International Journal of Research in Advanced Engineering and Technology

ISSN: 2455-0876; Impact Factor: RJIF 5.44

www.engineeringresearchjournal.com
Volume 1; Issue 2; November 2015; Page No. 100-105

Welding: Its methods, methodology and safety measures

Devaryan Gupta
Delhi Public School, Faridabad, Haryana, India

Abstract
Welding is a process of joining two metal pieces by the application of heat. Welding is the least expensive process and widely
used now a days in fabrication or sculptural process. In this paper there is a detailed description about welding. This paper gives
the introduction of welding and its history. This paper describes various methods of welding. This paper tells about various
welding joints. This paper also gives a knowledge on how welding is done and what are the safety measures that should be
followed during welding. It gives a list of various welding tools and the applications of welding. This paper also discusses the
factors on which the cost of welding depends.

Keywords: Gas Welding, Arc Welding, Resistance Welding, Solid State Welding, Thermo-chemical Welding, Radiant Energy
Welding

Introduction Histories of the 5th century BC that Glaucus of Chios "was

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins the man who single-handedly invented iron
materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing welding". Welding was used in the construction of the Iron
fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal- pillar of Delhi, erected in Delhi, India about 310 AD and
joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do weighing 5.4 metric tons.
not melt the base metal. Welding is a way to make high
strength joints between two or more parts. In addition to
melting the base metal, a filler material is often added to the
joint to form a pool of molten material that cools to form a
joint that can be as strong, or even stronger, than the base
material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat,
or by itself, to produce a weld. Welding is the most
economical and efficient way to join metals permanently. It
is the only way of joining two or more pieces of metal to
make them act as a single piece.

History
From the Middle Ages to Modern Technology
Welding is a method of repairing or creating metal structures
by joining the pieces of metals or plastic through various
fusion processes. Generally, heat is used to weld the
materials. Welding equipment can utilize open flames,
electric arc or laser light.

Middle Ages
The earliest evidence of welding can be traced back to the The Iron Pillar of Delhi
Bronze Age. The earliest examples of welding are welded
The Middle Ages brought advances in forge welding, in
gold boxes belonging to the Bronze Age. The Egyptians also
which blacksmiths pounded heated metal repeatedly until
learnt the art of welding. Several of their iron tools were
bonding occurred. In 1540, Vannoccio Biringuccio
made by welding. During the middle Ages, a set of
published De la pirotechnia, which includes descriptions of
specialized workmen called blacksmiths came to the fore.
the forging operation. Renaissance craftsmen were skilled in
Blacksmiths of the middle Ages welded various types of iron
the process, and the industry continued to grow during the
tools by hammering. The welding methods remained more or
following centuries.
less unchanged until the dawn of the 19th century.
In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the short-pulse
The history of joining metals goes back several millennia.
electrical arc and presented his results in 1801. In 1802,
Called forge welding, the earliest examples come from
Russian scientist Vasily Petrov created the continuous
the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe and the Middle East.
electric arc, and subsequently published "News of Galvanic-
The ancient Greek historian Herodotus states in The
Voltaic Experiments" in 1803, in which he described

