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Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems

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 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo

Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems

Gurel Turkmen
Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department
Izmir, Turkey
gurel.turkmen @ege.edu.tr

Os man Ozden
Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture Department
Izmir, Turkey
[email protected]

Abstract: Future development of the aquaculture industry is limited by resources, such

as water, land, fishmeal, and by other factors, such as environmental pollution. The
problems caused by aquaculture wastes to the receiving water have drawn great
attention worldwide in recent years. Intensive shrimp farming has been developed
steadily over the last decade in response to increasing world market demand. The
production system evolved from extensive toward intensive with increasing inputs of
high quality feed and water supply. Thus, waste loads from culture ponds as uneaten
feed and metabolic wastes was increased. In traditional intensive shrimp culture, the
deteriorated pond water is frequently exchanged with new external water supply to
maintain desirable water quality for shrimp growth. The nutrient laden effluent
discharged from shrimp farms can cause eutrophication of coastal waters and its
impact has been a major environmental concern. Many technology and method has
been developed to protect the water resources and environment from being polluted
and wasted. In these systems shrimp is cultured next to other organisms, which are
converting otherwise discharged nutrients into valuable products. Long-term growth of
the shrimp aquaculture industry requires both ecologically sound practices and
sustainable resource management.

Sustainable Aquaculture Systems

Sustainability may be expressed in terms of three interrelated aspects (Fig. 1): production technology,
social and economic aspects,and environmental aspects(AIT 1994). An aquaculture farming system needs to be
sufficiently productive to make it an attractive option to alternative or competing uses of resources i.e.,land and
water, capital and labour, and farm by-products. Social and economic aspects of aquaculture have received
relatively little attention compared to production aspects and are major constraints to development through
aquaculture (Edwards 1994).Environmental aspects are only now beginning to receive the attention they require
to prevent humans from exceeding the global carrying capacity for our species. An Environmental Revolution
has been called for, as momentous as the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions that had such an impact on the
evolution of human society (Harrison 1993).
Production technology may be subdivided into three main aspects: cultured species, culture facility and
husbandry. The choice of species influences the type of facility and together these determine the type of
husbandry needed for the various stages of production (hatchery, nursery, grow-out). Husbandry may involve
various methods of stock management (monoculture or polyculture; single or multiple, stocking and harvesting
strategies), use of different feeds (natural,supplementary or complete feed), management of substrate and water
quality, and disease prevention and therapy.
Social and economic factors influencing sustainable aquaculture may be considered at the macro-level
(international, national and regional aspects) and the micro-level (community and farm household). Macro-level
issues include world trade, national development goals, government policy, and social characteristics such as
cultural attitudes and input supply and marketing. Micro-levelissues are mainly alternative uses of resources.
The environment is defined as being externalto the aquaculture system and includes the natural resources used
for aquaculture development such as land, water, nutrients and biological diversity;the internal environment of
the culture system is considered as part ofthe husbandry of production technology. The external environment is
defined broadly to include the two-way interaction between itself and the aquaculture system. The natural
environment (climate, geomorphology, hydrology and soils) and its human transformation (agroecology,
urbanization,industrialization),exert majorinfluences on aquaculture, which may be either positive or negative.
As an example of positiveinteraction between aquaculture and the environment,a pond dug on a small-scale
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farm functions as a nutrienttrap and provides water forirrigation of rice seedlings and vegetables in addition to
providing fish. Fish ponds may also be used to treat human sewage, manure from feedlot livestock as well as
effluents from intensive aquaculture. Negative interactions between aquaculture and the environment are the
adverse effects of pollution on aquaculture and adverse effects of aquaculture on the environment such as
eutrophication, misuse of chemicals, and reduction of biodiversity and mangrove destruction.

Production
Technology

Productive

Sustainable
Aquaculture
Systems

Socially relevant
and profitable Environmentally
compatible

Social and Economic Environmental Aspects

Aspects

Figure 1: Sustainability of Aquaculture Systems (AIT 1994).

