Graduate Course

B.A. (PROGRAMME) 1 YEAR MATHEMATICS

ALGEBRA & CALCULUS
PART–B : CALCULUS

SM–4

CONTENTS

Lesson 1 : Tangents and Normals

Lesson 2 : Tangents and Normals (Polar Co-ordinates)
Lesson 3 : Curvature
Lesson 4 : Asymptotes
Lesson 5 : Singular Point
Lesson 6 : Curve Tracing
Lesson 7 : Curve Tracing (Polar Co-ordinates)

Editor:
Dr. S.K. Verma

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007

1
Session 2012-2013 (1000 Copies)

© School Open Learning

Published By : Executive Director, School of Open Learning, 5, Cavalary Lane, Delhi-110007

Laser Composing by : M/s Computek System

2
 LESSON 1

TANGENTS AND NORMALS

INTRODUCTION
One of the earliest applications of Differential calculus was the study of curves by means of their tangents
dy
and normals. In this lesson we shall give a geometrical interpretation of the differential coefficient at a
dx
point on a curve. Subsequently we will find out the equations of the tangent and normal to a curve whose
equation is given.
1. (a) Definition of the Tangent to a Curve at a Given Point
Let P be a given point on a curve, and Q another point on the curve close to P. Then as Q tends to P, the
secant PQS in general tends to a straight line PT, say, which is called the tangent to the curve at P. The
tangent to a curve at a point may, therefore, be defined as the limit to which a secant through the point
tends as the other point of intersection with the curve tends to the given point. Since the two points of
intersection of the secant and the curve tend to coincide, a tangent is sometimes defined as a straight line
meeting the curve into ultimately coincident point.

1. (b) Geometrical Interpretation of the Differential Coefficient

Let P be any point (x, y) on a given curve and Q be neighbouring point (x + δx, y + δy) on the curve so
that δx and δy are small quantities. Draw PL and QM perpendiculars on OX and PK perpendicular to QM.
As is clear from the diagram
QK δy
tan ∠QPK = = ,
PK δx
when Q → P, δx → 0,
∠QPK → ∠TPK = Ψ (say)
Proceeding to the limit as δx → 0, we get
tan Ψ = lim  δy  = dy (at the point P).
δx → 0 δx
  dx
and equate the two results.

3
 Thus the value of the differential coefficient at a point on the curve is the tangent of the angle which
dy
the tangent at that point makes with the X-axis i.e., the value of , at P is nothing but the slope of the
dx
tangent at P.

dy
Note. If , at a point P on a curve is zero, the tangent to the curve at P is parallel to X-axis;
dx
dy
conversely if the tangent at a point P is parallel to the X-axis, is zero at P.
dx
Definition of Normal
The straight line perpendicular to a tangent at its point of contact is called the normal to the curve at
that point.

Equation of the Tangent and Normal

Let the equation of the curve be y = f (x) and let P (x, y) be any point on it. Let the tangent PT at P to
the curve meet the X-axis in M. Let ∠TMX = Ψ, we have
dy
Tan Ψ = (at) P = f ′(x). ... (1)
dx
∴ Equation of the tangent PT is
dy
Y–y = (X – x) = f ′(x) (X – x) ... (2)
dx
which is the line through (x, y) having slope i.e. m = . Here (X, Y) are the current coordinates i.e., the
coordinates of any point on the line (1) and (x, y) are the coordinates of P, where the tangent is drawn.

4
 The normal PN being perpendicular to the tangent PT at P, its equation is given by
−1
Y–y =
dy
( X − x)
dx
dy
i.e., (X − x) + (Y − y ) = 0 ... (2)
dx

dy
Note 1. In case does not exist at ((x, y) but dx = 0, then the tangent at (x, y)) can be obtained as
dx dy
follows:
In this case the tangent is parallel to the Y
Y-axis
axis and hence the equation of the tangent line is given by
X = x.
Note 2. When the equations of curve are given in parametric form viz.
x = f (t), y = g (t)
dy
dy g′(t )
then = dt =
dx dx f ′ ( t )
dt
and the equations of the tangent and normal can be written immediately from (1) and (2) in the
forms;
g ′ (t )
Y – g (t) =  X − f ( t )  ,
f′ t  ()
g′(t )
and [X – f (t)] +  Y − g ( t )  = 0
f ′(t ) 
Note 3. The intercept of the tangent on X
X-axis is obtained by putting Y = 0 in (1).
∴ Intercept on the X-axis
axis is given by
y
X = x–
dy
dx
and intercept of the tangetn
ngetn on Y
Y-axis is obtained by putting X = 0 in (1).

5
 ∴ Intercept on the Y-axis is given by
dy
Y = y–x
.
dx
Example 1. Find the equations of tangent and normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point (a, 2a).
Solution. y2 = 4ax
Differentiating w.r.t.x we have,
dy
2y = 4a ⇒ dy = 2 a , y ≠ 0 .
dx dx y
dy 2a
∴ At the point (a, 2a), = = 1.
dx 2a
∴ Tangent at (a, 2a) is
y – 2a = 1 (x – a),
i.e., y = x+a
And the normal at (a, 2a) is
y – 2a = – (x – a)
or x + y = 3a.
Example 2. Find the tangent and the normal to the curve x = a (θ – sinθ), y = a (1 – cosθ) at any
point ‘θ’.
dy θ θ
2sin .cos
dy d θ a sin θ 2 2 = cot θ .
Solution. Here = = =
dx dx a (1 − cos θ ) 2sin 2
θ 2
dθ 2
∴ Equation of tangent is:
θ
y – a (1 – cosθ) = cot  x − a ( θ − sin θ )  .
2
Equation of normal is
−1
[y – a (1 – cosθ)] =  x − a ( θ − sin θ ) 
θ
cot
2
or [y – a (1 – cosθ) . cot + x – a (θ – sinθ) = 0.
Example 3. Show that the line x cosθ + y sinθ = p, will touch the curve xmyn = am+n if
pm+n mmnn = (m + n)m+n am+n cosm θ sinn θ.
Solution. Let the line
x cosθ + y sinθ = p, ... (1)
be the tangent to the curve
xmyn = am+n, ... (2)
at the point (x1, y1).
From (2), taking logarithms, we have
m log x + n log y = (m + n) log a.
Differentiating w.r.t.x, we get

6
 dy m y
m n dt = 0
+ ⇒ = − . ( y ≠ 0)
x y dx dx n x
∴  dy  at the point (x y ) = my1 .
  1 1 −
 dx  nx1
Equation of tangent at (x1, y1) to (2) is
y – y1 = − my1 (x – x1)
nx1
or (my1) x + (nx1) y = (m + n) x1.y1. ... (3)
If (1) is a tangent to (2) at (x1, y1) then (1) and (3) must be identical.
∴ Comparing coefficients in (1) and (3), we get
my1 nx ( m + n ) x1 y1
= 1 =
cos θ sin θ p
pm
∴ x1 =
( m + n) cos θ
pn
and y1 =
( m + n) sin θ
Also since (x1, y1) is a point on the curve (2), we get
x1m y1n = am+n.
Substituting for x1, y1, we have
p m mm p n mn
. = am+n
( m + n) cos θ ( m + n) sin θ
m m n n

or pm+n mm nn = (m + n)m+n am+n cosmθ . sinnθ

is the required condition.
Example 4. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve y (x – 2) (x – 4) – x + 7 = 0 at
the point where it cuts the X-axis.
Solution. y (x – 2) (x – 3) – x + 7 = 0
⇒ y (x2 – 5x + 6) – x + 7 = 0 ... (1)
The curve (1) cuts the X-axis viz. y = 0
where 0(x – 2) (x – 3) – x + 7 = 0
or x = 7
∴ The point of intersection is (7, 0).
Differentiating both sides of (1) w.r.t. x we have;
dy
(x – 2) (x – 3) + y (2x – 5) – 1 = 0
dx
At the point (7, 0);
dy
(7 – 2) (7 – 3) + 0 – 1 = 0.
dx

7
 dy 1
∴ =
dx 20
∴ Equation of tangent at the point (7, 0) is
1
y–0 = (x – 7) ⇒ x – 20y – 7 = 0
20
and equation of the normal at the point (7, 0) is
y – 0 = –20 (x – 7)
⇒ 20x + y – 7 = 0.
Example 5. Prove that the sum of the intercepts on the co-ordinate axes of any tangent to the curve
x + y = a is constant.
Solution. Equation of the curve is
x+ y = a

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. to x, we get

1 1 dy
+ . = 0
2 x 2 y dx

dy y
⇒ = –
dx x
∴ Equation of tangent to the given curve at (x, y) is
y
Y = y– (X – x)
x
⇒ X y +Y x = x y + y x

⇒ X y +Y x = x y ( x+ y )
⇒ X y +Y x = a x y [Q x + y = a ]
Intercept on the axis of X is obtained by putting Y = 0
a x y
i.e., Intercept on X-axis = = ax
y
And Intercept on the axis of Y is obtained by putting X = 0 in the equation of tangent.
a x y
∴ Intercept on y-axis = = ay
x
∴ Sum of the intercepts on co-ordinate axes = ax + ay .
= a ( x+ y )
= a a = a = constant.

Q a is independent of x and y.

8
 Example 6. Show that the length of the portion of the tangent to the curve x = a cos3θ, y = asin3θ
intercepted between the co-ordinate axes is constant.
Solution. We have
dx
= – 3a cos2θ sinθ.
dθ
dy
= 3a sin2θ cosθ
dθ
dy
dy d θ 3a sin 2 θ cos θ
∴ = = – = – tanθ
dx dx 3a cos 2 θ sin θ
dθ
∴ Equation of tangent at the point ‘θ’ is
y – a sin3 θ = – tan θ (x – a cos3 θ)
⇒ x sin θ + y cos θ = a sin θ cos θ (sin2 θ + cos2 θ)
⇒ x sin θ + y cos θ = a sin θ cos θ ... (1)
Tangent line (1) meets the co-ordinate axes at the points A (a cos θ, 0) and B(0, a sin θ). [These
points are obtained by putting y = 0 and x = 0 in (1) respectively].
Thus the length of the portion of the tangent intercepted between the co-ordinate axes is given by

AB = a2 cos2 θ+ a2 sin2 θ = a, which is constant.

Example 7. Show that the tangent and normal at any point of the curve
x = aeθ – (sin θ – cos θ)
y = ae0 – (sin θ + cos θ)
are equidistant from the origin.
dx
Solution. Here = aeθ (sin θ – cos θ) + aeθ (cos θ + sin θ)
dθ
= 2ae0 sin θ
dy
and = ae0 (sin θ + cos θ) + aeθ (cos θ – sin θ)
dθ
= 2aeθ cos θ
dy
dy d θ 2 ae θ cos θ cos θ
∴ = = =
dx dx 2 ae θ sin θ sin θ
dθ
∴ Equation of the tangent to the given curve at any point ‘θ’ is
cos θ
y – aeθ (sin θ + cos θ) =  x − aeθ ( sin θ − cos θ ) 
sin θ
⇒ x cos θ – y sin θ – aeθ (cos θ sin θ – cos2 θ – sin2 θ – sin θ cos θ) = 0
⇒ x cos θ – y sin θ + aeθ = 0 ... (1)

9
 And equation of the normal at any point ‘θ’ to the given curve is
sin θ
y – aeθ (sin θ + cos θ) =  x − aeθ ( sin θ − cos θ ) 
cos θ 
⇒ x sin θ + y cos θ – aeθ (sin θ cos θ + cos2 θ + sin2 θ – sin θ cos θ) = 0
⇒ x sin θ + y cos θ – ae0 = 0 ... (2)
Now the tangent and the normal are equidistant from the origin if the length of the perpendicular
from the origin up on the tangent (1) and normal (2) are equal. The length of the perpendicular from (0, 0)
upon the line (1) is
0.cos θ − 0.sin θ + aeθ
p1 = = aeθ ... (3)
cos θ + sin θ
2 2

And the length of the perpendicular from (0, 0) upon the line (2) is
0.sin θ − 0.cos θ + aeθ
p2 = = – aeθ
sin θ + cos θ
2 2

= +aeθ ... (4)

[neglecting the –ve sign]
From (3) and (4), p1 = p2
Hence the result.
Example 8. Show that tangent at any point of the curve
x = a (t + sin t cos t), y = a (1 sin t)2
1
makes an angle (π + 2t) with the x = axis.
4
dx
Solution. Here = a [1 + cos t . cos t + sin t (– sin t)]
dt
= a [1 + cos2 t – sin2 t]
= a [1 + cos 2t] = 2a cos2 t
dy
and = 2a (1 + sin t) cos t
dt
dy 2 a (1 + sin t ) cos t
∴ =
dx 2 a cos 2 t
2
 t t
cos + sin 
1 + sin t  2 2
= =
cos t 2 t t
cos − sin 2
2 2
t t
cos + sin
=
2 2
t t
cos − sin
2 2

10
 t
1 + tan
2 = tan  π + t 
=
t  
1 − tan  4 2
2
If θ is the angle which the tangent at any point ‘t’ makes with the X-axis.
then tanθ = tan  π + t 
4 2
π t
∴ θ = +
4 2
1
= ( π + 2t ) .
4
Hence the result.
x
Example 9. Prove that for the catenary y = c cos h , the perpendicular dropped from the foot of
c
the ordinate upon the tangent is of constant length.
x
Solution. Hence y = c cos h
c
dy 1 x x
⇒ = c. sin h = sin h
dx c c c
Equation of tangent at any point (x, y) is
x x
Y – y = sin h [X − x] [Q y = c cos h ]
c c
x x
or Y – c cos h = sin h [ X − x ]
c c
or X  sin h x  − Y + c cos h x − x sin h x = 0
 c c c
The foot of the ordinate at the point (x, y) is (x, 0).
The length of the perpendicular from (x, 0) on the tangent
x x x
x sin h − 0 + c cos h − x sin h
= c c c
x
1 + sin h 2
c
x
c cos h
= c
x
cos h
c
= c, i.e., constant.
x
x y −
Example 10. Prove that + = 1 touches the curve y = be a at the point where the curve crosses
a b
the y-axis.

11
 x
−
Solution. y = be a crosses y-axis i.e., the line x = 0
where y = be = b
∴ The curve crosses y-axis at the point (0, b).
Hence it is required to find the tangent at (0, b).
x
−
dy be a
Now =
dx a
dy b
At (0, b) = –
dx a
∴ Equation of tangent at (0, b) is
b
y–b = – (x – 0)
a
y x
i.e., –1 = –
b a
x x
i.e., + = 1
a b
Hence proved.
Exercise
1. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve x = a cosθ, y = b sinθ at any point ‘θ’.
2. Find the tangent and normal to the curve
x2 y2
(i ) + = 1 at the point (a, 0)
a2 b2
π
(ii) x = a (θ + sinθ), y = a (1 + cosθ) at θ = .
2
x
(iii) y = c cos h at the point (0, c)
c
3. Show that the line x cos3 θ + y sin3 θ = c is a tangent to the curve x2y2 = a2(x2 + y2).
[Hint: The equation of the curve can be written as 12 + 12 = 12 ]
x y c
n n
x y  x  y
4. Prove that the straight line + = 2 touches the curve   +   = 2 at the point (a, b)
a b a  b
whatever be the value of n.
5. At what point of the curve y = x2 – 3x + 2 is the tangent perpendicular to the line y = x?
[Ans. (1, 0)]
3 2
6. At what point of the curve y = 2x + 3x – 10x + 7 are the tangents parallel to the line y = 2x?
[Ans. (1, 2), (–2, 23)]
7. Prove that the equation of the tangent at any point (4m , 8m ) of the semicubical parabola x3 – y2
2 3

= 0 is y = 3mx – 4m3 and show that it meets the curve again at (m2, –m3), where it is normal if
9m2 = 2.

12
 8. Show that the normal at any point of the curve x = a cos θ + a θ sin θ, y = a sin θ – a0 cos θ is at
a constant distance from the origin.
9. The tangent at any point on the curve x3 + y3 = 2a3 cuts off lengths p and q on the co-ordinate
axes, show that p–3/2 + q–3/2
3/2 = 2–1/2 a–3/2.

Angle of Intersection of Two Curves

The angle at which two curve in
intersect
tersect at a point is defined as the angle between the tangents to the
curves at that point. Applying the formula tanθ = m1 − m 2 for the angle θ between the two lines whose
1 + m1 m 2
gradients (slopes) are m1 and m2, the angle of intersection of two curves at a point of intersection is easily
found.
When the angle between two curves at a point of intersection is a right angle, the curves are said to
intersect orthogonally the condition for which is m1m2 = –1.

Example 11. Find the angle of intersection of the parabolas y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4by at the point other
than the origin.
Solution. The points of intersection of the parabolas y2 = 4ax, and x2 = 4by are given by
x4 = 16b2y2 = 16b2 . 4ax
= 64ab2x
or x (x3 – 64ab2) = 0
⇒ x = 0 or x = 4a1/3 b2/3
2
Substituting the value of x in x = 4by, we get
x 2 16 a 2 / 3 b 4 / 3
y = = = 4a2/3 b1/3.
4b 4b
∴ (0, 0) and (4a1/3b2/3, 4a2/3b1/3) are the two points of intersection.
Now y2 = 4ax ... (i)
x2 = 4by ... (ii)
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we have
dy
2y = 4a ⇒ dy = 2a
dx dx y

13
  dy  2a
∴   1/ 3 2 / 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 = 2 / 3 1/ 3
  at ( 4 a b , 4 a b )
dx 4 a b

a1 / 3
=
2 b1 / 3
Differentiating (ii) w.r.t.x; we get,
dy dy x
2x = 4b ⇒ = .
dx dx 2b
 dy  4 a1/ 3 b 2 / 3 2 a1/ 3
∴   1/ 3 2 / 3 2 / 3 1/ 3 = = 1/ 3 .
 dx  at ( 4 a b , 4 a b ) 2b b

Thus if m1, m2 are the slopes of the tangents to the two curves, we have
a1 / 3 2a 1 / 3
m1 = , m2 = .
2 b1 / 3 b1 / 3
 m − m1 
∴ The angle θ = tan–1  2 
 1 + m1m2 
 a1/ 3 a1/ 3 
 2 1/ 3 − 1/ 3 
= tan–1  b 1/ 3 2b 1/ 3 
 1 + 2a . a 
 
 b1/ 3 2b1/ 3 
 3a1/3b1/3 
= tan–1  
(
 2 a + b
2/3 2/3
) 
Example 12. Find the condition that the curves ax2 + by2 = 1 and a′x2 + b′y2 = 1 should cut
orthogonally.
Solution. Let (x1, y1) be the point of intersection. Then since the point lies on both the curves, we
have
ax12 + by12 − 1 = 0

a ′x12 + b ′y12 − 1 = 0

x12 y12 1
∴ = =
b + b′ − a ′ + a ab ′ − a ′b
b′ − b a − a′
= and = ... (1)
ab′ − a′b ab′ − a′b
Now differentiating ax2 + by2 = 1, we get
dy
2ax + 2by = 0
dx
dy
⇒ = – ax
dx by

 dy 
⇒ m1 =   = a x1
  ( x1 , y1 ) b y 1
dx

14
 Similarly differentiating a′x2 + b′y2 = 1, we get
dy
2a′x + 2b′y =0
dx

= – a ′x
dy
⇒
dx b ′y

 dy 
⇒ m2 =   = – a ′x1
 dx  ( x1 , y1 ) b ′y1

The two curves will cut orthogonally if

m1m2 = –1
 ax  a′x 
i.e., if  − 1  − 1  = –1
 by1  b′y1 
⇒ aa ′x12 + bb ′y12 = 0
Substituting the values of x12 and y12 from (1), we get,
 b′ − b   a − a′  = 0
aa ′   + bb ′  
 ab ′ − a ′b   ab ′ − a ′b 

⇒ aa′( b′ − b) + bb′( a − a′) = 0

b′ − b a − a ′
⇒ + = 0
bb′ aa′
b′ − b a′ − a
⇒ =
bb′ aa′
1 1 1 1
⇒ − = −
b b′ a a′
which is the required condition.
Exercises
Find the angle between the following pairs of curves at each one of their points of intersection
(i) x2 – y2 = a2, x2 + y2 = 2 a2
1
(ii) Prove that the curves y = 1 – ax2 and y = x2 cut orthogonally when a = .
3
(iii) Find the angle of intersection of the following curves:
x2 + 2xy – y2 + 2ax = 0
3y3 – 2a2x – 4a2y + a3 = 0
at the point (a, –a).

