −𝑥 +1 𝑥 2 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) 1 𝑥2 1
Now lim = lim = lim = 1.
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→∞ 𝑒 −𝑥 +1 𝑥 2 1 𝑥→∞ 𝑒 −𝑥 +1
 
Also,  g ( x)dx   dx2 converges to 1. Therefore the given
1 1 x
improper integral is also convergent. Its value is less
than 1.
1 1
Alternative: we have < for all 𝑥 ≥ 1. The
𝑒 −𝑥 +1 𝑥2 𝑥2

improper integral  dx2dx is convergent. Therefore the given
1 x
improper integral converges.

ii. We have ln 𝑥 < 𝑥 for all 𝑥 > 0. Hence,

 
1 1 dx dx
> and 2 ln x  2 x .
ln 𝑥 𝑥

Let 𝑔 𝑥 = 1 ln 𝑥 and 𝑓 𝑥 = 1 𝑥 . We have 𝑔 𝑥 > 𝑓 𝑥 .

Now,
 
The integral  f ( x)   dx is divergent
x 2 2

 
Therefore the integral  g ( x)dx   dx is also divergent.
ln x 2 2
 𝑥 tan −1 𝑥 tan −1 𝑥 1
iii. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = = and 𝑔 𝑥 = .
4+𝑥 3 𝑥 1+4𝑥 −3 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) tan −1 𝑥 𝜋
We find that lim = lim = .
𝑥→∞ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→∞ 1+4𝑥 −3 2
 
Hence the integrals  f ( x)dx and  g ( x)dx converge or
1 1

diverge together. Now,  g ( x)dx is divergent. Therefore,
1


 f ( x)dx is also divergent.

1
Problem 3: Evaluate the following improper integrals, if
they exist:
4 𝑑𝑥
(i) 0 𝑥
1 1+𝑥
(ii) −1
𝑑𝑥
1−𝑥
3 𝑑𝑥
(iii) 0 3𝑥−𝑥 2
1 𝑑𝑥
(iv) −1 𝑥 2
3 𝑑𝑥
(v) 2
0 𝑥 −3𝑥+2

Solution:
4 𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
(i) 0 𝑥
= lim = 2lim 2 − 𝜀 = 4
𝜀→0 𝜀 𝑥 𝜀 →0
Therefore, the improper integral converges to 4.

1 1+𝑥 1−𝜀 1+𝑥

(ii) −1
𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑥 𝜀→0 −1 1−𝑥
1−𝜀 𝑑𝑥 1 1−𝜀 −2𝑥
= lim −1
− 𝑑𝑥
𝜀 →0 1−𝑥 2 2 −1 1−𝑥 2

= lim sin−1 1 − 𝜀 − sin−1 −1 − 1− 1−𝜀 2 −

𝜀→0

1−1
= sin −1 1 − sin−1 −1 = 2 sin−1 1 = 𝜋
Therefore, the improper integral converges to 𝜋.

(iii) Here, the integrand 𝑓 𝑥 has infinite discontinuity, at

both the end points 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 3. We take any
point, say 𝑥 = 𝑐, inside the interval of integration, at
which 𝑓 𝑥 is defined. We write
 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
0 3𝑥−𝑥 2
= 0 3𝑥−𝑥 2
+ 𝑐 3𝑥−𝑥 2
𝑐 𝑑𝑥 3−𝜉 𝑑𝑥
= lim + lim
𝜀→0 𝜀 𝑥 3−𝑥 𝜉 →0 𝑐 𝑥 3−𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑐 1 𝑥 3−𝜉
= lim ln + lim ln
3 𝜀→0 3−𝑥 𝜀 3 𝜉 →0 3−𝑥 𝑐
1 𝑐 𝜀 1 3−𝜉
= lim ln − ln + lim ln −
3 𝜀→0 3−𝑐 3−𝜀 3 𝜉 →0 𝜉
𝑐
ln
3−𝑐
Since the limits do not exist, the improper integral
diverges.

(iv) The integrand has infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0

which lies inside the interval of integration. We write
1 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 −𝜀 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑥 2
= −1 𝑥 2
+ 0 𝑥2
= lim + lim
𝜀→0 −1 𝑥 2 𝜉 →0 𝜉 𝑥 2
1 1
= lim − 1 + lim −1 →∞
𝜀→0 𝜀 𝜉→0 𝜉
Therefore, the improper integral diverges.

(v) The integrand has infinite discontinuities at 𝑥 = 1 and

𝑥 = 2, both of which lie inside the interval of
integration. We write
3 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
= 0 𝑥−1 𝑥−2
+ 1 𝑥−1 𝑥−2
+ 2 𝑥−1 𝑥−2
= 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
We find that
(a) the integrand in 𝐼1 has infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 1,
(b) the integrand 𝑓 𝑥 in 𝐼2 has infinite discontinuity at
both the end points 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 2. We take any
point, say 𝑥 = 𝑐 inside the limits of integration, at
which 𝑓 𝑥 is defined. We also find that 𝑓 𝑥 < 0 when
 1 < 𝑥 < 2. We write 𝑔 𝑥 = −𝑓 𝑥 so that 𝑔 𝑥 > 0 when
1 < 𝑥 < 2. Therefore, we can write
𝑐 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐼2 = − 1 𝑥−1 2−𝑥
− 𝑐 𝑥−1 2−𝑥
(c) the integrand in 𝐼3 has infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 2
Hence, we can write
3 𝑑𝑥 1−𝜀 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝑑𝑥
2
0 𝑥 −3𝑥+2
= lim − lim
𝜀 1 →0 0 𝑥−1 𝑥−2 𝜀 2 →0 1+𝜀 2 𝑥−1 2−𝑥
2−𝜀 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
− lim 0 3 + lim 2+𝜀
𝜀 3 →0 𝑥−1 2−𝑥 𝜀 4 →0 4 𝑥−1 𝑥−2

𝜀 1 +1 𝑐−1 𝜀2
= lim ln − ln 2 − lim ln − ln
𝜀 1 →0 𝜀1 𝜀 2 →0 2−𝑐 1−𝜀 2

1−𝜀 3 𝑐−1 1 𝜀4
− lim ln − ln + lim ln − ln
𝜀 3 →0 𝜀3 2−𝑐 𝜀 4 →0 2 𝜀 4 +1
Since the limits do not exist, the improper integral
diverges.
Note that the improper integral 𝐼1 diverges. We could
have concluded that the improper integral diverges
without discussing the convergence/divergence of 𝐼2
and 𝐼3 .
Problem 4: Discuss the convergence of the improper
𝑏 𝑑𝑥
integral 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑝
, 𝑝 > 0.

Solution: The integrand has infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

We write
𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 1 1 1
𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 𝑝
= lim = lim −
𝜀→0 𝑎+𝜀 𝑥−𝑎 𝑝 1−𝑝 𝜀→0 𝑏−𝑎 𝑝 −1 𝜀 𝑝 −1

1
𝑝−1 , if 𝑝 < 1
= 1−𝑝 𝑏−𝑎
∞, if 𝑝 > 1

For 𝑝 = 1, we get
𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑏−𝑎
𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
= lim = lim ln =∞
𝜀→0 𝑎+𝜀 𝑥−𝑎 𝜀→0 𝜀

Therefore, the improper integral converges for 𝑝 < 1 and

diverges for 𝑝 ≥ 1.
EXERCISE

Discuss the convergence or divergence of the given

improper integral



ln x
1. dx
x
2


dx
2.
x2  2 x
3

3.

0
x 2e  ax dx , a  0

 xe  x dx
2
4.

1
 


dx
5.
e x  e x



dx
6.
x ln x
1


x
7. dx
1 x 2


sin x
8. dx
x(ln x) 2
2
Answers

1) Diverges
2) Converges
3) Converges
4) Converges
5) Converges
6) Diverges
7) Converges
8) Absolutely convergent
2.2
BETA AND GAMMA FUNCTIONS

Introduction
Beta and Gamma functions are improper integrals which are
commonly encountered in many science and engineering
applications. These functions are used in evaluating many
definite integrals. In this module, we study some simple
properties of the beta function and the gamma function.
These functions are defined in the form of an integral and all
the additional properties of these functions are derived from
the integral representation.

Definition: The Beta function is defined by

𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 =  x m11 x 
1 n 1
dx 𝑚, 𝑛 > 0.
0

The Gamma function is defined by


Γ 𝑛 =  x n1e  xdx 𝑛 > 0.
0

Note: The Beta function defined above converges if 𝑚, 𝑛 > 0

and the Gamma function defined above converges if 𝑛 > 0.
Properties and results of Beta and Gamma functions
 n 1

1. 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 =  x dx
1 x 
m n
0
Proof: 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 =  x m11 x 
1 n 1
dx .
0

𝑦 𝑦 1
Put 𝑥 = . Hence 1 − 𝑥 = 1 − = .
1+𝑦 1+𝑦 1+𝑦

𝑑𝑦
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0. When 𝑥 → 1, 𝑦 → ∞. Also 𝑑𝑥 = .
1+𝑦 2

m 1

Therefore, 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = 
y dy
1 y  1 y  1 y 
m 1 n 1 2
0

m 1

= 
y dy
1 y 
m n
0

 m 1

=  x dx
1 x 
m n
0

𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = 2   sin x   cos x 
2 2 m 1 2 n 1
2. dx.
0

1 𝑚 −1
Proof: 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = 0
𝑥 1−𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑑𝑥.

Put 𝑥 = sin2 𝑡. Hence 𝑑𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡.

𝜋
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑡 = 0 and when 𝑥 = 1, 𝑡 = .
2


   cos t 
2 m 1 n 1
Therefore, 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 =  sin 2t 2 2sin t cos tdt
0


2
2𝑚−1 2𝑛−1
=2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
0
3. 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = 𝛽 𝑛, 𝑚 .
1
Proof: 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 =  𝑥 𝑚 −1 (1 − 𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥.
0

Put 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑦. Hence 1 − 𝑥 = 𝑦. Also 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑦.

So when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 and when 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 0.

0
Therefore, 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = 1
1−𝑦 𝑚 −1 𝑛−1
𝑦 (−𝑑𝑦)
1
=  𝑦 𝑛−1 1 − 𝑦 𝑚−1
𝑑𝑦
0

= 𝛽 𝑛, 𝑚 .

4. 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = 𝛽 𝑚 + 1, 𝑛 + 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 + 1 .
1
Proof: 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 =  𝑥 𝑚 −1 1 − 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
0

1
=  𝑥 𝑚 −1 1 − 𝑥 𝑛−1 (𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0

1 1
𝑚 𝑛−1
=  𝑥 1−𝑥 𝑑𝑥 +  𝑥 𝑚 −1 1 − 𝑥 𝑛
𝑑𝑥
0 0

= 𝛽 𝑚 + 1, 𝑛 + 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 + 1 .

5. Γ 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑛Γ 𝑛 .


Proof: Γ n =  𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
0
 
So Γ n + 1 =  𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

a
= lim  𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 →∞ 0

a
𝑎
= lim −𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 0 +  𝑛𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑎→∞ 0


= lim −𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑎0 + 𝑛  𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎→∞ 0

= 𝑛Γ 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 lim −𝑎 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑎 = 0 .
𝑎→∞

6. Γ 1 = 1.

Proof: Γ n =  𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
0

∞
So Γ(1) = 0
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑒 −𝑥 ∞
0
= 0 − (−1) = 1.

7. Γ n + 1 = n!, where 𝑛 is a positive integer.

Proof: We have Γ n + 1 = nΓ n (by Property 5)
= 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 Γ(𝑛 − 1)

= 𝑛 𝑛 − 1 … 2.1. Γ(1)
 = 𝑛! using Property 6 .


2
8. Γ n = 2  𝑒 −𝑦 𝑦 2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑦.
0


Proof: We have Γ n =  𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑑𝑥.
0

Put 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 . Hence 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦.

 
2 2
Therefore Γ n =  𝑒 −𝑦 𝑦 2 𝑛−1 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 2  𝑒 −𝑦 𝑦 2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑦.
0 0

Γ m Γ(n)
9. 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = .
Γ(m +n)

Proof: We have (by Property 8)


2
Γ m = 2  𝑒 −𝑦 𝑦 2𝑚−1 𝑑𝑦 and
0


2
Γ n = 2  𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 2𝑛 −1 𝑑𝑥
0

 
2 2
Now, Γ m Γ n = 4  𝑒 −𝑦 𝑦 2𝑚 −1 𝑑𝑦  𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
0 0

 
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
= 4   𝑒− 𝑥 2𝑛 −1 𝑦 2𝑚−1 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦.
0 0

Put 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃. Hence 𝐽 = 𝑟.