An Overwiev on the World Shrimp Aquaculture

Shrimp is one ofthe most populartypes of seafood inthe world. Approximately 5 million metrictons of
shrimp are produced annually. Shrimp farms are being created throughoutthe worldto help meetthe demand for
shrimp. In 1975, the shrimp aquaculture industry contributed to 2.5% of total shrimp production. Shrimp
aquaculture, which increased nine fold during the 1990s and is one of the fastest growing forms of aquaculture,
now accounts for one-third of the shrimp produced globally. Most shrimp aquaculture occursin China,followed
by Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Ecuador, Mexico, India, Brazil, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Philippines and
Malasia (Fig. 2).

1400000
1200000
Shrimp Aquaculture (MT)

1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0

Figure 2: World Shrimp Aquaculture by Countries (FAO 2007)

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 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo

The white shrimp, Penaeus vannamei, accounts for more than half of the total shrimp aquaculture
output. Other important commercial species are P. monodon, P. merguiensis, P. japonicus, P. chinensis and P.
indicus. In recent years,the export of Penaues vannamei to Asia has created a boom production, especially in
China. The majority of farmed shrimp isimported to the United States, European Union and Japan. The growth
has generated substantial income for developing and developed countries particularly Asia, the Americas and
Africa but also has raised concerns about how shrimp farming affectsthe environment and society (FAO 2007).

Shrimp Farms and the Environment

Future development of the aquaculture industry is limited by resources, such as water,land, fishmeal,
and by otherfactors,such as environmental pollution (Schneider et al. 2005). Shrimp farming hasthe capacity to
dramatically transform coastal areas. Extensive farms have an enormous requirement for land and the
development of intensive culture practices increases nutrient impacts on the local coastal environment.
Alongside environmental changes such as eutrophication, salination and land use changes, are attendant social
transformations. Articles in popular science journals have focused public attention on the potential negative
environmental impact of aquaculture, in particular intensive production of salmon and shrimp (Bunting 2006).
The high demand for shrimp in overseas markets changed traditional farming practices along the coastal areas
for peasantfarmers. Thairice farmers converted their coastalfields and often the mangrove foreststhat bordered
them,to shrimp ponds. The production system evolved from extensivetoward intensive withincreasing inputs of
high quality feed and water supply. Consequently, wasteloads from culture ponds as uneaten feed and metabolic
wastes was increased. Generally more intensive culture systems produce higher loads of nutrients such as N
(Nitrate) and P (Phosphate) in their discharge (Alonso-Rodriguez & Paez-Osuna 2003). Formulated diets fed to
shrimp consist of high amount of protein 35-50%, nitrogen 5.9-7% and phosphorus 1.5-2.1%. However, much of
the feed is not assimilated into shrimp tissue butis discharged as dissolved and particulate waste. Based on food
conversion ratio (FCR) of 2.0 with stocking density 30-50 shrimp/m2, shrimp feed of 2 tons, generates 1 ton of
shrimp and waste of 900 kg organic matter, 87 kg nitrogen and 28 kg phosphorus. These compounds,together
with excrement from the shrimp, increase organic matter, resulting in a high biochemical oxygen demand that
can stimulate oxygen deplation (Jeganaeson & Annachhatre 2001, Tacon & Forster 2003). The two significant
components ofthe pond environment are the pond water and sediments which interact continuously to influence
the culture environment. Pond management activities are a third external factor which influence the culture
environment. Management activities include feeding, use of aerators, water exchange and liming (Fig. 3)
(Funge-Smith & Briggs 1998).

Figure 3: Water Quality Đnteractions and Management Activitiesin Đntensive Shrimp Ponds.

The solids budget shows that erosion of pond soil was the major source of both solids (88–93%) and
organic matter (40–60%) in the pond. The feed applied to the pond was a significant source of organic matter
(31–50%) but contributed little solids(4–7%) tothe system. Applied feed accounted for 78% oftheinput of N to
the ponds. Erosion ofthe pond soils, whilst a major contributor of solids, accounted for only 16% of N added to
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the system. Other minor contributions were influent water (4%) and fertilizer,rainfall and postlarvae (2%). The
sinks for nitrogen were the sediments (24%), harvested shrimp (18%), and discharged water (27%). The
principal source of phosphorus in this system was the applied feed (51%). The 26% shortfall in inputs was
assumed to be the eroded pond bottom (Funge-Smith & Briggs 1998). Hence shrimp farming become a curse in
coastal areas due to their heavy discharge of used water with high organic and inorganic load and it has been
regulated strictly under legislations (Tacon & Forster 2003).