Lengths of the Tangent, the Normal, the Sub-tangent and the Sub-normal
Let the tangents at any point P(x, y) on a curve meet the X-axis in T, then PT is the length of the tangent
intercepted between the point P and the X-axis and is often called the length of the tangent. The
projection of this length on OX is called the subtangent. Here TM is the subtangent (where PM is the
perpendicular on OX).

15
 If the normal at P to the curve meets OX in N, then PN is called the length of the normal and its
projection MN on OX is called the subnormal.
These lengths are easily obtained from the right angled triangles PTM and PMN.
We have ∠PTM = ∠MPN = Ψ,
where tan Ψ =  dy  at P
 dx 
∴ PT, the
he length of the tangent at P = PM cosec Ψ
PM
[Q = sin Ψ ⇒ PT = PM cosec Ψ and PM = y]
PT

= y 1+ cot Ψ
2

2
 dy 
y 1+  
y 1 + tan Ψ
2
 dx 
= =
tan Ψ dy
dx
2 2

= y dx 1 +  dy  = y 1 +  dx 
dy  dx   dy 
TM, the length of the sub-tangent
tangent
PM y dx  PM 
= PM cot Ψ = = =y Q TM = tan ψ 
tan Ψ dy dy  
dx
Also PN, the length of the normal

= PM sec Ψ = y 1 + tan Ψ Q PM = cos ψ ∴ PN = PM sec ψ 

2

 PN 

 dy 
= y 1+  
 dx 
MN, the length of the subnormal

16
 dy  PM 
PM tan Ψ = y , Q TM = tan ψ 
dx  
Example 13. Show that the subtangent at any point of the exponential curve y = aex/b is constant and
the subnormal varies as the square of the ordinate.
dy 1 y
Solution. Here = a . ex / b = .
dx b b
∴ Subtangent at (x, y) = y dx = y . b = b
dy y
which is a constant since b is independent of x, y.
dy y 2
Subnormal = y = which varies as the square of the ordinate y.
dx b
Example 14. Show that for the curve by2 = (x + a)3, the square of subtangent varies as subnormal.
Solution. Equation of the curve is
by2 = (x + a)3
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
dy
2by = 3 (x + a)2
dx
3( x + a )
2
dy
⇒ =
dx 2by
y 2by 2by2
Length of subtangent = = y =
3( x + a) 3( x + a )
2 2
dy
dx
 2 ( x + a )3 
(x + a)
3

= 2b .
1 Q y = 
3( x + a )  b 
2
b

2
= (x + a) = T (say)
3
3( x + a )
2
dy 3
Length of subnormal =y = y. = (x + a)2 = N (say)
dx 2by 2b
2bN
⇒ (x + a)2 =
3
4
Square of subtangent = (x + a)2
9
4 2bN 8b
⇒ T2 = . =  8b  N = kN [where k = = constant]
9 3  27  27
∴ T2 ∝ N. Hence proved.
Example 15. Show that in the curve y = a log (x2 – a2) the sum of the tangent and the subtangent
varies as the product of the co-ordinates of the point.
Solution. Here y = a log (x2 – a2)

17
 dy 2x 2ax
∴ = a 2 = 2 .
dx x −a 2
x − a2
y ( x2 − a2 )
∴ Length of Subtangent = y dx =
dy 2ax
2
 
And length of tangent = y 1 +  dx 
 dy 
2
 x2 − a 2 
= y 1+  
 2ax 
4a 2 x 2 + ( x2 − a 2 )
= y
4a 2 x 2
y ( x2 + a2 )
= y
y
2ax
(x 2
+a )
2 2
=
2ax
Hence the sum of the tangent and the subtangent
y ( x2 − a 2 ) y ( x2 + a2 )
=
2ax
+
2ax
=
2ax
( x −a + x +a )=
y 2 2 2 2 y.2x2
2ax
xy 1
= = ( xy ) which varies as xy.
a a
Exercises
1. Find the lengths of the subtangent, subnormal, tangent and normal for the following curves
(i) 2x2 – 3y2 = 15 at (3, 1)
(ii) x = a cos3θ, y = a sinθ3 at θ.
π
(iii) x = a (θ – sin θ), y = a (1 – cos θ ) at θ =
.
2
2. Find the lengths of the normal and subnormal to the curve
a x/a
 e + e − x / a  .
y =
2
3. Show that the subtangent at any point of the curve xmyn = am+n varies as the abscissa.
4. Show that in the parabolas y2 = 4ax, the subnomral is constant and the subtangent varies as the
abscissa of the point of contact.
x2 y 2
5. Prove that in the ellipse + = 1, the length of the normal varies inversely as the
a 2 b2
perpendicular from the origin upon the tangent.
y2
6. For the catenary y = c cos h  x  , prove that the length of normal is .
c c
7. Show that the subnormal at any point of curve y2x2 = a2 (x2 – a2) varies inversely as the cube of
the abscissa.

18
8. Show that for the curve βy2 = (x + α)3, the square of the subtangent varies as the subnormal.
9. Show that in the curve y = a log (x2 – a2), the sum of the tangent and the subtangent varies as the
product of the co-ordinates of the point.

19
 LESSON 2

TANGENTS AND NORMALS (POLAR COORDINATES)

Angle between Radius Vector and Tangent

Let P be a given point (r, θ)) on the curve r = f (θ)) and Q a neighbouring point on the curve very close to P
whose coordinates are (r + δr, θ + δθδθ) so that r + δr = f (θ + δθ).
Let the tangent PT at P makes ∠TPM equal to φ with the radius sector OP. To find φ we observe
that PT is the limiting position of the secant PQ when Q → P.
∴ ∠TPM = lim ∠QPM
Q→P

From Q, draw QM ⊥ on OP. Then

QM ( r + δr ) sin δθ
tan ∠QPM
QPM = = [Q PM = OM – OP = OM – r]
PM ( r + δr ) cos δθ − r
Now when Q → P, then δθ → 0 and δr → 0
∴ tan φ = lim tan ∠QPM
Q→P

( r + δr ) sin δθ
= lim
δθ→0 ( r + δr ) cos δθ − r

sin δθ
( r + δr )
= lim δθ
δθ→ 0  cos δθ − 1  δr
r + cos δθ
 δθ  δθ
But we know that  sin δθ  = 1
lim  
 δθ 
δθ→ 0

δr
and lim ( cos δθ ) = 1
dr
lim =
δθ→ 0 δθ dθ δθ→ 0

20
 δθ
2sin 2
1 − cos δθ 2
Also =
δθ δθ
 δθ 
 sin 2  δθ
=   sin
 δθ  2
 2 
 δθ 
 sin 
∴  1 − cos δθ  = lim 2 lim  sin δθ 
lim    δθ  δθ→  
δθ→ 0
 δθ  δθ→ 0 0
 2 
 
 2 
= 1×0=0
r dθ
∴ tan φ = lim =r
δθ→0 dr dr
dθ
Then angle φ is the angle which the positive direction of the tangent i.e., the direction n which θ
increases makes with the positive direction of the radius vector i.e., the direction in which r increases.
This angle φ lies between 0 and π and when φ is obtuse, tan φ is negative.

Polar Subtangent and Polar Subnormal

Let O be the origin and OX the initial line. Let P ((r, θ)) be any point on the curve whose polar
equation is given and let the perpendicular at O to the radius vector OP meet the tangent at P and T and
normal
ormal at P in N. Then OT is called the polar subtangent at P and ON the polar subnormal at P. Also PT
is the length of tangent and PN the length of the normal at P.
From the right angled ∆OPT,
OPT, we have polar subtangent = OT = OP tan φ.
dθ
= r  r d θ  = r2
 dr  dr

21
 From ∆OPN, we have
Polar subnormal = ON = OP cot φ
r r dr
= = =
tan φ r d θ dθ
dr
Length of tangent = PT = OP sec φ
dθ 
2

= r 1 + tan 2 φ = r 1 +  r 
 dr 
And length of normal = PN = OP cosec φ

 1 dθ 
2

= r 1 + cot φ = r 1 + 
2

 r dr 
2
 dr 
= r +
2
 .
 dθ 
Note: A negative value of polar subtangent or the polar subnormal implies that in the curve at the
point under consideration r decreases as θ increases.

Angle of Intersection in Polar Coordinates

The angle of intersection of two curves is evidently the difference between the values of φ for them
at the point of intersection. If these angles are φ1, φ2, the required angle is given by

tan (φ1 – φ2) = tan φ1 − tan φ 2

1 + tan φ1 tan φ 2

 dθ 
where tan φ1 =  r  for the first curve
 dr 1
 dθ 
tan φ2 =  r  for the second curve
 dr 2
π
when φ1 – φ2 = , the curves are said to intersect orthogonally.
2
i.e., when tan φ1 tan φ2 = –1, the two curves intersect orthogonally.
φ1 = φ2
i.e., when φ1 – φ2 = 0, the two curves touch.
i.e., when tan φ1 = tan φ2 the two curves touch.
Example 1. For the cardioid r = a (1 – cos θ) prove that
1
(i) φ = θ
2
θ θ
(ii) Polar subtangent = 2a sin 2 tan .
2 2

22
 dr
Solution. Here = a sin θ
dθ
dθ a (1 − cos θ )
∴ tan φ = r =
dr a sin θ
θ
2sin 2
=
2
θ θ
2sin cos
2 2
θ
= tan
2
1
∴ φ = θ.
2
dθ
Polar subtangent = r2
dr
= r  r d θ 
 dr 
= a (1 – cos θ), tan φ
θ  1 
= a (1 – cos θ) . tan Q φ = 2 θ 
2  
θ θ
= 2a sin 2 tan
2 2
Example 2. Find the angle of intersection of the two curve r = a cos θ and r = a (1 – cos θ).
Solution. The two curves r = a cos θ and r = a (1 – cos θ) intersect when
cos θ = 1 – cos θ
⇒ 2 cos θ = 1
1
⇒ cos θ =
2
π
∴ θ = 2nπ + , where n is any integer
3
π
Let us take the value θ = .
3
dr
For the curve r = a cos θ , = – a sin θ
dθ
 dθ   a cos θ  = –cot θ
∴ tan φ1 =  r  =  
 dr 2  − a sin θ 
dr
Also for the curve r = a (1 – cos θ), = a sin θ
dθ
 dθ  1 − cos θ
tan φ2 =  r  =
 dr 2 sin θ

23
 θ
2sin 2
=
2
θ θ
2sin cos
2 2
θ
= tan
2
tan (φ1 – φ2) = tan φ1 − tan φ 2
1 + tan φ1 tan φ 2
θ
− cot θ − tan
=
2
θ
1 − cot θ . tan
2
π
The curves intersect, when θ =
3
π π
− cot − tan
tan (φ1 – φ2) = 3 6
π π
1 − cot tan
3 6
1 1
− −
= 3 3
1 1
1− .
3 3
2
−
3 =− 3
=
2
3
∴ φ1 – φ2 = tan–1 − 3 ( )
π 2π
= π− =
3 3
2π
∴ The required angle is .
3
Example 3. Show that the curves r = a (1 + cos θ) and r = b (1 – cos θ) intersect orthogonally.
π
Solution. The two curves will intersect orthogonally when φ1 – φ2 = the condition for which is
2
tan φ1 . tan φ2 = –1.
or 1 + tan φ1 tan φ2 = 0
For the first curve r = a (1 + cos θ) we have
 dr 
  = – a sin θ
 dθ 1

24
  dθ  1 + cos θ
∴ tan φ1 =  r  =
 dr 1 sin θ
Similarly for the second curve
r = b (1 – cos θ)
 dr 
  = b sin θ
 dθ 2
 dθ  1 − cos θ
tan φ2 =  r  =
 dr 2 sin θ

∴ tan φ1 tan φ2 = –  1 + cos θ  =  1 − cos θ 

 sin θ   sin θ 

= –
(1− cos θ)
2

sin2 θ
= –1 (Q θ ≠ 0)
⇒ The curves intersect orthogonally.
Exercises
1. Find the angle φ for the curve
2a
(i) = 1 – cos φ
r
(ii) rm = am cos mθ
2. Find the angle of intersection of curves r = sin θ + cos θ and r = 2 sin 2θ.
3. Show that in the equiangular spiral r = aeθcotα, the tangent is inclined at a constant angle to the
radius vector.
[Hint : Prove that φ = α]
Also show that the polar subtangent is r tan α and polar subnormal is r cot α.
4. Show that in the curve r = aθ, the subnormal is constant and in the curve rθ = a, the polar
subtangent is constant.
5. For the cardioid r = a (1 – cos θ), prove that
θ θ
(i) Polar subtangent = 2a sin 2 tan
2 2
θ θ
(ii) Polar tangent = 2a sin 2 sec
2 2
θ
(iii) Polar normal = 2a sin
2
(iv) Polar subnormal = a sin θ.
6. Show that the logarithmic spiral r = aebθ has the lengths of its polar tangent, polar normal, polar
subtangent and polar subnormal each proportional to r.
a a
7. Prove that the two curves r = and r = cut orthogonally.
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ

25
The Perpendicular from the Pole on the Tangent
Let P be a point on a curve, distant r from the pole. Let ON be the perpendicular from O on the
tangent at P. Then the length of ON denoted by p is an important quantity and can sometimes be used as a
coordinate to define the position of P. Evidently from the right angled ∆ONP, we have,

p = r sin φ ... (1)

dθ r
Also we have tan φ = r =
dr dr
dθ
r2
∴ p = r sin φ = −
2
 dr 
r2 +  
 dθ 

2
 dr 
r + 
2

1  dθ 
∴ =
p2 r4
2
1 1  dr 
= 2 + 4 
r r  dθ 
A neat form of this is obtained if in place of r, we used

26
 1
u = ,
r
du 1 dr
∴ = –
dθ r2 dθ
2
1  du 
∴ = u2 +  
p2  dθ 

Pedal Equation
The relation between the quantities p and r of any point on a curve is called the pedal equation of the
curve. For some curves this equation is very simple.
To obtain the pedal equation of a curve whose equation is given in cartesian form we use the
formula
r2 = x2 + y2 ... (1)
The length of the perpendicular from the origin on the tangent
dy
Y–y = (X – x) is given by
dx
dy
x −y
p = dx ... (2)
2
 dy 
1+  
 dx 
[i.e., Length of ⊥ from (0, 0) to the straight line ax + by + c = 0 is c ]
a + b2
2

dy
The value of is obtained from the equation of the curve viz.
dx
f (x, y) = 0 ... (3)
Eliminating x, y from (1), (2) and (3) the equation obtained is called “Pedal equation”.
Note: When the position of the pole is not mention then it is to be taken at the origin of the cartesian
axes of coordinates.
To obtain the pedal equation from the polar equation
r = f (θ) or f (r, θ) = 0 ... (4)
We use the relation
2
1 1  dr 
1 = 2 + 4  ... (5)
p2 r r  dθ 
The elimination of ‘θ’ between (4) and (5) gives the pedal equation.
Example 4. Show that the pedal equation of the parabola y2 = 4a (x + a) is p2 = ar.
Solution. Here y2 = 4a (x + a)
dy
∴ 2y = 4a ⇒ dy = 2 a
dx dx y
∴ Equation of tangent at any point (x, y) is

27
 Y – y = 2a (X – x)
y
or 2aX – yY + y2 – 2ax = 0.
The length of the perpendicular ‘p’ from the origin on the tangent is given by
y 2 − 2ax
p =
4a 2 + y 2
y 2 − 2 ax
= [Q y2 = 4a (x +a)]
4a + 4a ( x + a )
2

4a ( x + a) − 2ax
=
8a2 + 4ax
4ax + 4a 2 − 2ax
=
4a ( 2a + x )
2a ( x + 2a )
= = 2a ( x + a )
2 a ( x + 2a )
Also r2 = x2 + y2 = x2 + 4a (x + a) = (x + 2a)2
⇒ r = x + 2a
∴ p2 = a (x + 2a) = ar
p2 = ar is the required pedal equation.
Example 5. Show that the pedal equation of the curve r2 = a2 cos 2θ sin r3 = a2p.
Solution. r2 = a2 cos 2θ
Differentiating w.r.t. θ we have:
dr
2r = – 2a2 sin 2θ
dθ
dr a 2 sin 2θ
∴ = –
dθ r
2
1 1  dr 
Also 1 = 2 + 4 
p2 r r  dθ 
2
1 1  a 2 sin 2θ 
= 2
+ 4 − 
r r  r 
1 1 4 2
= + a sin 2θ
r2 r6
r2
From (1), cos 2θ =
a2

r4
sin 2θ = 1 − cos 2θ =
2
∴ 1−
a4

28
 1 1 4  r4 
∴ 1 = + a i − 
p2 r 2 r 6  a4 
1 a4 1
= + −
r2 r6 r2
a4
=
r6
r6
∴ p2 =
a4
r3
⇒ p =
a2
∴ r3 = a2p is the required pedal equation.
Exercise
1. Obtain the pedal equation of the following curves
(i) r = a (1 – cosθ)
2a
(ii) = 1 – cosθ
r
(iii) rn = an sin nθ
(iv) r = aeθ cot α
(v) r2 cos2θ = a2
2a θ
2. For the parabola = 1 – cos θ, show that polar subtangent is 2a cosec θ and p = a cosec .
r 2
Derivative of Arc
Let the tangents at two neighbouring points P and Q on a curve meet in T, then we shell assume that
arc PQ
lim = 1.
Q→P chord PQ

Derivative of Arc in Cartesian Coordinates

Let P be any point (x, y)) on a curve and Q a neighbouring point ((x + δx, y + δy)) on the curve, very close to
P. Draw PM ⊥ from P on the ordinate QL.