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experiments carried out in 1802. Of great importance in this
work was the description of a stable arc discharge and the
indication of its possible use for many applications, one
being melting metals. In 1808, Davy, who was unaware of
Petrov's work, rediscovered the continuous electric arc. In
1881–82 inventors Nikolai Benardos (Russian) and Stanisław
Olszewski (Polish) created the first electric arc welding
method known as carbon arc welding using carbon
electrodes. The advances in arc welding continued with the
invention of metal electrodes in the late 1800s by a
Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L.
Coffin (1890). Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released a
coated metal electrode in Britain, which gave a more stable
arc. In 1905, Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed
using a three-phase electric arc for welding. In
1919, alternating current welding was invented by C. J.
Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.
Resistance welding was also developed during the final
decades of the 19th century, with the first patents going to
Elihu Thomson in 1885, which produced further advances
over the next 15 years. Thermite welding was invented in Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket, 1918
1893, and around that time another process, oxy fuel During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding
welding, became well established. Acetylene was discovered technology, including the introduction of automatic welding
in 1836 by Edmund Davy, but its use was not practical in in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed
welding until about 1900, when a suitable torch was continuously. Shielding gas became a subject receiving
developed. At first, oxy fuel welding was one of the more much attention, as scientists attempted to protect welds from
popular welding methods due to its portability and relatively the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere.
low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems, and the
of favour for industrial applications. It was largely replaced solutions that developed included the use
with arc welding, as metal coverings (known as flux) for the of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding
electrode that stabilize the arc and shield the base material atmospheres. During the following decade, further advances
from impurities continued to be developed. allowed for the welding of reactive metals
World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding like aluminium and magnesium. This in conjunction with
processes, with the various military powers attempting to developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and
determine which of the several new welding processes would fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the
be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even 1930s and then during World War II. In 1930, the first all-
constructing a ship, the "Fullagar" with an entirely welded welded merchant vessel, M/S Carolinian, was launched.
hull. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war During the middle of the century, many new welding
as well, as some German airplane fuselages were constructed methods were invented. In 1930, Kyle Taylor was
using the process. Also noteworthy is the first welded road responsible for the release of stud welding. The New York
bridge in the world, the Maurzyce Bridge designed by Stefan Navy Yard developed stud welding. Stud welding was
Bryła of the Lwów University of Technology in 1927, and increasingly used for the construction industry and also for
built across the river Słudwia near Łowicz, Poland in 1928. shipbuilding. It was during this time that the National Tube
Company developed a welding process called smothered arc
welding. In the sector of shipbuilding, the stud welding
process was replaced by the more advanced submerged arc
welding.
In 1932 a Russian, Konstantin Khrenov successfully
implemented the first underwater electric arc welding.
A new type of welding for seamlessly welding aluminium
and magnesium was developed in 1941 by Meredith. This
patented process came to be known as Heli arc welding. The
gas shielded metal arc welding or GTAW was another
significant milestone in the history of welding which was
developed in Battelle Memorial Institute in 1948.
Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of development,
was finally perfected in 1941, and gas metal arc welding
followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-ferrous
materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded
metal arc welding was developed during the 1950s, using a