Environmentally Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Systems

Typically the pattern of production from a shrimp farm is that of an initial ‘honeymoon period,’
characterized by success and good production followed by gradual decrease in yields over successive crops.
Depending upon a wide range of factors, decreased yields are manifested as reduced growth, higher FCR, and
disease outbreaks that require emergency harvesting. Serious production losses have occurred in shrimp
producing countries around the world, principally due to poor rearing environments and pathogenic disease. In
response to this,shrimp farmers are changing their culture methods. Long-term environmental sustainability and
community acceptance of the shrimp farming industry requires on-going development of effcient cost-effective
effluent treatment options. It is important to acknowledge that shrimp aquaculture systems can fulfil all the
general sustainability criteriaoutlined in Tab. 1.

LAN D USE
Local. Do not convert mangrove ecosystems or agriculturalland into shrimp ponds
. Reduce the negative indirectimpact on mangroves caused by access roads and water canals
.Initiate mangrove restoration programs where aquaculture has caused significant damage tothis ecosystem
. Minimise land use by good management
. Place pond in areas with low population density to minimise land and water use conflicts
. Use feasibility studies priorto development to minimise risk of arising resource use conflicts
. Avoid overcrowding of pondsthat exceeds the environmental carrying capacity
Global. Locate ponds in consumer countries
SEED AND INTROD UCTION OF ALIEN SPECIES AND DISEASE
Local. No use of gentically modified organisms (G M O)
. Use hatchery produced seed
. Close cycle in shrimp hatcheries by domesticating shrimps
. Farm only native species
Global. No transport of seed and broodstock between countries
W A TER USE
Local. Reduce water exchange rates and thus waterinput requirement
. Site-specific methodlogical considerations:
. Develop shrimp farming in fully marine watersto reduce the dependence on fresh watersources
. Develop shrimp farming in low salinity watersto minimise the risk of salinisation of adjacent soil and water
FEED
Local. Use culture system that utilise natural or stimulated production in the ponds orincoming waters
. Minimise the food conversion ratio (FCR) through proper management
Global. Develop and use formulated feeds not based on fishmeal and fish oil, orreduce content ofthese
. Use fish meal based on trimmings of fish processed for human consumption
N UTRIENT LOADING
Local. Use only certified organic fertilisers
. Reduce water exchange rates and thus the amount of effluent discharge
. Reduce nutrient concentrations in effluents by investing in settling and biologicaltreatment ponds,including
integrated farming with e.g.seaweeds and filterfeeders
.Improve feeds and managementto reduce the food conversion ratio (FCR)
. Remove saltfrom sludge and use as fertiliser
CHE MICAL AND ANTIBIOTIC USE
Local. Reduce the need for chemicals and antibiotics by improved pond and water management thatlimitthe
risk of exceeding the local carrying capacity ofthe environment
Global. Minimise or refrain from chemical use
. Refrain from antibiotic use
. Use probiotics
Table 1: Defining the Local/Regional and Global Criteria forImproved Environmental Sustainabilityin Shrimp
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Aquaculture (Rönnbäck 2002).

Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture

Recently, integrated closed recirculation systems have been developed because of growing concern of
water pollution and avoidance of diseaseinfection through waterintake.Inthe system, high organic particles and
nutrients in the water from intensive shrimp pond flow to the treatment ponds and then recycle back to the
shrimp pond. The integrated culture of plants and herbivores side-by-side with fish and shrimp is a practical
technology (Naylor et al. 2000). The system uses algae, fish, mussels, and other aquaculture species to reduce
the waste in the effluent. Algae can reduce turbidity and phosphate in the effluent and the algae itselfis a good
feed for shrimp as well as fishes. Mussels are also reported to reduce the turbidity but can increase am monia
concentration. Fish as discussed is a good way to get rid of algae and other plankton. Several studies have been
reported on integrated culture of shrimp with bivalves and macroalgae. For example, oyster removes suspended
particulates and phytoplankton, while macroalgae absorbs dissolved nutrients (Wang 1990, Jones et al. 2001,
2002). However, high biofouling and the negative affect of high concentration of particles on growth of oyster
were observed (Tanyaros 2001). Thus, sedimentation pond may be an important component in shrimp–bivalve
and shrimp–macroalgae integrated culturing to reduce the level of suspended solid before oyster and macroalgae
ponds (Jones et al. 2001, 2002). Fish has also been proposed for removing particulate organic matter in shrimp
effluent (Tookwinas 2003). For example, grey mullet(Mugil cephalus L.)is effectiven in removing macroalgae
from the effluent treatment system. Omnivorous tilapia can be effective for utilizing waste from intensive
aquaculture. Closed polyculture systems of Chinese shrimp with constricted tagelus (Sinonovacula constricta
Lamarck) and hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus x O. niloticus),in which tilapia was confined in a net
cage, showed that the retention of input nitrogen (feed+fertilizers) into tilapia biomass ranged from 2.58 to
2.90% and the retention of phosphorus into tilapia biomass ranged from 6.07 to 11.04% (Tian et al. 2001).
Systems that integrate shrimp and red seaweed have been studied, the largest being in Hawaii (Nelson et al.
2001, Gracilaria),and small-scale efforts have been reported by Phang et al.(1996) (Gracilaria)from Malaysia,
Kinne et al.(2001) (various algae) from the USA and Chang and Wang (1985), Yin (1987), Wei (1990) and Liu
et al.(1997) from China, all ofthem with Gracilaria. Ali et al.(1994) reported on a laboratory-scale integrated
culture of shrimp and green seaweed (Ulva)in Japan.

Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture System (ISAS) Desing and Lay Out

Lay out Plan

The lay-out plan of the ISAS is depicted in Fig. 4 (Ramanujam 2001). As per norms, 10 per cent of the
cultivable area should be assigned for the ISAS. For example, for a farm of 5.0 hectare water spread area, 0.77
hectare land area or approximately 0.50 hectare water spread area (actual operational area) will be required for
construction of the ISAS. For farms more than 5.0 hectares, the area under ISAS will also proportionately
increase (e.g.for a 6.0 ha. farm area, 0.6 hectare under ISAS; for a10 hectare farm area 1.0 hectare under ISAS
and so on). The size of the settlement pond, bio-pond and aeration pond has also been suggested taking into
consideration the optimum production level of 2.0 tonnes/ hectare/ culture and specific water management
practices. Water exchange schedule to be followed for operating the system. The schedule is based on the
availability of a reservoir of suitable size for storage and treatment of water for initial filling of the ponds,
topping up of waterlevel during the firsttwo months of rearing and limited water exchange during the third and
fourth months of rearing (Ramanujam 2001).

Settlement Pond/ Sedimentation Pond

A settlement/sedimentation pond is basically used to remove suspended solids from the waste water
flow. Shrimp farm suspended solid wastes under normal operating conditions (during culture as opposed to
harvest) are primarily composed of living plankton cells,feed material and other organic material, which do not
easily settle down. Sedimentation tank can trap only 5 to 10 percent of such suspended solids. A retention time
of one hour is sufficient to trap the material, which can settle down. Thus settlement pond is less effective in
trapping the solid contents of the waste water discharge during the course of culture. However, settlement tanks
are effective in trapping suspended solids during the harvest, when solid loads are far higher and particulate
matter is denser. Studies have shown that 90% of the solids in the harvest discharge settle in sedimentation
ponds. Thus the sedimentation ponds prevent the release of most polluting organic matter that is discharged at
the time of harvest(last 5to 10 cm water)tothe environment.