 In the double integral the region of integration is the entire
first quadrant. In this region 𝑟 varies from 0 to ∞ and 𝜃
𝜋
varies from 0 to .
2

 2 2
So Γ m Γ n = 4   𝑒 −𝑟 𝑟 2𝑚+2𝑛−2 cos 𝜃 2𝑛−1
sin 𝜃 2𝑚−1
𝐽 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟
0 0


 2 2
= 4   𝑒 −𝑟 𝑟 2𝑚+2𝑛−1 cos 𝜃 2𝑛−1 sin 𝜃 2𝑚−1 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑟
0 0


 2
2
= 4 𝑒 −𝑟 𝑟 2𝑚+2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑟  cos 𝜃
2𝑛−1 sin 𝜃 2𝑚 −1 𝑑𝜃
0 0



2 1 2
= 4 𝑒 −𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑚 +𝑛−1 𝑑 𝑟2  cos 𝜃
2𝑛−1 sin 𝜃 2𝑚−1 𝑑𝜃
0
2 0

1 1
=4 Γ m+n 𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) using definition of Γ n and Property 2
2 2

= Γ m + n β m, n .
Γ m Γ(n)
Therefore, 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = .
Γ(m +n)

1
10. Γ = π.
2

Proof: We know that


2
𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = 2  sin 𝑥 2𝑚 −1 cos 𝑥 2𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥 refer Property 2 .
0
 
1 1 2 𝜋
2
Now, 𝛽 , = 2  𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑥 0 = 𝜋.
2 2 0

1 1
Γ 2 Γ 2
⇒ = 𝜋 using Property 9 .
Γ 1

1 2
⇒ Γ =𝜋 ∵Γ 1 =1 .
2

1
⟹Γ = π.
2

1 1 𝑛−1
11. Γ n = 0
log 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥


Proof: We have Γ n =  𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 −1 𝑑𝑥.
0

1 1
Put 𝑥 = log . Hence 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑦.
𝑦 𝑦

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 and when 𝑥 = ∞, 𝑦 = 0.

0 1 𝑛−1 −1 1
1 𝑛−1
Therefore, Γ n = 1
𝑦 log 𝑑𝑦 =  log 𝑑𝑥.
𝑦 𝑦 0
𝑥

1
12. 22𝑛−1 Γ n Γ n + = Γ 2n π. (This is known as
2
duplication formula).
 
2 2
Proof: Let 𝐼 =  sin2n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥. We claim that  sin2n 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼.
0 0



2
2n 2n 1
 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2  sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 (putting 2𝑥 = 𝑦)
0 0
 
2
=  sin2n 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 ∵ sin2n 𝜋 − 𝑦 = sin2n 𝑦
0

= 𝐼.

2
Taking 𝐼 =  sin2n 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0


2 n+1 2 −1 2 1 2 −1
2
=  sin x cos x dx
0

1 1 1
= 𝛽 𝑛+ , (by Property 2)
2 2 2
1 1
Γ n+ Γ
2 2
= (by Property 2)
2Γ(n+1)
1
Γ n+2 π
= …………………(i)
2Γ(n+1)

2
Now, taking 𝐼 =  sin2n 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0


2
=  22𝑛 sin 𝑥 2𝑛 cos 𝑥 2𝑛 𝑑𝑥
0

1 1
Γ n+ Γ n+
=2 2𝑛−1 2 2
…………………..(ii)
Γ(2n+1)
From (i) and (ii) we get
1 1 1
Γ n+2 π Γ n+2 Γ n+2
= 22𝑛−1 .
2Γ(n+1) Γ(2n+1)
1
⇒ Γ 2n + 1 π = 22n Γ n + 1 Γ n + .
2
1
⇒ 2𝑛Γ 2n π = 2n nΓ n Γ n + using 5 .
n
1
⇒ 22𝑛−1 Γ n Γ n + = Γ 2n π.
2

1 3
13. Γ Γ = 2π.
4 4
 1
Proof: Put 𝑛 = in the duplication formula.
4
1
1 3 Γ π
Then Γ Γ = 2
1
4 4 2− 2

1
= 2𝜋 ∵Γ = π
2
 
Problem 1: Evaluate  𝑥 6 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
0

Solution: Put 𝑦 = 3𝑥. Hence 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑑𝑥.

 
y 6 −y dy
Now,  𝑥 6 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =  e
0 0
3 3

1 7 
6 −𝑦
=
3  𝑦 𝑒 𝑑𝑦
0

1 7 1 7 80
= Γ 7 == 6! = .
3 3 243
 
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝜋
Problem 2: Prove that  𝑑𝑡 = , where 𝑠 > 0.
0
𝑡 𝑠

Solution: Put 𝑠𝑡 = 𝑢. Hence 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑢.

1
∞ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 1 ∞
So 0
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑢 𝑢−2 𝑑𝑢
𝑡 𝑠 0

1 1 π
= Γ = .
𝑠 2 s
 1
Problem 3: Evaluate  𝑥 log 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥.
0

Solution: Put 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑦 . Hence log 𝑥 = −𝑦.

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = ∞ and when 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 0.

Further 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑒 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦.
1 0
So 3
 x log x 𝑑𝑥 =  e
−3y −y 3 −e−y dy
0 

0
=  e−4y y 3 dy.


Now, put 4𝑦 = 𝑡. Hence 4𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡.

0 0
t 3 1
Therefore,  𝑒 −4𝑦 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 =  e−t dt
 
4 4

0
1
=  e−t t 3 dt
256 

1 ∞ −t 3
=− e t dt
256 0
1 1 3
=− Γ 4 =− 3! = − .
256 256 128
 
𝑥 8 1−𝑥 6
Problem 4: Prove that  𝑑𝑥 = 0.
0
1+𝑥 24

 
𝑥8 𝑥 14
Solution: 𝐼 =  24
𝑑𝑥 −  𝑑𝑥
0
1+𝑥 0
1+𝑥 24

 
𝑥 9−1 𝑥 15 −1
=  𝑑𝑥 −  𝑑𝑥
0
1+𝑥 9+15 0
1+𝑥 15 +9

= 𝛽 9, 15 − 𝛽 15, 9 (by Property 1)

=0 since 𝛽 𝑚, 𝑛 = 𝛽(𝑛, 𝑚) .
  2  2
𝑑𝜃
Problem 5: Prove that   sin θ dθ = π
0
sin 𝜃 0

 2  2
Solution:  sin θ dθ =  sin θ 1 2
cos θ 0 𝑑𝜃
0 0

 2
=  sin θ 2 3 4 −1 cos θ 2 1 2 −1 𝑑𝜃
0

1 3 1
= 𝛽 ,
2 4 2
3 1
1 Γ 4 Γ 2
= 5
2 Γ
4

3 1
1 Γ 4 Γ 2
= 1 1
2 Γ
4 4

𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑑𝜃 −2
and 2
0
= 2
0
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜋
2 1 1
2 4 −1 2 2 −1
= sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0

1 1 1
= 𝛽 ,
2 4 2
1 1
1Γ 4 Γ 2
=
2 Γ 3
4

Therefore,
𝜋 𝜋 1 1 3 1
2 𝑑𝜃 2 1Γ 4 Γ 2 1Γ 4
Γ
2
sin 𝜃 = ∙
0 sin 𝜃 0 2 Γ 3 2 1 1
Γ
4 4 4
= 𝜋.
Exercise
∞ 𝑥 𝜌 −1 𝜋 π
1. Given that 0 1+𝑥
= . Show that Γ ρ . Γ 1 − ρ = .
sin 𝜌𝜋 sin ρπ
2. Evaluate the following improper integrals
∞ 2
(i) 0
𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∞ 3
(ii) 0
𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 in terms of Gamma functions.
3. Use Beta and Gamma functions, to evaluate the integral
1
𝐼= −1
(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑛 𝑑𝑥, where ‘𝑛’ is a positive integer.
1 𝑚 𝑛
4. Express 0
𝑥 1 − 𝑥𝜌 𝑑𝑥 in terms of Beta function and
1
1 3
hence evaluate the integral 0
𝑥2 1− 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥.
∞ 2
5. Evaluate 0
2−9𝑥 𝑑𝑥 using the Gamma function.
𝜋
𝜋
6. Show that 2
0
tan 𝑥 = .
2
𝜋
𝑑𝑥
7. Evaluate 2
0 sin 𝑥
.
1 𝑛
8. Evaluate 0
𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑚 𝑑𝑥.
3
𝑎 𝑥2
9. Evaluate 0
𝑑𝑥.
𝑎 2 −𝑥 2

Answers
1 3
2. (i). Γ Hint: put 𝑥 = 𝑡.
2 4
1
1 1
(ii). Γ Hint: put 𝑥 = 𝑡 . 3
3 3

2 2𝑛 +1 (𝑛!)2
3. (Put 1 + 𝑥 = 2𝑡).
2𝑛+1 !
 512
4. (Put 𝑥 𝑝 = 𝑦).
3465

1 𝜋
5. (Put 9𝑥 2 ln 2 = 𝑦).
6 ln 2

1 1 1
7. 𝛽 , .
2 4 2

−1 𝑚
8. By substituting 𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑡 : Γ(𝑚 + 1).
𝑛 +1 𝑚 +1

3
1 5 1
9. By substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃: 𝑎 2 𝛽 , .
2 4 2
2.3
List of Standard Integrals


x n1
1) x dx 
n
when 𝑛 ≠ −1
n 1


dx
2)  log x
x

3)
 e x dx  e x

4)
 sin xdx   cos x

5)
 cos xdx  sin x

6)
 sec2 xdx  tan x

7)
 cos ec 2 xdx   cot x

8)
 sec x tan xdx  sec x

9)
 cos ecx cot xdx   cos ecx

 1 x
dx
10)  sin 1 x
2

 1  x  tan x
dx 1
11) 2

 x x 1  sec
dx 1
12) x
2
13)
sinh xdx  cosh x

14)
cosh xdx  sinh x

15)

dx
1  x2

 sinh 1 x  log x  x 2  1 
x  log  x  x 1

dx
16)  cosh 1 2

x2  1


dx x
17)  sin 1  
a2  x2 a


dx x
18)  cosh 1  
x2  a2 a


dx x
19)  sinh 1  
a2  x2 a

a x a 1  x 
dx 1
20)  tan  
a
2 2


dx 1  xa
21)  log  
x 2  a 2 2a  xa


dx 1 ax
22)  log  
a x
2 2
2a ax

23)
tan xdx  log(sec x)

24)
cot xdx  log(sin x)

25)
sec xdx  log(sec x  cot x)
 26)
 cos ecxdx   log(cos ecx  cot x)


x a 2  x 2 a 2 1  x 
27) a  x dx 
2 2
 sin  
2 2 a


x x2  a2 a2 x
28) x  a dx 
2 2
 cosh 1  
2 2 a


x a2  x2 a2 x
29) a  x dx 
2 2
 sinh 1  
2 2 a

Improper Integrals Involving a Parameter

Often, we come across integrals of the form
𝑏(𝛼)
∅ 𝛼 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
𝑎(𝛼)

where 𝛼 is a parameter and the integrand 𝑓 is such that

the integral cannot be evaluated by standard methods. We
can evaluate some of these integrals by differentiating the
integral with respect to the parameter, that is first obtain
∅′ (𝛼), evaluate the integral (that is integrate with respect to
𝑥) and then integrate ∅′ (𝛼), with respect to 𝛼. Note that 𝑓
is a function of two variables 𝑥 and 𝛼 . When we
differentiate 𝑓 with respect to 𝛼, we treat 𝑥 as a constant
and denote the derivatives as 𝜕𝑓/𝜕𝛼 (partial derivate of 𝑓
with respect to 𝛼). We assume that 𝑓, 𝜕𝑓/𝜕𝛼 , 𝑎 𝛼 and 𝑏 𝛼
are continuous functions of 𝛼. We now present the formula
which gives the derivative of ∅(𝛼).
Theorem (Leibniz formula): If 𝑎 𝛼 , 𝑏 𝛼 , 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 and 𝜕𝑓/𝜕𝛼
are continuous functions of 𝛼, then
𝑏(𝛼)
𝑑∅ 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑎
= 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑏, 𝛼 − 𝑓(𝑎, 𝛼)
𝑑𝛼 𝑎(𝛼) 𝜕𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼

Proof: Let ∆𝛼 be an increment in 𝛼 and ∆𝑎, ∆𝑏 be the

corresponding increments in 𝑎 and 𝑏. We have
𝑏+∆𝑏 𝑏
∆∅ = ∅ 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 − ∅ 𝛼 = 𝑎+∆𝑎
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏+∆𝑏
= 𝑎+∆𝑎
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 +
𝑏
∆𝛼 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥

Or
∆∅ 𝑎 1 𝑏 1
=𝑎+∆𝑎 ∆𝛼
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑎 ∆𝛼
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 − 𝑓(𝑥, 𝛼) 𝑑𝑥 +
∆𝛼
𝑏+∆𝑏 1
𝑏
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 𝑑𝑥. ------------------ (1)
∆𝛼

Using the mean value theorem of integrals

𝑥1
𝑥0
𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 𝑓 𝜉 , 𝑥0 < 𝜉 < 𝑥1 ------- (2)

we get
𝑎
𝑎+∆𝑎
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 𝑑𝑥 = −∆𝑎𝑓 𝜉1 , 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 , 𝑎 < 𝜉1 < 𝑎 + ∆𝑎 --- (3)

and
𝑏+∆𝑏
𝑏
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 𝑑𝑥 = ∆𝑏𝑓 𝜉2 , 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 , 𝑏 < 𝜉2 < 𝑏 + ∆𝑏 --- (4)

Using the Lagrange mean value theorem, we get

𝜕𝑓
𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 + ∆𝛼 − 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 = ∆𝛼 𝑥, 𝜉3 , 𝛼 < 𝜉3 < 𝛼 + ∆𝛼. --(5)
𝜕𝛼
We note that

lim 𝜉1 = 𝑎, lim 𝜉2 = 𝑏 and lim 𝜉3 = 𝛼.