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flux-coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became the sheet metals and alloys are usually more suited to this
most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux- welding type.
cored arc welding process debuted, in which the self-shielded
wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same It is also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas). It uses a non-
year, plasma arc welding was invented. Electro slag welding consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The
was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by
cousin, electro gas welding, in 1961. In 1953 the Soviet an inert shielding gas such as argon or helium. TIG
scientist N. F. Kazakov proposed the diffusion welding is comparable to oxy acetylene gas welding and
bonding method. needs a lot more expertise from the operator. It employed
Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 for carrying out high-quality work when a superior standard
breakthrough of electron beam welding, making deep and of finish is needed without making use of excessive clean up
narrow welding possible through the concentrated heat by sanding or grinding.
source.
There were several advancements in the welding industry Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
during the 1960’s. Dual shield welding, Inner shield, and It is commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas). It uses a wire
Electro slag welding were some of the important welding feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows
developments of the decade. Plasma arc welding was also an argon-based shielding gas or a mix of argon and carbon
invented by Gage during this time. It was used for metal dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to protect it from
spraying. The French also developed electron beam welding, atmospheric contamination. The GMAW process is suitable
which is still used by the aircraft manufacturing industries of for fusing mild steel, stainless-steel as well as aluminium.
the United States.
Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
welding debuted several decades later, and has proved to be It is almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a special
especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without
Magnetic pulse welding (MPW) is industrially used since shielding gas, depending on the filler.
1967. Friction stir welding was invented in 1991 by Wayne Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Thomas at The Welding Institute (TWI, UK) and found high- It uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and a
quality applications all over the world. All of these four new blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the
processes continue to be quite expensive due the high cost of arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by
the necessary equipment, and this has limited their being "submerged" under the flux blanket.
applications.
Some of the recent developments in the welding industry Electro slag welding (ESW)
include the friction welding process developed in Russia, and It is a highly productive, single pass welding process for
laser welding. Laser was originally developed in Bell thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches
Telephone Laboratories but it is now being used for various (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical position.
kinds of welding work. This is due to the inherent capacity of Many different energy sources can be used for welding,
lasers in rendering precision to all kinds of welding jobs. including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron
beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial
Types of Welding process, welding may be performed in many different
There are different types of welding. These are: environments, including in open air, under water, and
 Gas Welding in outer space. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and
 Arc Welding precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock,
 Resistance Welding vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes,
 Solid State Welding and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.
 Thermo-chemical Welding Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process
 Radiant Energy Welding was forge welding, which blacksmiths had used for
centuries to join iron and steel by heating and
Methods of ARC Welding hammering. Arc welding and oxy fuel welding were among
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) the first processes to develop late in the century, and electric
It is also known as "stick welding or electric welding" or “arc resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology
welding”. It uses an electrode that has flux around it to advanced quickly during the early 20th century as the world
protect the weld puddle. The electrode holder holds the wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining
electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld methods. Following the wars, several modern welding
puddle from atmospheric contamination. Arc welding is the techniques were developed, including manual methods like
most basic of all welding types, is easy to master in a home SMAW, now one of the most popular welding methods, as
welding situation. Stick welding can be used for well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as
manufacturing, construction and repairs, very much well GMAW, SAW, FCAW and ESW. Developments continued
suited for heavy metal size 4 millimetres upwards. Thinner with the invention of laser beam welding, electron beam
welding, magnetic pulse welding (MPW), and friction stir

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welding in the latter half of the century. Today, the science electrode, heating the metal more. DCEN (Direct
continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in Current Electrode Negative) has the reverse effect. For
industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new stick welding, DCEP will give more penetration to the
welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld welding. Electrodes should be dry.
quality. 6. Clean the metal before welding. It is done by brushing
the surface to be welded with a wire brush or grinder.
Welding Joints Remove as much rust or paint as possible. Use acetone
Different types of welding joints are: Butt, Lap, Corner, Tee to clean off the metal, especially aluminium. We should
and Edge Joints not use a chlorinated solvent, as the reaction when
heated with a welder can kill the welder instantly. Just
because metal is shiny, it does not mean it is clean. We
should use a hard grinding disc to remove the layer of
mill scale and get down to the bare metal. It is applicable
to steel.
7. Set the joint. Use clamps and vices to ensure that the
joints we are welding are precisely and firmly held
together.