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Bio-Ponds or Biological Treatment Ponds

Biological treatment aims at using plants and animals to reduce nutrient load and particulate matter in
the shrimp farm discharge. Farm discharge after the treatment in settlement and bio-ponds can be readily used
for recirculation to ponds for farming operation. Various options available for biological treatment of farm
discharge are as follows:
- Sea weeds/ water weeds to reduce nutrient(N and P)level,
- Molluscs to reduce suspended particulate matter and
- Fish to transform the phytoplankton into organic matter
Biologicaltreatment can only be used to treat operationalfarm waste wateri.e. during culture period as
the waste water during harvest time is biologically unsuitable in its direct form, unless diluted. However, the
harvest waste water if allowed to remain in the settlement pond for requisite duration can be treated in the bio-
pond. Various species of weeds and animals availablefor biologicaltreatment(bio-remediation),their usefulness
and the constraintsin using them are given in Tab. 2.

Figure 4: Layout Plan of Integrated Shrimp Aquaculture System (5.0 Hectare Shrimp Farm).

Group Species Usefulness Constraints

Ulva latuca Reduces nutrientload Survival and grow ≥ 25 ppt
Sea Enteromorpha -do- -do-
Weeds Gracilaria -do- 26-32 ppt
Photomedgetone -do- 15-20 ppt

Removes particulate matter

Crassistrea spp. Grow 15-25 ppt
and control of algal growth
Geloria sp. -do- 15-35 ppt
Perna viridis -do- 20-25 ppt
Mollusc Perna indica -do- 20-35 ppt
Villoria -do- 2-15 ppt
Paphia sp. -do- 2-15 ppt
Anadora granosa -do- > 20 ppt
Meritrix -do- > 20 ppt

Mugil cephalus Reduces phytoplankton and 20-35 ppt

control of algal biomass
Fish
Liza spp. -do- 20-35 ppt
Chanos chanos -do- 2-35 ppt
Table 2: Plant and Animal Species Usefulfor Bio-Remediation (Ramanujam 2001).
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Aeration Pond

Aeration helps to increase the dissolved oxygen levels of water before it is pumped for recirculation.
Besides,italso helpsto oxidise any left over ammonia and organic matterinthe waterthat comes out ofthe bio-
pond. An integrated shrimp aquaculture system in shrimp culture is one strategy that minimizes waste from
culture systems and the risk of disease and provides an additionalincome source as well.

Closed and Semi-Closed Systems

Com mon problems in the open water exchange system include phytoplankton crashes, deteriorated
pond bottoms and bacterial diseases. A phytoplankton crash causes a significant increase in ammonia in the
water, a decrease in dissolved oxygen and a risein organic material. One of the vital activitiesin shrimp culture
to maintainthe proper conditions for shrimp is water exchange. Farmers have to drain waterfrom grow-out pond
and acquire make-up waterforreplenishment. Forthese reasons,shrimp farms need high amount of saline water
throughout the culture period. Impact of discharges from shrimp farms can be reduced by treating the nutrient
rich effluent as well as by cleaning the sediments. Systems employing water reuse and recirculation should be
adopted to minimize the amount of water exchange for preventing epidemic and to overcome scarcity of make-
up water at the low tide. The general scheme of closed is similar to some conventional wastewater treatment
facilities, which include sedimentation ponds, biologicaltreatment and aeration. The treated wateris stored in a
reservoir pond before being returned to shrimp grow-out ponds. The technology for closed farming systems is
still in the experimental phase, and currently the relative contribution to global shrimp aquaculture output is
marginal from these systems. In the case of inland shrimp farming in Thailand, the likelihood of no effluents
being discharged into the open environment has been questioned (Flaherty et al. 2000). There is no water
exchange in the first two months after stocking in these systems, although filling of the pond is necessary
towards the end ofthe second month. Depending upon season and rainfall,evaporative loss can cause salinity to
rise to an unacceptably high level. To counteract this, freshwater is pumped where available although this has
very serious environmental and social impacts if aquifer water is used. Low water exchange systems such as
these are complete sinks for nutrients and thus there is no outlet for wastes during production except for
discharge at harvest(Tab. 3).