29
 Chord PQ = PM2 + QM2

( δx ) + ( δy )
2 2
= ... (1)
Let A be any fixed point on the curve of which PQ is an arc. Let the length of the arc AP = s and
that of arc AQ be s + δs so that arc PQ = δs.
Then from (1),

( δx ) + ( δy )
2 2
δs δs chord PQ Arc PQ
= . = .
δ x chord PQ δx chord PQ x

 δy 
2
Arc PQ
= . 1+  
chord PQ  δx 
arc PQ
When Q→P, then δx→0 and lim =1
Q→P chord PQ
∴ Taking limits as δx→0, we get
δs  δy 
2
ds
= lim = 1+  
dx δx → 0 δx  δx 
The positive value of the radical being taken if the convention is made that ‘s’ is so measured as to
make it increase with x increasing, as in the figure.
Multiplying both sides of (2) by dx , we have
dy
2
ds =  dx 
1+   ,
dy  dy 
which is useful when the equation of the curve is given in the form of x = f (y).
When the equation of a curve is given in parametric form x = f ( ), y = g ( )
2 2
ds  dx   dy 
then =   + 
dt  dt   dt 
dy
Corollary: Putting = tan ψ, where ψ is the angle which the tangent makes with the X-axis we
dx
have
2
ds  dy 
= 1 +   = 1 + tan 2 ψ = sec ψ
dx  dx 
dx
∴ cos ψ =
ds
2
ds =  dx 
Also 1+   = 1 + cot ψ = cosec ψ
2

dy  dy 
dy
∴ = sin ψ.
ds

Derivatives of the Arc in Polar Coordinates

30
Let P and Q be two neighbouring points on a curve where actual distances from a fixed point A say on the
curve are s and s + δs respectively. Let the polar coordinates of P and Q be ((r, θ) and (rr + δr, θ + δθ).
Join PQ. Through P draw PM perpendicular to OQ. Then from right angled ∆PQM.
PQM.
PQ2 = PM2 + MQ2
= (r sin δθ)2 + [r + δr – r cos δθ]
[Q MQ = OQ – OM = (r + δr) – OP cos δθ]
δθ 
2

2
 δr + 2 r sin 
 PQ   sin δθ   2
∴   = r2  +
 δθ   δθ  ( δθ )
2

2
 sin δθ   δr  δθ  1 
2 2
 PQ 
⇒   = r 
2
 +  + 2r  sin  
 δθ   δθ   δθ  2  δθ 
δθ
[Q 1 – cos δθ = 2 sin ]
2

 PQ  = lim  PQ . arc PQ 
Now lim    
δθ → 0
 δθ  δθ→0 arc PQ
 δθ 

ds  chord PQ 
= [Q lim .   = 1]
dθ Q →P
 arc PQ 
 sin δθ  = 1,  δ r  dr
Also lim   lim  =

δθ → 0 δθ  δθ → 0
 δθ  d θ

δθ  δθ 
sin  sin  δθ
lim 2 lim  2 . = 0
δθ→0 δθ δθ→0   δθ   4
 2
 
∴ On taking limits as δθ → 0, we get
2 2
 ds  2
 dr 
  = r +  
 
dθ  dθ 

31
 2
ds  dr 
⇒ = r2 +  
dθ  dθ 
If the equation of the curve is
θ = f (r),
then it can be shown that

 dθ 
2
ds
= 1+ r2  
dr  dr 

Other Formulae
dθ
Since r = tan φ
dr
dr
⇒ = r cot φ
dθ
2 2
 ds   dr 
∴ 2
  = r +   = r + r cot φ
2 2 2
 
dθ  
dθ
= r2 (1 + cot2 φ)
= r2 cosec2 φ
ds
⇒ = r cosec φ
dθ
dθ
∴ sin φ = r,
ds
the positive root being taken if the length of the arc is measured in the direction in which θ increases.
dθ
We have sinφ = r,
ds
d θ dr
= r .
dr ds
dr dθ
= tan φ . [Q tan φ = r ]
ds dr
dr sin φ
∴ = = cos φ
ds tan φ
dr
⇒ cos φ =
ds
Example 6. Prove that for curve r = aeθ cot α, d is constant, s being measured from the origin.
Solution. Equation of the given curve is
r = aeθ cot α
∴ lor r = log a + 0 cot α
Differentiating w.r.t. θ we get,

32
 1 dr
= cot α
r θ
dθ
∴ r = tan α
dr
i.e., tan φ = tan α ⇒ φ=α
dr
∴ = cos φ = cos α
ds
ds
or = sec α
dr
Integrating, we get
s = r sec α + c
Assuming that s = 0 when r = 0, we get c = 0
s
∴ s = r sec α ⇒ = sec α = constant.
r
Example 7. Show that for the curve

r k 2 − r2
θ = cos–1, −
k r
ds
= r is constant.
dr
Solution. Differentiating the given equation w.r.t. r we get,
 r 
 − .r − k 2 − r 2 
dθ −1 1 k −r
2 2
= × − 
dr r 2 k  r2 
1− 2  
k  

−1  −r 2 − ( k 2 − r 2 ) 
= − 
k 2 − r 2  r 2 k 2 − r 2 

−1 k2
= +
k 2 − r2 r2 k 2 − r2
−r 2 + k 2
=
r2 k2 − r2
k2 − r2
=
r2 k2 − r2
k 2 − r2
=
r2

33
 dr 1 r2
∴ = = (where r ≠ ± k)
dθ dθ k 2 − r2
dr
2 2
 ds  2
 dr 
Also   = r + 
 dθ   dθ 
r4 k 2r 2
= r2 + =
k 2 − r2 k 2 − r2
ds kr
⇒ =
dθ k − r2
2

ds ds d θ
r = r .
dr d θ dr
 kr  k2 − r2
= r  (Q r ≠ ± k)
 k −r 
2 2 r2
= k, which is constant.
Example 8. Show that for a curve, whose pedal equation is p = f (r)
ds r
=
dr r − p2
2

Solution. For any curve,

dr
cos φ = ,
ds
p = r sin φ, ... (i)
ds 1
we have = ... (ii)
dr cos φ
r
= where r ≠ 0
r cos φ
r
=
r 2 cos2 φ
r
=
r (1 − sin 2 φ )
2

r
= [Q p = r sin φ]
r − p2
2

Exercises
1. Find ds ds for the following curves.
dx dy
x
(i) y = c cos h
c

34
 (ii) x3 = ay2.
ds
2. Find for the following curves
dθ
(i) x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ
(ii) x = a (θ – sin θ), y = a (1 – cos θ)
(iii) r2 = a2 cos 2θ.
ds r 2
3. Show that for any curve = .
dθ p

35
 L]ESSON 3

CURVATURE

1. Definitions
Consider a point moving on a small arc PQ of a curve. The direction of motion at any point being
along the tangent to the curve at the point, it is clear from the figure that the direction of motion changes
from KPT to KQT′ while the point descdescribes
ribes the arc PQ. Thus the direction turns through an angle TMT′
TMT
i.e., TMQ when the moving point traverses the arc PQ. A measure of the rate of turning (i.e., the rate of
∠TMQ
change in direction) is .
arc PQ

This measure gives us an idea of the average curvature of the arc PQ. We shall now obtain precise
measure of curvature at a point P on a curve.
Let A be a fixed point on the curve such that arc AP = s and the arc AQ = s + δs, so that the length
of the arc PQ = δs. Let ψ be the angle wh
which
ich the tangent at P makes with the positive direction of the x-
axis.
i.e., ∠TKX = ψ.
K′ MQT′ at Q makes with positive direction of the x-axis be ψ + δψ
Let the angle which the tangent K
where δψ is a small angle depending on the curve and the position of Q relative to P on it. The angle
through which the direction of the tangent changes when arc δss is traversed is therefore equal to ∠TMT.
δψ
An approximate measure of the curvature of the arc PQ is, therefore .
δs
Now let Q→P, then δs→0 andd δψ→0, and we have
δψ δψ
= Lt = curvature at P
δs δs → 0 δs
The reciprocal of curvature is called the radius of curvature and is generally denoted by the greek
ds
letter ρ. Thus ρ = .
dψ

2. Curvature of a Circle

36
 Let PQ be an arc of a circle whose centre is C. If ∠PCQ = θ, i.e., the angle subtended at the centre
of the circle by the arc PQ of the circle) and the radius CP = r, then arc PQ = rθ (θ being measured in
radians).

ts at P and Q is also θ since ∠CPT = 90° = ∠CQT.

The angle between the tangents
1 θ 1
Hence the curvature of the arc PQ is i.e., which is independent of the magnitude of θ.
ρ rθ r
Thus the radius of curvature ρ at a point on the circle is r (the radius of the circle).
We also see that in a circle the normals at any two points P and Q meet at the point C called the
centre of curvature and length of the normal at any point P up to the centre of curvature, is the radius
r of
curvature at P.

3. Cartesian Formulae for ρ

When the equation of a curve is given in rectangular (cartesian) co
co-ordinates viz y = f (x), then radius of
curvature is obtained as follows:
dy ds
We know that = tan ψ and = sec ψ
dx dx
ds
enable us to express , the formula for ρ, in terms of and its derivatives. We have
dψ
dy
y1 = = tan ψ
dx
Differentiating with respect to x, we get

y2 = d 2y = d ( tan ψ ) = d ( tan ψ ) d ψ
2

dx dx dψ dx
dψ d ψ ds
= sec2 ψ = sec 2 ψ .
dx ds dx
dψ 1 ds
But = and = sec ψ
ds ρ dx
1 1
∴ y2 = sec2 ψ . sec ψ = sec3 ψ
ρ ρ
1
(1 + tan 2 ψ )
3/2
=
ρ

37
 1
(1 + y12 )
3/ 2
=
ρ

(1 + y ) 2 3/ 2

∴ ρ = 1
... (1)
y2
Note 1. The radius of curvature of a curve is an intrinsic property of the curve. It depends on the
curve itself and not on the choice of the axes of co-ordinates. The relation between s and ψ obtained by
ds
integrating , is called the intrinsic equation of the curve.
dψ
dy
Note 2. If at any point of curve the tangent is parallel to the y-axis, does not exist there, and the
dx
formula (1) above becomes meaningless. In this case dx = 0, at the point under consideration and we can
dy
employ derivatives of x w.r.t. y. For example; starting with the differentiation of the relation
dx = cot ψ
dy
with respect to y we get, as before,
3/2
  dx  2 
1 +   
∴ ρ =   dy   ... (2)
d 2x
dy 2
ds
Note 3. Generally s and ψ are measured that one increases with the other, so that the derivative
dψ
i.e., ρ is positive. Accordingly while extracting the square root involved in (1) and (2), that sign is taken
in the formulae (1) and (2) which gives a positive value to ρ.
Solved Example 1. Prove that the radius of curvature at any point (x, y) on the catenary y = c cos h
x y2
is .
c c
x
Solution. We have y = cos h,
c
x
So that y1 = c sinh x  1  = sinh
cc c
1 x
and y2 = cosh
c c
3/ 2
 2 x
(1 + y ) 1 + sin h c 
2 3/ 2

Therefore ρ= 1
=
y2 1 x
cos h
c c
 2 x 2 x 
Q cos h c − sin h c = 1
 

38
 x
cos h3
c 2 x y2  x
= =
Q y = c cos h
= c cos h
1
cos h
x c c  c 
c c
Example 2. Show that for any curve
(i) 1 = d  dy 
ρ dx  ds 
1 y2
(ii) =
ρ (1 + y 2 )3/ 2
1

Solution. (i) We have

 dy 
d  dy  d  dx 
  = dx  ds 
dx  ds   
 dx 
dy 2
d dx ds  dy 
= Q = 1+  
dx   dy  2 1/ 2 dx  dx 
1 +   
  dx  

d  y1 
=  
dx  1 + y12 
 
y1 y2
1 + y12 . y2 − y1
1 + y12
=
1 + y12

=
(1 + y ) y − y y
2
1 2
2
1 2

(1 + y )
2 3/ 2
1

y2 1
= =
(1 + y )
2 3/ 2
1
ρ

1 x′y ′′ − y ′x′′
Solved Example 3. Show that for any curve = when the equation of a curve is
ρ ( x ′ 2 + y ′ 2 )3 / 2
dx
given in parametric form viz., x = f (t), y = g (t) where accents denote differentiation w.r.t. ‘t’ i.e., x′ =
dt
dy
and y′ = .
dt
Solution. In the formula
1 y2
= ... (1)
ρ (1 + y )
2 3/ 2
1

We have to express y1 and y2 in terms of the derivatives of x and y w.r.t. ‘t’. We know that

39
 dy
dy y′
= dt =
dx dx x′
dt
y′
i.e., y1 =
x′
Hence y2 = d  dy  = dy1
dx  dx  dx

dy1 d  y′ 
 
dt x′
= dt =  
dx x′
dt
1  y′′x′ − x′′y′ 
=  
x′  ( x′)2 
y′′x′x′′y′
=
( x′)
3

3/ 2
y′′x′ − x′′y′   y′ 2 
1 +   
1
Thus =
( x′)   x′  
3
ρ

y ′′x′ − x′′y ′
=
( x′ )2 + ( x′ )3/ 2 
 
Solved Example 4. In the cycloid
x = a (t + sin t), y = a (1 – cos t),
t
Prove that ρ = 4a cos
2
Solution. x = a (t + sin t), y = a (1 – cos t)
dx
∴ = a (1 + cos t),
dt
dy
= a sin t
dt
d2x
= –a sin t,
dt 2
d2y
= a cos t.
dt 2
Now from the solved example 2, we have
1 x ′y ′′ − y ′x ′′
=
ρ ( x′ + y ′2 )
2 3/ 2

40
 dx dy d2x d2y
where x′ = , y′ = , x ′′ = 2 , y ′′ = 2
dt dt dt dt

1 a (1 + cos t ) a cos t − a sin t ( −a sin t )

∴ = 3/ 2
ρ  a 2 (1 + cos t )2 + a 2 sin 2 t 
 

1 a 2 cos t + cos2 t + sin 2 t 

i.e., =
ρ
3/ 2
a3 1 + cos2 t + 2cos t + sin 2 t 

=
[ cos t + 1]
a [ 2 + 2 cos t ]
3/ 2

=
[1 + cos t ]
a2 3/ 2
(1 + cos t ) 1 + cos t
1
= 3/ 2
a.2 2cos2 t / 2
1
=
4 a cos t / 2
t
∴ ρ = 4a cos
2
We can also find the value of ρ by using the formulae

(1 + y ) 2 3/ 2

ρ = 1

y2

dy
dy dt a sin t
Now y1 = = =
dx dx a (1 + cos t )
dt
t t
2sin cos
=
2 2 = tan t
t 2
2cos2
2
2
y2 = d 2y = d  tan t  = 1 sec 2 t . dt
dx dx  2 2 2 dx
1 2t
sec
1 2t 1 2 2
= sec . =
2 2 dx a (1 + cos t )
dx
t
sec2
2 = 1
=
t t
2a . 2cos2 4a cos4
2 2

41
 (1 + tan t ) 2 3/ 2
t t
∴ ρ = = 4a cos 4 sec 3
1 2 2
t
4a cos 4
2
t
= 4a cos
.
2
Solved Example 5. If CP, CD be a pair of conjugate semi diameters of the cllipse
x2 y 2
+ = 1,
a 2 b2

( CD )
3

prove that the radius of curvature at P is .

ab
Solution. We know that P (a cosθ, b sinθ) and D (–a sinθ, b cosθ) are the extremities of CP and CD.
Equation of the ellipse is
x2 y 2
+ = 1
a 2 b2
⇒ b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2
Differentiating with respect to x, we get
2b2x + 2a2yy1 = 0

b2 x b2  x 
⇒ y1 = – 2 = − 2  
a y a  y
 b2 x2 
 y + 
b 2  y − xy1  b2  a2 y 
y2 = – 2  = −
a  y 2  a2  y2 
 
 
[By putting the value of y1]

2 2 2 x y2 
2
b a b +
 2 b2 
b2  a2 y 2 + b2 x2  a  =− b
4
= – 2  = −
a  a2 y3  a4 y3 a 2 y3

 b4 x2 
(1 + y ) 2 3/ 2  1 + 4 2  ( a 4 y 2 + b 4 x 2 )3 / 2
=
a y 
ρ = =
1
Now
y2 b4 a 4b4
2 3
a y

(a b sin 2 θ + b 4 a 2 cos 2 θ )
4 2 3/ 2

At P (a cosθ, b sinθ), ρ =
a 4b 4
a 3b3 ( a 2 sin 2 θ + b 2 cos 2 θ )
3/ 2

=
a 4b 4

42
 (a sin 2 θ + b 2 cos 2 θ )
2 3/ 2

=
ab
( 0 + a sin θ ) + ( 0 − b cos θ ) = a 2 sin 2 θ + b 2 cos 2 θ
2 2
Also CD =

(a sin 2 θ + b 2 cos 2 θ )
3/ 2
( CD )
2 3

Hence ρ = = .
ab ab
2 2
x2 y 2 ab
Solved Example 6. Prove that for the ellipse + 2 = 1, ρ = , ρ being the perpendicular
2
a b p3
from the centre upon the tangent at any point (x, y).
Solution. From solved Example 5,

(a y 2 + b4 x2 )
4 3/2

ρ = ... (1)
a 4b 4
The equation of the tangent to the given ellipse at (x, y) is
b2 x  b2 x 
Y–y = − . ( X − x) Q y1 = − . 
a2 y  a2 y 
Xx Yy x2 y 2
⇒ 2
+ 2 = 2+ 2
a b a b
Xx Yy
⇒ + −1 = 0
a 2 b2
∴ The perpendicular distance from the centre upon the tangent is
1 a 2b2
p = =
x2 y 2 a 4 y 2 + b4 x 2
+
a 4 b4
a 2b2
⇒ a4 y 2 + b4 x 2 =
p
Substituting this value in (1), we get
a6b6 1 a 2 b2
ρ = . = Proved.
p3 a4b4 p3

Exercises–I
1. Find the radius of curvature at any point (x, y) on the following curves
(i) y2 = 4ax
(ii) ay2 = x3
(iii) xy = c2
2. Show that the radius of curvature at the point (a cos3θ, a sin3θ) on the curve x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 is 3a
sinθ cosθ.
[Hint: The parametric equations of the curve are

43
 x = a cos3θ
y = a sin3θ
Use the formular obtained in solved example 2]
3. Find the radius of curvature at the specified point on the following curves
(i) x + y = 1, at the point 1 1,
 , 
4 4
π
(ii) y = 4 sin x – sin 2x,, at the point x = ,
2
(iii) x3 + y3 = 3axy at the point  3a , 3a  ,
 2 4 

4. ρ For Pedal Equations

The relation between p and r for points on a curve is called the pedal equation of the curve. We shall
now obtain an expression for ρ suitable for curves given by pedal eequations.
From the diagram it is evident that
ψ = θ+φ ... (i)
dθ
r = sin φ ... (ii)
ds
dr
= cos φ ... (iii)
ds
p = r sin φ ... (iv)
ds
and ρ = ... (v)
dψ

We shall now eliminate θ, φ, s and ψ from these relations and obtain the value of ρ in terms of p and
r.
1 dψ
=
ρ ds
d dθ dφ
= ( θ + φ) = +
ds ds ds
sin φ d φ dr sin φ d φ
= + . = + . cos φ
r dr ds r dr

44
 = p . 1 + d ( sin φ ) = p2 + d  p 
r r dr r dr  r 
p  p 1 dp  1 dp
= + − + . = .
r 2  r 2 r dr  r dr

∴ ρ = r dr
dp
Solved Example 7. Find the radius of curvature at the point (p, r) for the ellipse
1 1 1 r2
= 2
+ 2
−
p2 a b a 2b2
Solution. Differentiating the given equation w.r.t. p, we get
2 = 2 r dr ,
− 3
− 2 2 .
p a b dp

dr = a 2b2
i.e.,
dp rp 3
a 2b2
∴ ρ = r dr =
dp p3

Exercise–II
1. Find the radius of curvature at any point on the following curves:
(i) p2 = ar (parabola)
(ii) pr = a2 (hyperbola)
3
(iii) r = 2ap 2 (cardioid)
3
(iv) r = a p2 (lemniscate)
r n +1
2. In the curve p = show that the radius of curvature varies inversely as the (n – 1)th power of
an
the radius vector.

x2 y 2 a 2b2
3. Prove that for the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, ρ = where p is the perpendicular from the centre
a b p3
upon the tangent at (x, y).