ii) Start the Weld

1. Strike a welding arc. It is done by tapping the metal and
quickly pulling up or striking it like a match. We are
completing the circuit and pulling away; which causes
the electricity to jump from the electrode to the metal.
Methodology: How welding is done? Most modern welding helmets allow us to see clearly
There are three parts of the welding process. These are: until we strike the arc and then darken automatically to
1. Preparing the Job protect our eyes from UV damage.
2. Start the Weld 2. Build up a weld pool. When a stable arc can be
3. Finish the Job maintained, ignore the end of the electrode and instead
Arc welding is a method of joining two or more materials watch the pool of molten metal. To create a good pool,
with electrically generated heat. While there are many we should stay where we started for a second or two
different welding processes listed by the American Welding before moving.
Society, the one we are going to cover here is Shielded Metal The arc gap should not be wider than 1/8” from rod tip
Arc Welding (SMAW), also known as stick welding. Stick to metal. This gap dimension should be maintained by
welding is one of the most common and versatile forms of feeding on gently pushing the electrode toward the
welding, and is a relatively easy way to add professionalism molten weld puddle. If the gap gets too wide, it will lead
and durability to your DIY projects. to excessive spatter.
3. Start moving the weld pool across the metal. Keep the
i) Preparing the Job electrode at an angle a few degrees shy of 900. Do not
1. Gather the materials. We should have a welding machine, travel too fast. When moving the weld pool, we can go
electrode holder with lead, ground clamp with lead, in a straight line or move around in small circles.
electrodes and metal to be welded. We also need a The length of arc and the distance from the tip of the
chipping hammer to get rid of the slag and a wire brush to electrode to the metal should be constant.
clean the welds.
2. Put on the safety gears. It includes a welding helmet, iii) Finish the Job
welding jacket or cotton sweatshirt, pants without cuffs, 1. Finish the weld. Put the electrode back from the metal
work boots, gloves and safety glasses. We should not and allow it to cool for a few seconds. The metal will be
wear tennis shoes, frayed clothes, pants with cuffs, a t- very hot at this point.
shirt, a shirt with open pockets or sleeveless shirts. 2. Clean the slag. Slag is a residue left from the welding
3. Prepare the area to be welded in. Remove all flammable process. During the weld, the slag protects the hot metal
materials and find a good surface to weld on. We can put from contaminants. The slag covering does not cool at
the ground connection right on the piece we are welding. the same rate as the weld bead, which can cause the slag
If other people are present there, set up welding curtains to pop off the weld. Use the chipping hammer to break
around the work area to prevent them from ultraviolet the slag off the weld.
damage. Safety glasses should be worn to protect the eyes. Tap
4. Set up the machine. Most welding machines are fairly the slag only hard enough to loosen the slag and avoid
straight forward. We should use amperage of around 90- putting hammer marks in the new weld.
120 amperes, although it can be adjusted for metal Use the wire brush to clean the weld. Remove as many
thickness and electrode diameter. excess particles as possible.
5. Use the correct electrode. DCEP (Direct Current 3. Examine the weld. A welder’s first weld is poor. Make
Electrode Positive) sets an arc to go from the metal to the another pass to fix any gaps or incomplete welds.

