Art Gestion Del Agua en Acuicultura

Cambridge Prisms: Water Water quality management in aquaculture
www.cambridge.org/wat
Fatimah M. Yusoff1,2 , Wahidah A. D. Umi1, Norulhuda M. Ramli2,3 and
Razif Harun2,4
1
Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia;
2
Review International Institute of Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 71050 Port Dickson, Negeri
Sembilan, Malaysia; 3Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra
Cite this article: Yusoff FM, Umi WAD, Ramli Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia and 4Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
NM and Harun R (2024). Water quality Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
management in aquaculture. Cambridge
Prisms: Water, 2, e8, 1–22
https://doi.org/10.1017/wat.2024.6 Abstract
The aquaculture industry requires good water quality for its successful operation but produces
Received: 13 September 2023
Revised: 26 April 2024 wastes that can cause environmental deterioration and pose high risks to the sector. Adequate
Accepted: 03 May 2024 waste treatment and recycling are necessary to make aquaculture a sustainable and profitable
industry and contribute to the circular economy. Polluted water sources, excess feeding,
Keywords: overstocking, use of antibiotics/chemicals and harmful algal blooms are major causes of water
aquaculture wastewater; eutrophication;
harmful algal blooms; aquaculture production
quality deterioration and low production in aquaculture systems. Discharges of untreated wastes
systems; integrated recycling systems would have serious impacts on the receiving water bodies, and eventually on the aquaculture
industry itself. Possible solutions include technological innovations in environmentally friendly
Corresponding author: production systems, use of efficient processes in water quality management and improved
Fatimah M. Yusoff;
Email: [email protected]
legislation and governance. Environmentally feasible aquaculture production technologies such
as recycling aquaculture system, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture and aquaponics including
features of waste recycling are viable options in aquaculture schemes. Best aquaculture practices
integrating advanced water quality treatment processes and technologies, supported by auto-
mation and sensors, modeling and artificial intelligence-internet of things are necessary for a
sustainable aquaculture environment, production and stable value chain. In general, low-cost
technologies for aquaculture waste treatment and environmental impact reduction through
good governance are crucial for achieving sustainability in the aquaculture industry and natural
environmental management.
Impact statement
Good water quality is mandatory in different phases of a successful aquaculture production,
water intake, water use and waste discharges. However, unsustainable aquaculture practices can
result in low yields and cause negative impacts on the environment and the human community.
This review provides assessments of water quality in different aquaculture systems, and the
impacts of their effluents on the natural water bodies. To optimize aquaculture production, and
minimize their impacts on the environment, effective management of the water quality and
wastes in aquaculture is needed. Major constraints in adequate aquaculture wastewater treat-
ment, including high capital and operation costs of waste treatment systems, lack of incentives
for waste treatment and lack of legislation and enforcement in discharges of raw aquaculture
wastes, should be overcome. Possible solutions include technological innovations in production
systems and wastewater treatments, increased professionals in water quality control and waste
management, improved legislation, certification, financial assistance and incentives to farmers
along the aquaculture industrial chains can be applied for a sustainable aquaculture sector. If
water quality management can be effectively carried out, it would have a great long-term impact
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge on the aquaculture industry.
University Press. This is an Open Access article,
distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution licence (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which
Introduction
permits unrestricted re-use, distribution and Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food-production sector, and its sustainable growth is vital to
reproduction, provided the original article is
properly cited.
food security, ecosystem health, uninterrupted natural resource utilization, biodiversity conser-
vation and socioeconomic resilience. In the face of declining capture fishery resources and rising
demand for fish and fishery products, aquaculture has become the main source of aquatic food/
protein supply and contributes to the food security of the global population (Boyd et al., 2022;
Troell et al., 2023). However, there are concerns about the impacts of aquaculture activities on the
environment and natural resources, such as habitat destruction, exploitation of wild fish stocks,
fishmeal/fish oil requirements and waste disposal (Bull et al., 2021; Klootwijk et al., 2021).
Different aquaculture systems (extensive, semi-intensive and intensive); types of systems (closed,
semi-open and open); different cultured species and stocking densities can generate different
2 Fatimah M. Yusoff et al.
Figure 1. Different aquaculture production systems in closed (tanks, ponds, and raceways) and open ecosystems (cages and extractive culture systems in lakes, rivers, and coastal
waters).
environmental impacts (Figure 1). Environmental impacts can exchange would reduce the occurrence of fish diseases in aquacul-
occur through three different processes such as consumption of ture production systems.
natural resources, culture procedures/practices and generation of Untreated or improperly treated aquaculture discharges with
wastes. Each ecosystem has its own carrying capacity, and working high nutrient concentrations can cause eutrophication and water
within the limit is crucial to avoid negative impacts. The transition quality deterioration, hypoxia and HABs in adjacent water bodies
of traditional cultural practices to an intensified cultural system (Zhang et al., 2018; Purnomo et al., 2022). HABs can be a serious
involves increased waste that requires proper treatment to avoid concern in coastal and inland waters (rivers, lakes and reservoirs)
pollution and deleterious impacts on the environment (da Silva et that receive aquaculture effluents. Lukassen et al. (2019a) reported
al., 2022). With the high demand for aquaculture products, more that the off-flavor compounds produced by the HABs especially
farms are opting for intensive culture systems, which tend to affect geosmin in tilapia produced in cage aquaculture increased the risk
the environment more than extensive and semi-intensive systems of decreasing fish quality and value. Hu et al. (2022) reported that
due to large amounts of waste containing toxins, drugs and chem- Lake Datong, a shallow lake in China, became eutrophic and its
icals in the former system (Zhang et al., 2021; Nagaraju et al., 2022). water quality deteriorated after the introduction of aquaculture.
Thus, unsustainable aquaculture activities could result in wide- Extraction of ground water for aquaculture can cause saltwater
spread habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, declined fishery intrusion and salinization in coastal areas (Gopaiah et al., 2023). All
and other aquatic resources in the surrounding area (Valiela et these environmental changes could affect the livelihoods of the local
al., 2001; Polidoro et al., 2010; Herbeck et al., 2013; Cardoso- communities (da Silva et al., 2022; Nagaraju et al., 2022; Menon et al.,
Mohedano et al., 2018). 2023). Kim et al. (2022a) reported that an increasing number of
In aquaculture production systems, poor water quality due to farms in the coastal area resulted in the release of organic wastes
accumulation of toxic compounds, including ammonia, nitrite and derived from excess feed and fish metabolites. Yang et al. (2021) and
hydrogen sulfide, together with low dissolved oxygen, hypoxic Chiquito-Contreras et al. (2022) reported that approximately 27% to
conditions, harmful algal blooms (HABs) and pathogenic bacteria 49% of the feeds supplied to aquaculture production ponds are
can greatly affect the fish health through bacterial infections, poor converted to fish products while the rest goes to wastes that are
growth and stress rendering them less tolerant to handling. Dis- usually discharged into the nearby water bodies, and eventually form
eases in aquaculture systems are closely related to the environmen- one of the factors that negatively affect the aquaculture value chain.
tal health. Uncontrolled diseases can rapidly decimate operations Water treatment technologies that are technically feasible, envir-
and can cause high mortality in aquaculture systems. Lusiastuti et onmentally promising and financially profitable can be integrated
al. (2020) attributed the disease outbreaks, mass fish mortality and into different aquaculture systems to make aquaculture industry a
low aquaculture production to poor water quality associated with sustainable sector and contributes to the circular economy. Aqua-
environmental degradation and climate change. Climate change culture wastes can be recovered and recycled using various technolo-
can affect the aquaculture industry through flooding (too much gies such as bioremediation, aeration, biocoagulation and
water), drought (too little water) and changes in water quality. biofiltration applied in various production systems such as recircu-
Decline in pH due to ocean acidification could seriously affect lating aquaculture system (RAS), integrated multi-trophic aquacul-
aquaculture, especially those in the coastal areas (Guo et al., ture (IMTA) and aquaponics (aquaculture and hydroponics). In
2023). Hassan et al. (2022) noted that improving water quality, these circular economic activities, aquaculture wastes can generate
maintaining stable environmental factors and controlling water additional products such as seaweeds, herbs, vegetables, mollusks
Cambridge Prisms: Water 3
Figure 2. Recycling of aquaculture wastes to create various economically important outputs and maintain good water quality for aquaculture production.
and other by-products, while generating a clean water source that can intensive aquaculture farm on effluent water quality due to excessive
be recycled and used for the fed culture (Figure 2). Legal instruments nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen.
and authoritative interventions are also necessary for regulating Emerging pollutants such as microplastics (Table 1) can cause
aquaculture waste discharge and ensuring producers consider envir- health implications such as reduced feeding rate, gill malfunction,
onmental impact and water quality management in their operations reduced reproductive capacity and immune suppression of cul-
and practices. This review assessed the impacts of different produc- tured animals (Mallik et al., 2021). In aquaculture, plastic debris
tion systems on the water quality and suggested possible approaches from aquaculture farms, rafts, cages, nets and other related pro-
such as the use of environmentally friendly technological innovations duction structures are sources of microplastics (Chen et al., 2018;
and good governance in improving water quality management for a Krüger et al., 2020). In addition, biofilms formed on microplastic
sustainable aquaculture industry. particles are sources of pathogenic bacteria that can negatively
affect aquaculture (Cholewińska et al., 2022).