∆𝛼 →0 ∆𝛼 →0 ∆𝛼→0

Taking limits as ∆𝛼 → 0 on both sides of equation (1) and

using the results in equations (2) to (5), we obtain
𝑑∅ 𝑏 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑎
= 𝑎 𝜕𝛼
𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑏, 𝛼 − 𝑓 𝑎, 𝛼 .
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼

Remark
a) If the limits 𝑎 𝛼 and 𝑏 𝛼 are constants, then Liebniz
formula becomes

𝑏
𝑑∅ 𝜕𝑓
= 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝛼 𝑎 𝜕𝛼

b) If the integrand 𝑓 is independent of 𝛼 , then Liebniz

formula becomes
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑎
=𝑓 𝑏 − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼

c) Leibniz formula is often used to evaluate certain types

of improper integrals.
 ∞ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 sin 𝑥
Problem 1: Evaluate the integral 0
𝑑𝑥, 𝛼 > 0 and
𝑥
deduce that
∞ sin 𝑥 𝜋 ∞ sin 𝑎𝑥 𝜋
(i) 0 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = , (ii) 0
𝑑𝑥 = , 𝑎 > 0.
2 𝑥 2

∞ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 sin 𝑥
Solution: Let ∅ 𝛼 = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥. ----------- (1)
𝑥

The limits of integration are independent of the parameter

𝛼. We obtain
𝑑∅ ∞ 𝜕 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 sin 𝑥 ∞ 𝑥𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 sin 𝑥 ∞ −𝛼𝑥
= 0 𝜕𝛼
𝑑𝑥 = − 0
𝑑𝑥 = − 0
𝑒 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
𝑑𝛼 𝑥 𝑥

𝑒 −𝛼𝑥
Using the result 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − (𝛼 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 ), we
1+𝛼 2
obtain
∞
𝑑∅ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 1
= (𝛼 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 ) =− .
𝑑𝛼 1 + 𝛼2 0 1 + 𝛼2

Integrating with respect to 𝛼, we get

∅ 𝛼 = −tan−1 𝛼 + 𝑐, where 𝑐 is the constant of integration.

From (1), we get the condition ∅ ∞ = 0. Hence,

𝜋
∅ ∞ = 0 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ∞ + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = .
2
∞ 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝜋
Therefore, ∅ 𝛼 = 0
𝑑𝑥 = − tan −1 𝛼 .
𝑥 2
∞ sin 𝑥 𝜋
(i) Setting 𝛼 = 0, we obtain 0 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = .
2
(ii) Substituting 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 on the left hand side of (i) we
∞ sin 𝑥 ∞ sin 𝑎𝑦 𝜋
obtain 0 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑦 = .
𝑦 2
Problem 2:




e  x dx 
2
Using the result , evaluate the integral
2
0


 e  x cos(2 x)dx
2

0



Solution: Let  ( )  e x cos(2 x)dx
2

0
The limits of integration are independent of the parameter
𝛼. Hence,
 

 
d   x
 e cos(2 x)  dx  (2 x)e x sin(2 x)dx
2 2

d   
0 0




 e x sin(2 x)   2 e x cos(2 x)dx  2
2 2

 0
0
d
Integrating the differential equation  2  0 , we obtain
d
 ( )  ce
2



We get the condition  (0)  e x dx 
2

2
0


Using this condition, we obtain  (0)  c
2




Therefore,  ( )  e x cos(2 x)dx  e 
2 2

2
0
 


tan 1 (ax)
Problem 3: Evaluate the integral dx, a  0 and
x(1  x )
2

0
𝑎≠1
Solution:
∞ tan −1 𝑎𝑥
Let ∅ 𝑎 = 0 𝑥 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥.
We have
𝑑𝜃 ∞ 𝜕 tan −1 𝑎𝑥 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
= 2 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑎 0 𝜕𝑎 𝑥 1 + 𝑥 0 1 + 𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑎 2 𝑥 2 )
∞
1 𝑎2 1
= 2 − 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 − 1 0 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 1 1 + 𝑥2
1 𝜋 𝑎−1 𝜋
= 2 𝑎 tan−1 𝑎𝑥 ∞ 0 − tan −1
𝑥 ∞
0 = =
𝑎 −1 2 𝑎2 − 1 2 𝑎+1
Integrating with respect to a , we obtain
𝜋
∅ 𝑎 = ln 𝑎 + 1 + 𝑐
2
We get the condition∅ 0 = 0. Using this condition, we
obtain ∅ 0 = 0 = 𝑐.
∞ tan −1 𝑎𝑥 𝜋
Therefore, ∅ 𝑎 = 0 𝑥 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥. = ln 𝑎 + 1 .
2
EXERCISE

Evaluate the following integrals.


2
1.   sin  xdx
0
 
2.  x 2e  x dx, where  e  x dx  
2 2

 


3

 
3.  cot 1  x dx

3
0  
 

4.  cos x
dx, given that  dx  , a  b  0.
 a b cos x  a  b cos x
3
a b
2 2
0 0


dx
5.  , 𝑛 any positive integer.
 x 1
n 1
0 2

  ax  bx
e
6.  e dx, a  0, b  0.
0
x

1 a b

7.  x x dx, a  b  1.
0
log x

ANSWERS
1. 0

2. In  e  x dx   , let 𝑥 = 𝛼𝑦 and define
2



∞ 2𝑦2 𝜋
∅ 𝛼 = −∞
𝑒 −𝛼 𝑑𝑦 = . Differentiate with respect to 𝛼
𝛼
𝜋
and set 𝛼 = 1. We get ∅ = .
2
𝜋+2 ln 2 𝛼 3
3.
4
 

4. Differentiating  dx  with respect to 𝑏 and
a  b cos x 2
b
2
0
a

dx a
readjusting the terms, we get  
 a b cos x   a b 
2 32
0 2 2

Differentiate again with respect to 𝑏. We get

−3𝜋𝑎𝑏
∅= 5
2 𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 2

5. Consider

dx 
 ( )    . Differentiate 𝑛 times with respect to 𝛼
x  2 
2 2
0

𝜋 2𝑛 !
and 𝛼 = 1. We get ∅ 𝛼 = .
2 2 2𝑛 𝑛 ! 2
𝑑∅
6. Find , integrate with respect to 𝑎, use ∅ 𝑏 = 0. We
𝑑𝑎

get ∅ 𝑎 = ln 𝑏 𝑎 .
𝑑∅
7. Find , integrate with respect to 𝑎, use ∅ 𝑏 = 0. We
𝑑𝑎
𝑎+1
get ∅ 𝑎 = ln .
𝑏 +1
2.4
Length of Arc of a Curve (Rectification)
In this section, we consider the process of determining the
length of arc of a curve between two specified points on it.
The only length we know is how to compute the length of
line segment. If the endpoints of the line are (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and
(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) then the length of the line is given by the distance
formula:

𝑠= (∆𝑥)2 + (∆𝑦)2

We can break up a smooth curve over an interval [𝑎, 𝑏] into

a number 𝑛 of such segments, whose total length will be

𝑛 𝑛 ∆𝑦 𝑘 2
𝑠= 𝑘 =1 (∆𝑥𝑘 )2 + (∆𝑦𝑘 )2 = 𝑘 =1 1+ ∆𝑥𝑘 .
∆𝑥 𝑘

By increasing the number of segments, we obtain

increasingly better approximations to the smooth curve,
and hence our notion of arc length can be expressed by the
limit:
𝑛 2
∆𝑦𝑘
𝑠 = lim 1+ ∆𝑥𝑘
𝑛 →∞ ∆𝑥𝑘
𝑘=1

as 𝑛 → ∞ and ∆𝑥𝑘 → 0 , this limit becomes an integral

expression giving us a definition for the arc length 𝑠 of the
curve over the integral [𝑎, 𝑏].

𝑏 𝑏 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑠= 𝑎
1 + 𝑓′ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
1+ 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥
Alternatively, if our curve is expressed in the form 𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑦)
where 𝑔 is a smooth function of 𝑦 over the interval [𝑐, 𝑑] on
the 𝑌 − axis , then the arc length of the curve over that
interval becomes

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑠= 𝑐
1+ [𝑔′ 𝑥 ]2 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐
1+ 𝑑𝑦.
𝑑𝑦

So we have the following formulae.

Curves Given in Cartesian Form

Consider a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Let 𝑠 denote the length of the arc
of the curve between two points 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏. Then, 𝑠 is
determined by using the following formula:
b


1
  dy  2

2
s 1     dx …………………(1)
  dx  
a

Remarks
1) If the equation of the curve is given in the form
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) , then the formula (1) with 𝑥 and 𝑦
interchanged is employed to find the length of the arc
of the curve between 𝑦 = 𝑎 and 𝑦 = 𝑏; that is


1
  dx  2
 2

s 1     dy …………………… (2)
  dy  
a
 2) If the equation of the curve is specified in the
parametric form 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡), then (1) yields the
following formula for the length 𝑠 of the arc of the
curve between the points corresponding to 𝑡 = 𝑡1 and
𝑡 = 𝑡2 , 𝑡1 < 𝑡2 :
t2


1
 dx   dy 
2 2

2
s       dt ……………….. (3)
 dt   dt  
t1

Curves Given in Polar Form

Next, consider a polar curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃). The length 𝑠 of the
arc of the curve between two points corresponding to 𝜃 = 𝜃1
and 𝜃 = 𝜃2 , 𝜃1 < 𝜃2 , is determined by the formula:
2


1
 2  dr   2 2
s r     d …………………… (4)
  d  
1

Also, the length 𝑠 of the arc of the curve between two points
corresponding to 𝑟 = 𝑟1 and 𝑟 = 𝑟2 , 𝑟1 < 𝑟2 , is determined by
the formula:
 r2


1
 2  d  
2 2 
s 1  r    dr ………………. (5)
  dr  
r1
Problem 1: Find the length of the arc of the curve y 2 = x 3
from the origin to the point (4,8).
Solution: From the given equation, we find that
2
 dy  9 x
4
dy 9 x4 9
2 y  3x , which yields   
2
  x
 dx  4 y
2 3
dx 4x 4

For the arc of the given curve from the origin (0,0) to the
point (4,8), 𝑥 increases from 0 to 4. Therefore, by formula
(1), this length of this arc is given by
4 4

 
1 1
  dy 2 2
 9  2
s 1     dx  1  x  dx
  dx    4 
0 0

Length of Arc of a curve

4
 3

 
 1    x  
9 2
   3

  4    8   9   2 
   1    .4   1

  9  3  27   4  
   
  4  2  
 0
8  23  8
 10  1 
27   27
10 10  1 
Problem 2: Find the length of the arc of the curve y =
π
logsec x between the points for which x = 0 and x = .
3

Solution: From the given equation, we find that

dy 1
  sec x tan x   tan x .
dx sec x
Therefore, the required arc-length is

  
3 3 3

  
1
  dy  2  1

1  tan x 
2
s 1     dx 
2 2 dx  sec xdx
  dx  
0 0 0


  
 log sec x  tan x  03  log  sec  tan   log  sec0  tan 0 
 3 3

 
 log 2  3  log 1  0   log 2  3  
 e x −1
Problem 3: Find the arc-length of the curve y = log from
e x +1
the point corresponding to x = 1 to the point corresponding
to x = 2.
Solution: From the given equation, we find that
dy 1 e x (e x  1)  (e x  1)e x
 x 
dx  e  1 /  e  1
x
(e x  1) 2
e x  1 2e x 2e x 2e x
 x   
e  1 (e x  1) 2  e x  1 e x  1 e 2 x  1
That gives

(e2 x  1)2  4e2 x

2
 dy  4e2 x
1    1 
 dx   e  1 (e2 x  1)2
2
2 x

e4 x  2e2 x  1  4e2 x e4 x  2e2 x  1 (e2 x  1) 2

   2x
(e2 x  1)2 (e2 x  1)2 (e  1)2

e e  e    e  e x 
2 2
x x x x


e  e   e 
2 2
x
x x
e x x
e
Now, we find that the required arc-length is given by

2 2

 
1
  dy 2  2
 e x  e x 
s 1     dx   x  x  dx
  dx    e e 
1 1

 log  e x  e x   log  e2  e2   log(e  e1 )

2

1
 e2  e2  e  e1  e  e1   1
 log  log  log  e  e 1
  log  e  
e  e1  e  e1   e
Problem 4: Find the arc-length of the parabola x 2 = 4ay from
its vertex to one extremity of the latus rectum.

𝑌
(𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦)

(−2𝑎, 𝑎) (2𝑎, 𝑎)
𝑃 𝑄

𝑋
𝑜

The ends of the latus rectum of the given parabola are

±2𝑎, 𝑎 . See above figure. Therefore for the arc between the
vertex (origin) 𝑜 and one extremity 𝑄 of the latus rectum, 𝑥
increases from 0 to 2𝑎. Because of symmetry of the curve
about the y-axis, the arc-length between 𝑜 and 𝑄 may be
taken as the required arc-length.
dy dy x
From the given equation, we find that 4a  2 x , or  .
dx dx 2a
Therefore, the required arc-length is
 2a 2a

 
1 1

  dy 
2

 2 
  x 
2

2
s 1     dx  1     dx
  dx 
 
   2a 
 

0 0

4


1
 1  tan    2a sec   d , on setting 𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
2 2 2

0

4

 2a

0
sec3  d

………………………(1)
We note that

 sec3  d 
 sec sec2  d  (sec )(tan  ) 

on integration by parts
 (sec tan  ) tan  d

 (sec )(tan  ) 
 sec tan 2  d

 (sec )(tan  ) 
 sec (sec 2   1)d
  (sec )(tan  ) 
 sec3  d 
 sec d

or

 
2 sec3  d   sec  tan    sec d   sec  tan    log  sec  tan  

Therefore, expression (1) becomes


4



s  2a sec   a  sec  tan    log  sec  tan    04
3

 a  2  log
  
2 1 

Problem 5: Find the arc-length of an arc of the cycloid
x = a t − sint , y = a(1 − cost).