5. Polar Formula For ρ

To obtain the formula for the radius of curvature when the equation of a curve is given in polar
coordinates we make use of the following results
dr dθ
= cos φ, ψ = θ + φ, r = tan φ
ds dr
dψ
dψ
we have = dθ ... (1)
ds ds
dθ

45
 dψ dφ
Also, = 1+ ... (2)
dθ dθ
2
ds  dr 
= r2  
dθ  dθ 
dθ r
tan φ = r =
dr dr
dθ
Differentiating w.r.t. θ, we have
2
 dr  d 2r
dφ   −r 2
dθ  dθ
sec2φ . = 
dθ  dr 
2

 
 dθ 
2
 dr  d 2r
  − r
dφ  dθ  d θ2 1
∴ = (Q sec2φ = 1 + tan2φ)
dθ  dr 
2
 r2 
  1 + 2
 dθ    dr  
  d θ  
2
 dr  d 2r
  − r
dθ  d θ2
=  2
 dr 
r2 +  
 dθ 
Thus from (2), we get
dψ dφ
= 1+
dθ dθ
2
 dr  d 2r
  −r 2
dθ  dθ
= 1+  2
 dr 
r2 +  
 dθ 
dψ ds
∴ Putting the values of and in (1), we obtain
dθ dθ
2
 dr  d 2r
  −r 2
dθ  dθ
1+  2
 dr 
r2 +  
dψ  dθ 
= 1/ 2
ds  2  dr  2 
r +   
  d θ  

46
 2
 dr  d 2r
r + 2  − r 2
2

=  dθ  dθ
2 3/ 2
 2  dr  
r +   
  d θ  
2
 dr  d 2r
r + 2  − r 2
2

i.e.,
1
=  dθ  dθ
(Q ρ = d)
ρ  2  dr  2 3/ 2

r +   
  d θ  
3/ 2
 2  dr 2 
r +   
  d θ  
∴ ρ = 2
 dr  d 2r
r2 + 2  − r 2
 dθ  dθ
dr d 2r
If we write = r1, = r2 the formula becomes
dθ d θ2

(r + r12 )
2 3/ 2

ρ = .
r 2 + 2 r12 − rr2
Solved Example 8. Show that for the cardioid
4a θ
r = a (1 + cosθ), ρ = cos .
3 2
ρ2
Also prove that is constant.
r
dr
Solution. Here r1 = = –a sinθ, r2 = –a cosθ.
dθ

(r + r12 )
2 3/ 2

∴ ρ =
(r 2
+ 2r12 − rr2 )
3/ 2
 a 2 (1 + cos θ )2 + a 2 sin 2 θ 
= 2  
a (1 + cos θ ) + 2 a sin θ + a cos θ (1 + cos θ )
2 2 2 2

3/ 2
a3  + cos2 θ + 2cos θ + a 2 sin 2 θ
=
a 2 1 + cos 2 θ + 2cos θ + 2sin 2 θ + cos θ + cos2 θ

a ( 2 + 2cos θ)
3/ 2
2 2a
= = 1 + cos θ
3 + 3cos θ 3

= 2 2 a d cos 2 θ = 4 a cos θ
3 2 3 2

47
 16 a 2 θ 8a 2 8a
Squaring, we get ρ2 = cos 2 = (1 + cosθ) = r
9 2 9 9
ρ2
∴ = constant.
r
Solved Example 9. For the curve rm = am cos mθ, prove that
am
ρ =
( m + 1) r m−1
Solution. rm = am cos mθ
∴ m log r = m log a + log cos mθ
Differentiating both sides with respect to θ, we get
m dr sin mθ
= –m
r dθ cos mθ
r1 = –tan mθ
r2 = –r1 tan mθ – r sec2 mθ . m
= r tan2 mθ – mr sec2 mθ [Q r1 = – r tan mθ]

(r + r12 )
2 3/ 2

ρ =
r 2 + 2 r12 − rr2
3/ 2
 r 2 + r 2 tan 2 mθ 
= 2
r + 2r 2 tan 2 mθ − r 2 tan 2 mθ + mr 2 sec 2 mθ
r 3 sec3 mθ r sec mθ
= =
r sec mθ + mr sec mθ ( m + 1)
2 2 2 2

r r . am am
= = =
( m + 1) cos mθ (m + 1)r m (m + 1)r m−1
Solved Example 10. If ρ1 and ρ2 be the radii of curvature at the extremities of any chord of the
16a 2
cardioide r = a (1 + cosθ) which passes through the pole, then ρ12 + ρ22 = .
9
Solution. For r = a (1 + cosθ)
dr
r1 = = – a sinθ
dθ
d 2r
r2 = = – a cosθ
d θ2

(r + r12 )
2 3/ 2

Now ρ =
r 2 + 2 r12 − rr2

48
 3/ 2
 a 2 (1 + cos θ )2 + a 2 sin 2 θ 
= 2  
a (1 + cos θ ) + 2 a sin θ − a (1 + cos θ )( − a cos θ )
2 2 2

3/ 2
a3 1 + 2cos θ + cos2 θ + sin 2 θ
=
a 2 1 + 2cos θ + cos 2 θ + 2sin 2 θ + cos θ + cos2 θ

a  2 (1 + cos θ ) 
3/ 2

=
3 + 3cos θ
2 2 a (1 + cos θ )
2/3

=
3 (1 + cos θ )

2 2 a 1 + cos θ
=
3
θ
2 2a 2 cos 2
= 2
3
4a θ
= cos
3 2
Let PQ be any chord of the curve passing through the pole. If the vectorial angle at P is θ, then
vectorial angle at Q is π + θ.
4a θ
Now ρ = cos
3 2
4a θ
At P, ρ1 = cos
3 2
and at Q, ρ2 = 4 a cos  π + θ 
3  2 
4a θ
= – sin
3 2
16 2 θ 16 θ
Hence ρ 12 + ρ 22 = a cos2 + a 2 sin 2
9 2 9 2
16 2
= a .
9
Solved Example 11. Show that in the curve r2 = a2 sin 2θ, the tangent turns three times as fast as the
radius vector and that the curvature varies as the radius vector.
Solution. r2 = a2 sin 2θ ... (i)
dr
From (i) 2r = 2a2 cos 2θ
dθ
dθ r
∴ = 2
... (ii)
dr a cos 2θ

49
 dθ
∴ tan φ = r
dr
r2
= = tan 2θ (Q r2 = a2 sin 2θ)
a 2 cos 2θ
⇒ φ = 2θ
Also ψ = θ+φ
= θ + 2θ = 3θ
dψ dθ
=3 , which shows that the tangent turns three times as fast as the radius vector.
ds ds
dψ dθ ds 1 ds
= 3 ⇒ =
ds ds dψ 3 dθ
2
ds  dr 
We have = r2 +  
dθ  dθ 

a 4 cos 2 2θ
= r2 +
r2
1 4
= r + a 4 cos 2 2θ
r
1 4 2
= a sin 2θ + a 4 cos 2 2θ
r
a2
=
r
ds 1 ds a 2
∴ = =
dψ 3 d θ 3r
dψ r
or = 3 2 = kr,
ds a
3
where k = = constant
a2
i.e., curvature varies as the radius vector.

6. Radius of Curvature for Tangential Polar Equations

A relation between p and ψ on a curve is called tangential polar equation.
We make use of the following known formulae
ρ = r dr , ρ = ds , p = r sin φ
dp dψ
dr
and = cos φ
ds
The two expressions for ρ when equated give r dr = ds
dp dψ

50
 dp dr
⇒ = r = r cos φ
dψ ds
Eliminating ‘φ’using p = r sin φ, we have
2
 dp 
p2 +  = r2 (sin2 φ + cos2 φ) = r2.
 dψ 
Also ρ = r dr = 1 d ( r 2 )
dp 2 dp

1 d  2  dp  
2

= p +  
2 dp   d ψ  

1 d  dp   dψ
2
1
= . 2p +   .
2 2 d ψ  d ψ   dp
1 dp d 2 p d ψ
= p+ .2 . .
2 d ψ d ψ2 dp
2  dp d ψ 
= p + d p2 Q d ψ . dp = 1
dψ  
2
ρ = p + d p2 is the required tangential polar formula.
dψ
Solved Example 12. Find the radius of curvature at any point on the curve p = a sin ψ cos ψ.
Solution. p = a sin ψ . cos ψ
dp
∴ = a (cos2ψ – sin2ψ)
dψ
d2 p
= – 2a cos ψ . sin ψ – 2a sin ψ . cos ψ
d ψ2
= – 4a sin ψ cos ψ
2
∴ ρ = p + d p2 = a sin ψ cos ψ – 4a sin ψ cos ψ
dψ
= – 3a sin ψ cos ψ
= – 3p.
Solved Example 13. Prove that for any curve

= sin φ  1 + d φ  .
r
ρ  dθ 
dθ dr
Solution. ψ = θ + φ, r = sin φ, = cos φ
ds ds
1 dψ d
Now = = = (θ + φ)
ρ ds ds

51
 dθ dφ
= +
ds ds
r dθ dφ
∴ = r +r
ρ ds ds
dφ dθ
= sin φ + r .
d θ ds
dθ dφ
= sin φ + r .
ds d θ
dφ
= sin φ + sin φ
dθ
= sind φ  1 + d φ 
dθ  
Hence the result.
Exercise–III
1. Find the radius of curvature at any point (r, θ) on the following curves:
a
(i) r = (ii) r = a cos θ
θ
2a
(ii) r1 = a2 cos 2θ (iv)
r
2
2. Show that the radius of curvature at any point on the cardioid r = a (1 – cos θ) is 2ar .
3
3. Establish the formula
(u + u′2 )
2 3/ 2
1
ρ= where u =
u ( u + u′′)
3
r
and dashes denote differentiation w.r.t.θ.

7. Newton’s Method
If a curve passes through the origin the radius of curvature at the origin is obtained by a special
method which is due to Newton. For a curve passing through the origin and having X-axis as the tangent
thereat, the radius of curvature at the origin is given by
 x2 
ρ 0 = lim  
x →0 2 y
 
Similarly, for a curve passing through the origin and having Y-axis as the tangent thereat the radius
of curvature at the origin is given by the formulae
 y2 
ρ 0 = lim  
y →0
 2x 
Example. Find the radius of curvature at the origin for the following curves
(i) x2 = 2ay (ii) y2 = 4ax
Solution. For the curve x2 = 2ay, X-axis is the tangent at the origin

52
 ∴ By Newton’s formula
 x2   2ay 
ρ 0 = lim 
x →0
 = lim   =a
 2 y  x →0  2 y 
For the second curve y2 = 4ax, Y-axis is the tangent at (0, 0)
∴ By Newton’s formula
 y2   4ax 
ρ0 = lim   = lim   = 2a
x →0 2 x
  x →0
 2x 

8. Centre of Curvature
The centre of curvature at any point on a curve is the limiting position of the point of intersection of
the normal at P and the normal at a neighbouring point Q very close to P on the curve.
Let us find the coordinates of the centre of curvature at any point (x, y) on the curve y = f (x). Let Q
(x + δx, y + δy) be a point on the curve close to P.
The equations of the normal at P and Q are respectively
(Y – y) f ′ (x) + X – x = 0 ... (i)
[Y – (y + δy)] f ′ (x + δx) + X – (x + δx) = 0 ... (ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii) X is eliminated and we get:
– (Y – y) f ′ (x) + [Y – y – δy] f ′ (x + δx) – δx = 0
Or (Y – y) [f ′ (x + δx) – f ′(x)] = δx + δy f ′ (x + δx)
Dividing throughout by δx and proceeding to the limit as δx→0, we get
d  δy 
(Y – y) [f ′(x)] = 1 + f (x) . f ′(x) Q δlim = f ′ ( x )
x→ 0 δx
dx  
i.e., (Y – y) = 1 + [f ′(x)]2
1 +  f ′ ( x ) 
2

∴ Y = y+
f ′′( x )
2
 dy 
1+  
 dx 
= y+ ... (iii)
d2y
dx 2
Putting the value of Y in (i) or (ii) we get,
dy
X = x – (Y – y)
dx
  dy  2  dy
1 +   
  dx   dx
= x–  ... (iv)
d2y
dx 2
The coordinates of the centre of curvature are given by (iii) and (iv).

53
9. Circle of Curvature and Chord of Curvature
The circle having the centre of curvature for its centre and the radius of curvature for its radius, is
called the circle of curvature for the point under consideration. The centre and the radius being known,
the equation of the circle of curvature can be written down.
The locus of centres of curvature of a curve is called the evolute and the given curve is called
involute.
Any chord of the circle of curvature at a point on the curve passing through the point is called the
chord of curvature.
Solved Example 9. Show that the centre of curvature at the origin lying on the parabola
x2
y = mx + is given by
a
1 1
α = – am (1 + m2), β = a(1 + m2)
2 2
Hence show that the equation of the circle of curvature is
x2 + y2 = a (1 + m2) (y – mx)
x2
Solution. y = r.x+ ... (i)
a
2x
Here y1 = m +
a
⇒ (y1)0 = m
2
y2 = ,
a
2
∴ (y2)0 =
a

ρ =
(1 + y )
2 3/ 2
1
=
(1 + m )2 3/ 2

y2 2
a

a (1 + m 2 )
1 3/2
=
2
The coordinates of the centre of curvature at any point (x, y) are given by the formulae
dy   dy  
2

+
   
1
dx   dx  
α = x–
d2y
dx 2
2
 dy 
1+  
 dx 
β = y+
d2y
dx 2

54
 m (1 + m2 ) 1
= − am (1 + m )
2
At the origin, α = 0–
2 2
a
1 − m2 1
β = 0+ = a (1 + m 2 )
2 2
a
Equation of the circle of curvature is
(x – α)2 + (y – β)2 = ρ2
2
 2   2 
 x + am (1 + m )  +  y − a (1 + m )  = a (1 + m )
1 1 1 2  2 3/ 2 
Q ρ = 2 a (1 + m ) 
2 3 1
i.e.,
 2   2  4  
Simplifying we get,
x2 + y2 = a (1 + m2) (y – mx)

55
 LESSON 4

ASYMPTOTES

1. Infinite Branches of a Curve

Curves like the parabola or the hyperbola are unlimited in extent and it is of great importance to
know how they behave as one or more of their branches tend to infinity. It may be that an infinite branch
might be approximated by straight line in the part of the x–y plane very remote from the origin of
coordinates. In our study of the curves, we are concerned with points and lines, etc. lying in the plane
containing the coordinate axes of x and y. We say that a point P lies in the finite part of the plane, if the
distance of P from the origin is finite. Similarly a straight line, lying on the plane, is said to be in the finite
part of the plane, if the perpendicular distance of the line from the origin is finite.
By a point, receding (or tending) to infinit
infinity
y on a curve, is meant a point moving on the curve such
that its distance from the origin tends to infinity.
Difinition. A straight line is said to be an asymptote of an infinite branch of a curve if it is at finite
distance from the origin and if the perpendicular distance, from this line, of a point moving on the curve,
tends to zero, as the point recedes to infinity along the infinite branch.

2. Asymptote to a General Curve

Let the equation of any curve be
φ (x, y) = 0 ... (1)

In Figure 1 the asymptote y = mx + c is approached when x → ∞ along the curv.

Then an asymptote of the curve, not parallel to the y-axis
axis has an equation of the form
y = mx + c ... (2)
when m and c both are finite.
The perpendicular distance from the line (2) of a point (x, y)) on the branch of the curve to which the
line (2), is an asymptote is given by the formula.
p = y − my − c ... (3)
1 + m2

56
where p must tend to zero when x → + ∞ or x → – ∞, or x → + ∞ and – ∞ both.

Suppose that the line (2) is an asymptote, when x → + ∞. Since m is finite, therefore 1+m2 is
finite and non-zero
zero (in fact greater than 1). Hence p tends to zero if
lim ( y − mx − c ) = 0 ... (4)
x →+∞

whence, on dividing by x we see that

 y c
lim  − m −  = 0
x
x → +∞ x
c
Since c is finite, lim = 0 and hence, we get
x→∞ x

y
m = lim ... (5)
x →∞ x
where the relation between x and y is φ (x, y) = 0, since the point (x, y)) lies on the given curve (1). Having
obtained m from (5), the relation (4) then shows that
c = lim ( y − mx )
x →∞

In Figure 2, the asymptote y = mx + c is approached when x → – ∞ along the curve.

For example, let the equation of a curve be y = e–x and let us find its asymptote.
Let the equation of the asymptote be y = mx + c.
y e− x
Here m = lim = lim = 0.
x→∞ x x→∞ x
y  e− x 
[Note: that in this case lim = lim   is not finite].
x →−∞ x x →−∞
 x 
Also c = lim ( y − mx ) = lim y = lim e− x = 0.
x →∞ x →∞ x →∞

57
 Hence the part of line y = 0 (where x is positive) is an asymptote of the curve.
On the other hand, if the equation of the curve is y = ex,
y e− x
lim = lim is not finite.
x →∞ x x →−∞ x

y e− x
But m = lim = lim =0
x → −∞ x x → −∞ x
and c = lim ( y − mx ) = lim e x = 0.
x →−∞ x →−∞

Hence, the part of the line y = 0 (where x is negative) is asymptote to the curve y = ex. In this case, it
is towards the negative side that the x-axis
axis is an asymptote of the curve, where, as in the preceding case
the x-axis
axis is an asymptote towards the positive side.
Lastly, if the curve is
a + sin x
y = mx + c + ... (A)
x
then m = lim y = lim  m + c + a + sin
2
x

x→ ∞ x x→ ∞
 x x 
as x → +∞ or x → –∞ in both the cases the limit is m. Also y – mx tends to c as x → +∞ or –∞.
Hence the asymptote to the curve (A) is the line y = mx + c whether x → ∞ or x → –∞.