Pollution and threats to water quality in aquaculture

systems Contamination in water sources for aquaculture production
Most aquaculture systems require a thorough understanding of Availability of clean water for aquaculture is an important con-
water quality and waste management for accurate treatment deci- sideration in site selection for aquaculture operation. In fact,
sions to ensure healthy cultured organisms with high yields (David- suitable site selection for aquaculture activities is vital to alleviate
son et al., 2022). Ssekyanzi et al. (2022) reported that in Sub- potential problems associated with pollution and conflicting
Saharan Africa, limited knowledge of water quality is one of the activities, and to ensure that the selected water body would be a
main factors contributing to low production (<1% of global pro- conducive growing environment without jeopardizing the exist-
duction) and slow growth of the aquaculture sector. ing ecosystems (Table 1). Brigolin et al. (2015) and Jayanthi et al.
Major factors contributing to the deteriorating environment and (2021) used remote sensing, geospatial tools and mathematical
water quality in the aquaculture industry include nutrients (17%), models in combination with water quality factors, environmental
other pollutants, including emerging pollutants (12%), habitat loss characteristics and socioeconomic data to identify suitable areas
(16%), HABs (9%), lack of treatment technologies (8%) and socio- for cage aquaculture in estuaries and coastal areas. Vaz et al.
economic factors (38%) (Theuerkauf et al., 2019). Nutrients play a (2021) and Arega et al. (2022) developed a habitat suitability
major role in eutrophication, resulting in massive proliferation of model based on water quality, hydrodynamics and biogeochem-
HABs, such as cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates and high mortality istry for aquaculture site selection.
of cultured organisms in cultured systems (Table 1). Cyanobacterial In aquaculture systems, pollutants can originate from both
blooms are also commonly associated with toxic–odor compounds allochthonous sources (such as feeds, fertilizers and/or polluted
such as geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (2-MIB) which impart an water sources) and autochthonous sources (phytoplankton bio-
unpleasant taste to water and cultured organisms. Marques et al. mass, metabolites). Polluted water from rivers and coastal waters
(2018) and Ryan et al. (2022) noted the negative impacts of an can seriously affect the health and growth of the culture species,
Table 1. Major problems and mitigating measures in water quality management in aquaculture production systems
Problems Aquaculture system Mitigating measures/technologies Benefits References
Nutrients from excess Intensive culture systems with Integrated/restorative Improved water quality, Falconer et al., 2018;
feeds and metabolites high stocking rates – generate aquaculture – use of combined improved aquaculture Zhang et al., 2018;
(phosphorus and large amounts of wastes (liquid species of mollusks and seaweeds. production and enhanced Theuerkauf et al.,
nitrogen) – and solid wastes) Water treatment plants; removal sustainability 2019; Pu et al., 2021;
Eutrophication of soluble reactive P (SRP) by Purnomo et al., 2022
adsorption to particulate organic
matter
Installation of seaweed farms Extract pollutants and Cabral et al., 2016
improve water quality.
Improved ecosystem services
Harmful algal blooms Open water systems (Cage Monitoring, early detection and Degradation of geosmin and Ma et al., 2018; John
(HABs) – taste and odor aquaculture, extractive prevention of geosmin–producing 2–MIB by UV/chlorine et al., 2020; Kibuye et
(T/O) compounds mainly aquaculture) and land–based cyanobacteria and other T/O process, maintains the water al., 2021
due to geosmin and 2– production systems (e.g., compounds using PCR–based quality and enhances the
MIB (2–methyl recirculating aquaculture systems method. Reduce external nutrient quality of aquaculture
isoborneol) [RAS], integrated multi–trophic loads products
aquaculture [IMTA])
Fish cages – Oreochromis niloticus Use of probiotics for management Reduce geosmin and other Lukassen et al.,
of the intestinal bacteria off–flavor compounds and 2019a
improve fish quality
RAS – off flavor compounds Optimization of the depuration Reduce the off–flavor Azaria and van Rijn,
method with improved water compounds 2018
treatment
Microplastics – toxic to Mariculture – rafts, cages and nets Monitoring microplastic Reduce harmful effects on Chen et al., 2018;
living organisms are sources of microplastics. concentrations in water bodies organisms and human Krüger et al., 2020;
and aquaculture systems. Reduce health; healthy and safe Mallik et al., 2021;
the usage of plastics aquaculture production Cholewińska et al.,
2022
Unsuitable aquaculture Ponds, fish cages Use of models for selecting Avoid pollution, continuous Jayanthi et al., 2021;
sites suitable sites supply of good quality water Racine et al., 2021
for culture
resulting in high mortality and low yields. In closed culture systems pH, dissolved oxygen, organic matter/nutrients, microorganisms
such as ponds and tanks, the quality of the intake water can be and various biological interactions (Table 2). Climate change could
controlled. Under limited circumstances, low-quality water can be exert drastic fluctuations in these physical chemical factors that
first treated before use, although the production would still be lower would affect water quality, increase the incidence of fish diseases
compared to those with clean water intake. In aquaculture systems and cause high fish mortality and production (Lusiastuti et al.,
located in open waters such as lakes and coastal waters (Figure 1), 2020). Alam et al. (2021) reported that Nile tilapia, Oreochromis
yields are highly dependent on the in situ water quality. In these, niloticus, produced fewer eggs under high temperatures associated
natural waters where cage aquaculture or extractive aquaculture is with climate change, and suggested effective management strategies
common, pollutants are mainly associated with anthropogenic to overcome the low egg production in commercial fish hatcheries.
activities in the catchment and upstream areas. Kim et al. (2022a) Ocean acidification and decrease in pH caused problems in shellfish
used 15-N isotopic signatures to show that organic pollutants in aquaculture, such as oysters (Abisha et al., 2022; Mayrand and
estuaries and coastal areas were mainly contributed by sources Benhafid, 2023). Higher sea levels could cause positive conse-
related to anthropogenic activities, including organic fertilizers quences such as the creation of new habitats in the coastal waters
and aquaculture discharges exported through rivers. or negative impacts like saltwater intrusion. Increased wind speed
To ensure the sustainability of aquaculture production through and waves caused sediment suspension and high turbidity that
sound water quality management of open waters, Liu et al. (2023a) affected water quality and aquaculture activities (Shen et al.,
proposed a watershed management framework using economic- 2023). Mitigating measures to overcome impacts of physicochem-
based and water quality-based protection strategies to manage catch- ical changes include adaptations in production systems, good cul-
ment areas for sustainable development. To prevent nonpoint source ture strategies such as species diversification, and use of predictive
pollution, interactions between land cover, landscape pattern and models (Table 2). Abisha et al. (2022) suggested the development of
design and pollution loading should be assessed and optimized climate-resilient aquaculture through adaptations to environmen-
(Ouyang et al., 2014; Falconer et al., 2018; Rong et al., 2021). tal factors that have negative impacts on organisms to minimize the
impacts of climate change. Shen et al. (2023) used satellite remote
sensing to assess the impacts of the environment and improve the
Factors affecting water quality in aquaculture production
ecological and environmental regulations to support the sustain-
systems
able development of the coastal area.