Nutrient Total Effluent Loadings As a Result of Water Exchange (kg crop-1)

Open system Open system Open system Semi-Closed Closed
lined pond clay soil mangrove soil system system
Total ammonia-nitrogen 50.5 50.6 95.7 53.9 6.7
Nitrite-nitrogen 8.8 1.6 3.8 7.2 0.8
Nitrate-nitrogen 9.7 3.8 5.7 7.6 0.6
Total phosphorus 34.4 19.0 25.9 13.1 1.2
Dissolved 1.13 1.49 0.38 0.82 0.12
reactivephosphorus
Chlorophyll a 5630.1 7126.2 7092.6 4261.2 312.3
Chemical oxygen demand 456.4 n.d. 432.8 244.1 21.1
Total suspended solids 4352.4 5053.5 4250.6 3555.6 336.3
Organic suspended solids 2236.7 2719.0 1836.6 1889.1 155.5
Table 3: Nutrient Loadings As a Result of Water Exchange Activities (Funge-Smith 1996).

Polyculture of Shrimp with Tilapia

Euryhalinous tilapia is characterised by good growth in seawater ponds through acclimation, easy
reproduction and availability of fingerlings, resistance to disease, and marketable size reached within one
growing season. Stocking performance and production in polyculture of Chinese shrimp (Penaeus chinensis)
with red Taiwanese tilapia hybrids (Oreochromis mossambicus X O. niloticus) were studied by Wang et al.
(1998).In two factorial design (3x4), shrimp juveniles (body length 2.85±0.16 cm) and tilapia hybrids weighing
from 79.0 g to 193.8 g reared in net cages were stocked into 24 enclosures at a rate of 4.5, 6.0 and 7.5 shrimp/m2
and 0, 0.16, 0.24 and 0.32 fish/m2, respectively and reared by feeding commercialfeed and by administration of
chicken manure and chemical fertiliser. To evaluate cultural pattern on tilapia, the shrimp juveniles and the
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tilapiajuveniles were stocked intotwo enclosures at a rate of 6.0 shrimp/m2 and 0.24 fish/m2 (outsidethe cages),
respectively. Overallsurvivalrate of shrimp was 78.6% and did not differ among treatments. Mean final sizes of
shrimp decreased with increase in its stocking density. As stocking density of the shrimp increased from 4.5
shrimp/m2 to 6.0 shrimp/m2, mean shrimp yield increased from 325.4±15.3 kg/ha to 522.2±54.9 kg/ha. There
was a pronounced influence oftilapia density on growth, survival and yields of shrimp at 6.0 shrimp/m2. At 0.32
tilapia/m2,survivalrate(96.67%), final body length (10.40 cm) and yield (585.5 kg/ha) of shrimp were high. The
optimum stocking density of shrimp and tilapia was 60,000 shrimp/ha and some 400 kg tilapia/ha,respectively.
Muangkeow et.al.(2007) was studied using outdoortank system with 6 treatment conditions: T1, single
shrimp tank system; T2, closed recirculation system without tilapia; T3 to T6, integrated closed recirculation
system with the tilapia–shrimp stocking density ratio of 0.01, 0.025, 0.05 and 0.075, respectively. The shrimp
were stocked at a density of 40 individual m2 for alltreatments. Shrimp were fed with com mercial pellets, while
tilapia was not fed with the feed pellet. The culture period was 8 weeks for shrimp and 7 weeks for tilapia. The
shrimp growth rate and netincome ofthe system of T2 was significantly higherthan T5 and T6 (P<0.05) but was
no differentfrom T1, T3 and T4. The tilapia growth ratein T3 was significantly higherthan the others (P<0.05).
The nitrogen conversion rate into total (shrimp+tilapia) biomass of T2 to T5 was significantly higher than T1
(P<0.05). T6 showed a lower N conversion rate than the lower tilapia–shrimp ratio. The phosphorus conversion
rateinto total biomass was significantly higher in T3 to T6 than T1 and T2 (P<0.05). These resultsindicate that
tilapia stocking significantly improved P conversion rate but the N conversion and shrimp growth rates
decreased with high tilapia stocking. Considering all parameters,theintegrated system with a low tilapia–shrimp
ratio (the ratio of 0.01 and 0.025) were effective to improve the nutrient conversion rate to culture animals
withoutlowering shrimp growth.