58
3. Asymptotes of an Algebraic Curve of the nth Degree IN X and Y
An algebraic curve of the nth degree in x and y, can be always written in the form.
 a0 x n + a1 x n−1 y + a2 x n− 2 y 2 + ..... + an y n  + b1 x n−1 + b2 x n− 2 y + b3 x n −3 y 2 + ..... + bn −1 y n−1 

+ c2 x n− 2 + ..... + cn− 2 y n− 2  + ................................. + (Ax + By) + M = 0. ... (α)

in which the first bracket contains terms each of which is of the nth degree in x and y together (i.e.,
homogeneous in x and y of degree n), the second bracket similarly contains terms each of which is of (n –
1)th degree in x and y together, similarly other brackets contains terms of lower degree in x and y
together.
Let us rewrite the term in the first bracket in the form
 y y2 yn 
x n  a0 + a1 + a1 2 + ...... + an n  ≡ x n φ n  y 
 x x x  x

where φ n  y  stands for the algebraic sum of a number of terms in which the highest degree terms
x  
y
in does not exceed ‘n’. The equation (α) can therefore, be written as
x
y y y y
x n φ n   + x n −1 φ n −1   + x n − 2 φ n − 2   + ...... + x φ1   + M = 0 ... (α′)
x x x x
Note: Had the terms in the first bracket consisted of only terms, viz.,
a 0 x n + a1 x n − 1 y + a 2 x n − 2 y 2 ,
the group of nth degree terms could have been expresed as
  y  y 
2

x  a0 + a1   + a 2   
n
... (1)
 x  x  
y
in which the highest degree of within the box bracket [ ] is 2 (and not n). We notice in this case
x
that if (1) is expressed as
 y  y
x n φ n   then φ n  
x  x
y
is a group of terms in which the highest degree of is 2, which is supposed to be less than n. We
x
are expressing this group of three terms not as φ 2  y  but as φ n  y  , the reason being that φ n  y  is
 x  x  x
the co-efficient of xn. This is the justification for using the symbol x n φ n  y  for the terms each of which
x  
is of the nth degree is x and y. A similar interpretation is true for each term of (α′).
Let us find out the asymptotes of (α′) which are not parallel to the y-axis. We already know that
such an asymptote is of the type y = mx + c, where m and c are finite quantities, we also recall in our mind
that
m = lim and lim ( y − mx )
y
x →∞ x x →∞

These limits are to be found from the equation of the given curve itself.

59
 From (α′), by dividing both sides by xn, we get
 y 1  y 1  y 1  y M
φ n   + φ n −1   + 2 φ n − 2   + ..... + n −1 φ   + n = 0 ... (α′′)
x x x x x x x x
Let x → ∞, then we have from (α′′)
 y
φn   = 0
 x
i.e., φn (m) = 0 ... (β)
y
[By writing lim = m]
x →∞ x
Let the roots of (β) be m1, m2, m3, ...... Consider the value m = m1 and let the corresponding value of
c denoted by c1 then c1 = lim (y – m1x)
x →∞

To find the value c1 from the given equation of the curve (α′) let us proceed as follows:
Put y – m1x = p1 where p1 is a function of x.
[Note: From the equation of the given curve (α′) y is to be looked upon as an implicit function of x
and thus y – m1x is a function of x, x and y being the co-ordinates of a point on (α′)]
When x → ∞, lim p1 = c1.
y p y
From y – m1x = p1 we find = m1 + 1 . Substituting this value of in the equation of the curve
x x x
(α′), we find
 p   p   p   p 
x n φ n  m1 + 1  + x n −1φ n −1  m1 + 1  + x n − 2 φ n − 2  m1 + 1  + ...... + x φ  m1 + 1  + M = 0
 x   x   x   x 
Expanding the functions
 p   p   p 
φ n  m1 + 1  , φ n −1  m1 + 1  , φ n − 2  m1 + 1  , ....... with the help of Taylor’s theorems in ascending
 x   x   x 
p1
powers of , we get
x
 p 1 p2   p 1 p2 
x n φn ( m1 ) + 1 φ′n ( m1 ) + . 12 φ′′n ( m1 ) + ...... + x n−1 φn−1 ( m1 ) + 1 φn−1 ( m1 ) + . 12 φ′′n −1 ( m1 ) + ......
 x 2! x   x 2! x 
 p   p 1 p 2

+ x n−2 φn− 2 ( m1 ) + 1 φ′n−2 ( m1 ) + ...... + ....... x φ ( m1 ) + 1 φ′ ( m1 ) + . 12 φ′′ ( m1 ) + .... + M = 0
 x   x 2! x 
Rearranging the terms in decending powers of x, we get
n − 2  p1 
2
x n φ
 n ( m1 ) 
 + x n −1

 p1φ′n ( m1 ) + φn −1 ( m1 ) 
 + x  φ′′n ( m1 ) + p1φ′n −1 ( m1 ) + φn− 2 ( m1 ) 
 2! 
 p3 p2 
+ xn−3  1 φ′′n ( m1 ) + 1 φ′′n−1 ( m1 ) + p1φ′n− 2 ( m1 ) + φn−3 ( m1 ) 
 3! 2! 
+ [terms containing lower powers of x] + M = 0. ... (2)
Since m1 is a root of φn (m) = 0. We get

60
 φn (m1) = 0
∴ (2) becomes
 p2 
x n−1  p1φ′n ( m1 ) + φn−1 ( m1 )  + x n− 2  1 φ′′n ( m1 ) + p1φ′n−1 ( m1 ) + φn− 2 ( m1 ) 
 2! 
 p3 p2 
+ xn−3  1 φ′′n ( m1 ) + 1 φ′′n−1 ( m1 ) + p1φ′n− 2 ( m1 ) + φn−3 ( m1 )  ... (3)
 3! 2! 
+ ....................... + M = 0
Dividing both sides of (3) by xn–1, we get
1  p2 
 p1φ′n ( m1 ) + φn−1 ( m1 )  +  1 φ′′n ( m1 ) + p1φ′n−1 ( m1 ) + φn− 2 ( m1 ) 
x  2! 
 p131 p12 
+ φ′′′
n ( m1 ) + φ′′n −1 ( m1 ) + p1φ′n − 2 ( m1 ) + φn −3 ( m1 ) 
 3! x2 2! 
M
+ .... + n−1 = 0 ... (4)
x
Let x → ∞. Since according to our assumption
lim p1 = c1, we get from (4)
x→∞

c1φ′n ( m1 ) +φn−1 ( m1 ) = 0 ... (5)

φn−1 ( m1 )
∴ c1 = , provided φ′n ( m1 ) ≠ 0 .
φ′n ( m1 )
Hence when m = m1 we get the asymptote
φn−1 ( m1 )
y = m1 x – , if φ′n ( m1 ) ≠ 0 .
φ′n ( m1 )
Similarly when m = m2, we get as before an asymptote
φn−1 ( m1 )
y = m2 x – , if φ′n ( m1 ) ≠ 0 .
φ′n ( m1 )
It is supposed here that the roots of (β) [viz. φn(m) = 0] are all real and unequal i.e., no two of them
are equal.
Case I
If in (5) φ′n ( m1 ) = 0, but φn−1 ( m1 ) ≠ 0
no value of c1 can be obtained. In this case there is no asymptote of the curve for the value m = m1.

If, however, both φ′n ( m1 ) = 0 and φn−1 ( m1 ) = 0, the equation (5) becomes an identity. To determine
the value of c1 in this, let us proceed from (4) which is, therefore, written on multiplying by x as

61
  p12  1  p13 p12 
 φ′′n ( m1 ) + p1φ′n−1 ( m1 ) + φn− 2 ( m1 )  +  φ′′′n ( m1 ) + φ′′n −1 ( m1 ) + p1φ′n− 2 ( m1 ) + φn−3 ( m1 ) 
 2!  x  3! 2! 
M
+ ...... + =0 ... (4′)
x n −2
Now, let x → ∞. Then since lim p1 = c1, we get from (4′).
x→∞

c12
φ′′n ( m1 ) + c1φ′n −1 ( m1 ) + φ n − 2 ( m1 ) = 0 ... (A)
2!

which is a quadratic in c1 to determine two values of c1 [provided φ′n ( m1 ) ≠ 0 ].

Let the roots of (A) be real unequal viz., c 1′ and c1′′ . In this case we get two parallel asymptotes.
y = m1x + c 1′ .
y = m1x + c1′′

Note: We get two parallel asymptotes for the value m = m1 only when φ′n ( m1 ) ≠ 0 .

φ′n ( m1 ) = 0 and also φn−1 ( m1 ) = 0

But if also φ′′n ( m1 ) = 0 then the value of c1 is obtained as above from a cubic equation in c1 viz.,
c13 c2
φ′′′n ( m1 ) + 1 φ′′n −1 ( m1 ) + c1φ′n − 2 ( m1 ) + φn − 3 ( m1 ) = 0 ... (B)
3! 2!

provided φ′n ( m1 ) ≠ 0 .
In this case, if the three roots are real and distinct we have three parallel asymptotes for the value m
= m1 viz.
y = m1x + c 1′
y = m1x + c1′′
y = m1x + c1′′′
where c 1′ , c1′′ and c1′′′ are the roots of (B).

Deductions made from the Equation B viz., φn (m) = 0

(1) We notice that expression φn (m) is obtained from the nth degree terms of the algebraic curve (α)
viz., the terms of x n φ n  y  by putting x = 1 and y = m.
x
y
Since, as already pointed out the degree of φ n  y  in is never greater than n (i.e., is either less
 
x x
than n or at the most equal to n. The degree of φn (m) is at the most n. Hence the equation φn (m) = 0 has
at the most n roots in m. Since the equation φn (m) = 0 determines the direction of asymptotes not parallel
to the y-axis, we conclude that in algebraic curve of the nth degree given by (α) can have at the most n
asymptotes not parallel to the y-axis.
(2) Since the determination of m and c (for asymptotes not parallel to the y-axis) depends in general
upon the equations.

62
 (i) φn (m) = 0

(ii) cφ′n ( m) +φn−1 ( m) = 0

and since φn (m) [and hence φ′n ( m) ] and φn−1 ( m) depend upon  y  y
x n φ n   and x n −1 φ n −1   .
x x
We conclude that in general the determination of asymptotes not parallel to the y-axis, of an
algebraic curve of the nth degree depends upon the nth degree and (n–1)th degree terms of the algebraic
curve.
Solved Example 1. Find the asymptotes of the curve
y3 – x2y – 2xy2 + 2x3 – 7xy + 3y2 + 2x2 + 2x + 2y + 1 = 0
Solution. Putting x = 1, y = m in the third and second degree terms separately, we get
φ3 (m) = m3 – 2m2 – m + 2
= (m – 1) (m2 – m – 2)
= (m – 1) (m + 1) (m – 2),
φ2 (m) = –7m + 3m2 + 2
φ ′3 (m) = 3m2 – 4m – 1
Now φ3 (m) = m3 – 2m2 – m + 2 = 0 gives
m = 1, –1 or 2.
φ2 ( m) −7m + 3m2 + 2
But c = = −
φ′3 ( m ) 3m2 − 4m − 1
φ 2 (1) ( −2 )
∴ For m = 1, c1 = =− = –1.
φ′3 (1) ( −2 )
φ2 ( −1) 12
For m = –1, c2 = =− = –2.
φ′3 ( −1) 6
φ2 ( 2 ) 0
For m = 2, c3 = = − = 0.
φ′3 ( 2 ) 3
The three asymptotes are, therefore
(i) y = x – 1, (ii) y = –x –2, and (iii) y = 2x.
Solved Example 2. Find the asymptotes of the curve
x3 + 3x2y – 4y3 – x + y + 3 = 0.
Solution. The given equation is
 y  y 
3
y 
x 3 1 + 3 − 4    + x  − 1 + 3 = 0
 x  x   x 

y  y
i.e., of the form x 3 φ 3   + x φ1   + 3 = 0
 
x x
Thus φ3 (m) = –4m3 + 3m + 1, φ2 (m) = 0.
and φ1 (m) = m – 1.

63
 The gradients m of the asymptotes are given by
φ3 (m) = 0
or 4m3 – 3m – 1 = 0
or (m – 1) (4m2 +4m +1) = 0
or (m – 1) (2m + 1)2 = 0.
Thus there are three asymptotes, one having a gradient m = 1 and the other two have the same
1
gradient m = – and therefore are parallel.
2
To find c, we have the equation
cφ′3 ( m) +φ2 ( m) = 0 ... (1)
But φ ′3 (m) = –12m2 + 3 and φ2(m) = 0
when m = 1, φ ′3 (1) = –9
1  1
and when m = – cφ′3  −  = –3 + 3 = 0.
2  2
φ2 (1)
Thus when m = 1 then c = – = 0 and the asymptote is y = x.
φ′3 (1)
1
When m = – , then the equation determining c viz., the equation (1) becomes an identity.
2
We do not get any value of c from this equation.
To determine the value of c, we have to consider the equation
c2
φ′′3 ( m ) + cφ′2 ( m ) + φ1 ( m ) = 0
2!
1 2
i.e., c ( −24m ) c.0 + ( m − 1) = 0,
2
1
Thus when m = – ,we get
2
3
6c2 – = 0
2
1
or c2 =
4
1
∴ c = ± .
2
Hence the other two asymptotes are
x 1
y = − ±
2 2
or 2y + x = ±1.
Exercise–I
1. Find the asymptotes of the following curves:

64
 (i) y 3 + 3 y 2 x − x 2 y − 3 x 3 + y 2 − 2 xy + 3 x 2 + 4 y + 5 = 0
(ii) y 3 + x 2 y + 2 xy 2 − y + 1 = 0
(iii) y 3 − xy 2 − x 2 y + x 3 + x 2 − y 2 = 0

( x + y ) ( x + 2 y + 2)
2
(iv) = x + 9y + 2
(v) 2 x 3 − x 2 y + 2 xy 2 + y 3 − 4 x 2 + 8 xy − 4 x + 1 = 0

4. Determinations of Asymptotes Parallel to the Y-axis

axis of an Algebraic Curve
If there is a curve having an asymptote parallel to the y-axis
axis as shown in the diagram, the
perpendicular distance from a point on the curve upon the line x = c which is parallel to the y-axis
diminishes to zero as y → +∞ or y → –∞ and –∞ both.
Let the equation of the curve ((α) in art 3 of this lesson be written in the
he following form
an y n + y n−1 ( an−1 x + bn−1 ) + y n − 2 ( an− 2 x 2 + bn − 2 x + cn − 2 )

+ y n − 2 ( an−3 x3 + bn−3 x 2 + cn−3 x + d n −3 ) + ... = 0 ... (δ)

In Fig. 5 the asymptote x = c is approached In Fig. 6 the asymptote x = c is approached

when y → +∞ along the curve I when y → –∞ along the curve II

Case I
Let us suppose now that an = 0 i.e., there is no term in (α) containing the term yn. Then, dividing every
term on both sides of (δ) by yn–1, we get

( a n −1 x + bn −1 ) +
1
y
( a n − 2 x 2 + bn − 2 x + c n − 2 ) + 2 ( a n − 3 x 3 + bn − 3 x 2 + c n − 3 x + d n − 3 ) + ... = 0
y
1 ... (δ′)

Let y → ∞ then assuming that an–1 ≠ 0 the equation (δ′) reduces to

an–1x + bn–1 = 0.
i.e., x = – bn −1 .
a n −1

Thus we get the asymptote x = – bn −1 which is a line parallel to the y-axis.

a n −1

65
Case II
In case not only an = 0, but an–1 = 0 and also bn–1 = 0 the equation (δ) after dividing both sides by yn–2,
becomes

(a n−2 x 2 + bn − 2 x + c n − 2 ) +
1
y
( an − 3 x 3 + bn − 3 x 2 + cn − 3 x + d n − 3 ) + ... = 0 ... (δ′′)

Let y → ∞ then assuming that an–3 ≠ 0, we find that (δ′′′) is reduced to

an–2x2 + bn–2x + cn–2 = 0 ... (δ′′′)
or we get the asymptotes given by (δ′′′)
If the roots of this equation are real and different, we get two parallel asymptotes (each parallel to
the y-axis) like x = α1 and x = α2, where α1 and α2 are two roots of (δ′′′). A generalization of this case,
where the curve may have three or more than three asymptotes parallel to the y-axis can be easily made
by the student. We therefore conclude that if the equation of Art 3 does not contain the term involved yn
but the coefficient of yn–1 is a linear function of x viz., an–1x + bn–1 (where an–1 ≠ 0) then there is one
asymptote parallel to the y-axis, viz., = – bn −1 .
a n −1
But if an = 0, an–1 = 0, bn–1 = 0 and the coefficient of yn–2 is a quadratic expression in x, (viz., an–2x2 +
bn–2x + cn–2), where an–2 ≠ 0 then there are two asymptotes parallel to the y-axis whose joint equation
given by an–2x2 + bn–2x + cn–2 = 0 (provided it has real and different roots).
An exactly similar method may be adopted to determine the asymptotes of a curve parallel to the x-
axis (if there be any). Thus if in (α) in Art 3 of this, lesson a0 = 0 (i.e., If there is no term involving xn)
and if the coefficient of xn–1 viz., a1y + b1 is equated to zero (provided a2 ≠ 0), we get the asymptote y = –
b1 which is parallel to the x-axis.
a1
In case a0 = 0, a1 = 0 and b1 = 0 in Art 3, the coefficient of xn–2 viz., a3y2 + b3y + c2 equated to zero
is the joint equation of the two asymptotes parallel to the x-axis.
A generalization of this case where the curve may have three or more than three asymptotoes
parallel to the x-axis can be made by student.
Solved Example 3. Write down the equations of the asymptotes parallel to the co-ordinate axes of
x2y3 + x3y2 + x4 + y3.
Solution. It is a curve (algebraic curve) of the 5th degree in x and y.
We rewrite the equation of the curve in descending powers of y as
0.y5 + 0.y4 + y3 (x2 – 1) + y2x3 – x4 = 0.
The highest power of y present in the equation is 3. Equating to zero the coefficient of y3 which is a
quadratic expression in x, in this case, we get
x2 – 1 = 0, i.e., x = ±1
which are the asymptotes parallel to the y-axis.
The highest power of x present in the equation is 4 and the co-efficient of x4 when the equation is
arranged in powers of x is a mere constant (viz., 1), so that there is no asymptote parallel to the x-axis.
Solved Example 4. Find the asymptotes, parallel to the x-axis of the curve
y4 + x2y2 + 2xy3 – 4x2 – y + 1 = 0

66
 Solution. It is a curve of the fourth degree.
There are no terms containing x4 and x3 and the co-efficient of x2 is a quadratic function of y viz., y2–
4.
Equating y2–44 = 0, we get the asymptotes y = ±2, which are parallel to the x-axis.