Water quality in aquaculture systems is influenced by various High organic wastes in aquaculture systems, mainly from excess
physical, chemical and biological factors such as temperature, light, feeds and metabolites, caused water quality degradation
Table 2. Factors affecting water quality in aquaculture production systems and mitigation measures
Factors Types of stressors/impacts Mitigating measures References
Physicochemical Increased mortality, and low production – threaten Developed climate–change resilient aquaculture Abisha et al., 2022
factors/climate food security through adaptation to environmental stressors,
change selective breeding; species diversification and
innovative aquaculture system
Extreme fluctuations of environmental parameters Formulate aquatic animal health strategies to reduce Lusiastuti et al., 2020
with high rainfall – increased incidence of fish diseases diseases and use fewer/less chemicals in aquaculture
operation
Light availability Reduce/regulate the abundance and buoyancy of toxic Xu et al., 2023
cyanobacteria such as Microcystis
Extreme temperature fluctuations – affect Atlantic Predictive models to match aquaculture activities and Gamperl et al., 2020
salmon cage aquaculture climate change
Increasing temperature: Hatchery – Nile tilapia Management strategies – decrease light intensity and Alam et al., 2021
(Oreochromis niloticus) temperature
Ocean acidification – decrease in pH; reduced Reduce atmospheric CO2 Guo et al., 2023
calcification in shellfish
Organic matter Excreta and excess feeding Precision feeding; high–quality feeds, optimize Kawasaki et al., 2016;
stocking rate and effective waste removal Zhang et al., 2018; Liu
et al., 2023b
Types of feed – release nitrogenous compounds – Feeding technologies and management to improve Fiordelmondo et al.,
contaminate water and cause health problems water quality 2020
Age and pond Organic matter accumulation, increased C/N ratio Proper pond management to reduce organic matter Hasibuan et al., 2023
bottom quality result in low production accumulation
Toxic Ammonia – Effects on growth, survival and yields of Reduce total ammonia nitrogen to <0.3 mg N L 1
Zhang et al., 2022a
compounds Japanese sea–perch (Lateolabrax japonicus) culture
Low dissolved oxygen – hypoxia in Atlantic Salmon Aeration (especially in the bottom layers) to increase Gamperl et al., 2020
(Salmo salar) Aquaculture dissolved oxygen (DO) and decrease the amount of
organic matter. Microbubbles can be used to increase
DO in the bottom layers where oxygen consumption
tends to be high. Advanced technologies such as
internet-of-things can be applied to ensure adequate
DO in all aquaculture systems all the time
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in RAS – cause sudden mass Addition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) for H2S removal. Bergstedt et al., 2022
mortality Safe for fish.
Heavy metal pollution contaminates water and fish/ Good management practices and good governance to Le et al., 2022
shrimp reduce heavy metal contamination
Methane and CO2 release from aquaculture ponds Reduce organic wastes, aerate ponds and/or dredge Chen et al., 2016; Yang
pond bottom to prevent hypoxia et al., 2018; Yuan et al.,
2021; Zhao et al., 2021
Algal blooms Cyanobacterial blooms, algal toxins Prevent eutrophication and toxic algal blooms. High Yñiguez et al., 2021;
and stable pH and dissolved oxygen concentrations Xue et al., 2023
Chemicals Antibiotics, chemicals (e.g., malachite green), heavy Use high–quality water sources for culture. Avoid using Falconer et al., 2018;
metals antibiotics and chemicals; use their alternatives such Pandey et al., 2022;
as probiotics, remove antibiotics by UV–photolysis and Sha et al., 2022
degradation by microbial granules
Development of antibiotic–resistant genes (ARGs) that Minimal and regulated antibiotics use in farms. Han et al., 2020;
would be harmful to aquaculture health. Most Development of technologies for antibiotic removal Fernanda et al., 2022;
antibiotics are from aquaculture farms and/or from wastewater. Development of biomarker for Chen et al., 2022
domestic sewage antibiotic monitoring
Sulfonamides – degradation from aquaculture Remove sulfonamides – Use laccase–syringaldehyde Lou et al., 2022
wastewater mediator system through response surface
optimization, degradation kinetics and degradation
pathways
Microbial Environmentally friendly bacteria/bioremediate Monitoring the dynamics of bacterial populations in Lukassen et al., 2019b
communities ecosystem; pathogenic bacteria/diseases and related the aquaculture systems and its related processes
health problems (bio–filtration, biofilms)
Diseases Poor water quality – increased incidence of white spot Good farm management includes improving water Swathi et al., 2021;
disease – high mortality and low production. quality, maintaining and stabilizing physical–chemical Hassan et al., 2022
parameters and controlling water exchange to reduce
the pathogen prevalence
characterized by high ammonia, nitrate and soluble reactive phos- control (Kibuye et al., 2021). Derot et al. (2020) used two machine
phorus, high biological oxygen demand (BOD), high chemical learning models with a long-term base to forecast HABs. Pal et al.
oxygen demand (COD) and low dissolved oxygen (Table 2). Phos- (2020) suggested biological options such as bacteria, viruses, fungi
phorus (P) can be a source of environmental contamination and and zooplankton for controlling HABs. John et al. (2018) developed
eutrophication in aquaculture systems if not adequately removed a novel polymerase chain reaction method targeting the geosmin
from the wastewater. In terms of nitrogen, the proportion of toxic synthase gene (geoA) to assess all important sources of geosmin,
unionized ammonia (NH3) depends on the total ammonia concen- while Ma et al. (2018) showed that chlorine aqueous solution under
tration (ionized ammonium ion) and NH3 in the water column, ultraviolet light could effectively remove geosmin and 2-MIB in
which is in turn governed by water temperature and pH. Once acidic conditions.
ammonia concentrations in the water are high, fish are less able to In addition to nutrients, aquaculture systems can also be sub-
excrete ammonia through gill diffusion resulting in the accumula- jected to other pollutants such as antibiotics and heavy metals that
tion of ammonia in fish tissues, which would finally affect fish could eventually affect the quality of the produce (Table 2). Le et al.
health and growth. Zhang et al. (2022a) reported that toxic ammo- (2022) noted heavy metal pollution in the aquaculture coastal area
nia can reduce the quality and yield of Japanese sea perch (Lateo- and emphasized the need for good management practices if sus-
labrax japonicus). Due to its adverse effects on aquaculture species, tainable aquaculture is to persist in the coastal area. The use of
ammonia concentrations in production systems should be closely antibiotics and chemicals in aquaculture can also have far-reaching
monitored. Yu et al. (2021) used a hybrid soft computing method to effects on ecological food pyramids. Fernanda et al. (2022) showed
accurately predict ammonia concentrations in aquaculture water in that water quality parameters in aquaculture ponds were signifi-
real time. Temperature, dissolved organic carbon and redox poten- cantly correlated with the abundance of antibiotic-resistant (AR)
tial are the primary drivers of chemical fluxes in freshwater aqua- genes which were brought down by a river polluted by various
culture ponds (Yuan et al., 2021). sources from the cultivated and industrial lands. In the environ-
Accumulation of organic matter in the pond bottom can be the ment, the partitioning and distribution of antibiotics are positively
main cause of hypoxic conditions in enriched aquaculture ponds correlated to salinity, suspended solids, pH, ammonia and zinc, and
(Yang et al., 2021). Under anaerobic conditions, high organic negatively correlated to temperature, dissolved oxygen, phosphate,
matter accumulation can produce methane (CH4), hydrogen sul- COD, oil, copper and cadmium (Li et al., 2022a). Ecological and
fide (H2S) and nitrous oxide (N2O), which could adversely affect biological risks of antibiotics are high and can be detrimental to
water quality (Table 2). Toxic H2S, commonly found in production aquaculture products. Chen et al. (2022) developed a biomarker
systems with low oxygen, could cause sudden fish/shrimp mass using cyanobacterial carbonic anhydrase for monitoring antibiot-
mortality. Wu et al. (2018b) reported that CH4 and N2O fluxes in ics. Chemicals used in aquaculture should also be removed before
inland aquaculture ponds were positively correlated to temperature discharging wastewater into the surrounding environment. Sul-
and sediment organic carbon, and negatively correlated to dis- fonamides from aquaculture wastewater can be degraded using
solved oxygen concentration. Chen et al. (2016) and Yang et al. laccase-syringaldehyde mediator system through response surface
(2018) noted that substantial amounts of CH4 and carbon dioxide optimization, degradation kinetics and degradation pathways (Lou
were released from mariculture ponds. In freshwater aquaculture et al., 2022). Pandey et al. (2022) suggested the removal of malachite
ponds, Zhao et al. (2021) reported that high concentrations of CH4 green, which is commonly used for disease treatment in aquacul-
were released and showed that dredging of the pond bottom as part ture ponds, using laccase immobilized biochar. Yanuhar et al.
of pond preparation was more effective in reducing CH4 compared (2022) reported that water quality in concrete ponds can be
to aeration. Thus, there is a need for immediate and continuous improved by aeration, filtration and reduction of organic matter
removal of toxic compounds such as ammonia, nitrite, H2S and by optimizing the feed.