Solution:

(𝜋𝑎, 2𝑎) (𝑦 = 2𝑎)

𝑜 𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎 𝑋

The cycloid 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡)

The given curve is shown above figure. By using formula (3),

we obtain the required arc-length as
1
2 2

 
2

 dx 2  dy 2 
  dt
1

s       dt  a 1  cos t   sin t
2 2 2

 dt   dt  
0 0
2 2

 
1
a 1  2cos t  cos 2
t  sin t  dt  a
2 2 2 1  cos tdt

0 0
 2


2
t  t
 2a sin   dt  4a cos   4a  cos   cos 0   8a
2  2 0
0
Problem 6: Obtain the total length of the cardioid
r = a(1 + cos ).
Solution: 𝜃=𝜋 2
𝑌

𝑎
2𝑎 𝜃=0
𝜃=𝜋 𝑜 𝑋
𝑎

The cardioid 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

The given curve is shown in above figure. We note that the

curve is symmetrical about the initial line 𝜃 = 0, and for the
upper half of the curve, 𝜃 varies from 0 to 𝜋; Therefore, by
formula (4), the length of the upper half of the curve is



1

 2  dr  
2
 2
s  r     d

  d  

0


  
1

 a 1  cos   a sin  d ,
2 2 2 2 2

using the given equation

 


1
 a 1  cos   2cos   sin   d
2 2 2

 

 
1
 2 
1
a 2 1  cos  d  a 2
2
 2
 2cos  d
 2 
0 0

 2

 2a
0
 
cos  d  4a
2 
0
cos  d , where 𝜑 = 2
𝜃


 4a sin  4a
2
Consequently, the total length of the given cardioid is 8𝑎.
EXERCISE

1. Find the length of the arc of the cantenary 𝑦 =

𝑎
𝑒 𝑥 𝑎 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑎 from 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑎 to the point 𝑥, 𝑦 .
2
2. Find the length of the quadrant of the curve 𝑥 =
𝜋
𝑎 cos 3 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin3 𝜃. From 𝜃 = 0 to 𝜃 = .
2
3. Find the arc length of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 from 𝑥 = 0 to
3 2

𝑥 = 4.
4. Find the arc length of the curve parameterized by the
𝜋
equations 𝑥 = cos 2𝑡 , 𝑦 = sin 2𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ .
2
5. Find the length of the arc of 𝑥 = 𝑎(cos 𝜃 + θsin 𝜃) ,
𝑦 = 𝑎(sin 𝜃 − 𝜃 cos 𝜃) from 𝜃 = 0 to 𝑏.

ANSWERS
𝑥
1. 𝑎sinh
𝑎
3𝑎
2.
2
3. ≈ 9.07
4. 𝜋
𝑎𝑏 2
5.
2
2.5
Double Integrals
In this module, we discuss methods of evaluating integrals
of functions of two variables over a suitable region in ℝ2 .
Integrals of a function of two variables over a region in ℝ2
are called double integrals.

Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 be a continuous function in a simply

connected, closed and bounded region 𝑅 in a two
dimensional space ℝ2 , bounded by a simple closed curve.

𝑌 𝐶
𝒚𝒎
R

𝒚𝒌
∆𝑨𝒌 ∆𝒚𝒌

𝒚𝒌−𝟏
∆𝒙𝒌
𝒚𝟐
𝒚𝟏

𝑂 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝒌−𝟏 𝒙𝒌 𝒙𝒎 𝑋

Region 𝑅 for double integral

Subdivide the region 𝑅 by drawing lines 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑘 , 𝑘 =
1, 2, … , 𝑚, parallel to the coordinate axes. Number the
rectangles which are inside 𝑅 from 1 to 𝑛 . In each such
rectangle, take an arbitrary point, say 𝜉𝑘 , 𝜂𝑘 in the 𝑘𝑡𝑕
rectangle and form the sum 𝐽𝑘 = 𝑛𝑘 =0 𝑓 𝜉𝑘 , 𝜂𝑘 ∆𝐴𝑘 , where
∆𝐴𝑘 = ∆𝑥𝑘 ∆𝑦𝑘 is the area of the 𝑘th rectangle 𝑑𝑘 =
∆𝑥𝑘 2 + ∆𝑦𝑘 2 is the length of the diagonal of this
rectangle. The maximum length of the diagonal, that is
max 𝑑𝑘 of the subdivisions is also called the norm of the
subdivision. For different values of 𝑛, say 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , … , 𝑛𝑚 , …, we
obtain a sequence of sums 𝐽𝑛 1 , 𝐽𝑛 2 , … , 𝐽𝑛 𝑚 , …. Let 𝑛 → ∞, such
that the length of the largest diagonal 𝑑𝑘 → 0. If lim 𝐽𝑛
𝑛 →∞
exists, independent of the choice of the subdivision and the
point 𝜉𝑘 , 𝜂𝑘 , then we say that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is integrable over 𝑅.
This limit is called the double integral of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) over 𝑅 and
is denoted by

𝐽=  f ( x, y)dxdy.
R

Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be a continuous function in ℝ2 defined on a

closed rectangle 𝑅 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑}. For any
d

fixed 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] consider the integral

 f (x, y)dy
c
.

The value of this integral depends on 𝑥 and we get a new

function of 𝑥. This can be integrated with respect to 𝑥 and
we get
b
d 


a
 f ( x, y )dy dx . This is called an iterated integral.

c


d
b 
Similarly we can define another integral

c
 f ( x, y )dx dy .

a


For continuous functions 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) we have
b
d  d
b 

 R

f ( x, y )dxdy   f ( x, y )dy  dx 

a  c

 c
  f ( x, y )dx  dy

a


two continuous functions on [𝑎, 𝑏] then
b 2 ( x ) 

 f (x, y)dxdy   
s a


 1 ( x )
f ( x, y )dy  dx .



𝑌
𝑦 = 𝜙2 (𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝜙1 (𝑥)

𝑂 𝑋
𝑎 𝑏
The iterated integral in the right hand side is also written
in the form
b 2 ( x )

 
a
dx
1 ( x )
f ( x, y )dy

Similarly if 𝑆 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙1 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜙2 𝑦 } then

d 2 ( x ) 


S
f ( x, y )dxdy 

c


 1 ( x )
f ( x, y )dx  dy


If 𝑆 cannot be written in neither of the above two forms we
divide 𝑆 into finite number of subregions such that each of
the sub regions can be represented in one of the above
forms and we get the double integral over 𝑆 by adding the
integrals over these sub regions. Hence to evaluate


s
f ( x, y )dxdy we first convert it to an iterated integral of

the two forms given above.

Note 1:

s
dxdy represents the area of the region 𝑆.

Note 2: In an iterated integral the limits in the first integral

are constants and if the limits in the second integral are
functions of 𝑥 then we must first integrate with respect to 𝑦
and the integrand will become a function of 𝑥 alone. This
is integrated with respect to 𝑥.
If the limits of the second integral are functions of 𝑦 then
we must first integrate with respect to 𝑥 and the integrand
will become a function of 𝑦 alone. This is integrated with
respect to 𝑦.

Properties of double integrals

1. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) integrable functions, then

  f ( x, y)  g ( x, y)dxdy   f ( x, y)dxdy   g ( x, y)dxdy.
R R R

2.  kf ( x, y)dxdy  k  f ( x, y)dxdy , where 𝑘 is any real constant.

R R

3. When 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is integrable, then 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is also

integrable, and

 f ( x, y)dxdy
R
≤ 
R
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦.

4.  f ( x, y)dxdy  f ( , )A , where 𝐴 is the area of the region 𝑅

R

and (𝜉, 𝜂) is any arbitrary point in 𝑅 . This result is

called the mean value theorem of the double integrals.
If 𝑚 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑀 for all (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝑅, then
𝑚𝐴 ≤  f ( x, y)dxdy  MA.
R

5. If 0 < 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) for all (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝑅, then

 f ( x, y)dxdy   g ( x, y)dxdy.
R R

6. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≥ 0 for all (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝑅, then

 f ( x, y)dxdy  0.
R
Application of double integrals
Double integrals have large number of applications. We
state some of them.

1. If 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 1, then  dxdy
R
gives the area 𝐴 of the region

𝑅.
For example, if 𝑅 is the rectangle bounded by the lines
𝑑 𝑏
𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑏, 𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑑, then 𝐴 = 𝑐 𝑎
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 =
𝑑 𝑏 𝑑
𝑐 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑐
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑑 − 𝑐
gives the area of the rectangle.
2. If 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a surface, then
 zdxdy or  f ( x, y)dxdy
R R

gives the volume of the region beneath the surface

𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and above the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane.
For example:
if 𝑧 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 and 𝑅: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 𝑎 2 , then

 a  x  y dxdy
2 2 2
𝑉=
R

gives the volume of the hemisphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎 2 ≥ 0.

3. Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) be a density function (mass per unit

area) of a distribution of mass in the 𝑥 − 𝑦 plane. Then
𝑀=  f ( x, y)dxdy
R

give the total mass of 𝑅.

4. Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) be a density function. Then
 1 1
𝑀 
𝑥= xf ( x, y)dxdy, 𝑦 =  yf ( x, y)dxdy
R
𝑀 R

give the coordinates of the centre of gravity 𝑥 , 𝑦 of the

mass 𝑀 in 𝑅.
5. Let 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦) be a density function. Then

 y  x
2 2
𝐼𝑥 = f ( x, y )dxdy and 𝐼𝑦 = f ( x, y )dxdy
R R

give the moments of inertia of the mass in 𝑅 about the

𝑋-axis and the 𝑌-axis respectively, whereas 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦
is called the moment of inertia of the mass in 𝑅 about
the origin. Similarly,

  x a    y b 
2 2
𝐼𝑦 = f ( x, y )dxdy and 𝐼𝑥 = f ( x, y )dxdy
R R

give the moment of inertia of the mass in 𝑅 about the

lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑦 = 𝑏 respectively.
6.
1
𝐴
 f ( x, y)dxdy
R
gives the average value of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) over 𝑅 ,

where 𝐴 is the area of the region 𝑅.

Change of order of Integration

In the evaluation of double integrals the computational
work can often be reduced by interchanging the order of
integration. While using this method, one has to bear in
mind that the change of order of integration generally
changes the limits of integration; the new limits are to be
determined by examining the geometrical region on which
the integration is being carried out.
 a 2 xa

  x dydx, a  0, by
2
Example: Evaluate changing the order of
0 0

integration.
In the given integral, 𝑥 increases from 0 to 𝑎, for each 𝑥, 𝑦
increases from 0 to 2 𝑥𝑎. Hence the lower value of 𝑦 lies on
the 𝑋-axis and the upper value on the upper part of the
parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥. Therefore the region 𝑅 of integration is
bounded by the 𝑋-axis, the line and the arc of the parabola
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 in the first quadrant. This region is shown in
figure.
𝑌

(𝑎, 2𝑎) 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥

𝑅 𝑥=𝑎

𝑀 𝑁

𝑂 (a, 0) 𝑋

We observe that, in 𝑅, 𝑦 increases from 0 from 2𝑎, and, for

each 𝑦, 𝑥 varies from a point 𝑀 on the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 to
a point 𝑁 on the line 𝑥 = 𝑎; that is 𝑥 increases from 𝑦 2 4𝑎
to 𝑎. Hence
  3

a 2 xa 2a  a
 2 
 2a
1  3  2 
y 
  y0  2 x  0 3 a    dy
 
2
x dydx dx dy
 x y 4a  
0 0
    4a  
1 1 𝑦 7 2𝑎 1 1 (2𝑎)7
= [𝑎 3 − ] = {𝑎 3 2𝑎 − }
3 64𝑎 3 7 0 3 64𝑎 3 7
4
= 𝑎4 .
7
Problem 1: Evaluate the following repeated integrals:
4 4 x

i.  
1 0
xydydx

2
5 y

2
x( x 
2
ii. y )dxxy
0 0

Solution: By using the meaning of repeated integrals, we

find:

4 4 x 

4 x4 

i.   xydydx =    xydy  dx
1 0 x 1 
 y 0 

  2  4 x 
4
 y 
= x1 x  2  dx, on evaluating the inner
  
 y 0 

integral with 𝑥 held fixed.

4
4
1 x3
= x (4 − x) dx = x2 −
1
2 6 1
64 1 32 5 27 9
= 16 − − 1− = − = = .
6 6 6 6 6 2
y 
2 2

x  xy 
y
 
5 5

x( x  y )dxxy =   
2

2 2 3
ii. dx  dy
y 0  x 0 
 
0 0

5 𝑦2
𝑥4 𝑥2
 
y 0 4
+ 𝑦2
2 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑦, on evaluating the inner

integral with 𝑦 held fixed

5 4 2
𝑦2 𝑦2 5
1 𝑦9 1 𝑦7 5 7 25

2
 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = . + . = + .
y 0 4 2 4 9 2 7 0 4 9 7
Problem 2: If ℜ is the triangular region with vertices
 x y dxdy.
2
0, 0 , 2, 0 , 2, 3 , evaluate
2

Solution:

𝑌
𝐵(2, 3)

𝑜 𝑃 𝐴(2, 0) 𝑋

The region where in the integration is to be carried out is

shown in figure. We note that, in this region, 𝑥 increases
from 0 to 2 and for each 𝑥, 𝑦 increases from a point 𝑃 on the
𝑋-axis to a point 𝑄 on the line 𝑂𝐵. For the point 𝑃, We have
𝑦 = 0. The equation of 𝑂𝐵 is 𝑦 = 3 2 𝑥. Therefore, for the
point 𝑄, we have 𝑦 = 3 2 𝑥. Thus, for each 𝑥, 𝑦 increases
from 0 to 3 2 𝑥. Hence

  3 2 x 
 2
3
2  3 2  x
 
 
2
y 
 x y x0   x y   x 
2 2
dxdy   
2 2
dy dx dx
 
 0 3 
 
 y 0
 0 

2
2
1 27 9 x6 3
=  x2 . x3 dx = = . 26 = 12.
0
3 8 8 6 0 16
Problem 3: Evaluate  ydxdy,

where ℜ is the region

bounded by the parabolas 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 and 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦, 𝑎 > 0.