5. Asymptotes in Polar Coordinates

If θ1 be a root of the equation f (θ) = 0, [where f (θ)) is a differentiable function of θ], then the
1
asymptote of the curve = f (θ),
), is the line
r
1
= f ′ (θ1) sin (θ – θ1) ... (1)
r
Let p = r cos (θ – α)
be the equation of an asymptote to the curve
1
= f (θ) ... (2)
r
on which P is any point (r, θ).
Then as P recedes to infinity on the curve, i.e., as r → ∞, PM,, the perpendicular from P on the
asymptote (1), tends to zero.

Draw OL (= p)) the perpendicular from the pole O on the asymptote such that ∠LOX
LOX = α and from P
draw PK perpendicular on OL. Then
PM = KL = OL – OK
= p – OP cos ∠POL
= p – r cos (θ – α)
Since PM tends to zero as P reced
recedes to infinity on the curve,
∴ limPM = 0
r →∞

67
 i.e., lim  p − r cos ( θ − α )  = 0 ... (3)
r →∞

or limcos ( θ − α ) = lim  p  = 0
r →∞
 
r →∞ r

since p is finite.
π
Here lim ( θ − α ) =
r →∞ 2
π
i.e., limθ = α +
r→∞ 2
 π
i.e., α = lim θ  0 − 
f ( θ )→ 0
 2
π
Hence if f (θ1) = 0, i.e., if θ1 is a root of f (θ) = 0, then α = θ1 − ... (4)
2
From (3), p = lim r cos ( θ − α )
r →∞

  π 
cos θ −  θ1 −  
= lim   2 
, by (2) and (4)
θ→θ1 f ( θ)

− sin ( θ − θ1 ) sin ( θ1 − θ)
= lim = lim ... (5)
θ→θ1 f ( θ) θ→θ1 f ( θ)
In the last fraction of (5) both the numerator and denominator tend to zero when θ → θ1. To evaluate
this limit we differentiate both the numerator and denominator and then put θ = θ1. Thus
 d 
 d θ sin ( θ1 − θ )  
p = lim  
θ→θ1
 f ′(θ) 
 
− cos ( θ1 − θ ) 1
= lim =
θ→θ1 f ′ ( θ) f ′ ( θ1 )
f ′( x) f ′( a)
[Q lim = , if F′( a) ≠ 0 and lim f ( x ) = 0 = lim F ( x ) ]
x →a F ′ ( x ) F ′( a) x →a x →a

Hence the equation (1) of the asymptote becomes

1
– = r cos  θ − θ1 − π 
f ′ ( θ1 )  2

1
or – = r sin (θ1 – θ)
f ′ ( θ1 )

= f ′( θ1 ) φsin( θ−θ1 )
1
i.e.,
r
Solved Example 5. Find the asymptote of the curve.

68
 rθ = a.
Solution. Writing the equation in the form f ′( θ1 ) φsin( θ−θ1 ) = f (θ), we see that
1 θ
f (θ) = =
r a
The root of the equation f (θ) = 0, is given by θ = 0.
1 1
Now f ′(θ) = = so that f ′ ( 0 ) =
a a
The equation of the asymptote is, therefore
1
= f ′(0) sin (θ – 0)
r
1 1
or = sin θ
r a
or r sin θ = a.
Solved Example 6. Find the asymptotes of the curve
r cos 2θ = a sin 3θ.
1
Solution. Writing the equation in the form = f (θ) we see that
r
1 cos 2θ 1
f (θ) = = = cos 2θ cosec3θ
r a sin 3θ a
The root of the equation f (θ) = 0 are given by
π
cos 2θ = 0 = cos .
2
π nπ π
so that 2θ = nπ + , i.e., θ = + .
2 2 4
π π
Consider θ = , and – .
4 4
1
Also = [ −2sin 2θ cosec3θ − 3cos 2θ cosec3θ cot 3θ]
a
1
= – [ 2sin 2θ + 3cos 2θ cot 3θ] cosec3θ
a
π 2  π
so that f ′  = − 2 = f ′ −  .
4 a  4
The asymptotes are, therefore,
2 2  π  −2
1
= − sin  θ −  = ( sin θ − cos θ)
r a  4 a
2 2  π 2
and
1
= − sin  θ+  = − ( sin θ+ cos θ)
r a  4 a
2r (cos θ – sin θ) = a and a + 2r (cos θ + sin θ) = 0.

69
Exercise–II
Find the asymptotes of the following curves:
1. y2 (x2 – a2) = x
2. x2y2 = a2 (x2 + y2)
3. r sin θ = 2 cos 2θ
4. r = a cosec θ + b
5. r sin nθ = a.

70
 LESSON 5

SINGULAR POINTS

Introduction
We know that ordinarily at a point on a curve, there is only one tangent and the arc of the curve in a
small neighbourhood of the point is wholly on one side of the tangent. Also in general the derivative at a
point P (i.e., the slope-of the tangent at P) has a unique value. A point not possessing these properties is
called a singular point and it is our purpose in this lesson to investigate such point on a curve.
Definitions. A point on a curve through which more than one branch of the curve passes is called a
multiple point. Multiple points are examples of singular points on a curve. A point on a curve through
which two branches of curve passes is called a double point. If more than two branches of a curve pass
through a point we have multiple points of higher orders.
If r branches of a curve pass through a point we have a multiple point of the rth order. In this lesson,
however, we shall confine our attention to double points only.

Classification of Double Points

A curve must have two tangents at a double point, one to each of the branches which pass through
the double point. There are three types of double points viz., Node, Cusp and Conjugate point.
A double point on a curve is called a Node if two tangents at the double point are real and distinct.
A double point on a curve is called a Cusp if the two tangents at the double point are coincident.
A double point on a curve is called a conjugate point, if the point lies on the curve, but there is no
point in the immediate neighbourhood which lies on the curve. In other words there are no real tangents to
the two branches of the curve passing through the point.
To investigate the nature of a double point on a curve, we have to examine the nature of tangents at
the point to the two branches of the curve. Ordinarily if we take any point P on a curve, the curve extends
on either side of the point and the two arcs in Fig. 1 do not constitute two branches one would find that
the value of the derivative at P obtained as a limit when Q → P is the same as that obtained when Q′ → P.
When this is not so, the point is a multiple point.
dy ds
In the case of a node the very first derivative (or or any other) has different values when
dx dφ
the moving point tends to the node along different branches passing through it.

71
 Fig. 1
In the case of a Cusp, the second derivativers at the Cusp on the two branches of the curve are
different.

Tangents at the Origin

In order to investigate the nature of double points the first thing is to find the tangents there, For this
the following proposition is very useful.
If a curve given by a polynomial in x and y passes through the origin, then the equation of the
tangents at the origin is obtained by equating to zero the lowest degree terms in the polynomial.
Let the equation of any algebraic curve passing through the origin be
( a1 x + b1 y ) + ( a2 x2 + b2 xy + c2 y 2 ) + ( a3 x3 + b3 x2 y + c3 xy 2 + d3 y3 ) + ........................... = 0 ... (1)
where in (1) the constant term is absent, as the curve passes through the origin.

72
 Fig. 2
y
If P(x, y) is any point very close to O on the curve, the gradient of OP is . Now P → O the
x
limiting position of OP is the tangent at O.
∴ the slope of the tangent at O is given by
 y
m = lim  
y →0  
x →0 x

Dividing (1) by x, we have

y  y  y 
2
 y  y
2
 y 
3

a1 + b1 + x  a 2 + b2 + c2    + x 2  a3 + b3 + c3   + d 3    + ........ = 0
x  x  x    x x  x  
Now taking limits as x → 0 we get,
 y  y a
a1 + b1 lim   = 0 ⇒ lim   = − 1
y →0   y →0  
x →0 x x →0 x b1
where a1 ≠ 0.
∴ Equation of tangent at O is
y = − a1 x or a1x + b1y = 0
b1
which is the same as obtained from (1) by equating to zero the lowest degree terms.
In case a1 = 0, b1 = 0, when equation (1) becomes

73
 (a x
2
2
+ b2 xy + c2 y 2 ) + ( a3 x 3 + b3 x 2 y + c3 xy 2 + d3 y 3 )
... (2)
......................... + ........................................... = 0
Dividing by x2 and taking limits as x → 0 we get
2
 y  y
a 2 + b2 lim   + c2 lim   = 0
y→0 
x→0 x y→0 
x → 0 x

∴ The slopes of the tangent at O are given by the quadratic.

a2 + b2m + c2m2 = 0
This is a quadratic to m giving two values of m. Hence there are two tangents at the origin. The joint
equation of the tangents is given by
a2x2 + b2xy + c2y2 = 0
which could have been obtained by equating to zero the lowest degree terms in (2).
If a2, b2, c2 are all zero, then there are no second degree terms in the equation of the curve.
Proceeding as above we can still show that the equation of the tangents at the origin can be obtained by
equating to zero the lowest degree terms in the equation of the curve. Hence the result.
Cor. The origin is a multiple point on a rational algebraic curve only if the equation of the curve
does not contain the constant and the first degree terms.

Nature of the Origin Supposed to be a Point on an Algebraic Curves

According to the nature of tangents at the origin, algebraic curves may by classified as follows:
(i) If at least one first degree term is present in the equation of the curve there is one tangent at the
origin and the origin is an ordinary point on the curve.
(ii) If the terms of the lowest degree in the equation are quadratic terms, then origin is a double
point. There is a conjugate point at the origin if the quadratic terms have no real factor. If the
terms, have distinct factors, then origin is a node and if the terms have coincident factors i.e.,
they form a perfect square, then origin is a cusp.
Solved Example, 1. Examine the nature of the origin on the curve
y2 = 2x2y + x4y – 2x2
Solution. Transposing the terms on the right to the left, the expression formed by the lowest degree
terms is found to be y2 + 2x2, which is a quadratic having no real factors. Hence the origin is a conjugate
point on the given curve.
To examine the nature of singularity of any other point on an algebraic curve, transfer the origin to
the given point and examine the new origin.
Solved Example 2. Prove that the curve
ay2 = (x – a)2 (x – b)
has at x = a, a conjugate point if a < b, a node if a > b and a cusp if a = b.
Solution. Shifting the origin to the point (a, 0) the equation of the curve becomes
ay2 = x2 (x + a – b)
The expression formed by the lowest degree terms is ay2 – (a – b)x2. This quadratic has imaginary
factors if a < b and then the point is a conjugate point. It has real and distinct factors if a > b and then the
point is a node. It is a perfect square if a = b in which case the point is a cusp.

Search for Double points

74
 If instead of the nature of a given point on an algebraic curve being required to be investigated, it is
desired to search for double points on any curve whether algebraic or transcedental, the following method
is used.
Let the equation of any curve be
f (X, Y) = 0 and suppose that P (x, y) is a double point on it. Then since (x, y) satisfies the equation of
the curve we have
f (x, y) = 0 ... (1)
The tangent at (x, y) is
dy
Y–y = (X – x)
dx
dy
Where at (x, y) is given by the relation.
dx
∂f ∂ f dy
+ . = 0 ... (2)
∂ x ∂ y dx
∂f
If at least one of the two viz., and ∂f is non-zero, there is a single tangent at the point P and the
∂x ∂y
point P is therefore, an ordinary point.
∂f
and ∂f are zero at P, the equation (2) is satisfied by more than one value of
dy
If both, .
∂x ∂y dx
Thus we see that a necessary and sufficient condition for any point P (x, y) on a curve f (X, Y) = 0 to
∂f
be a multiple point are that = 0, ∂f = 0.
∂x ∂y
dy
In such a case we differentiate the relation (2) to find , getting,
dx
∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f dy ∂f d 2 y  ∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f dy  dy
+ . + . + + .  =0
∂x 2 ∂y∂x dx ∂y dx 2  ∂x∂y ∂y 2 dx  dx
∂f
Since = 0, ∂f = 0
∂x ∂y
dy
The above equation becomes a quadratic in .
dx
∂2 f ∂ 2 f dy ∂ 2 f  dy 
2

viz., + 2 . +   = 0 ... (3)

∂x 2 ∂y∂x dx ∂y 2  dx 
d2y
assuming that at P is not infinite.
dx 2
The roots of (3) are real and distinct and consequently there is a node at P, if the discriminant of (3)
is positive i.e., if
 ∂2 f 
2
∂2 f ∂2 f
  > .
 ∂y ∂x  ∂x2 ∂y2

75
 The roots of (3) are equal and consequently there is a cusp at P, if the discriminant of (3) is zero i.e.,
if
 ∂2 f 
2
∂2 f ∂2 f
  = .
 ∂y ∂x  ∂x2 ∂y2
The roots of (3) are imaginary and consequently the point P is a conjugate point if the discriminant
is negative, i.e., if
 ∂2 f 
2
∂2 f ∂2 f
  < .
 ∂y ∂x  ∂x2 ∂y2
Working Rule: To search for double points on a given curve f (x, y) = 0.
∂f
Step I. Solve the equations = 0, ∂f = 0,
∂x ∂y
Partially w.r.t.x, y the given equation f (x, y) = 0 and retain those solutions which satisfy the given
equation f (x, y) = 0.
 ∂2 f  2 ∂2 f ∂2 f 
Step II. Find   − 2 2  at the above points.
 ∂x∂y  ∂x ∂y 

Step III. The point (x, y) is a node, cusp or conjugate point according as this quantity is positive,
zero or negative.
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
The case when all the partial derivatives , and are zero, indicates that (x, y) is a
∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y2
multiple point of 3rd or higher order. Investigation of such points is not in present course of study.
Solved Example 3. Determine the existence and nature of double points on the curve
(x – 2)2 = y (y – 1)2
Solution. Here f (x, y) ≡ (x – 2)2 – y (y – 1)2
∂f ∂f
∴ Step I. = 2 ( x − 2 ) , = − ( y − 1) − 2 y ( y − 1)
2

∂x ∂x
= −( y −1)( 3y −1) =−3y2 + 4y −1
( )
= − 3 y 2 − 3 y − y + 1 = − ( 3 y − 1)( y − 1)

∂2 f
= 2,
∂x 2
∂2 f
= 0.
∂x∂y
∂2 f
= –6y + 4
∂y2
∂f
= 0, ∂f = 0 on solving give x = 2, y = 1 or .
1
The equations
∂x ∂y 3

76
 1
The point (2, 1) lies on the given curve, but (2, ) does not lie on the curve.
3
2
 ∂2 f  ∂2 f ∂2 f
Step II. Now   − 2. 2
 ∂x∂y  ∂x ∂y
= 0 – 2 (– 6y + 4)
= 12y – 8.
Step III. At the point (2, 1), this expression 12y – 8 is positive, hence there is a node at this point
and there is no other double point on the given curve.
Solved Example 4. Determine the position and nature of the double points on the curve
y (y – 6) = x ( x − 2) − 9
2 3

f (x, y) = x ( x − 2) − y + 6 y − 9
2 2 3
Solution. Here
∂f
= 2x ( x − 2) + 3x ( x − 2)
3 2
∴
2

∂x
= x ( x − 2) [5x − 4]
2

∂f = –2y + 6, ∂2 f
= –2
∂y ∂y2
∂2 f
( x − 2) ( 5x − 4) + 2x ( x − 2)( 5x − 4) + 5x ( x − 2)
2 2
=
∂x 2
∂2 f
= 0
∂x∂y
∂f
Solving the equations = 0, ∂f = 0
∂x ∂y
∂f
= x ( x − 2) ( 5x − 4) = 0
2
we get
∂x
4
⇒ x = 0, 2,
5
∂f = –2y + 6 = 0
∂y
⇒ y = 3

Hence we have to consider the point (0, 3) (2, 3) and  4 ,3  . Out of these points  4 ,3  does not
5  5 
satisfy the given equation.
∴ (0, 3) and (2, 3) are the double points,
2
 ∂2 f  ∂2 f ∂2 f
Also   − 2. 2 = 0 – (–16) (–2)
 ∂x∂y  ∂x ∂y
= – 32 i.e., negative at (0, 3)
∴ There is conjugate point at (0, 3)

77
 2
 ∂2 f  ∂2 f ∂2 f
  − 2. 2 = 0 – 0 (–2) = 0 at the point (2, 3)
 ∂x∂y  ∂x ∂y
∴ There is a cusp at (2, 3).
Exercises
1. Determine the position and nature of the double points on the curve
x 3 − y 2 − 7 x 2 + 4 y + 15 x − 13 = 0.
2. Determine the position and nature of the double points on the curve.
x 4 − 2 y 3 − 3 y 2 − 2 x 2 + 1 = 0.
3. Determine the position and nature of double points on the curve.
x 4 − 2 ay 3 − 3 a 2 y 2 − 2 a 2 x 2 + a 4 = 0
4. Determine the position and nature of the double points on the curve.
x3 + y3 = 3ax2.
5. Determine the position and nature of the multiple points on the curve.
x 3 + 2 x 2 + 2 xy − y 2 + 5 x − 2 y = 0.
6. Find the tangents at the origin to the following curves:
( )
(i) a 2 x 2 − y 2 = x 2 y 2

(x + y 2 ) = 4 a 2 xy
2 2
(ii)

78
 LESSON 6

CURVE TRACING – I

Introduction
The object of curve tracing is to get an idea of the shape of the curve without undergoing the tedious
process of plotting a large number of points close to each other. For this purpose the determination of the
tangents, asymptotes and singular points is very important and useful. The tangent at a point gives the
direction of the curve at the point, the asymptotes give an idea of the location of the curve at great
distances from the origin and determination of the singular points gives an idea of the special form of the
shape of the curve at these points. Maxima and minima determine the turning points on the curve.
Consideration of symmetry and knowledge of regions where branches of the curve do not exist are
very important, because if one knows that the curve has symmetry in two regions, then the shape of the
curve may be considered for one region only, and the part of the curve in the other region is obtained by
symmetry. A branch of a curve does not exist in a certain region, if for a real value of one of the co-
ordinates in this region, the other co-ordinate becomes imaginary.
We, therefore, proceed to consider symmetry for curves whose equations are given in cartesian co-
ordinates. For other forms of the equations, this equation of symmetry will be considered at the
appropriate place.