CH4 in aquaculture systems. In addition to physical and chemical parameters, disease agents
Nutrient-rich waters are also associated with cyanobacterial such as bacteria, fungi and other pathogenic organisms can also
blooms that could produce toxic–odor compounds such as geosmin affect water quality and aquaculture performance (Table 2). Micro-
and 2-MIB, causing an unpleasant taste to water and cultured bial communities in aquaculture systems are shaped by the envir-
organisms. Although a variety of bacteria and fungi produce geos- onmental conditions which are in turn influenced by inland
min, cyanobacteria including planktonic and benthic species discharges, climate changes and anthropogenic pressures. Swathi
belonging to Nostocales, Oscillatoriales and Synechococcales are et al. (2021) reported that water quality parameters were closely
major producers of geosmin (Watson et al., 2016; John et al., 2018). related to the outbreak of white spot disease in shrimp culture
Cyanobacterial toxins pose threats and risks to human and animal ponds. Thus, regular monitoring and estimating microbial diversity
health. Cyanobacteria proliferate rapidly in eutrophic waters due to would allow farmers to link water quality parameters to subsequent
their ability to float and overcome light limitations (Table 2). fish performance and assess the environmental health of the aqua-
Geosmin has been found to cause off-flavor in a wide range of culture systems and the vicinity for early detection of microbial
environments including RAS (Azaria and van Rijn, 2018; Lukassen conditions that could lead to impaired fish health.
et al., 2019b). Lukassen et al. (2019a) reported that higher densities
of geosmin-producing bacteria were found in the intestinal mucous
layer and digestive system of tilapia (O. niloticus) compared to the Water quality management in aquaculture production
water column, indicating that probiotics can be used to manage systems and methods to enhance it
intestinal microflora to improve fish quality. Due to the detrimental
Water quality in aquaculture production systems
impacts of HABs on aquaculture production systems, environmen-
tal and human health, and socioeconomics, microalgal toxic species Aquaculture production systems including RAS, IMTA, aquapo-
distribution and abundance should be closely monitored for early nics (aquaculture and hydroponics) and ecosystem-based
detection and preventive action. In fact, reduction of the external approaches were designed and constantly improved to enhance
nutrient load is the most fundamental aspect of cyanobacterial water quality and production (Table 3). These integrated
Table 3. Aquaculture production systems for improving water quality in aquaculture
Approaches/methods/processes Aquaculture species/systems Supporting species/function References
Aquaponics Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) Spinach and bacterial communities in the aquaponic Ekawati et al., 2021
system (A–RAS)
European catfish (Silurus glanis) Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) for nutrient removal from Calone et al., 2019
aquaculture wastewater, improved water quality,
fish yields and plant biomass (A–RAS)
Multiloop aquaponic system RAS–hydroponic for better fish and plant production Goddek and Körner,
with flexible sizing 2019
Pangas (Pangasius Marigold (Tagetes erecta) in portable nutrient film Mohapatra et al., 2020
hypophthalmus) technique (NFT) aquaponic system
Hydroponic–biofilm combined Efficiently removed nutrients by both plants and Li et al., 2022b;
treatment system biofilms. Biofilm promoted the removal of Sopawong et al., 2023
nitrogenous compounds by denitrification.
Improved water quality, fish health and fish
production
Co–cultivation – Tilapia and Microalgae (Chlorella sp.) were more efficient in Addy et al., 2017
microalgae in aquaponics ammonia removal compared to plants. An
additional product of microalgae biomass
Crayfish–rice integrated system Less fertilizer for rice plants boosts farmers’ Liu et al., 2019
(CRIS) production and economy
Biochar–supplemented planting Water treatment for fish culture increase dissolved Mopoung et al., 2020;
panel system; Laccase oxygen and convert toxic compounds to those Pandey et al., 2022
immobilized biochar beneficial for plant growth; bioremoval of toxic
malachite green from aquaculture systems
Aeration and polylactic acid Decrease of dissolved organic matter, improved Wu et al., 2018a
addition in aquaponics water quality
Internet–of–things (IoT) in Cloud–based IoT monitoring and smart sensing Lee and Wang, 2020;
aquaponics systems. Improved water quality and fish production Taha et al., 2022
Integrated multi–trophic aquaculture Abalone (Haliotis asinine) and Mollusks and seaweeds. Seaweeds (Gracilaria Largo et al., 2016; Park et
(IMTA) other bivalves heteroclada and Eucheuma denticulatum) extract al., 2018
nutrients (especially nitrate and ammonia) from the
water column
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus Duckweed species; Lemna minor and L. gibba/ Paolacci et al., 2022
mykiss) and European perch enhanced nutrient removal and biomass production
(Perca fluviatilis)
Hybrid grouper (Epinephelus Seaweed (Gracilaria bailinae)/removed inorganic Zhang et al., 2022b
fiscoguttatus x E. lanceolatus) and nutrients, improved water quality, enhanced health
whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus and promoted the growth of cultured organisms
vannamei)
Commercial shellfish species Seaweed aquaculture (extractive species)/decrease Theuerkauf et al., 2019
or minimize impacts of pollution, habitat loss, ocean
acidification and fishing pressures – restorative IMTA
Macroalgal–based IMTA Salmon aquaculture Macroalgal–based IMTA – Kelp farm (Macrocystis Hadley et al., 2018
pyrifera). 3D ecosystem model used to quantify
water quality changes. Reduce chlorophyll a
concentrations
Microalgal–based IMTA Aquaculture systems – effluents; Periphyton, microalgae–bacterial consortia, cell Milhazes–Cunha and
Binary microalgae culture system immobilization–alginate beads/reduce nutrients Otero, 2017; Luo et al.,
and other pollutants, improve water quality, 2019
production of algal biomass for feed, fertilizers and
other valuable compounds
Microalgae cultivation – recycling Sequestering of nutrients by microalgae Li et al., 2019; Nguyen et
of culture medium (autoflocculation); flocculating bacteria enhanced al., 2019b
microalgae growth
Recirculating Aquaculture System Rainbow trout (O. mykiss) culture Optimized relative water renewal rate, maintained Pulkkinen et al., 2018;
(RAS) good water quality with online water quality Suhr et al., 2014
monitoring, low feed conversion ratio, high growth
rate; single–sludge denitrification to remove organic
matter and nitrate
RAS – depuration system Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar Additional depuration system in RAS improved water Davidson et al., 2022
culture with depuration system quality, low geosmin and 2–methylisoboreol levels
(Continued)
Table 3. (Continued)
Approaches/methods/processes Aquaculture species/systems Supporting species/function References
RAS –microalgae Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Include microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris and Ramli et al., 2017;
culture – Microalgae Tetradesmus obliquus) for aquaculture effluent Tejido–Nuñez et al.,
pretreatment – enhanced microalgal growth and 2019
nutrient removal
Marine fish culture – Microalgae Microalga, Tetraselmis sp. High nutrient removal (N de Alva and Pabello,
and P). Production of microalgal biomass high in 2021
lipids and useful compounds suitable for fish feeds
Shrimp culture – Microalgae Immobilized microalga Tetraselmis sp. Reduction of Khatoon et al., 2021
nitrogenous and phosphorus compounds
RAS – microbes Marine fish culture – Bacteria; Nitrifying bacteria in RAS, oxidize ammonia to Sha et al., 2022
immobilized bacterial granules nitrate; removal of antibiotics – ultraviolet
photolysis and biodegradation by immobilized
bacterial granules
Freshwater fish culture, Shrimp Microbial communities in RAS biofiltration system. Jiang et al., 2019; Chen
culture – Microbial communities The addition of carbon sources enhanced microbial et al., 2020
communities in biofilters in RAS
Shrimp culture –Microbial Water circulation on the microbial community/ Chen et al., 2019
community improvement improved water quality, better growth
Aquaculture System – SNAD Effective removal of nitrogen and COD under high Lu et al., 2020