Solution:

𝑌 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦
𝑄

𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥

4𝑎

𝑂 4𝑎 𝑋

Solving the given equations, we find that the two parabolas

intersect at the points (0,0) and 4𝑎, 4𝑎 . Therefore, the
region bounded by these parabolas is as shown in figure. In
this region, 𝑥 increases from 0 to 4𝑎, and, for each 𝑥, 𝑦
increases from a point 𝑃 on the parabola 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 to a point
𝑄 on the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥. We find that, at 𝑃, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 4𝑎
and, at 𝑄, 𝑦 = 4𝑎𝑥 , Hence

 4a  
2
4a  4 ax
  1  x   dx
2
 ydxdy    ydy   
 4 ax  

 
2
x 0  y  2 4 a
 x 
 0
  4a  
 
 4a  
4a

1
5 
1 x
5

1
  2a x 2 
1
  32a 
3

2 2
.
2 2 5
 16a  
5 0 
16a 

1 64 3  48 3
 32a  a   a .
3

2 5  5
Problem 4: Change the order of integration in the integral

  x y dydx, a  0
a xa
2

2

0 xa

and hence evaluate it.

Solution: In the given integral, 𝑥 increases from 0 to 𝑎,

and, for each 𝑥, 𝑦 varies from 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎 to 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎 . Hence
the lower value of 𝑦 lies on he curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎 (which is a
straight line) and the upper value of 𝑦 lies on the curve
𝑦 2 = 𝑥 𝑎 (which is a parabola). We check that the line
𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎 and the parabola 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 𝑎 intersect at the point
(0, 0) and (𝑎, 1). The region ℜ of integration is therefore
bounded by the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎 and the parabola 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 𝑎
between the origin and the point (𝑎, 1). This region is
shown in figure.

𝑌
𝑦=𝑥 𝑎
(𝑎, 1)

𝑦2 = 𝑥 𝑎
ℜ
1

𝑂 𝑎 𝑋
From the above figure, we observe that in ℜ, 𝑦 increases
from 0 to 1 and, for each 𝑦, 𝑥 varies from a point on the
parabola 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 𝑎 to a point on the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎 ; that is,
each 𝑦 with 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑥 varies from 𝑎𝑦 2 to 𝑎𝑦. Hence

 ay 
x  y 
xa
 
a 1

  (x  y )dydx    
2 2 2 2
dxdy 
0 xa y 0  x  a 2 
 y 

 ay 
1
 
 x
3  

 
3  y
2
x  2 dy
0


  xa y 
1
a y  a y   
2 
1
 
3 6 2
 ay  a y dy
3 3
y
0  
3

3 3
1 1 1 1 a
a
a
    a     .
3 4 7  4 5  28 20
  a cos

Problem 5: Evaluate I 
  r sin drd
0 0

Solution:
 a cos

I
  r sin drd
0 0

 a cos


 r2 
I sin    d
 2 0
0


1
 a 2 cos 2  sin  d
2
0


2
a
 cos 2  d  cos 
2
0

a2  a2
  cos    .
3

6 0 3
Problem 6: Evaluate
𝐼=  xydydx where 𝐷 is the region bounded by the curve 𝑥 =
D

𝑦 2 , 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑦, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑦 = 1.
Solution: The given region bounded by the curves is shown
in the figure.
𝑌

𝑦 2 𝑦=2 𝑥
=𝑥

(1,1)
𝑦=1

𝑥 = 2−𝑦
𝐷1 𝐷2
𝐷1 𝐷1
𝐷 2

𝑋
𝑂 (1,0) (2,0)
In this region 𝑥 varies from 0 to 2. When 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 for fixed
𝑥, 𝑦 varies from 0 to 𝑥. When 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, 𝑦 varies from 0 to
2 − 𝑥.

Therefore the region 𝐷 can be subdivided into two regions

𝐷1 and 𝐷2 as shown in the figure.

∴  xydydx =  xydydx +  xydydx

D D1 D2

In this region 𝐷1 for fixed 𝑥, 𝑦 varies from 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = 𝑥

and for fixed 𝑦, 𝑥 varies from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 1. Similarly for the
region 𝐷2 , the limit of integration for 𝑦 is 𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥.
 xydydx
D
=
1
0 0
𝑥
𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 +
2 2−𝑥
1 0
𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥 2 𝑥𝑦 2 2−𝑥
= 0
𝑑𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 0

1 2
1 1
= 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥(2 − 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 1
1 2
𝑥3 1 𝑥4 4𝑥 3
= + 2𝑥 2 + −
6 0 2 4 3 1
3
= .
8
Problem 7: Change the order of integration in the integral
4 𝑦
𝐼= 1 𝑦/2
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦.

Solution: The region of integration 𝐷 is bounded by the

𝑦
lines 𝑥 = ; 𝑥 = 𝑦; 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑦 = 4. The region is a
2
quadrilateral as shown in the figure

𝑦=4 (2,4) (4,4)

𝐷3
𝑦=𝑥

𝐷2
(2,2)

𝐷1 𝑦=1
(5,1)
(1,1)

(0,0)

1
In this region 𝑥 varies from to 4.
2
1
When ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑦 varies from 1 to 2𝑥.
2

When 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, 𝑦 varies from 𝑥 to 2𝑥.

When 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4, 𝑦 varies from 𝑥 to 4.

Hence for changing the order of integration we must divide
𝐷 into sub regions 𝐷1 , 𝐷2 , 𝐷3 as shown in the figure.

∴ 𝐼=  f ( x, y)dxdy
D

=  f ( x, y)dxdy +  f ( x, y)dxdy +  f ( x, y)dxdy

D1 D2 D3
1 2𝑥 2 2𝑥
= 1/2 1
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 1 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 +
4 4
2 𝑥
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 .
 1 1−𝑥 2 2
Problem 8: Evaluate 0 0
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 by interchanging the
order of integration.

Solution: The region is bounded by the line𝑦 = 0(𝑋 − axis);

the unit circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1; the line 𝑥 = 0(𝑌 − axis) and the
line 𝑥 = 1. Hence the region of integration is the positive
quadrant of the unit circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 and it is given in the
figure.

(0,1)

(0, 0) (1,0)

In this region 𝑦 varies from 0 to 1 and for a fixed 𝑦, 𝑥 varies

from 0 to 1 − 𝑦2.

1 1−𝑥 2 2 1 1−𝑦 2 2
0 0
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0 0
𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

1 2 1−𝑦 2
= 0
𝑦 𝑥 0 𝑑𝑦
1 2
= 0
𝑦 1 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝜋
= 2 sin2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 putting 𝑦 = sin 𝜃
0

1.1 𝜋 𝜋
= = .
4.2 2 16
Exercise
4 2

1) Evaluate

1 y
( x 2  y 2 )dxdy by changing the order of

integration.
2) By changing the order of integration evaluate
3 4 y


0 1
( x  y )dxdy.

3) Change the order of integration in the integral

a 2 a x

  xydydx
0 x2
and evaluate.


y
4) Evaluate I  e dxdy where 𝐷 is the region bounded
x

by the straight lines 𝑦 = 𝑥; 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1.

5) Evaluate
 D
( x 2  y 2 )dxdy where 𝐷 is the region

bounded by y  x 2 , x  2 and x  1 .
 


e y
6) Evaluate I dydx.
y
0 x

7) Find the area of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 by using double

integral.
8) Find the area of the region 𝐷 bounded by the
parabolas 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 .
 𝜋
∞ 𝑟
9) Evaluate 𝐼 = 2
0 0 (𝑟 +𝑎 2 )2
2 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃.

Answers
1026
1)
105
241
2)
60
9a 4
3)
24
1
4)  e  1
2
1286
5)
105
6) 1
7) 𝜋𝑟 2
1
8)
3
𝜋
9) 2
4𝑎
2.6
DOUBLE INTEGRALS CONTINUED
Change of variables
In the evaluation of repeated integrals, the computational
work can often be reduced by changing the variables of
integration to some other appropriate variables. The
procedure followed in this regard in respect of double
integrals is explained below.

Suppose 𝑥 and 𝑦 are related to two variables 𝑢 and 𝑣

through relations of the form 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣 , 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑢, 𝑣 , or
𝑢 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑣 = 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦 . Suppose also that 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑢, 𝑣 are such
that the Jacobain
𝜕 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝐽= ≠ 0.
𝜕 (𝑢,𝑣)

Then it can be proved that (-we omit the proof, see our
video to get some idea of the following)

 f ( x, y)dxdy    (u, v) Jdudv

 
(1)

Hence ℜ is the region in which (𝑥, 𝑦) vary, ℜ is the

corresponding region in which (𝑢, 𝑣) vary, and 𝜑 𝑢, 𝑣 =
𝑓 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣 , 𝑦(𝑢, 𝑣) .
Once the double integral with respect to 𝑥 and 𝑦 is
changed to a double integral with respect to 𝑢 and 𝑣 by
using the formula (1), the later integral can be evaluated by
expressing it in terms of repeated integrals with
appropriate limits of integration.

Double Integral in Polar form

As a special case of formula (1), we can obtain the relation
connecting a double integral in Cartesian form and the
corresponding double integral in polar form.

Let (𝑟, 𝜃) be the polar coordinates of a point 𝑥, 𝑦 . Then

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃, so that
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝑥,𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 cos 𝜃 −𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝐽= = 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= = 𝑟.
𝜕 𝑟,𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

Hence, for 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑟, 𝜃 , formula (1) becomes

 f ( x, y)dxdy    (r, )rdrd


(2)


Here ℜ is the region in which 𝑟, 𝜃 vary as (𝑥, 𝑦) vary in ℜ,

and 𝜑 𝑟, 𝜃 = 𝑓 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑟 sin 𝜃 .

The formula (2) is particularly useful when the region ℜ

is bounded (in part or whole) by a circle centred at the
origin. Observed that when (𝑥, 𝑦) are changed to 𝑟, 𝜃 , 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
is changed to 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃.
Computation of Area

Let us recall the double integral expression for 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≡ 1,

this expression reads

b y 2( x)
 dA   dxdy   

dxdy
(3)
A a y 1( x )

The integral  dA
A
represents the total area 𝐴 of the plane

region ℜ over which the repeated integrals are taken. Thus,

expression (3) given above may be used to compute the
area 𝐴. We note that 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 is the plane area element 𝑑𝐴 in
the Cartesian form. By taking 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≡ 1 . We obtain the
following formula for area in polar coordinates:



dxdy   rdrd

(4)

We observe that 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 is the plane area element in polar

form.

A List of Curves

The following list of curves will be useful to find the limits

of integration of some problems.
Problem 1: Evaluate the double integral 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 over
the positive quadrant bounded by the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 .

Solution:
𝑌

𝑟=𝑎

𝑜 𝑎 𝑋

In the positive quadrant bounded by the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 ,

the radial distance 𝑟 varies from 0 to 𝑎 and the polar angle
𝜋
𝜃 varies from 0 to . Therefore,
2
a  2

 xydxdy     r cos  r sin   rdrd 

r 0 0

a  2
a  2
 1 4  1 2 
  r dr   sin  cos d   r    sin  
3

0 0
4  2
0  0

1 4

8a
.
 2 2
a a x
Problem 2: Evaluate the integral 𝐼 =   y x  y dydx
2 2 2

0 y 0

transforming to polar coordinates.

Solution: In the given integral, 𝑥 increases from 0 to 𝑎 and,

for each 𝑥, 𝑦 varies from 0 to 𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 . Thus, the lower
value of 𝑦 lies on the 𝑋 − axis and the upper value of 𝑦 lies
on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 , or 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 , or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 ,
which is the circle of radius 𝑎 centred at the origin.
Therefore the region ℜ of integration is the region in the
first quadrant bounded by the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 ,
𝜋
We note that in ℜ, 𝜃 varies from 0 from and, for each
2
𝜃, 𝑟 varies from 0 to 𝑎. Hence,
𝑎 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 2
𝐼= 0 0
𝑦 𝑥2 + 𝑦 2
𝜋
𝑎
= 2
𝜃 =0 𝑟=0
𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 𝑟(𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃)
𝜋
𝑎
= 0
𝑟 4 𝑑𝑟 × 0
2 sin2 𝜃𝑑𝜃

𝑎5 1 𝜋 𝜋
= . . = 𝑎5 .
5 2 2 20
Problem 3: If ℜ is the region 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 𝑎 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 0, evaluate
 ( x  y)dxdy.