1.1 Symmetry
(i) A curve k is symmetrical about the x-axis if corresponding to a point (x, y) on the curve there is
also the point (x, y) lying on the curve. Evidently it would be so, if the equation of an algebraic curve
when rationalized contains only even powers of y. For example consider the parabola
y2 = 4ax.
This curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
(ii) Similarly a curve is symmetrical about the y-axis if the equation of the algebraic curve when
rationalised contains only even powers of x,
e.g., x2 = 4by.
The curve is symmetrical about the y-axis.
(iii) A curve is symmetrical about the line y = x, if k the equation of the curve remains unchanged
when x and y are interchanged, e.g., the curve x3 + y3 = 3axy is symmetrical about y = x.
(iv) If corresponding to a point P (x, y) on a curve there is also the point P′ (–x, –y) on it, there is
symmetry about the origin or symmetry in opposite quadrants, meaning thereby that the curve when
rotated through 180° about the origin is again exactly in the original orientations, e.g., the k rectangular
hyperbola.
xy = c2.
The curve is also symmetrical about the line y = x.

1.2 Points on the Curve

79
 Since in curve tracing, the co-ordinate axis are used, points of intersection of the curve with the axis
must be found out and their nature studied. In particular, if the curve passes through the origin, the shape
of the curve near the origin is easily found.
The intersections of the given curve with lines such as
y = constant, y = ±x may also be studied with advantage.
dy
The direction of the curve at any point is obtained by finding from the equation of the curve f (x,
dx
y) = 0.

= ∂f / ∂x .
dy
dx ∂f / ∂y
∂f
At a point, where = 0 but ∂ f ≠ 0 , the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x-axis while at a
∂x ∂y
∂f
point, where ∂f = 0 but ≠ 0 , the tangent to the curve is parallel to the y-axis. The knowledge of such
∂y ∂x
points makes the tracing more accurate.
The tangents at the origin in the case of an algebraic curve f (x, y) = 0 are, as shown earlier, given by
equating to zero the sum of the lowest degree terms in f (x, y). In case the lowest degree terms are of the
second or higher degree, the origin is a double point or a multiple point of higher order.

1.3 Region of non-existence

If possible, solve the equation f (x, y) = 0 for y in terms of x and study for what value of x, the values
of y are imaginary. Similarly solve for x in terms of y if possible, and examine when x is imaginary. The
equation may be solved for other functions like x + y if convenient.

1.4 Asymptotes
Determine the asymptoes, if any, and find on which side of an asymptotes the curve lies. When the
equation of the curve can be solved for x (or for y) the surest way of tracing it is to examine how it varies
when the other variable tends from large negative values to large positive values.

1.5 Points of Inflexion

Definition: A point P on a curve is said to be a point of inflexion if the curve lies on opposite side
of the tangent at P i.e., the curve crosses the tangent at P. Points of inflexion are also examples of singular
points on a curve.
In the below figure P is a point of inflexion, as the curve crosses the tangent at P.
A point x = c is a point of inflexion on curve y = f (x) if f ′′ (c) = 0 and f ′′′ (c) ≠ 0.
The position of the points of inflexion on a curve is independent of the choice of co-ordinate.

80
 Hence a point P is a point of inflexion on a curve x = f (y).
d2x d3x
i.e., = 0 and 3 ≠ 0 at the point.
dy2 dy
x3
Example. Here y =
a + x2
2

dy
=
( )
3x 2 a 2 + x 2 − 2 x.x3 x 2 3a 2 + x 2
=
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
dx a2 + x2 a2 + x2

(4x + 6 a x )( a + x 2 ) − 4 x ( a 2 + x 2 ) . x 2 ( 3a 2 + x 2 )
3 2 2 2
d2y
=
(a + x2 )
4
dx 2 2

(4x + 6a 2 x )( a 2 + x 2 ) − 4 x 3 ( 3a 2 + x 2 )
3 2

=
(a + x2 )
2 3

−2a 2 x 3 + 6a 4 x
=
(a + x2 )
2 3

d2y
For points of inflexion = 0
dx 2
d2y
= 0 ⇒ –2a2x3 + 6a4x = 0
dx 2
i.e., xa2 (x2 – 3a2) = 0
–2xa
∴ x = 0 or x = ± 3a
d3 y
You can easily verify that ≠ 0 at these points.
dx3
∴ The required points of inflexion are x = 0, x = ± 3a
In curve tracing sometimes the dete
determination of the points of inflexion is helpful.
Solved Example 1. Trace the curve
a2y2 = x2 (a2 – x2)
Solution. Since the equation of the curve of the curve contains only even powers of both x and y,
curve is symmetrical about both the axes of co co-ordinates.
ordinates. We, therefore, need consider the curve only in
the first quadrant, i.e., we consider the curve for positive values of x and y.

81
 The R.H.S. is negative if x > aa,, hence no part of the curve lies to the right of the line x = a.
axis at the points for which y = 0, i.e., where 0 = (a2 – x2)x2, which gives x = 0
The curve meets the x-axis
or x = ±a, i.e., the curve meets the xx-axis at the points (0, 0) and (±a, 0).
Similarly,
ly, the point of intersection of the curve with the y-axis is the origin alone.
The tangents at the origin, obtained by equating to zero the lowest degree terms, are the lines a2 (y2 –
x2) ≡ 0, i.e., y2 – x2 = 0, which are two real and distinct lines y = ±I.
I. Hence there is a node at the origin.
Differentiating w.r.t. x the equation of the curve, we obtain
dy
= x2 ( a 2 − 2 x 2 )
dx a y

a2 − 2 x 2
=
a a2 − x2
At (a, 0), dx = 0.
dy
i.e., the tangent at (a,, 0) is parallel to the y-axis.

Fig. 1

dy a
Also = 0. when x = ±
dx 2
x 2 a
and ∴ y = ± a − x2 = ±
a 2
 a a
∴ The tangent is parallel to the x-axis at  ± ,±  .
 2 2
There is no asymptote, from the above considerations the curve is as shown in the above diagram.

82
 1 4
One could also conclude that the maximum value of x2 (a2 – x2) is a . Hence no value of y on the
4
1
curve is numerically greater than a.
2
Solved Example 2. Trace the cubical parabola a2y = x3.
Solution.
(i) Here the curve passes through the origin and the tangent at the origin is y = 0, i.e., the x-axis.
(ii) There is a symmetry in opposite quadrants, as corresponding to a point ((xx, y) on the curve,
there is a point (–x, –y)) on the curve.
Also when x is positive y is also positive and when x is a negative, y is at the same time
negative. Thus the curve exists only in the first and the third quadrants. When x → ∞, y → ∞.
(iii) There is no asymptote to the curve.

Fig. 2
2
(iv) There is a point of inflexion at the origin as d 2y  = 6 x2 
dx a  
3
d y 6
is zero when x = 0, and = at the origin is different from zero.
dx 3 a 2
Solved Example 3. Trace ay2 = x3, the semi-cubical parabola.
Solution.
(i) Here the curve passes through the origin, the tangents at the origin being y2 = 0, i.e., two
coincident lines y = 0. Hence the origin is a cusp and the x-axis
axis is a tangent at the cusp.
(ii) Assume a > 0. The curve is symmetrical only about the x-axis axis as the equation contains only
even powers of y.
(iii) The curve exists for positive values of x only, since
x
y = ±x .
a
(iv) As the curve exists for positive values of x only and also the curve is symmetrical about the x-
axis, there is a cusp at the origin.

83
 Fig. 3

(v) As x increases through positive values, y also increases numerically.

(vi) There is no asymptote of the curve and there is no point of inflexion on the curve.
Solved Example 4. Trace ay2 = x2 (x – a).
Solution.
(i) The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis
axis as terms involving even powers of y only occurs in
the equation.
(ii) The curve passes through the origin, the tangents at the origin being given by a(x2 + y2) = 0
which represents two imaginary lines y = ±ix.. Hence the origin is a conjugate point (i.e.,
( an
isolated point) on the curve.
x−a
Here y = ±x
a
(iii) The curve does not exist for negative values of x, as y becomes imaginary. Also Als the curve does
not exist for positive values of x lying in the region (0 < x < a). ). The curve exists for values of x
≥ a.
(iv) The curve cuts the x-axis
axis at the point ((a,, 0). Shifting the origin to the point (a,
( 0), we find that
the equation of the curve becomes ay2 = (x + a)2 x and hence at the new origin the equation of
the tangent to the curve is x = 0, i.e., at the given point (a,, 0) the equation of the tangent to the
given curve is x = a with reference to tthe given axes of co-ordinates.
(v) As x increases, for values x > a, y also increases.
(vi) There is no asymptote of the curve.

84
 Fig. 4

4a
(vii) There is a point of inflexion at x = , given by
3
d2y d3 y
2
= 0 and 3 ≠ 0 .
dx dx
Solved Example 5. Trace x (xx2 + y2) = a (x2 – y2).
Solution.
(i) As only even powers of y occur in the given equation the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis
only.
(ii) The curve passes through the origin, the equation ooff the tangents at the origin being x2 – y2 = 0,
which are two real and distinct lines y = ±x.. Hence the origin is node on the curve.
(iii) Rewriting the equation in the form
0.y3 + y2 (a + xx) + x3 – ax2 = 0,
we find that [since there is no term involving y3, and the co-efficient of y2 is a linear function
of x, viz., (a + 2) there is the asymptote x = –a; which is parallel to the y-axis.
axis. Satisfy yourself
that is no other asymptote.

85
 Fig. 5

(iv) The curve cuts the x-axis

axis at x = 0 and x = a.

(v) Rewriting the equation in the form y = ±x a − x

a+x
We find that y is imaginary when x > a, ∴ no part of the curve exists to the right hand side of
the line x = a. Also x is imaginary when x < –a hence no part of the curve exists to the left hand
side of the line x = –a.. Also the tangent at ((a, 0) is parallel to the y-axis.
Solved Example 6. Trace the curve
x = a (θ – sin θ), y = a (1 – cos θ)
Solution. Here the equations of the curve are written in parametric form, where θ is the parameter.
If θ is replaced by –θ, y is unaltered while the numerical value of x is changed in sign, so the curve is
symmetrical about the y-axis.
dy θ θ
2sin cos
dy d θ sin θ 2 2 = cot θ
Now = = =
dx dx 1 − cos θ θ 2
2sin 2
dθ 2
θ
i.e., tan ψ = cot = tan  π − θ  ,
2 2 2
π θ
whence ψ = − .
2 2
Giving for the parameter θ,, a few values, the values of x, y and ψ are shown below:

0 x y θ
–π –aπ 2a π
π  π  3π
–  − + 1 a a
2  2  4

86
 π
0 0 0
2
π π
a a
2 4
π aπ 2a 0
3π π
a  3 π + 1  a –
2  2  4
π
2π 2πa 0 –
2
 5π 
5π/2  − 1 a –3π/4
–
 2 
3π 3πa 2a –π

Since –1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1, y lies between 0 and 22a. As θ → ± ∞, x → ± ∞, but y does not tend to any
asymptote, although the curve extends from – ∞ to + ∞.
limit, there is no-asymptote,
This curve is known as the cycloid
cycloid.. It consists of an unlimited number of arches like A1B1O, OB2A2,
A2B3A3 etc. The name cycloid is generally given to any one of these complete arches. If we consider the
arch OB2A2, its equations in parametric form are given by
x = a (θ – sin θ),
y = a (1 – cos θ),
where θ varies from 0 to 2π.. The length of OCA2 along the x-axisaxis is called the base of the cycloidal
arch OB2A2, the length of this base is 22πa.a. The highest ordinate of a point on the arch OB2A2, occurs at
B2. The co-ordinates of B2 are (πa,, 22a) corresponding to the value of the parameter θ = π. The point B2 is
called the vertex of the cycloid. There are cusps at O2, A2 for the arch OB2A2. The tangent at B2 is parallel
to the x-axis as at (aπ, 2a), ψ = 0. The tangents at the cusps O, A2 (of the arch OB2A3) are parallel to the
y-axis.

Fig. 6

π π
Q at O, ψ = −0=
2 2

87
 π 2π π
and at A2 , ψ = − =−
2 2 2
The arch OB2A2 is symmetrical about the line CB2. This symmetry is at once evident when the
origin is shifted to the point (aπ, 0). In parametric form the equations of the curve by shifting the origin to
(aπ, 0) becomes
x = a (θ + sin θ) and y = a (1 + cos θ)
and the complete arch OB2A2 corresponds to 0 varying from –π to π.
Solved Example 7. Trace the curve x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3.
Solution. Let us express the equation of the curve in a parametric form and then trace it. The
equation can be written as
2 2
 x  3  y  3 = 1.
  + 
a a
1 1

Put  x  3 = cos θ, and  y  3 = sin θ.

   
a a
so that x = a cos3θ, y = a sin3θ
are the parametric equations of the given curve.
Since cos θ and sin θ cannot exceed 1 numerically, no point of the curve has its abscissa and the
ordinate greater than a numerically. The curve is therefore bounded.
When θ is replaced by –θ, cos θ does not change but sin θ changes in sign. Thus when θ is changed
to –θ since x does not change and y is changed in sign only, the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.
Similarly when θ is changed to π – θ, sin θ does not change but cos θ change in sign. Thus when θ
is changed to π – θ, since y does not change and x is changed in sign only, the curve is symmetrical about
the y-axis as well.
π
Note: θ is a parameter here and not the vectorial angle of a point. As θ changes from 0 to both x
2
π
and y remain positive and to get the shape of the curve in the first quadrant, θ must vary from 0 to .
2
π
Also as θ changes from 0 to , x (= a cos3θ) must diminish from a to 0 and y (= a sin3θ) must
2
increase from 0 to a.
dy
dy d θ 3a sin 2 θ cos θ
Now = = = – tan θ
dx dx 3a cos2 θ ( − sin θ)
dθ
i.e., tan ψ = – tan θ = tan (π – θ)
or ψ = π – θ.
∴ When θ = 0, ψ = π.
Let us draw the curve in the first quadrant. This portion of the curve in the first quadrant
π
corresponds to θ varying from 0 to . Since the curve is symmetrical with respect to x-axis, the portion
2

88
of the curve for the 4th quadrant is drawn from its shape in the first quadrant. Since the curve is also
symmetrical with respect to the y-axis,
axis, the portion of the curve for the 2nd quadrant is drawn, from its
shape in the first quadrant. After the curve for the 2nd quadrant is drawn, the curve for the 3rd quadrant
can be drawn from symmetry with respect to x-axis.
axis. Thus knowledge of the shape of the curve in the first
quadrant only, enables us to draw the curve for all the four quadrants.

Fig. 7

At A1 there is cusp ψ at this point being given by ψ = π, the tangent at A1 being the x-axis. Similarly
π
there are cusps at B1, A2 and B2. Now ψ at B1 is and the tangent at B1 is the y-axis.
2
Exercises
Trace the following curves:
1. y2 (2a – x) = x2
[Hind: This curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.axis. The curve does not exist for negative values
of x.. Origin is a cusp on the curve, the x-axis being the tangent at the cusp.
There is the asymptote 2a – x = 0. The curve does not exist on the right-hand side of the line x =
2a]

Fig. 8

2. xy2 = 4a2 (2a – x)

89
 Fig. 9

[Hint: Curve is symmetrical about the x-axis,

axis, it does not pass through the origin. Its asymptote is
x = 0. The curve does not exist for negative values of x or positive values of x greater than 2a. 2
The curve cuts the x-axis
axis at (2
(2a, 0) and the tangent to the curve at (2a,, 0) is parallel to the y-axis.
There are two points of inflexion. Find these points.]
3. ay2 = x2 (a – x).
4. 9ay2 = x (x – 3a)2.
5. x3 + y3 – 3axy = 0.
[Hint: The curve is symmetrical about the line y = x. The line y = x meets the curve at (0, 0) and
also at  3a , 3a 
 2 2 

Fig. 10

The curve passes through the origin and x = 0, y = 0 are the tangents there, so that origin is a
node on the curve. x + y + a = 0 is the only asymptote.]
6. y2 (a2 + x2) = x2 (a2 – x2)

90
 [Hind: It is symmetrical about both the axes. It passes through the origin and y = ±x are the two
tangents there. So that the origin is a node on the curve.
It has no asymptote, y is real only when x lies between – a and a.]

Fig. 11

7. y2 (a + x) = x2 (3a – x).
[Hint: The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis and lies between x = –a and x = 3a. x = –a is
the asymptote.

Fig. 12

ve and y = ± are the two tangents at the origin ∴ origin is a node on the
Origin lies on the curve
curve.]
8. y2 (a2 – x2) = x4.

91
 Fig. 13

[Hint: Curve is symmetrical about both the axes.

x = ±a are the asymptotes. No value of x can numerically exceed a. The x-axis
axis is tangent at the
origin.]
9. ay2 = x (x2 + y2) (a > 0).

92
 LESSON 7

CURVE TRACING – II (POLAR CO-ORDINATE)

2. Polar Equations
The Polar equations can be transformed into cartesian equations and the curve represented by it can
then be traced by rules already explained. But it is often more convenient to trace the curve directly from
its polar equation. For this purpose the rules for symmetry are the following:
Let f (r, θ) = 0 be the equation of a curve.
When θ is changed to –θ, if the equation remains unchanged then the curve is symmetrical about the
line θ = 0, i.e., the initial line. The curves.
a 2 cos 2θ
r2 = a2 cos 2θ, r = a cos θ, r2 =
cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ
are all symmetrical about the initial line.
In general if f (r, θ) = f (r, 2α – θ) then the curve is symmetrical about the line θ = 2α – θ, i.e., the
line θ = α.
If when θ is changed to θ + π, the equation of the curve is unchanged, the curve has symmetry in
opposite quadrants
e.g., r2 = a2 cos2 θ + b2 sin θ.
If r is expressed in terms of sin θ and cos θ only, the same value of r is obtained when the angle is
increased by 2π. In such cases it is sufficient to consider the value of θ in the range of width 2π, i.e., from
0 to 2π or from –π to π.
If r → ∞ when, θ → α, then examine whether the, curve has an asymptote parallel to the line θ = α.
The direction of the tangent at any point (r, θ) on the curve can be found from the value of
dθ
tan φ = r
dr
[Note: ‘φ’ is the angle between the radius vector at a point and the tangent to the curve at the point.]
By giving different values to θ we can find the corresponding values of r and the slopes of the
tangents there, can be tabulated. Sometimes it is inconvenient to find the corresponding value of r for
certain value of θ and even if we find they involve radical, then in such cases we should consider a
particular region for θ and ascertain whether r increases or decreases in that region.]
e.g., r = a (1 + cos θ)

π π 2π
θ 0 π
3 2 3
3a a
r 2a a 0
2 2

93
 π
Here we did not find the value of r corresponding to θ = . But we may take into account that as θ
6
π
increases from 0 to , cos θ will go on decreasing and consequently r = a (1 + cos θ) will go on
2
5π
decreasing. Again we have not found the value of r corresponding to θ = . But we may take into
6
π
account that as θ increases from to π, cos θ will increase in magnitude but will be negative being in
2
2nd quadrant and consequently r will go on decreasing, continuously.
No part of the curve shall exist for those values of θ which make corresponding value of r
imaginary.
We also find the limits to the value of r.
e.g., r = a sin 2θ.
Now whatever θ may be, sin 2θ can never be greater than unity and hence a sin 2θ or r shall never
be greater than a, i.e., the curve shall entirely lie within the circle of radius a.
Solved Example 1. Trace the cardiod r = a (1 + cos θ).
Solution. The equation remains unaltered by putting –d for d. Hence the curve is symmetrical about
the initial line.
Since –1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 the values of r lie between 0 and 2a.
Also logarithmic differentiation gives
θ θ
2sin cos
1 dr − sin α 2 2
= =−
2 dθ 1 + cos θ θ
c cos2
2
1 θ
or = –tan
dθ 2
r
dr
i.e., cot φ = − tan θ / 2 = cot  π + θ 
 2 2 
π θ
∴ φ = +
2 2
Tabulating r and φ for a few values of θ from 0 to π, we get

0 r π

0 2a π/2
π  3 7π
a  1 + 
6  2  12

π 3a 2π
3 2 3

94
 π 3π
a
2 4
2π a 5π
3 2 6
π 0 π

Plotting and marking out the directions of the tangents, the shape of the curve is as show.