Bioreactor (Simultaneous partial dissolved oxygen condition
nitrification, anammox and
denitrification)
African catfish (C. gariepinus) Recovery and reuse of phosphorus by microbes Yogev et al., 2020
culture – Near–zero discharge under anoxic and anaerobic treatments
RAS
Microalgae–bacteria consortia in Significant reduction of nitrogenous compounds, Chun et al., 2018
RAS and improved water quality
Moving–bed biofilm reactor Ammonia removal by MBBR resulting in improved Ashkanani et al., 2019
(MBBR) water quality
Integrated RAS–IMTA River prawn and tambaqui fish – Improved system efficiencies, better yields Flickinger et al., 2020
RAS–IMTA
Ecosystem–based approach – Coastal aquaculture, shrimp Eco–green approach. Integration of aquaculture and Racine et al., 2021; Musa
Integration of aquaculture system farming, whiteleg shrimp (L. mangrove forest management/preserve and sustain et al., 2023
extractive species (seaweed vannamei). mangrove forest, sustain aquaculture industry
cultivation; mangrove forest) Integration of seaweed cultivation in aquaculture
system
Physical–biological coupling Integrated bivalve–seaweed Increased production of kelp (Saccharina japonica – Fan et al., 2020
ecosystem model culture seaweed) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas – mollusks),
improved water quality, sustainable ecosystem
production systems which have zero-water exchange and produce 2023). Sopawong et al. (2023) showed that integrating fish culture
microorganisms as food sources, can be integrated with different and plants in a bio-green floating system significantly improved
types of biofiltration, biocoagulation, bioflocculation and biological water quality, fish health and aquaculture production. In addition,
interactions including bioflocs and bioremediation (Xu et al., 2021; aquaponics overcomes the land scarcity for aquaculture as the
Igwegbe et al., 2022) to enhance their wastewater treatment per- system can be constructed and designed to fit any area available,
formance (Table 4). such as in urban areas and water-scarce areas. Palm et al. (2018) and
Obirikorang et al. (2021) demonstrated the increased efficiency of
Aquaponics aquaculture production in aquaponics improvised for commercial
Aquaponics, the integration of aquaculture and hydroponics, is aquaculture production and food security. To make the aquaponics
conceptually based on the efficient use of water and recycling of more effective, Calone et al. (2019) and Ekawati et al. (2021)
accumulated organic nutrients using plants, as one of the effective combined it with RAS as aquaponic-RAS (A-RAS), which proved
approaches in addressing the problems of aquaculture wastewater to be effective in improving water quality, survival rate, feed con-
treatment, pollution in public waters, improved water quality in version ratio (FCR) and yield in catfish aquaculture (Table 3). Based
culture systems and sustainable aquaculture development (Yep and on the same principle, Goddek and Körner (2019) designed RAS-
Zheng, 2019; Chiquito-Contreras et al., 2022); Okomoda et al., hydroponic multi-loop aquaponic system for better fish and plant
2023). Essentially, aquaponics uses bacterial processes and production with flexible sizing. Liu et al. (2019) introduced crayfish
enhances plant nutrient uptake to recover and recycle nutrients integrated system for efficient use of waste for rice production.
from aquaculture systems (Kalayci Kara et al., 2021; Chen et al., There are different combinations of fed and extractive species in
Table 4. Technologies and processes for improving water quality in aquaculture systems
Technologies/
processes Applications/main features Benefits References
Bioremediation Triangle sail mussel culture (Hyriopsis cumingii) Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis and Geng et al., 2022
microalga, Chlorella vulgaris/bioremediate
aquaculture wastes, provide foods for the
mussels (H. cumingii), enhance digestive
enzyme activities of the mussel
Intensive aquaculture ponds Bacillus megaterium with high aerobic Gao et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2019
denitrification efficiency (>90% of NO2–N
removal). Development of biofilm enhanced
denitrification (>95% nitrate removal)
Tilapia culture – aquaculture wastewater Bacterial consortium – Bacillus cereus, Bacillus John et al., 2020
amyloliquefaciens and Pseudomonas stutzeri
Phytoremediation – Aquaculture systems – fish, shrimp Microalgae (Nannochloropsis oculata, Reyimu and Özçimen, 2017; Nie
Microalgae–based Tetraselmis suecica) –highly efficient nutrient et al., 2020; Emparan et al., 2020;
Aquaculture removal (from wastewater) with low cost, Elizondo–González et al., 2018;
double crops (fish and algae) enhanced Kumar et al., 2016
biomass production. Production of
byproducts – bioethanol
Immobilized marine microalgae biofilter
Seaweed Ulva lactuca, bioremediate water
and served as a food additive
Flow–through system for Eurasian Perch (Perca– An alga, Pseudokirchneriella subcapita, O’Neill and Rowan, 2022
fluviatilis) improved water quality
Fishery wastewater Microalgae co–culture of Thalassiosira Wang et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2020
pseudonana and Isochrysis galbana.
Microalgae – improved water quality and
enhanced algal growth
Binary microalgae culture system Microalgal–bacterial symbiotic system – Rashid et al., 2018; Bhatia et al.,
synchronous wastewater treatment and 2022; Sun et al., 2022; Wang
nutrient recovery et al., 2022
Microalgae–bacteria symbiotic system Integrated microalgae and bacteria system/ Nguyen et al., 2019a
optimized carbon sources, enhanced nutrient
removal
Biotic control: biological agents for HABs Species–specific mode of interactions with Pal et al., 2020
treatment algal blooms (bacteria, viruses, fungi and
zooplankton) through feeding (predation),
lysis and/or competition
Bioflocs Aquaculture systems – binary microalgae culture Microalgae–bacterial flocs/nutrient removal Rashid et al., 2018; Nguyen et al.,
and microalgae biomass 2019a
Tilapia culture (Oreochromis niloticus) Reduce inorganic nutrients by different Luo et al., 2017; Putra et al., 2020
biofloc starters (carbohydrates)/improve
water quality
Jade Perch RAS – biofloc with heterotrophic and Heterotrophic bacteria removed nitrate and Kim et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021b
nitrifying bacteria soluble reactive P and nitrifying bacteria
removed nitrite. Save carbon resources.
Heterotrophic bacteria showed better
performance than autotrophic bacteria in
wastewater purification capacity
Shrimp culture – Penaeid shrimp Litopenaeus Biofloc–based bacterio–plankton Kim et al., 2022b; Ríos et al., 2023
vannamei community/improve water quality, control
pathogens and enhance shrimp immunity
Biological Filtration Tank cultures – issues on emerging pollutants, Environmentally friendly, recirculating Jin et al., 2023
antibiotic–resistant genes and organic aquaculture system, bio–enhanced biological
micropollution filtration
Catalytic ozonation–membrane filtration Degradation of organic matter and decreased Chen et al., 2015
of ammonia
Biological filters in common carp culture Use of additional media such as wheat hay, Hassan et al., 2022
rice husks as biological filters to improve
water quality and fish growth
(Continued)
Technologies/
Membrane filtration Membrane filtration in RAS Good sieving effect and solute removal Ng et al., 2018
technology mechanism, but has problems such as high
cost and was subjected to high biofouling
Electrochemical Seabream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass No supporting species/improved water Santos et al., 2022
Oxidation (Dicentrarchus labrax) in recirculating quality with high efficiency of ammonia
aquaculture system (RAS) removal and fish disinfection, reduction in
water use; improved fish yields
Hybrid Wastewater of aquaculture system– Pretreatment of marine aquaculture Xu et al., 2021
electrocoagulation electrocoagulation (EC) filtration system wastewater
filtration method consisting of EC reactor, mixed flocculator,
filtration equipment
Bio–coagulation– Catfish culture Treatment of aquaculture effluent using Igwegbe et al., 2022
flocculation/ Picralima nitida seed extract/improve waste
adsorption – biodegradability, significant pollutant
Picralima nitida seed removal, superior effluent quality
extract
Marine and land–based RAS for salmon (Salmo Treatment of aquaculture effluents by Letelier–Gordo and Fernandes,
salar) coagulation of phosphorus and organic 2021
matter.