Rice-Shrimp Farming in the Seawater Intrusion Zone of the Mekong Delta-Vietnam

An estimated 19% (786,329 ha) of the total area in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam is affected by saline
water with predominant freshwater in the rainy season and brackish water in the dry season. As saline water
intrusion in the dry season is a major constraint to rice farming, many farmers develop alternating rice-shrimp
farming system producing shrimp in the dry season and rice in the wet season in the same plot.In this farming
practice saline wateris used to flood the rice fields in the dry season to raise shrimp (Penaeus monodon). At the
beginning of the wet season, farmers flush salinity out of their fields using rain and fresh river water to plant
rice. The integrated farming systems increase farmers’ income and improve the living standards of the local
community (Vuong & Lin 2001).

Marine Microalgal Culture in Discharge Water from Shrimp Culture Pond

Marine microalgal species such as Skeletonema costatum and Chaetoceros coarctatus were cultured in
Discharge Water (D W) from shrimp culture pond to recover the organic and inorganic nutrients released as
waste (Vankatesan et al. 2006). Total nitrogen (N), nitrate-N and total phosphorus in the D W were observed
significantly higher and theirmean values were 95.261, 32.6 and 11.312 mg L-1,respectively. Algalspecies were
cultured in processed D W under 12 h light/12 h dark condition withlightintensity 6000-7000 Lux and compared
with cultures made in standard Conway medium which served as a control. Cell density was obtained higher
overthe control by 30.1 and 20.0 % in S. costatum and C. coarctatusrespectively. The study inferred that,asitis
a low cost technology for microalgal production as well as mean for waste water treatment, marine microalgal
culture in D W from shrimp farm will be integrated a approach towards sustainable utilization of aquatic
resource.

Constructed Wetlands As Recirculation Filters in Large-Scale Shrimp Aquaculture

Effluent waters from shrimp aquaculture, which can contain elevated levels of phosphorus, ammonia,
nitrate, and organics, must be managed properly if shrimp aquaculture is to achieve sustainability. Constructed
wetlands are ecologically beneficial, low cost treatment alternatives proven capable of reducing suspended
solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals from wastewater of many
sources. Tilley et al.(2002) studied to determine how well a constructed wetland performed as a filterin a full-
scale shrimp aquaculture operation. A 7.7 ha (19 ac) mesohaline (3–8 ppt) constructed wetland treating 13,600
m3 per day of effluent from 8.1 ha of intensively farmed shrimp ponds at the Loma Alta Shrimp Aquaculture
Facility (LASAF) (Fig. 5),located along the coast ofthe Gulf of Mexico in semi-arid South Texas, was found to
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reduce concentrations of total phosphorus (TP), total suspended solids (TSS) and inorganic suspended solids
(ISS) by 31, 65 and 76%, respectively, during recirculation, and maintained consistently low levels of mean
BO D (<9 mg l−1), total ammonia (<1.8 mg N l−1) and nitrate (<0.42 mg N l−1). Constructed wetlands can
perform satisfactorily as recirculation filtersinlarge-scale shrimp aquaculture operations,reducing the impact of
effluent on local water bodies, conserving large quantities of water and providing valuable ecological habitat.

Figure 5: Layout ofthe LASAF atthe H.P. El Sauz Ranch in South Texas, USA. (Tilley et al. 2002)

Conclusion
The rapid development of shrimp aquaculture in the coastal areas of the country has raised some
environmental concerns, especially with regard to the impact of shrimp waste water on the ecology of the open
waters systems. The Mediterranean coast supports many human activities, such as tourism, maritime traffic,
industry,fisheries,aquaculture or conservation, all ofthem competing for coastal zone resources.Inthis context,
the aquaculture industry has grown rapidly during recent years. The negative impact of shrimp aquaculture
derives mainly from particulate and dissolved nutrients. The Mediterranean is an oligotrophic sea, with low
nutrientlevels;itis an especially sensitive area due to itslow energy and has a limiting nutrientlevelthatisthe
reason why a minimum increment of nutrients gives rise to important increases in the primary production.
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Different methods have been tried to minimize the effects of nutrient loading. The integration of effluent
treatment system as a part ofthe shrimp farm willtherefore assistthe farmerstoimprove waste water quality and
provide long-term strategies for sustainable shrimp farming inthe country.

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