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4. Allow the metal to cool. If it is only practice, then dip the welding mask with a shade 10 or darker filter plate. Always
metal in water for fast cooling. Cooling in water will make sure the weld curtains are in place between the
make the weld brittle. So allow structural welds to cool welder(s) and other people in the shop. Be sure to cover any
by air. exposed skin, including cuff and collar areas, while welding
or observing inside the weld area. The rays from the arc can
Safety measures to be followed during welding: cause a UV burn much worse than a sun burn. Observers
 ALWAYS wear a proper face shield. may use a cardboard mask with a shade 10 filter plate.
 ALWAYS wear close-toed shoes.
 ALWAYS wear a long-sleeved, non-flammable shirt. Compressed Gas Cylinders
 ALWAYS wear proper welding gloves. Argon and CO2 are inert, nontoxic gases normally present in
 ALWAYS wear ear protection (earplugs or muffs) to the atmosphere. However, if allowed to fill an enclosed area
prevent sparks from entering your ear canal. An eardrum these gases can fully displace breathable air, causing
punctured by a spark will instantly cauterize and never asphyxiation and death. At the Asylum, the greater potential
heal. danger is the valve being knocked off the cylinder, turning it
 NEVER weld on or near anything that's been cleaned into a rocket powerful enough to severely injury or kill
with a chlorinated hydrocarbon like brake-cleaner. When people and damage equipment and the building itself.
combined with UV light, chlorinated hydrocarbons can The following guidelines must be followed at all times:
create phosgene gas, which can cause serious injury or
death. Ventilation will not prevent poisoning. a) Storing
 If you burn yourself, immediately douse with cold water.  Cylinders must always remain upright and never be
placed horizontally.
Fire  Cylinders must be secured with a non-combustible
Make sure the weld area is free from all flammable materials material (metal) to an immovable object to prevent them
such as flammable liquids, paper, etc. Do not wear clothing from falling.
or gloves that have been exposed to flammable liquids.
b) Moving
Electrocution  Cylinders must be securely capped.
Before turning on a welding machine, make sure there are no
puddles of water on the floor around the weld bench or the Welding Tools
machine. Make sure the weld machine is dry, including the The tools mandatory for welding purpose are:-
main box, the torch, the pedal, and the plug.  A Pair of Safety Glasses (Green Shade #5 lens & clear
There is little risk of fatal electrocution from a properly lens... Worn during labs)
working TIG weld machine. When the user presses on the  A Head Protection (Do-Rag, Welders Cap, etc.)
pedal to initiate the arc, a high-frequency low amplitude arc  A Pair of leather boots (To be worn during labs)
will emit from the tip of the weld torch. Once the machine  A Hearing protection (To be worn during labs)
detects the grounded metal piece that is to be welded, the arc  A ea. Welding Gloves (SMAW, MIG, TIG)
will switch over to a high-amplitude DC current. Even if the  A Welding Helmet (#10 & # 11 shade lenses required)
operator deliberately points it toward their body, the shock  A Leather Welding Jacket (Welding Sleeves are NOT
will be mild, since the machine will not switch over to the suitable for ARC welding with the exception of TIG)
high amplitude current.  A Welding Sleeves (Only used for WLD-104 Gas
Welding & Cutting)
Burns  A 24 ounce Ball Peen Hammer
Welded metal will remain hot for several minutes after it is  A Needle Nose Pliers 1 Lineman’s Pliers
welded. In most cases the heat is localized near the weld  A Tape Measure
itself. In the case of more conductive materials, such as  A Combination Square
copper and aluminum, the heat may be more distributed  A Wire Brush (Stainless Steel)
throughout the material.  A Chipping Hammer
In the case of TIG welding, sparks and spatter are non-  A Gas/Cutting Torch Tip Cleaner
existent, unless rusty or dirty metal is used. MIG welding  A Flat Cross-Cut Bastard File
steel will create sparks, so earplugs and full coverage safety  A Round Cross-Cut Bastard File
glasses should be worn to prevent burns to sensitive tissue.  A Magnetic Torpedo Level
Gloves must be worn when welding and handling recently  A 4-1/2 inch Angle Grinder with two 60-Grit Sanding
welded material. White cotton welding gloves may be used discs and two grinding wheels for steel
for light TIG welding, as long as they are free of holes. For  A 10 FT. – 14/3 Extension Cord
heavier welding, deerskin or heavy duty welding gloves  A Soap Stone or Scribe (Used for marking or layout)
should be used.
Cost of Welding
UV Burns As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a very
The light emitted from a weld arc is brighter than that of the important role in manufacturing decisions. Many different
sun. Do not look at the arc without wearing a full-faced variables affect the total cost, including equipment cost,

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labour cost, material cost, and energy cost. Depending on the conductive heat seam, and laser-hybrid welding.
process, equipment cost can vary, from inexpensive for Furthermore, progress is desired in making more specialized
methods like shielded metal arc welding and oxy fuel methods like laser beam welding practical for more
welding, to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam applications, such as in the aerospace and automotive
welding and electron beam welding. Because of their high industries. Researchers also hope to better understand the
cost, they are only used in high production operations. often unpredictable properties of welds, especially
Similarly, because automation and robots increase equipment microstructure, residual stresses, and a weld's tendency to
costs, they are only implemented when high production is crack or deform. The trend of accelerating the speed at
necessary. Labour cost depends on the deposition rate (the which welds are performed in the steel erection industry
rate of welding), the hourly wage, and the total operation comes at a risk to the integrity of the connection.
time, including time spent fitting, welding, and handling the
part. The cost of materials includes the cost of the base and References
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Welding means the permanent joining together of parameters on mechanical and microstructure properties
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followed. It has a number of application areas. Pressure may
also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce
a weld.

Future Aspects of Welding

Key areas of research and development include the welding
of dissimilar materials (such as steel and aluminium) and
new welding processes, such as friction stir, magnetic pulse,

105