Fresh and brackish water RAS – Organic Removed P, N, geosmin and heavy metals Kujala et al., 2020; Lindholm–
flocculants/woodchip reactor/sand filtration from RAS. Improved water quality in RAS Lehto et al., 2020
Chemicals and Pacific whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus. vannamei) Improved health, survival and production of Patil et al., 2022
veterinary medicine cultured species
Development of green Freshwater aquaculture Better feed conversion ratio (FCR), improved Farradia et al., 2022
feeds water quality
Technologies: Wireless sensor network, artificial intelligence Water quality monitoring of aquaculture Shi et al., 2018; Eze et al., 2021;
Internet of things (AI)–web–based monitoring, automation and systems Wei et al., 2023
(IoT), artificial alert system
intelligence (AI) and
models Machine learning approach for water quality Improve water quality and aquaculture yields Rana et al., 2021; Rahman et al.,
assessment in aquaculture systems 2021
A hybrid neural network model for dissolved For predicting dissolved oxygen Eze and Ajmal, 2020; Liu et al.,
oxygen and other water quality parameters concentration and other water quality 2021a; Ranjan et al., 2023
parameters in aquaculture systems
Hybrid soft computing Real–time measurement and monitoring of Yu et al., 2021
ammonia
Low–to–high frequency data – autonomous data Monitoring of water quality and fish Sampaio et al., 2021
collection platform production
Long–range multistep water quality forecasting Accurate water quality prediction for effective Islam et al., 2021
water quality monitoring
Fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method Improved water quality You et al., 2021
Bio–reaction kinetics model for assessing Environmental quality and safety risk Bai et al., 2021
pollutant accumulation in fish tissue assessment for fish
Machine learning models for predicting HABs Prevention of HABs. Derot et al., 2020
Sentinel–2 satellites Water quality and cyanoHABs monitoring Caballero and Navarro, 2021
Sentinel–2 satellite imagery for water quality Assessment of microphytobenthos using Oiry and Barillé, 2021
index remote sensing to determine the health status
of water bodies
Machine learning models for predicting fish kills Predicting fish kills and toxic blooms in Yñiguez and Ottong, 2020
aquaculture areas
Intelligent IoT–based control and traceability Forecast and maintain water quality in the Gao et al., 2019
system aquaculture system.
Deep belief network (DBN) and variational mode VMD–DBM model for high prediction accuracy Ren et al., 2020
decomposition (VDM) data processing – VMD– and stability of dissolved oxygen in
DBN model aquaculture systems
(Continued)
Technologies/
AI techniques Modeling daily dissolved oxygen. Least square Heddam and Kisi, 2018
support vector machine (LSSVM), multivariate
adaptive regression splines and M5 model tree
(M5T)
Integrated AI–IoT Integrates AI, IoT and smart sensors in Danh et al., 2020; Huan et al.,
aquaculture (water quality monitoring and 2020; Pasika and Gandla, 2020;
feeding)/enhance water quality, precision Chang et al., 2021
feeding, increased survival and production
Solar–powered semi–floating aeration system Increase dissolved oxygen Dayıoğlu, 2022
Fish culture zone water quality model – taking For aquaculture site assessment Arega et al., 2022
into account interacting aquatic components: P
cycle, N cycle, dissolved oxygen, phytoplankton
and particulate organic carbon
Water quality modeling framework for antibiotic Evaluate AR bacteria and AR genes in Jampani et al., 2022
resistance in aquaculture systems aquaculture systems
Intelligent and unmanned equipment Convenient and efficient applications of Ubina and Cheng, 2022; Wu et
intelligent and unmanned equipment for al., 2022
water quality management, precision feeding
and biomass estimation in aquaculture
systems
different systems to improve water quality, such as catfish, plants concentrations and improved water quality (Hadley et al., 2018).
and bacteria in hydroponic-biofilm and NFT systems (Mohapatra In freshwater IMTA, Paolacci et al. (2022) showed that duckweed,
et al., 2020; Li et al., 2022b) to improve biofilter and ammonia Lemna spp., could substantially remove total nitrogen and total
removal efficiencies. Addy et al. (2017) showed that microalgae phosphorus, maintain good water quality and increase aquaculture
were more efficient in ammonia removal compared to plants in yields. In addition to macroalgae, microalgae can be introduced in
aquaponic co-cultivation. Other technologies such as biochar-sup- IMTA in the form of periphyton and/or microalgae–bacterial
plemented planting panel system, polylactic acid addition and consortia to reduce nutrients and other pollutants, improve water
smart sensing systems have been integrated into the design of quality and produce algal biomass for enhancement of culture
aquaponics to improve water quality (Table 3). yields in the system (Milhazes-Cunha and Otero, 2017).
Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture Recirculating aquaculture system

The concept of IMTA utilizes complementary aquaculture species The RAS is a closed-circuit high-density aquatic animal farming
along the food chain in the process of eating and being eaten such that where water from fish tanks is recirculated to remove solid and
wastes are fully recycled and minimal pollutants are released to the liquid wastes, and the purified water is returned to the aquaculture
adjacent waters (Figure 3). In IMTA system, commercially important tanks (Figure 4). It is designed to provide a more controlled
fed species (the main fish or invertebrates that consume given feeds) aquaculture system to reduce water usage and produce less wastes
are cultured together with commercially important extractive species (both liquid and solid wastes), and thus it is more efficient and
(aquatic species such as seaweeds or mollusks that feed/use the waste economical compared to the conventional flow-through and cage
of other species) so that ecological balance and water quality in the aquaculture systems (Table 3). In RAS, the relative water renewal
system could be maintained (Figure 3). Since feeding is an important rate can be optimized, the fish FCR decreased and the growth rate
factor in an IMTA system, Flickinger et al. (2020) showed that feed increased (Pulkkinen et al., 2018). As excess and poor-quality feeds
management is important to determine the water quality that trans- can cause water quality problems in RAS, Kamali et al. (2022) took
lates into prawn and fish production in IMTA. into account the effects of feeding regimes on the accumulation of
The selection of the species from various trophic is based on ammonia and dissolved oxygen in designing a new RAS to enhance
their physiological and ecology functions to ensure a complete the sustainability of aquaculture.
recycling of organic matter in the system with minimal wastes The efficiency of RAS in water quality management could be
and good water quality, which contributes to the sustainability of enhanced by combining the system with other functional compo-
the aquaculture industry (Table 3). Largo et al. (2016) reported the nents such as depuration system to eliminate off-flavor, microalgae
use of abalone (donkey’s ear, Haliotis asinina) as fed species and system to enhance nutrient removal and bacterial communities as
seaweeds (Gracilaria heteroclada and Eucheuma denticulatum) as in simultaneous partial nitrification, anammox and denitrification
the inorganic nutrient extractive species. Seaweeds functioned system to enhance organic–inorganic matter recycling (Table 3).
effectively in sequestering nutrients in various fish and shellfish Biofiltration in RAS functions to convert ammonia to the less toxic
cultures to minimize the impacts of pollution and improve water form, nitrate. According to Santos et al. (2022), nitrate is about 100–
quality not only in aquaculture systems, but also in the related water 200 folds less toxic.
bodies (Table 3). Kelp (Macrocystis pyifera) farms in a macroalgae- Other alternative methods of nutrient removal such as direct or
based IMTA were used to sequester nitrogenous compounds from indirect oxidation, adsorption by zeolites and activated carbon, air
salmon aquaculture effluents resulting in low chlorophyll stripping and reverse osmosis have their own drawbacks in terms of
Figure 3. Integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) systems; in tanks (A), in ponds (B) and in coastal waters (C).
low efficiency and high energy costs (Díaz et al., 2012; Gendel and Bergstedt et al. (2022) proposed the use of hydrogen peroxide to
Lahav, 2013). Yogev et al. (2020) showed that P from RAS can be remove H2S from a saltwater RAS. RAS is advantageous in areas
efficiently (>99%) removed through biomineralization in an anaer- with limited land and water. In countries with severe water short-
obic reactor and reused as fertilizer. For other toxic compounds, ages, such as Gulf Cooperation Council countries, RAS is useful for
Figure 4. A recycling aquaculture system with an additional algae/plant culture compartment.