Solution:

The given region ℜ is bounded by the 𝑌 − axis and the right

side of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 as shown in figure. We
observe that ℜ consists of two parts ℜ1 andℜ2 . In ℜ1 , 𝜃
𝜋 3𝜋
increases from 0 to , and in ℜ2 , 𝜃 increases from to 2𝜋.
2 2
In both parts, 𝑟 varies from 0 to 𝑎. Therefore,
 ( x  y)dxdy


   x  y dxdy    x  y dxdy
1
2
  2 a 2 a
    r cos  r sin  rdrd     r cos  r sin   rdrd
  0 0   3 2 r 0

a 

 2 2 

 r dr     cos   sin   d    cos   sin  
2

0 0
 3 2 

3

 a 1  1  1  1  a .
2 3

3 3
Problem 4: Using repeated integrals, find the area
bounded by the arc of the ellipse 𝑥 2 𝑎 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑏2 = 1 in the
first quadrant.

Solution: In the region of integration 𝑥 increases from 0 to

𝑎 and, for each 𝑥, 𝑦 increase from 0 to a point on the
ellipse; i.e the point for which 𝑦 = 𝑏 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑎 2 1 2 . Hence,
the required are is

  
b 1 2 2
 
12 12

1 x 2 a 2 x a
a  
b

 
a
A   dydyx   
x 0 
 dy  dx
x 0 y 0 y 0 
 

12
 x 
a x 
a 2 a 12  2
  b 1
b b
dx     a cos  a cos d  ,
2 2 dx 
 2 a0 a
 a 
0 0

on setting 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜋
1 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑎𝑏 0
2 cos 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 𝑎𝑏. . = 𝑎𝑏.
2 2 4
Problem 5: Find the areas enclosed by the following
curves:

(i) Cardioids: 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) between 𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃 = 𝜋 .

(ii) One loop of the Lemniscate 𝑟 2 = 𝑎 2 cos2𝜃 .

Solution:
(i) 𝑌

𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

𝜃=𝜋 𝑂 𝜃=0 𝑋

The given region is depicted in figure (shaded portion).In

this region, 𝜃 varies from 0 to 𝜋 and, for each 𝜃, r varies
from 0 to 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃).
Therefore, the required area is
𝜋
𝑎(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
𝐴= 𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑟=0
𝜃 =0

𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑎(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
= [ ]
0 2 0
𝑑𝜃
 𝑎2 𝜋
= 0
(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃
2

𝑎2 𝜋 1
= 0
{1 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)} 𝑑𝜃
2 2

𝑎2 1 3𝑎 2
= 𝜋+0+ 𝜋+0 = 𝜋.
2 2 4

(ii)
𝑌

𝑦=𝑥

−𝑎 𝑎
𝑋

𝑦 = −𝑥

The given Lemniscate is shown in figure. We note that the

area enclosed by one loop of this curve is twice the area
𝜋
bounded by the first quadrant, for which 𝜃 increases 0 to
4
and, r varies from 0 to 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃. Hence the required area is
𝜋/4 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
𝐴=2 𝜃 =0 𝑟=0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
𝜋/4 𝑟2
=2 0
𝑑𝜃
2 0
 𝜋/4
= 𝑎 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃𝑑𝜃
0
𝜋
sin 2𝜃 4 𝑎2
= 𝑎2 = .
2 0 2
Exercise
1. Evaluate the following integrals by changing the Cartesian
coordinates to polar coordinates:
𝑎 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2
a. −𝑎 0 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

4𝑎 𝑦 𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
b. 0 𝑦 2 /4𝑎 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝜋 𝑎
2. Evaluate the integral 𝑜 0
𝑟 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 by
changing the polar coordinates to Cartesian
coordinates.
3. Find the area lying inside the circle r = a sinθ and
outside the cardioids 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃).
4. Find the area included between the curve 𝑟 = 𝑎(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 +
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) and its asymptote 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃.
5. Find the area bounded by the positive X-axis, the arc
of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 and the upper part of the line
𝑦=𝑥.
6. Find the area enclosed by the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 and
the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3𝑎.
7. Find the area bounded by the parabola 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and
the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
8. Find the area bounded between the circles 𝑟 = 𝑎 and
𝑟 = 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 .
9. Find the area bounded by the circles 𝑟 = 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and
𝑟 = 2𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , 𝑏 > 𝑎 > 0.

Answers
1.
 1
a. 𝜋𝑎 3
3
𝜋 5
b. 8( − )𝑎 2
2 3
2. 0
𝜋
3. 𝑎 2 (1 − )
4
5𝜋𝑎 2
4.
4
𝜋𝑎 2
5.
8
10 2
6. 𝑎
3
9
7.
2
𝜋 3
8. 𝑎 2 ( + )
3 2
9. (b2 − 2
a )π
2.7
SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME BY USING DOUBLE
INTEGRALS
COMPUTING THE AREA OF A SURFACE
Let it be required to compute the area of a surface bounded
by a curve Γ (given in the figure below); the surface is
defined by the equation 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) , where the function
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is continuous and has continuous partial
derivatives. Denote the projection of Γ on the 𝑋𝑌 − plane by
𝐿. Denote by 𝐷 the domain on the 𝑋𝑌 − plane bounded by
the curve 𝐿.

𝑍 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑀𝑖

𝑂
𝑌

𝑃𝑖
𝐷
Δ𝑠𝑖
𝐿

𝑋
 𝑍
𝛾𝑖

𝑀𝑖
∆𝜍𝑖

𝑂
𝑌

𝛾𝑖 𝑃𝑖
Δ𝑠𝑖

In arbitrary fashion, divide 𝐷 into 𝑛 elementary

subdomains ∆𝑠1 , ∆𝑠2 , . . . . ∆𝑠𝑛 . In each subdomain ∆𝑠𝑖
take a point 𝑃𝑖 (𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 ). To the point 𝑃𝑖 there will correspond,
on the surface, a point

𝑀𝑖 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 , 𝑓(𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 )

Through 𝑀𝑖 draw a tangent plane to the surface. Its

equation is of the form

𝑧 − 𝑧𝑖 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 𝑥 − 𝜉𝑖 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑦 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 𝑦 − 𝜂𝑖 (1)
In this plane, pick out a subdomain ∆𝜍𝑖 which is projected
onto the 𝑋𝑌 − plane in the form of a subdomain ∆𝑠𝑖 .
Consider the sum of the sub domains ∆𝜍𝑖 :
𝑛

∆𝜍𝑖
𝑖=1

We shall call the limit 𝜍 of this sum, when the greatest of

the diameters of the subdomains ∆𝜍𝑖 approaches zero, the
area of the surface; that is, by definition we set
lim 𝑛
𝜍= 𝑖=1 ∆𝜍𝑖 (2)
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚 ∆𝜍𝑖 → 0

Now let us calculate the area of the surface. Denote by 𝛾𝑖

the angle between the tangent plane and the 𝑋𝑌 − plane .
Using a familiar formula of analytic geometry we can write
∆𝑠𝑖 = ∆𝜍𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾𝑖

or
∆𝑠𝑖
∆𝜍𝑖 = (3)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝑖

The angle 𝛾𝑖 is at the same time the angle between the

𝑍 − axis and the perpendicular to the plane (1). Therefore,
by equation (1) and the formula of analytic geometry we
have

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾𝑖 =
1 + 𝑓 ′2 𝑥 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 + 𝑓 ′2 𝑦 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖
Hence,

∆𝜍𝑖 = 1 + 𝑓 ′2 𝑥 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 + 𝑓 ′2 𝑦 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 ∆𝑠𝑖

Putting this expression into formula (2), we get

𝑛

𝜍= lim 1 + 𝑓 ′2 𝑥 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 + 𝑓 ′2 𝑦 𝜉𝑖 , 𝜂𝑖 ∆𝑠𝑖
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚 ∆𝑠𝑖 →0
𝑖=1

Since the limit of the integral sum on the right side of the
last equation is, by definition, the double integral


2
 z   z 
2

1       dxdy we finally get

 x   y 
D


2
 z   z 
2

 1       dxdy (4)
 x   y 
D

This is the formula use to compute the area of the surface

𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).
If the equation of the surface is given in the form

𝑥 = 𝜇 𝑦, 𝑧 or in the form 𝑦 = 𝜒(𝑥, 𝑧)

then the corresponding formulas for calculating the surface
area are of the form
 
2
 x   x 
2

 1       dydz (4′)
 y   z 
D'


 y   y 
2 2

 1       dxdz (4′′)
 x   z 
D ''

where 𝐷′ and 𝐷′′ are the domains in the 𝑌𝑍-plane and the
𝑋𝑍-plane in which the given surface is projected.

Example: Compute the surface area 𝜍 of the sphere

x2  y 2  z 2  R2

Solution: Compute the surface are of the upper half of the

sphere z  R 2  x 2  y 2

𝑍
𝑧 = 𝑅2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2

𝑜
𝑌
𝜃 𝜌

In this case
 z x

x R2  x2  y 2

z y

y R2  x2  y 2

Hence,
2
 z   z 
2
R2 R
1       
 x   y  R x y
2 2 2
R2  x2  y 2

The domain of integration is defined by the condition

Thus, by formula (4) we will have

 R2  x2
R 

 
1  R 
  dy  dx
2  R2  x2  y 2 
 R   R2  x2 
To compute the double integral obtain let us make the
transformation to polar coordinates. In polar coordinates
the boundary of the domain of integration is determined by
the equation 𝜌 = 𝑅. Hence,
2 2
 R


 
R
R
 2   
 d  d  2 R  R  
2 2
d
 R 
2 2    0
0  0  0

2


 2 R Rd  4 R 2 .
0
Computing the Volume of a Solid

Recall that

1. If 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 1, then  dxdy gives the area 𝐴 of the region 𝑅.

R

2. If 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a surface, then

 zdxdy or  f ( x, y)dxdy
R R

gives the volume of the region beneath the surface

𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and above the 𝑋𝑌- plane.
Example: Evaluate the volume of the sphere

𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧2 = 𝑎2 .

Solution: The given sphere is 𝑧 = 𝑎2 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦 2

The volume of the upper half of the sphere is

2

2 2
𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
x  y a

By changing to polar coordinates.

i.e substitute 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 , 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

2

2 2
𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
2𝜋 𝑎
0
𝑎 2 − 𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
x  y a
2𝜋 1 𝑎 2
= 0
− 0
𝑎 2 − 𝑟 2 . 𝑑 −𝑟 𝑑𝜃
2
2𝜋 1 3 2
= 0 3
𝑎 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋𝑎 3 .
3

2 4
Therefore the volume of the sphere is 2 𝜋𝑎 3 = 𝜋𝑎 3 .
3 3
Problem 1: Compute the area of that part of the surface of
the cone x 2  y 2  z 2 which is cut out by the cylinder
x 2  y 2  2ax .

Solution: The equation of the surface of the upper half of

the cone is z  x 2  y 2

z x z y
  ,  
x x2  y 2 y x2  y 2

∴ The domain of integration is defined by

x 2  y 2  2ax  ( x  a)2  y 2  a 2
∴ Surface area of upper half cone


2
 z   z 
2

 1       dydx
 x   y 
D

2a a 2 ( x  a ) 2

 
x2 y2
Total surface area  2 1 2  dydx
x  y 2 x2  y 2
0  a 2 ( x  a ) 2

2a a 2 ( x  a ) 2

 
2( x 2  y 2 )
2 dydx
x2  y 2
0  a 2 ( x  a ) 2

2 a a ( x  a )
2 2

4
 
0 0
2dydx
 2a

 y
a 2 ( x  a ) 2
4 2 0
dx
0
2a

4 2

0
a 2  ( x  a) 2 dx

2a
xa 2 a2  x  a 
4 2 a  ( x  a)  sin 1 
2

 2 2  a 0

 a 2 1 a 2 1 
 4 2  sin 1  sin (1) 
2 2 
a2   
4 2   
2 2 2
 2 2 a 2 .
Problem 2: Find the surface area of 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1 in the
region [0,1] × [0,1].
Solution: 𝑍

The equation of the surface has the form

𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑦
z z
  2,  3
x y
The region 𝐷 = [0,1] × [0,1]


2
 z   z 
2

∴ Surface area  1       dydx

 x   y 
D
1 1



0 0
1  4  9dydx

1 1


 14dydx
0 0

 14 .
Problem 3: Find the surface area of the portion of the unit
4
sphere above z 
5
Solution:
𝑍

Unit sphere is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1
⇒𝑧= 1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦 2

𝜕𝑧 𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑦
=− , =−
𝜕𝑥 1−𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 1−𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
4 16 9
= 1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦 2 ⇒ = 1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦 2 ⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 =
5 25 25
3
Circle of radius is
5
We have to find surface area of 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 over
9
𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 =
25
3
Domain of the radius is
5


2
 z   z 
2

∴ Surface area  1       dydx

 x   y 
D
 1
= 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝐷 1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦 2
Transformation to polar co coordinates. In polar
coordinates the boundary of the domain of integration
is determined by the equation
3
𝑟=
5
Let 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
3
2𝜋 5 1
∴ Surface area = 0 0 1−𝑟 2
𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
3
2𝜋
= 0
− 1− 𝑟 2 50 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 9
= 0
− 1− + 1 𝑑𝜃
25
2𝜋 4
= 0
− + 1 𝑑𝜃
5
2𝜋 1
= 0 5
𝑑𝜃
1 2𝜋
= 𝜃 0
5
2𝜋
= .
5
Problem 4: Find the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by
the coordinate surfaces 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑧 = 0 and the plane
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ + =1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Solution:

The volume of the tetrahedron (V ) 


R
zdxdy

bx
b
a a


 y x
V c 1    dydx 𝑦
 b a
0 0 (0, 𝑏)

a bx
b


 y xy  2 a
 c y    dx 𝑅

 2b a  0
0 (𝑎, 0) 𝑥
0


 bx 2 bx b 
 c  2    dx
 2a a 2 𝑧
0

a
 bx3 bx 2 b  abc
 c 2   x  .
 6 a 2 a 2 0 6
Problem 5: A circular hole of a radius 𝑏 is made centrally
through a sphere of radius 𝑎. Find the volume of the
remaining of the sphere.
Solution:

Let the centre of the sphere be at the origin and let the axis
of the hole be along the z-axis. The volume 𝑉 of the sphere
4
is 𝜋𝑎 3 and that of the circular hole is obtained as follows.
3

Volume of the upper-half of the hole 


R
f ( x, y )dxdy



R
zdxdy

where 𝑧 is obtained from the equation x 2  y 2  z 2  a 2 and 𝑅

is the circle in the 𝑋𝑌 − plane.

i.e x 2  y 2  b2
∴The volume 𝑉1 of the circular hole is

V1  2

R
a 2  x 2  y 2 dxdy

where 𝑅 is x 2  y 2  b2 changing into polar coordinates

b
2 b 2  3 

 
 (a  r ) 
2 2 2
V1  2 a 2  r 2 rdrd    d
3
 
0 0 0
 2 0
 2


2  2 3
3
   d
2 2
 ( a b ) a
3  
0
2


2  3 2 2
3
  a  (a  b ) d
2

3  
0

2 3 2 2
3
  a  (a  b )   0
2 2

3 
4  3 2 2
3
  a  (a  b ) 
2

3  

Volume of the remaining portion = 𝑉 − 𝑉1

4 4  3 2 2
3
  a3   a  (a  b ) 
2

3 3  
4 2 3
 (a  b ) .
2 2

3
Problem 6: Find the volume bounded by the cylinder
x 2  y 2  4 , 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 and 𝑧 = 0.