Fig. 1

Note: φ at A is π/2 i.e., Tangent at A is perpendicular to x-axis. Again φ at O, where r = 0 is π. The

point O is a cusp, the tangent at O being the initial line.

3. Tracing of Polar Curves

In tracing the curves of the type r = a sin nθ or r = a cos nθ.. We divide each quadrant into
int n equal
parts and give the values to θ and find the corresponding values of r. The points thus plotted will give the
shape of the curve. It will be observed from the following two examples that above types of curves will
consist either n or 2n equal loopss according as n is odd or even.
Solved Example 2. Trace the curve r = a cos 2θ.
Solution. Here we shall divide each quadrant into two equal parts, i.e., first quadrant is divided into
π π π
two parts 0 to and to and so on.
4 4 2
The equation remains unaltered by putting –θ for θ.. Hence the curve is symmetrical about the initial
line.

95
 Fig. 2

Tabulating r for a few values of θ from 0 to 2π, we get

θ 2θ r

0 0 a
π π
0
4 2
π
π –a
2
3π 3π
0
4 2
π 2π a
5π 5π
0
4 2
3π
3π –a
2
7π 7π
0
4 2
2π 4π a

Plotting these points and we find that there are 22n, i.e., 4 equal loops. (Note: here n = 2).
Solved Example 3. Trace the curve r = a sin 3θ.
Solution. The equation remains unaltered on putting for θ either
π 5π 7π
− θ or π – θ or − θ or −θ.
3 3 3

96
 Hence the curve is symmetrical about the lines θ = π/3 – θ or π – θ etc.
π π 5π
i.e., about the line θ = ,θ= ,θ= etc.
6 2 6
7π 9π π π
The lines θ = ,θ= are repetitions of the lines θ = ,θ= etc.
6 6 6 2
Since sin 3θ lies between – 1 and +1, r cannot exceed ‘a’ numerically, so the curve is bounded and
there is no asymptote.
Here we shall divide each quadrant into three equal parts, i.e., first quadrant is divided into three
π π π π π
parts 0 to , to and to .
6 6 3 3 2
A few sets of values of θ, and r are tabulated below:

θ 3θ r

3 0 0
π π
a
6 2
π
π 0
3
π 3π
–a
2 2
2π
2π 0
3
5π 5π
a
6 2
π 3π 0
7π 7π
–a
6 2

97
 Fig. 3

7π 7π
Here we have stopped at θ = . The reason is that when θ = , r = – a and we get the point
6 6
 7π   π
 −a,  which is the same as the point  a ,  , which we have already found. Hence by giving to θ
 6   6
values greater than π,, no new points will be obtained but the same old points shall be repeated.
These points when plotted enable the loops to be traced. On account of symmetry about the line θ =
π 2π
from loop No. I we get loop No. II lying between the lines θ = and θ = π.. Finally from loop No. I
2 3
5π 4π 5π
on account of symmetry about the line θ = we get loop No. III between the lines θ = and θ = .
6 3 3
(2m + 1) θ looks like 2m + 1 leaved flower. On the contrary the curve r
In general the curve r = a sin (2
= a sin 2mθ looks like flower having 44m leaves, where m is odd or even.
The curve r = a sin 3θ has three loops and is known as a 3 leaved rose.
Solved Example 4. Trace the curve (Leminscate of Bernouilli)
r2 = a2 cos 2θ.
Solution. The equation remains unaltered by putting –θ for θ.. Hence the curve is symmetrical about
the initial line θ = 0.
A few sets of values of r and θ are tabulted below :

θ 2θ r2 I

0 0 a2 a
π π
0 0
4 2

98
 π
π a2 imaginary
2
3π 3π
0 0
4 2
π 2π a2 a

π
These points when plotted enable the loops to be traced. We find that when θ increases from 0 to
4
, r diminishes from a to 0.

Fig. 4

π 3π
As θ increases from to , r is imaginary.
4 4
3π
And as θ increases from to π, r increases from 0 to a.
4
π 3π
∴ The curve consists of two loops between the lines θ = ,θ= .
4 4
Solved Example 5. Trace the curve rm = am cos mθ for m = 1, –1, 2, –2, ½, –½.
Solution.
(i) For m = 1, we have
r = a cos θ
⇒ r2 = ar cos θ
⇒ x2 + y2 = ax

99
 Fig. 5

a
which is a circle (see fig. 5) with its centre at  a , 0  and radius ,
2  2
(ii) For m = –1, we have
1 1
= cos (–b)
r a
⇒ a = r cos θ
⇒ x = a
which is a straight line perpendicular to the initial line and at a distance a,, from it.

Fig. 6

(iii) For m = 2, we have

r2 = a2 cos 2θ
which is lemniscate of Bernouilli. (See solved example 4)
(iv) For m = –2, we have
r–2 = a–2 cos (–2θ)
⇒ r2 cos 2θ = a2

100
 ⇒ r2 (cos2 θ – sin2 θ) = a2
⇒ x2 – y2 = a2
which is know to be a rectangular hyperbola (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7

To trace the curve write its equation in the form

a2
r2 =
cos 2θ
The curve is symmetrical about the initial line.
The following table gives the corresponding variation in θ and r only.

θ 2θ cos2θ r2 r

0 0 1 a2 ±a
π π
0 ∞ ∞
4 2
π
π –1 –a2 Imaginary
2
3π 3π
0 ∞ ∞
2 4
π 2π 1 a2 ±a

[Note: The lines y = x, y = –x are the asymptotes of the rectangulr hyperbola and they are inclined at
π
angles ± to the axis of x,, and hence are at right angles.]
4

101
 1
⇒ r = a cos2 θ
2
⇒ 2r = a (1 + cos θ)
which is a cardioid.
1
(vi) For m – , we have
2
1
−
1 −  1 
r 2
= a cos  − θ
2

 2 
1 1
1
⇒ a 2 = r 2 cos θ
2
⇒ 2a = r (1 + cos θ)
2a
⇒ = (1 + cos θ)
r
which is known to be a parabola (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

To trace the curve we rewrite the equation in the form

2a
r =
1 + cos θ
The curve is symmetrical about the initial line. The following table gives the corresponding
corres
variations in θ and r.

θ cos θ 1 + cos θ r

0 1 2 a

102
 π 1 3 4a
3 2 2 3
π
0 1 2a
2
2π 1 1
– 4a
3 2 2
π –1 0 ∞

Exercises
Trace the following curves:
(i) r = a (2 cos θ + cos 3θ)
(ii) r = a cos 3θ
(iii) r = a sin 2θ
[Hint: We will get four loops corresponding to the variation of θ in the intervals
 π   π   3π   3π  respectively.]
 0, 2  ,  2 , π  ,  π , 2  ,  2 , 2 π 
       
(iv) x3 + y3 = 3axy
[Hint: Put x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ then equation of curve is transformed into
3a sin θ cos θ 3a tan θ sec θ
r= = ]
cos3 θ + sin 3 θ 1 + tan 3 θ
(v) r = a sin 2θ
Ans.

(vi) r = a (1 + cos θ)
Ans.

103
104
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Exercise
1. Find the equation of the tangent and normal the curve x = a cos θ, y = b sin θ at any point ‘θ’.
2. Find the tangent and normal to the curve:
x2 y 2
(i) + = 1 at the point (a, 0).
a 2 b2
π
(ii) x = a, y = a at θ = .
2
x
(iii) y = c cos h at the point (0, c).
c
3. Show the line = c is a tangent to the curve x2y2 = a2 (x2 + y2).
[Hint: The equation of the curve can be written as 12 + 12 = 12 ]
x y c
n n
x y  x  y
4. Prove that the straight line + = 2 touches the curve d   +   = 2 at the point (a, b)
a b a  b
whatever be the value of n.
5. At what point of the curve y = x2 – 3x + 2 is the tangent perpendicular to the line y = x?
[Ans. (1, 0)]
3 2
6. At what point of the curve y = 2x + 3x – 10x + 7 are the tangents parallel to the line y = 2x?
[Ans. (1, 2), (–2, 23)]

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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Prove that the equation of the tangent at any point (4m2, 8m3) of the semicubical parabola x3 – y3
= 0 is y = 3mx – 4m3 and show that it meets the curve again at (m2, – m3), where it is normal if
9m2 = 2.
2. Show that the normal at any point of the curve x = a cos θ = a θ sin θ, y = a sin θ – a θ cos θ is
at a constant distance from the origin.
3. The tangent at any point on the curve x3 + y3 = 2a3 cuts off lengths p and q on the co-ordinate
axis, show that p − 3 / 2 + q − 3 / 2 = 2 − 1 / 2 a − 3 / 2 .

106
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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Find the angle between the following pairs of curves at each one of their points of intersection

(i) x2 – y2 = a2, x2 + y2 = . 2a2

(ii) x2 – y2 = 8, xy = 3.
1
(iii) Prove that the curves y = 1 – ax2 and y = x2 cut orthogonally when a = .
3
(iv) Prove that the curves:
x2 + 2xy – y2 + 2ax = 0
and 3y3 – 2a2x – 4a2y + a3 = 0

intersect at an angle tan–1  9  at the point (a, –a).


8 

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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Find the lengths of the subtangent, subnormal, tangent and normal for the following curves:
(i) 2x2 – 3y2 = 5 at (3, 1)
(ii) x = a cos3θ, y = a sin3θ at θ
π
(iii) x = a (θ – sin θ), y = a (1 – cos θ) at θ =
2
2. Find the lengths of the normal and subnormal to the curve:
a x/a
 e + e − x / a 
y=
2
3. Show that the subtangent at any point of the curve xmyn = am+n varies as the abscissa.
4. Show that in the parabolas y2 = 4ax, the subnormal is constant and the subtangent varies as the
abscissa of the point of contact.

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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
x2 y 2
1. Prove that in the ellipse + = 1, the length of the normal varies inversely as the
a 2 b2
perpendicular from the origin upon the tangent.
y2
2. For the catenary y = c cos h  x  , prove that the length of the normal is .
c c
3. Show that the subnormal at any point of the curve y2x2 = a2 (x2 – a2) varies inversely as the cube
of abscissca a.
4. Show that for the curve βy2 = (x + α)3, the square of the subtangent varies as the subnormal.
5. Show that in the curvey y = a log (x2 – a2), the sum of the tangent and the subtangent varies as
the product of the co-ordinates of the point.

109
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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Find the angle φ for the curve:
2a
(i) = 1 – cos θ
r
(ii) rm = am cos mθ
2. Find the angle of intersection of the curves r = sin θ + cos δ and r = 2 sin θ.
3. Show that in the equiangular spiral r = a eθcotα the tangent is inclined at a constant angle the
radius vector.
[Hint: Prove that φ = α.] Also show that polar subtangent is x and α and polar subnormal is r
cot α.
4. Show that in the curve r = aθ, the polar subnormal is constant and in the curve rθ = a, the polar
subtangent is constant.
5. For the cardioide r = a (1 – cos θ), Prove that
θ θ
(i) Polar subtangent = 2a sin 2 tan
2 2
θ θ
(ii) Polar tangent = 2a sin 2 sec
2 2
θ
(iii) Polar normal = 2a sin
2
(iv) Polar subnormal = a sinθ.
6. Show that logarithmic spiral r = a ebθ has the lengths of its polar tangent, polar normal, polar
subtangent and polar subnormal each proportional to r.
a b
7. Prove that the two curves r = and r = cut orthogonally.
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ

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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Obtain the pedal equation of the following curves:
(i) r = a (1 – cos θ)
2a
(ii) = 1 – cos θ
r
(iii) rn = an sin nθ
(iv) r = aeθcosα
(v) r2 cos2θ = a2
2a θ
2. For the parabola = 1 – cos θ, show that polar subtangent is 2a cosec θ and p = a cosec .
r 2

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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Find ds , ds for the following curves:
dx dy
x
(i) yc = cos h
c
(ii) x3 = ay2.
ds
2. Find for the following curves
dθ
(i) x = a cos θ y = b sin θ
(ii) x = a (θ – sin θ), y = a (1 – cos θ)
(iii) r2 = a2 cos2θ
3. Show that for any curve
ds r 2
= .
dθ p

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Exercise
1. Find the radius of curvature at any point (x, y) on the following curves:
(i) y2 = 4ax
(ii) ay2 = x3
(iii) xy = c2
( )
2. Show that the radius of curvature at the point a cos3 θ, a sin 3 θ on the curve x 2 / 3 + y 2 / 3 = a 2 / 3 is
3a sin θ cos θ .
3. Find the radius of curvature at the point specified on the following curves:
(i) x + y = 1, at the point 1 1
 , 
4 4
π
(ii) y = 4 sin x – sin 2x, at the point x = .
2

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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Find the radius of curvature at any point on the following curves:
(i) p2 = ar (parabola)
(ii) pr = a2 (hyperbola)
3
(iii) r = 2ap 2 (cardiod)
3
(iv) r = a p2 (lemniscate)
r n +1
2. In the curve p = show that the radius of curvature varies inversely as the (n – 1)th power of
an
the radius vector.

x2 y 2 a 2b2
3. Prove that for the ellipse + = 1, p = where p is the perpendicular from the centre
a 2 b2 p3
upon the tangent at (x, y).

114
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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Find the radius of curvature at any point (r, θ) on the following curves:
a
(i) r =
θ
(ii) r = a cos θ
(iii) r2 = a2 cos 2θ
2
2. Show that the radius of curvature at the point on the cardioid r = a (1 – cos θ) is 2ar .
3
3. Establish the formula

(u + u′2 )
2 3,2
1
ρ= where u = .
u ( u + u′′)
3
r
4. Prove that for any curve
r  dφ 
= sin φ 1 + .
ρ  dθ 

115
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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Find the asymptotes of the following curves:
(i) y 3 + 3 y 2 x − x 2 y − 3 x 3 + y 2 − 2 xy + 3 x 2 + 4 y + 5 = 0
(ii) y 3 + x 2 y + 2 xy 2 − y + 1 = 0
(iii) y 3 − xy 2 − x 2 y + x 3 + x 2 − y 2 = 1

( x + y ) ( x + 2 y + 2) = x + 9y + 2
2
(iv)
(v) 2 x 3 − x 2 y + 2 xy 2 + y 3 − 4 x 2 + 8 xy − 4 x + 1 = 0

116
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Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
Find the asymptotes of the following curves:
1. y 2 ( x2 − a2 ) = x
2. x2y2 = a2 (x2 + y2)
3. r sin θ = 2 cos 2θ
4. r = a cosec θ + b
5. r sin nθ = a

117
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Exercise
1. Determine the position and nature of the double points on the curve
x 3 − y 3 − 7 x 2 + 4 y + 15 x − 13 = 0
2. Determine the position and nature of the double points on the curve
x4 − 2 y3 − 3 y2 + 2x2 + 1 = 3
3. Determine the position and nature of the double points on the curve
x 3 − 2 ay 3 − 3 a 2 y 2 − 2 a 2 x 2 + a 4 = 0
4. Determine the position and nature of the double points on the curve
x 3 + 2 x 3 + 2 xy − y 2 + 5 x − 2 y
5. Find the tangents at the origin to the following curves
(i) a2 (x2 – y2) = x2y2
(ii) (x2 + y2) = 4a2xy

B.A. (Programme) I Year Discipline Course Mathematics

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Exercise
Trace the following curves:
1. y2 (2a – x) = x2
[Hint: This curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.axis. The curve does not exist for negative values
of x.. Origin is a cusp on the curve, the x-axis being the tangent at the cusp.
There is the asymptote 2a – x = 0. The curve does not exist on the right-handhand side of the line x =
2a].

2. xy2 = 4a2 (2a – x)

[Hint: Curve is symmetrical about the x-axis,
axis, it does not pass through the origin. Its asymptote
is x = 0. The curve does not exist for negative values of x or positive values of x greater than 2a.

119
 The curve cuts the x-axis
axis at (2
(2a, 0) and the tangent to the curve at (2a,, 0) is parallel to the y-
axis.]
There are two points of inflexion. Find these points.
3. ay2 = x2 (a – x)
4. 9ay2 = x (x – 3a)2
5. x3 + y3 – 3axy = 0
[Hint: The curve is symmetrical about the line y = x. The line y = x meets the curve at (0, 0) and
also at  3a , 3a 
 2 2 

The curve passes through the origin and x = 0, y = 0 are the tangents, there so that origin is a
node on the curve.
x + y + a = 0 is the only asymptote].
6. y2 (a2 + x2) = x2 (a2 – x2)

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 [Hint: It is symmetrical about both the axis. It passes through the origin and y = ±x are the two
tangents there. So that the origin is a node on the curve.
It has no asymptote, y is real only when x lies between – a and a].
7. y2 (a + x) = x2 (3a – x).
[Hint: The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis and lies between x = –a and x = 3a. x = –a is
the asymptote.
Origin lies on the curve and y = ± 3x are the two tangents at the origin ∴ origin is a node on
the curve.]

8. y2 (a2 – x2) = x4.

[Hint: Curve is symmetrical about both the axis.
x = ±a are the asymptotes. No value of x can numerically exceed a. The x-axis
axis is tangent at the
origin.]

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B.A. (Programme) I Year Discipline Course Mathematics
S.R.S. 7 Part B
Marks ..............................%
Roll No. .................................... Signature of the Lecturer......................................
When completed send this
Response sheet to :

School of Open Learning Name.......................................................

University of Delhi. Address ...................................................
5, Cavalry Lanes, ..................................................................
Delhi–11007 (INDIA) Pin Code .................................................

Academic Session 2012–2013

Exercise
1. Trace the following curves:
(i) r = a (2 cosθ + cos3θ)
(ii) r = a cos 3θ
(iii) r = a sin 2θ
[Hint: We will get four loops corresponding to the variation of θ in the intervals
 π   π   3π   3π  respectively.
 0, 2  ,  2 , π  ,  π , 2  ,  2 , 2 π 
       

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