Figure 5. Integrated recycling aquaculture system (I-RAS) combining different systems and technologies (integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA), biofloc, bioremediation,
bacteria-microalgae consortium, water quality monitoring, and artificial intelligence-internet-of-things (AI-IoT)), to make the I-RAS more efficient and effective in recycling the
waste, while enhancing water quality and aquaculture production.
recycling wastewater to overcome water scarcity for aquaculture efficiencies and performances of aquaculture systems. Integration
(Qureshi, 2022). of A-RAS (Aquaponics and RAS), and I-RAS (IMTA and RAS),
supported by a variety of functional biological components such as
Integration of production systems using ecosystem-based bacteria and microalgae can make aquaculture production systems
approaches for water quality improvement more productive, cost-effective and efficient with less water con-
In most aquaculture systems, toxic compounds such as ammonia, sumption and lower disease risks (Figure 5).
nitrite and H2S can deteriorate water quality, increase mortality and Essentially aquaponics, IMTA, RAS and their combinations (A-
reduce yields. Although Aquaponics, IMTA and RAS have been RAS, I-RAS) are conceptually based on ecosystem-based
designed individually to improve water quality and increase yields, approaches, where holistic integration and management of differ-
integration of these production system could increase the ent ecosystem components are essential to maintain its ecological
resilience and stability to ensure optimum production in closed water quality when the aquaculture effluent was treated with
aquaculture systems. However, ecosystem-based aquaculture sys- C. vulgaris and Tetraselmis obliquus, indicating that the microalgae
tem can also be carried out in the open system such as the integra- were effective in nutrient removal. Nie et al. (2020) suggested a few
tion of aquaculture and mangrove forest management in eco-green options for the integration of microalgae culture with the aquacul-
approach (Racine et al., 2021; Musa et al., 2023). Ecosystem model ture system such as permeable floating photobioreactors, bacteria–
with the co-culture of bivalves (as the grazers) and seaweeds (as microalgae consortia, mixotrophic microalgae cultivation and bio-
nutrient consumers) would drive the nutrient-phytoplankton-zoo- film production. Bioflocculation of microalgae and bacteria can
plankton-detrital food web, increase the efficiency of waste recyc- enhance nutrient removal and facilitate microalgae harvesting
ling, improve water quality and enhance aquaculture yields (Cabral (Nguyen et al., 2019a). Kumar et al. (2016) showed that agar–
et al., 2016; Park et al., 2018). Fan et al. (2020) reported increased alginate algal blocks, known as immobilized marine microalgae
production of kelp (Saccharina japonica – seaweed) and oysters biofilter systems, were effective for nutrient removal from aquacul-
(Crassostrea gigas – a mollusk) with improved water quality, mak- ture wastewater. Microalgae can be introduced not only in the
ing the ecosystem resilient and stable (Table 3). biofiltration system but also as a component to utilize inorganic
N and P for their enhanced growth, and the resulting biomass can
Methods for water quality enhancement be valorized as feed for other aquatic organisms (Milhazes-Cunha
and Otero, 2017). Li et al. (2019) and Nguyen et al. (2019b) reported
Different technologies (such as bioremediation, bio-floc and internet- that C. vulgaris produced higher biomass with a significant decrease
of-things [IoT]) and processes (chemical reactions, filtrations, coagu- in total N, total P, BOD and COD when recycled aquaculture
lations and flocculations) can be imbedded in closed aquaculture wastewater was used as the culture medium. Wang et al. (2021)
systems such as aquaponics and RAS, or open systems such as coastal showed that microalgae produced higher biomass and nutritional
waters to make the wastewater treatment and recycling more efficient, contents when cultured in fishery wastes. When cultured with
which in turns, improve water quality and enhance aquaculture yields bioremediation bacteria (binary microalgae culture), microalgae
(Table 4, Figure 5). Liu et al. (2021b) integrated heterotrophic biofloc exhibited a high growth rate, enhanced bio-flocculation, high-value
and nitrifying biofloc filters to simultaneously control ammonia, metabolites and high removal efficiencies of total organic carbon,
nitrite, nitrate, soluble reactive phosphorus and alkalinity with rele- ammonium nitrogen and total phosphorus (Rashid et al., 2018; Luo
vant functional microbes such as ammonia and nitrite-oxidizing et al., 2019). An increased number of degrading bacteria causes the
bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, phosphorus accumulating organisms integration of microalgae bacteria more effective in the degradation
(PAOs), denitrifying PAOs and glycogen accumulating bacteria. of organic pollutants in aquaculture wastewater, which promotes
fish health (Zhang et al., 2022b).
Bioremediation
Bioremediation involves the use of environmentally friendly micro- Biofloc technology
organisms to mitigate pollution, improve water quality and main- Bioflocs are aggregates of mixed biological communities consisting
tain ecological health in aquaculture systems (Devaraja et al., 2002; of bacteria, algae, fungi and zooplankton that function not only to
Sun et al., 2022). These bioremediation bacteria function to decom- degrade the organic matter, reduce contaminants and improve
pose organic wastes into useful inorganic compounds that are water quality, but also to form an important source of food and
recycled to maintain a healthy nutrient cycle in various culture immunostimulants to the cultured organisms (Table 4). The micro-
systems (Table 4). Bioremediation minimizes the use of antibiotics bial community enhances the nutrient recycling of metabolites
and drugs and thus, decreases the detrimental consequences of through in situ bioremediation, generating nutrients for the devel-
routinely used chemotherapeutic agents and produces safe aquatic opment of microalgae and zooplankton which serve as natural
products for human consumption (Sha et al., 2022). In addition, foods, and maintains the water quality in the system (Chen et al.,
these environmentally friendly bacteria help to improve the health 2023). In the biofloc technology (BFT), bacterial communities
conditions of cultured organisms by protecting them against infec- dominated by heterotrophic bacteria can be developed in aquacul-
tious diseases, delivering antigens and providing several other ture systems using appropriate carbon sources in suitable C:N
health benefits in aquaculture. ratios (Gaona et al., 2016). Ríos et al. (2023) reported that C:N
Several bioremediation bacteria have been used in aquaculture ratio of 10 significantly enhanced the immune stimulation in
and the most common and popular ones are Bacillus species. Geng shrimp. Heterotrophic bacteria use organic carbon such as starch
et al. (2022) used bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus lichenifor- and sugar to generate energy and to grow into micro-biomass.
mis) and microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris) to bioremediate aquacul- Putra et al. (2020) observed that molasses was the best biofloc
ture wastes, and these organisms, in turn, became foods for the starter for a tilapia culture system. Luo et al. (2017) suggested the
filtering triangle sail mussel (Hyriopsis cumingii). In addition, use of external carbohydrates (poly-β-hydroxybutyric and polyca-
Bacillus species enhanced the digestive enzymes activities of the prolactone) to improve the bacterial community, nitrogen dynamic
mussel. Gao et al. (2018) reported that an efficient aerobic deni- and biofloc quality in tilapia (O. niloticus) culture system. Kim et al.
trifier Bacillus megaterium has a high capacity to remove toxic (2022b) reported that environmentally friendly microbial groups in
nitrite and improve water quality. John et al. (2020) reported that a biofloc system of Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei,
ammonia, nitrite and nitrate concentrations in tilapia culture was- include Rhodobacteraceae, Flavobacteriaceae and Actinobacteria.
tewater microbial consortium were significantly reduced by using In general, in BFT, heterotrophs were better compared to auto-
microbial consortium of Bacillus cereus, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens trophic bacteria for the treatment of the wastewater (Kim et al.
and Pseudomonas stutzeri as bioremediators. 2020).
Phytoremediation using plants such as macrophytes and micro-
algae, for sequestering nutrients, is another form of bioremediation Physical–chemical methods
that is useful treatment to improve water quality aquaculture Physical and chemical methods such as filtrations, coagulation,
systems (Table 4). Tejido-Nuñez et al. (2019) showed improved flocculation and adsorption function to remove contaminants from
the aquaculture wastewater, while electrochemical oxidation break- Precision feeding with minimal food waste is essential to main-
down persistent organic compounds and aeration increased the tain good water quality in aquaculture systems since excess feed is
dissolved oxygen in the water (Santos et al., 2022). These methods one of the major reasons for water quality deterioration in aqua-
can be applied singly or in combination in various aquaculture culture systems. Fiordelmondo et al. (2020) reported that feeding
systems to further increase the efficiency of water quality improve- type and management could improve water quality in rainbow
ment and enhance aquaculture production (Table 4). Biofilters trout farming. Liu et al. (2023b) developed a precision feeding
(media with attached microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae system on a software platform by integrating feeding management,
and protozoans) and membrane filters remove contaminants as the a water quality monitoring system, a fish feeding activity sensor and
wastewater flows through them (Ng et al., 2018; Hassan et al., 2022; an automatic feeding machine on a software platform. For con-
Jin et al., 2023). Coagulation (clumping of particles), flocculation venience, efficiency and precision, Wu et al. (2022) applied intel-
(settling of coagulated materials) and adsorption (adhering of ligent and unmanned equipment for water quality management,
substances) can effectively remove suspended and dissolved solids underwater inspection, precision feeding and biomass estimation
from the aquaculture wastewater (Letelier-Gordo and Fernandes, in deep-sea aquaculture. Ubina and Cheng (2022) noted unmanned
2021; Igwegbe et al., 2022). Yanuhar et al. (2022) reported that systems are necessary for locations that are difficult to access due to
water quality in concrete ponds can be improved by aeration, risks associated with extreme climate and long distances from the
filtration and reduction of organic matter by optimizing the feed. shore.