Solution:
𝑍

𝑦 +𝑧 = 4

0
𝑌
𝑅

𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 4

The volume 𝑉 of the plane 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 and 𝑧 = 0 is

V
 R
zdxdy


 R
(4  y )dxdy

where R is bounded by the x 2  y 2  4

2 4 y 2

∴V

2  4 y 2
(4  y )dxdy

 (4  y) x
4 y 2
  4 y 2
dy
2
 2



2
(4  y ).2 4  y 2 dy

2 2

 
 2 4 4  y 2 dy  2 y 4  y 2 dy
2 2
2

 16

0
4  y 2 dy  0 (∵ y 4  y 2 is odd

function)
2
y y
 16  4  y 2  2sin 1 
2 2 0

 16  2sin 1 1  32   16 .
2
Exercise
1. Compute the area of that part of the plane 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 =
2𝑎. Which lies in the first octant and is bounded by the
cylinder x 2  y 2  a 2 .
2. Compute the area of that part of the square of the cone
x 2  y 2  z 2 which is cut by the cylinder x 2  y 2  2ax.
3. Find the surface area of a solid that is the common
part of two cylinders 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 , 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎 2 .
4. Compute the volumes of solids bounded by the
coordinate planes, the plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 12 = 0 and the
1
cylinder 𝑧 = 𝑦 2 .
2
5. Compute the volumes of solids bounded by the
following surfaces:
a) 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3.
b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 = 0, 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 .
6. The base of a solid is the region in 𝑋𝑌 − plane. That is
bounded by the circle x 2  y 2  a 2 . While the top of the
solid is bounded by the paraboloid az  x 2  y 2 . Find the
volume.
7. Find the volume common to the cylinders x 2  y 2  a 2
and x 2  z 2  a 2 .

Answers
3 2
1. a
4
2. 2 2 a 2
3. 8𝑎2
4. 16
5.
a) 3𝜋
32
b) 𝑎3
9
1
6.  a 3
2
16a 3
7.
3
2.8
Computing Integrals Dependent on a Parameter
Consider an integral dependent on the parameter 𝛼:
𝑏

𝐼 𝛼 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

We state without proof that if a function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 is

continuous with respect to 𝑥 over an interval 𝑎, 𝑏 and with
respect to 𝛼 over an interval 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , then the function
𝑏

𝐼 𝛼 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

is a continuous function on 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 . Consequently, the

function 𝐼 𝛼 may be integrated with respect to 𝛼 over the
interval 𝛼1 , 𝛼2
𝛼2 𝛼2 𝑏

𝐼 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝛼
𝛼1 𝛼1 𝑎

The expression on the right is an iterated integral of the

function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 over a rectangle situated in the plane 𝑋𝛼 .
We can change the order of integration in this integral:
𝛼2 𝑏 𝑏 𝛼2

𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝛼 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑥
𝛼1 𝑎 𝑎 𝛼1
This formula shows that for integration of an integral
dependent on a parameter, it is sufficient to integrate the
element of integration with respect to the parameter . This
formula is also useful when computing definite integral

Example: Compute the integral

∞
𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑏𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0
𝑥
0

This integral is not expressible in terms of the elementary

function .To evaluate it , we consider another integral that
may be readily computed:
∞
1
𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛼>0
𝛼
0

Integrating this equation between the limits 𝛼1 = 𝑎 and

𝛼2 = 𝑏, we get
𝑏 ∞ 𝑏
𝑑𝛼 𝑏
𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝛼 = = ln
𝛼 𝑎
𝑎 0 𝑎

changing the order of integration in the first integral, we

rewrite this equation in the following form:

∞ 𝑏
𝑏
𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝑥 = ln
𝑎
0 𝑎

whence, computing the inner integral, we get

 ∞ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑏𝑥 𝑏
0
𝑑𝑥 = ln .
𝑥 𝑎

Triple Integrals
The definition of a double integral can be extended to
three-dimensions. For this purpose, let us consider a
region ℜ, in three dimensional spaces, bounded by a closed
surface 𝑆 whose Cartesian equation is of the form
𝜑 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 0. Let ℜ be the projection of ℜ on the 𝑋𝑌 − plane.
Then, as a point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 varies over ℜ, the corresponding
point 𝑥, 𝑦 varies over ℜ. Consider a line parallel to the 𝑍 −
axis and suppose this line cuts 𝑆 at two points 𝑃 and 𝑄, 𝑃
being below 𝑄. Let 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 be the 𝑍 − coordinates of 𝑃 and
𝑄 respectively. Since 𝑃 and 𝑄 lie on 𝑆, whose Cartesian
equation is of the form 𝜑 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are
appropriate functions of 𝑥, 𝑦; 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑧1 = 𝑧1 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧2 =
𝑧2 𝑥, 𝑦 .
𝑍
𝑄

𝑋
Now, consider a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) defined over ℜ and 𝑆. On
the line 𝑃𝑄, the coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) are held fixed so that
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a function of 𝑧 only. Suppose we integrate this
function with respect to 𝑧 from 𝑧1 (𝑥, 𝑦) to 𝑧2 (𝑥, 𝑦) . The
resulting integral is a function of 𝑥, 𝑦 ; let us denote it by
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 . Thus,
𝑧2 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑧1 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 (1)

Now, suppose we take the double integral of 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 over the

plane region ℜ , and denote it by 𝐼. The integral 𝐼 has
following representation:
𝑏 𝑦2 (𝑥)
𝐼= 𝑎 𝑦1 (𝑥)
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (2)

Substituting for 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 from (1) in (2), we get

𝑏 𝑦2 (𝑥) 𝑧2 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝐼= 𝑎 𝑦1 (𝑥) 𝑧1 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (3)

Evidently, the integration covers the whole of the region ℜ,

and the integral is called the volume integral of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
over the region ℜ. It is denoted by  f ( x, y, z )dV ;
V
here, 𝑉

stands for the volume of ℜ. Expression (3) shown that this

volume integral is represented in terms of three repeated
integrals. For this reason a volume integral is also called a
Triple integral and is denoted by

 f ( x, y, z )dxdydz
 …………………………. (*)

Thus,
  f ( x, y, z )   f ( x, y, z )dxdydz
V 

𝑏 𝑦2 (𝑥) 𝑧2 (𝑥,𝑦)
= 𝑎 𝑦1 (𝑥) 𝑧1 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 (4)

Here, it is understood that, in the right hand side, the first

integral sign is with respect to 𝑥, the second integral sign is
with respect to 𝑦 and the third integral sign is with respect
to 𝑧. Thus, while evaluating the repeated integrals in (4), we
have to first integrate 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with respect to 𝑧 from 𝑧1 to
𝑧2 , keeping (𝑥, 𝑦) fixed. Then we have to integrate the
resulting function with respect to 𝑦 from 𝑦1 to 𝑦2 , keeping 𝑥
fixed. Finally, we have to integrate the resulting function
with respect to 𝑥 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 . A similar procedure is
adopted when the integrals with respect to 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 appear in
other orders.

Change of Variables
While evaluating triple integrals computational work can
often be reduced by changing the variables 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 to some
other appropriate variables 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 which are related to 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
and which are such that the Jacobian
𝜕(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝐽≡ ≠ 0.
𝜕(𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤)

It can be proved that (we omit the proof)

 f ( x, y, z )    (u, v, w) Jdudvdw

  (1)
Here, ℜ is the region in which (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) vary and ℜ is the
corresponding region in which 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 vary, and
𝜓 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 , 𝑦 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 , 𝑧(𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤)

Once the triple integral with respect to (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is changed to

a triple integral with respect to (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) by using formula
1 , the latter integral may be evaluated by expressing it in
terms of repeated integrals with appropriate limits of
integration.

Two standard examples of (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) which are widely used in

the evaluation of triple integrals are the cylindrical polar
coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) and the spherical polar coordinates
𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 . Let us specialize the expression (1) for these two
cases.

Triple Integral in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

Suppose (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are related to three variables (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧)

through the relations

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 , 𝑧 = 𝑧 (2)

Then (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) are called cylindrical polar coordinates. These

coordinates are depicted in following figure.
 𝑍

𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧)

𝑂 𝑌
𝑥 𝜃 𝑟
𝑦

From expressions 2 , we find that

𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 cos 𝜃 −𝑅 sin 𝜃 0
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝐽= = = sin 𝜃 𝑅 cos 𝜃 0 =𝑟 (3)
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃,𝑧) 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 1 0 0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

Hence, for 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 = 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 , expression (1) becomes

 f ( x, y, z)    (r, , z)rdrddz

 
(4)

Here ℜ is the region in which 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 vary as 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 vary in

ℜ, and 𝜑 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 with 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 given by 2 . Observe
that when (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are changed to 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 and 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 changes
to 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧.

The formula (4) is particularly useful when the region ℜ is

bounded by a cylindrical surface.

Triple Integral in Spherical Polar Coordinates

Suppose (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are related to three variables (𝜌, 𝜃, ∅)

through the relations
𝑥 = 𝜌 sin ∅ cos 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝜌 sin ∅ sin 𝜃, 𝑧 = 𝜌 cos ∅ (5)

Then (𝜌, 𝜃, ∅) are called spherical polar coordinates. These

coordinates are depicted in following figure.

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

𝜌
𝑧
𝜙

𝑂 𝑌
𝑥 𝜃

𝑋
From expressions 5 , we find that
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂𝜌 ∂θ ∂∅
∂ x, y, z ∂y ∂y ∂y
J= =
∂ 𝜌, θ, ∅ ∂𝜌 ∂θ ∂∅
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂𝜌 ∂θ ∂∅
sin ∅ cos θ −ρ sin ϕ sin θ ρ cos θ cos ∅
= sin θ sin ∅ ρ cos θ sin ∅ ρ sin θ cos ∅
cos ϕ 0 −ρ sin ϕ

= ρ2 sin ϕ. 6

Hence, for 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 = 𝜌, 𝜃, ∅ , expression (1) becomes



f ( x, y, z )dxdydz    (r , ,  )  2 sin  d  d dz
 (7)

Here ℜ is the region in which (𝜌, 𝜃, ∅) vary as (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) vary in

ℜ, and 𝜑 𝜌, 𝜃, ∅ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) wirh 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 given by 5 . Observe
that when (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are changed to 𝜌, 𝜃, ∅ and 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
changes to 𝜌2 sin 𝜙 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜃𝑑∅.

The formula (7) is particularly useful when the region ℜ is

bounded by a spherical surface.

Computation of Volume:

Let us recall expression ∗ . In the particular case where

𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ≡ 1, this expression becomes
 𝑏 𝑦2 𝑥 𝑍2 𝑥,𝑦
𝑉
𝑑𝑉 ≡ ℜ
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑦1 𝑥 𝑍1 𝑥,𝑦
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (1)

The integral 𝑉
𝑑𝑉 represents the volume 𝑉 of the region ℜ.
Thus, expression (1) may be used to compute 𝑉.

If (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are changed to 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 , we obtain the following

expression for the volume.