Different types of biofiltration, biocoagulation, bioflocculation and The IoT can be used to develop automatic fish feeding with precise
biological interactions can be selected to enhance wastewater treat- amounts and timing. Gao et al. (2019) developed IoT-based intelligent
ment and performance in aquaculture systems depending on their fish farming system that includes a forecasting method for water
functionality and costs (Table 4). quality management. The overall framework and constructs of the
Santos et al. (2022) introduced electrochemical oxidation as an IoT and IMS-based aquaculture environment should integrate the
alternative to biofiltration in RAS and reported several advantages control circuit, information collection, culture observation, data
including the decrease of toxic compounds and harmful by-prod- transmission and early warning system. IoT in aquaculture water
ucts, water disinfection, reduced water use, easy adaptation to quality monitoring involved the development of a cloud-based dash-
different production scales and an increase in fish health and yields. board for data acquisition. Several cameras installed in the aquacul-
In addition, aquaculture effluents can be treated by coagulation of ture farm are used to upload information wirelessly to the dashboard.
phosphorus and organic matter using FeCl3 and AlSO4 (Letelier- Water quality parameters such as temperature, pH, conductivity,
Gordo and Fernandes, 2021). Kujala et al. (2020) and Lindholm- salinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen and light intensity can be down-
Lehto et al. (2020) used a woodchip reactor, organic flocculants and loaded from a wireless sensing module. Islam et al. (2021) proposed a
slow sand filtration to efficiently remove nitrogen, phosphorus, cost-effective long-range multistep predictor to improve the forecast-
geosmin and heavy metal, from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus ing for water quality monitoring. Sampaio et al. (2021) used low-to-
mykiss) culture. high frequency data for water quality monitoring and fish production.
Bai et al. (2021) proposed a risk assessment approach using bio-
IoT technologies and models reaction kinetic models to evaluate pollutant accumulation in fish
Traditionally, water quality monitoring in aquaculture systems tissue as the index for environmental quality and safety in aqua-
needs manual sampling that requires a lot of time and cost. With culture. Various models for predicting and managing HABs have
the advent of technologies, real-time monitoring and early warning been established to reduce the impacts of algal toxins and water
systems based on the IoT and intelligent monitoring system (IMS) quality deterioration associated with eutrophication in aquaculture
can be designed and developed to make water quality monitoring (Derot et al., 2020). Water quality modeling can also be based on
and management more efficient and effective. IoT, consisting of disease agents. Jampani et al. (2022) suggested a water quality
collective network of communication devices integrated with arti- modeling framework to model and evaluate AR bacteria and AR
ficial intelligence (AI) and modeling, can improve the monitoring genes in aquaculture systems.
and management of essential water quality parameters such as AI techniques are useful and convenient for water quality man-
dissolved oxygen, pH values, turbidity and temperature in an agement in aquaculture operations that are subjected to harsh
aquaculture system (Figure 5). Wireless sensor network has been environments and extreme climate such as offshore cage aquacul-
used widely for water quality monitoring (Shi et al., 2018; Wei et al., ture. Chang et al. (2021) developed an AI-IoT smart cage culture
2023). Rana et al. (2021) used the machine learning approach to management system to solve problems related to physical inaccess-
assess the influence of water quality parameters on the growth ibility to large coastal and off-shore aquaculture operations. In fact,
performance of freshwater aquaculture. Rahman et al. (2021) intelligent and unmanned equipment provide convenient and effi-
developed an integrated framework for aquaculture prawn farm cient applications for water quality management, precision feeding
management using sensors, machine learning and augmented real- and biomass estimation in aquaculture (Wu et al., 2022). AI-IoT
ity-based visualization methods through real-time interactive inter- methods supported by sensors, wireless networks, automation and
faces. Thus, models for accurate predictions of water quality cloud data approaches are also applied for water quality monitoring
parameters, such as the hybrid prediction model (Eze et al., 2021; in coastal waters, estuaries and land-based aquaculture systems
Ranjan et al., 2023) and fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method (Danh et al., 2020; Huan et al., 2020; Pasika and Gandla, 2020).
(You et al., 2021), can be developed for improved water quality
management. Caballero and Navarro (2021) and Oiry and Barillé
(2021) used the sentinel-2 satellite to monitor water quality, cya-
Policy and regulation
noHAB and microphytobenthos. Xiang et al. (2023) used satellite
remote sensing to monitor water color and water transparency, in Policies and regulations are important in ensuring the implemen-
relation to land-based activities that cause water turbidity and an tation of aquaculture effluent management strategies as rapid
increase of pollutants in aquatic ecosystems. expansion in the aquaculture industry not only provides economic
opportunities but also presents risks to the environment and microalgae-based technologies are a promising solution for aqua-
human society. In their assessment of sustainable global aquacul- culture wastewater treatment and the resulting microalgal biomass
ture Davies et al. (2019) noted that many countries with active can be valorized. The use of these technologies in the forms of
aquaculture sectors have some level of governance but lack clear biofloc, bioremediation, coagulation-flocculation-biofiltration
frameworks for sustainable aquaculture development. Bohnes et al. technologies and various ecosystem-based approaches provide
(2022) proposed a stepwise framework to assess the environmental options for aquaculture best practices that could improve water
impacts of aquaculture industries taking into account the existing quality, resulting in improved aquaculture production.
national policy coupled with economic equilibrium models and life The application of AI and IoT in aquaculture production sys-
cycle assessment of aquaculture activities, especially those related to tems supported by sensors, wireless transmission systems,
aquaculture feed production and usage. unmanned equipment, automation and big data would enable
Aquaculture farmers in many countries in Asia, where 90% of intelligent water quality monitoring, precision feeding systems, fish
aquaculture activities are located, have difficulties in adopting activity monitoring and early problem detection. The integration of
environmental governance due to their small farms with limited smart production systems and advanced processes would result in
physical and financial resources. For large farms, access to global precision feeding, improved water quality, increased survival rates
markets via certification could be the major driver for adopting and increased growth of the cultured species. Overall, the use of
environmental governance. Quyen et al. (2020) reported that Viet- these technologies in water quality management supported by
namese shrimp farmers followed specific certification guidelines relevant policy and regulation would facilitate the approach to
and conducted good aquaculture practices to produce quality and sustainable aquaculture production via effective management of
safe products as required by the importing countries, avoiding the environment and fish health.
rejections and economic losses. However, most aquaculture small-
holders are experiencing environmental and water quality prob- Open peer review. To view the open peer review materials for this article,
please visit http://doi.org/10.1017/wat.2024.6.
lems that extend beyond the boundary of their farms. To mitigate
environmental risk due to non-sustainable aquaculture practices, Author contribution. F.M.Y.: Conceptualization, writing the original draft,
Bush et al. (2019) suggested implementing environmental govern- graphics, reviewing and editing. U.W.A.D.: Reviewing, editing and graphics, N.
ance for water quality management such as certification, finance M.R.: Reviewing, editing and graphics. R.H.: Reviewing and editing.
and insurance on a wider landscape instead of focusing on each
farm. Bohnes et al. (2022) proposed a stepwise framework to assess Competing interest. The authors declare no competing interest exists.
the environmental impacts of aquaculture industries taking into
account the existing national policy coupled with economic equi-
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Art Gestion Del Agua en Acuicultura

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Cambridge Prisms: Water Water quality management in aquaculture

Pollution and threats to water quality in aquaculture

Problems Aquaculture system Mitigating measures/technologies Benefits References

Factors Types of stressors/impacts Mitigating measures References

Table 3. Aquaculture production systems for improving water quality in aquaculture

Approaches/methods/processes Aquaculture species/systems Supporting species/function References

Approaches/methods/processes Aquaculture species/systems Supporting species/function References

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture Recirculating aquaculture system

Figure 4. A recycling aquaculture system with an additional algae/plant culture compartment.

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