𝑉
𝑑𝑉 ≡ ℜ
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = ℜ
𝐽 𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑤 (2)

Taking 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 = (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) in the above expression, we obtain

the following expression for volume in terms of cylindrical
polar coordinates

𝑉
𝑑𝑉 ≡ ℜ
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧 (3)

Similarly, we obtain the following expression for volume in

terms of spherical polar coordinates 𝜌, 𝜃, ∅ ;

𝑉
𝑑𝑉 ≡ ℜ
𝜌2 sin 𝜙 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ (4)

Observe that 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧 is the volume element in cylindrical

polar coordinates 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 and 𝜌2 sin 𝜙 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜃 𝑑∅ is the volume
element in spherical polar coordinates 𝜌, 𝜃, ∅ .
Problem 1: Evaluate the following integrals:
1 1 1−𝑥
i. 0 𝑦2 0
𝑥 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
4 2 𝑧 4𝑧−𝑥 2
ii. 0 0 0
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧

Solution: we have
1 1 1−𝑥 1 1 1−𝑥
i. 0 𝑦2 0
𝑥 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦=0 𝑥=𝑦 2 𝑧=0
𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
1 1
= 𝑦=0 𝑥=𝑦 2
𝑥 𝑧 1−𝑥
0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
1 1
= 𝑦=0 𝑥=𝑦 2
𝑥 1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
1
1 𝑥2 𝑥3
= 0
− 𝑑𝑦
2 3 𝑦2
1 1 1
= 0
1 − 𝑦4 − 1 − 𝑦6 𝑑𝑦
2 3
1 1 1 1
= 0
− 𝑦 4 + 𝑦 6 𝑑𝑦
6 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − . + . = .
6 2 5 3 7 35
4 2 𝑧 4𝑧−𝑥 2 4 2 𝑧 4𝑧−𝑥 2
ii. 0 0 0
𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = 𝑧=0 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
4 2 𝑧 4𝑧−𝑥 2
= 𝑧=0 𝑥=0
𝑦 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

4 2 𝑧
= 𝑧=0 𝑥=0
4𝑧 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

4 𝑡
= 0 0
𝑡 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧,

where 𝑡 = 2 𝑧
𝜋
4
= 0 0
2 𝑡 cos 𝜃 𝑡 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧,

where 𝑥 = 𝑡 sin 𝜃
 𝜋
4 2
= 0
𝑡 0
2 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧

4 2 1 𝜋 𝜋 4
= 0
𝑡 . 𝑑𝑧 = 4𝑧 𝑑𝑧,
2 2 4 0

Using 𝑡 = 2 𝑧.
42
= 𝜋. = 8𝜋.
2
Problem 2: Evaluate the following integrals
1 𝑧 𝑥+𝑧
i. −1 0 𝑥−𝑧
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
ii. −𝑐 −𝑏 −𝑎
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

Solution: we have
1 𝑧 𝑥+𝑧
−1 0 𝑥−𝑧
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑧 𝑥+𝑧

= 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
−1 0 𝑥−𝑧

1 𝑧 𝑥+𝑧 𝑥+𝑧
= −1 0
𝑥+𝑧 𝑥−𝑧
𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥−𝑧
𝑦𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧

1 𝑧 1
= −1 0
𝑥+𝑧 𝑥+𝑧 − 𝑥−𝑧 + (𝑥 + 𝑧)2 −
2
(𝑥 − 𝑧)2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑧 1 𝑧
= −1 0
𝑥 + 𝑧 2𝑧 + 2𝑧𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 = −1 0
4𝑧𝑥 +
2𝑧 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
1 𝑧 𝑧

= 4𝑧 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑧 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧
−1 0 0
1 1
= −1
4𝑧 𝑧 2 2 + 2𝑧 2 (𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = −1
4𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
ii. –𝑐 −𝑏 −𝑎
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
= −𝑐 −𝑏 −𝑎 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝑏 1
= −𝑐 −𝑏 2𝑎 3 + 𝑦 2 2𝑎 + 𝑧 2 (2𝑎) 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
3
 𝑐 2 3 2𝑏 3
= −𝑐 3
𝑎 2𝑏 + 2𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑧 2 (2𝑏) 𝑑𝑧
3
4𝑎 3 𝑏 4𝑎𝑏 3 2𝑐 3 8
= 2𝑐 + 2𝑐 + 4𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎 2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 .
3 3 3 3
Problem 3: Evaluate the following triple integrals:
i.  ( x  y  z )dxdydz


ii.  zdxdydz



iii.  xyzdxdydz



dxdydz
iv. 
1 x  y  z 
3


Here, ℜ is the region bounded by the planes

𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1.
Solution:
𝑍

𝐼
𝐼 𝐼

The given region ℜ is shown in figure. In this region, 𝑧

varies from a point in the 𝑋𝑌 − plane to a point on the
plane 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1; that is 𝑧 increases from 0 to 𝑧 =
1 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 . In the 𝑥𝑦 − plane, 𝑦 varies from a point on the
𝑥 − axis to a point on the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1. That is, for 𝑧 = 0, 𝑦
increases from 0 to 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥. For 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0 (that is, on the
𝑋 − axis), 𝑥 varies from 0 to 1. Therefore:
 1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦
i.  ( x  y  z )dxdydz =

𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑥−𝑦
1 1−𝑥 𝑧2
= 𝑥=0 𝑦 =0
𝑥+𝑦 𝑧+ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑧=0
1 1−𝑥 1
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
𝑥 + 𝑦 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 + (1 − 𝑥 − 𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1−𝑥 1
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
1 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1−𝑥 1
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
1 − (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1 1 1−𝑥 1 1 1
= 𝑦 − (𝑥 + 𝑦)3 𝑑𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 − (1 −
2 0 3 𝑦=0 2 0 3
𝑥3)𝑑𝑥
1 1 1 3 1 1
= 2 − 3𝑥 + 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 2− + = .
6 0 6 2 4 8

1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦
ii.  zdxdydz = 𝑥=0 𝑦 =0 𝑧=0
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥


1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦 2
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2
1
1 1−𝑥−𝑦 3 1−𝑥
= −
2 3 𝑦=0
𝑥=0
1
1 31 1 1−𝑥 4 1
= 0 1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − . = .
6 6 4 0 24
1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦
iii. 

xyzdxdydz = 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦
= 0
𝑥 0 0
𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

1 1−𝑥 1 2
= 0
𝑥 0
𝑦 1−𝑥−𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2
 1 1 1−𝑥
= 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2 1 − 𝑥 𝑦2 +
2 0 0

𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

1 1 1 2 2 2 3
= 𝑥 1−𝑥 1−𝑥 − 1−𝑥 1−𝑥 +
2 0 2 3
1 4
1−𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4

1 1
= 𝑥 1 − 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
24 0
1
1 1−𝑥 5 1 1−𝑥 5
= −𝑥 + 0
𝑑𝑥
24 5 0 5

1
1 1−𝑥 6 1 1 1
= − = = .
24 30 0 24 30 720

dxdydz
iv. 
1 x  y  z 
3


1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦 −3 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
1+𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1−𝑥−𝑦
1 1−𝑥 1+𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 −2
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
−2 𝑧=0
1 1 1−𝑥 −2
=− 1+𝑥+𝑦+1−𝑥−𝑦 −
2 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
1+𝑥+𝑦−2𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1 1 1−𝑥 1 −2
=− 𝑦=0 2 2
− 1+𝑥+𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥=0
1 1 1 1 1−𝑥
= − 𝑥=0 𝑦+ 𝑑𝑥
2 4 1+𝑥+𝑦 𝑦=0
1 1 1 1 1
=− 1−𝑥 + − 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥=0 4 2 1+𝑥

1
1 1 1−𝑥 2 1
= − − . + 𝑥 − log(1 + 𝑥)
2 4 2 2 0
1 1 1 1 5
=− + − log 2 + log 1 = log 2 − .
2 8 2 2 8
 π/2 a sin θ a 2 −r 2 /a
Problem 4: Evaluate I = 0 0 0
r dz dr dθ, given
in cylindrical polar coordinates 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 .
Solution: By using the meaning of repeated integrals, we
find that
𝜋 𝑎 2 −𝑟 2
2 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝐼= 𝜃=0 𝑟=0 𝑧=0
𝑎 𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝜋/2 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑎 2 −𝑟 2 /𝑎
= 𝜃=0 𝑟=0
𝑟 𝑧 0 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
2 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑎 2 −𝑟 2
= 𝜃=0 𝑟=0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑎

𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜋/2 𝑟2 1 𝑟4
= 0
𝑎 − 𝑑𝜃
2 𝑎 4 0

𝜋/2 𝑎 3 𝑎3
= 0
sin2 𝜃− sin4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 4

𝑎3 𝜋/2 𝑎3 𝜋/2
= 0
sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − 0
sin4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 4

𝑎3 1 𝜋 𝑎3 3 1 𝜋 5𝜋
= . . − . . . = 𝑎3 .
2 2 2 4 4 2 2 64
Problem 5: Find the value of 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 over the
hemisphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ≤ 𝑎 2 , 𝑧 ≥ 0.

Solution:
𝑍

𝑌
𝑂

Let (𝜌, 𝜃, ∅) be the spherical polar coordinates. In the given

hemisphere (shown in above figure), 𝜌 increases from 0 to
𝑎, 𝜙 increases from 0 to 𝜋/2, and 𝜃 increases form 0 to 2𝜋,
Therefore,
𝑎 𝜋/2 2𝜋
𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌 cos 𝜙 𝜌2 sin 𝜙 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜃
𝜌 =0 𝜙=0 𝜃 =0

𝑎 𝜋/2 2𝜋
= 0
𝜌3 𝑑𝜌 × 0
sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 𝑑𝜙 × 0
𝑑𝜃
𝜋𝑎 4
= .
4
Problem 6: If ℜ is the region bounded by the planes
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 1 and the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1, evaluate the
integral  xyzdxdydz , by changing it to cylindrical polar


coordinates.
Solution:

Let (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) be cylindrical polar coordinates. In the given

region (shown in following figure), 𝑟 increases form 0 to 1, 𝜃
increases form 0 to 𝜋/2 and 𝑧 increases form 0 to 1.
Therefore,
𝑍

𝑧
𝑌
𝑟 1
𝜃

 xyzdxdydz =

1 𝜋/2 1
𝑟=0 𝜃=0 𝑧=0
𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑧 𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧

𝜋
1 2 1
3
= 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 × sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 × 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
0 0 0
1 1 1 1
= × × = .
4 2 2 16
Problem 7: Using triple integrals find the volume
bounded by the surface 𝑧 2 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 and the planes
𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑦 = 𝑏.

Solution: Here, 𝑧 varies from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 . For 𝑧 = 0,

𝑥 varies form 0 to 𝑎, and 𝑦 varies from 0 to 𝑏.Therefore, the
required volume is
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2
𝑉= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑥 𝑏 𝑎 2 −𝑥 2
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑎 𝑏
= 0 0
𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏
= 0
𝑎2 − 𝑥2 𝑦 0 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
= 0
𝑏 𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
𝑥3
= 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑥 −
3 0

𝑎3 2
=𝑏 𝑎3 − = 𝑏𝑎 3.
3 3
Problem 8: Using triple integrals, find the volume of the
tetrahedron bounded by the planes 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0 and
𝑥/𝑎 + 𝑦/𝑏 + 𝑧/𝑐 = 1.
Solution:

𝑐
𝑏
𝑎 Y

The given tetrahedron is shown in above figure. In this

tetrahedron, 𝑧 varies from 0 to 𝑐 1 − 𝑥/𝑎 − 𝑦/𝑏 . For 𝑧 = 0, 𝑦
varies from 0 to 𝑏 1 − 𝑥/𝑎 . for 𝑦 = 0,𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 varies from 0 to
𝑎.Therefore, the required volume is
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦
𝑎 𝑏 1−𝑎 𝑐 1−𝑎 −𝑏
𝑉= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑎 𝑏 1−𝑎 𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑥=0 𝑦=0
𝑐 1− − 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏

𝑏 1−𝑥/𝑎
𝑎 𝑥 𝑦2
=𝑐 𝑥=0
1− 𝑦− 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 2𝑏 0

𝑎 𝑥 2 1 𝑥 2
=𝑐 𝑥=0
𝑏 1− − . 𝑏2 1 − 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 2𝑏 𝑎
 𝑐𝑏 𝑎 𝑥 2
= 𝑥=0
1− 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑎

𝑥 3
𝑎
𝑐𝑏 1− 1
𝑎
= 1 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐.
2 3 − 6
𝑎
0
Exercise
1 𝑥 𝑎 −𝑥 𝑏
1. Compute the integral 0 log 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 > 𝑏 > −1.
∞ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑏𝑥
2. Compute the integral 0
( )sin𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑥
3. Evaluate the integral 𝐼 =  xydxdydz where ℜ is the


positive octant of the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎 2 .

4. If ℜ is the region in the first octant bounded by the
sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎 2 , evaluate the integral
 ( x  y  z)dxdydz

by changing it to spherical polar

coordinates.
5. Using triple integrals, find the volume of the ellipsoid

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
+ 2 + 2 = 1.
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑐

6. Using triple integrals, find the volume of the sphere

𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧2 = 𝑎2 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
7. Compute if the domain of integration is
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧+1 3
bounded by the coordinate planes and the plane 𝑥 +
𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1.
𝑎 𝑥 𝑦
8. Evaluate 0 0 0 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥.
1 1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
9. Evaluate 0 0 0
by changing to
1−𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 −𝑧 2
spherical polar co-ordinates.
10. Evaluate 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 taken over the
volume bounded by the 𝑋𝑌-plane and the
parabolaid 𝑧 = 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 by using cylindrical polar
coordinates.
 11. Find the volume common to the cylinders
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎 2 by triple integral.
12. Find the volume bounded by the 𝑋𝑌-plane, the
cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 and the plane 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3 by triple
integral.

Answers
𝑏+1
1. log( )
𝑎 +1
2. tan −1
𝑏 − tan−1 𝑎
1
3. 𝑎5
15
3𝜋𝑎 4
4.
16
4𝜋
5. 𝑎𝑏𝑐
3
4𝜋
6. 𝑎3
3
ln 2 5
7. −
2 16
𝑎6
8. .
48
𝜋2
9. .
8
243𝜋
10. .
2
16𝑎 3
11. Cubic units.
3
12. 3𝜋 Cubic units.