Contents

Acknowledgement ..........................................................................................................................................................2
Abbreviation ...................................................................................................................................................................3
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................4
2. Scope & applicability .............................................................................................................................................4
3. References ............................................................................................................................................................4
4. Design Approach and Criteria ...............................................................................................................................4
5. Traffic ....................................................................................................................................................................5
5.1 General .........................................................................................................................................................5
5.2 Design life .....................................................................................................................................................5
5.3 Traffic Estimation ..........................................................................................................................................6
5.3.1 Base year traffic flow ................................................................................................................................6
5.3.2 Traffic forecasting.....................................................................................................................................6
5.4 Axle loading ..................................................................................................................................................6
5.4.1 Equivalence factor....................................................................................................................................7
5.4.2 Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) .................................................................................................................7
5.5 Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriageway ................................................................................8
5.6 Computation of design traffic ........................................................................................................................8
6. Sub-grade..............................................................................................................................................................8
7. Pavement Thickness and Composition .................................................................................................................9
7.1 Pavement Composition ................................................................................................................................9
7.1.1 Sub-base ......................................................................................................................................................9
7.1.2 Base course .............................................................................................................................................9
7.1.3 Bituminous surfacing ................................................................................................................................9
7.2 Pavement Design Catalogue ......................................................................................................................10
8. Typical section of pavement layer .......................................................................................................................10
9. Worked out Example ...........................................................................................................................................10
10. Glossary of pavement Terms ..........................................................................................................................13
11. References......................................................................................................................................................15
Annex-I: Failure Criteria ...............................................................................................................................................16
Annex-II: Pavement Design Chart................................................................................................................................19
Annex III: Pavement Design Catalogue .......................................................................................................................21
Annex IV: Standard Specifications for Bituminous Surfacing………………………………………………………………38

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 1

 Acknowledgement

This 'Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement)' is prepared as per the agreement between Planning,
Monitoring and Evaluation Unit (PMEU), DoR and individual consultant. The final form of this document has been
agreed after thorough scrutiny of review committee, central level workshop and rigorous interaction among experts in
this field. Consultant has incorporated all the comments and suggestions raised by the experts in several
discussions. Consultant would like to ensure the quality in the document and highly appreciates the initiation taken by
the DoR for the preparation of such technical documents.

Consultant gratefully acknowledges the officials in the PMEU, DoR: DDG Mr. Madhav Karki, Engineer Prabhat
Kumar Jha for heir encourage and initiation for this assignment. Further, SDE Mr. Rajesh Yadav for his contributions
till the final report preparation and arrangement of the meeting as well as workshop in DoR.

I would like to express my gratitude to the members of review committee Senior Divisional Engineers: Er. Rajendra
Raj Sharma, Er. Saroj Bhattarai, Dr. Bishwa Ranjan Singh Shahi, and Mukti Gautam for their precious contribution to
finalize this document. Similarly, I highly appreciate Er. Keshav Kumar Sharma, Er. Durga Prasad Osti for their
suggestions and comments, which facilitated me in the better way.

At this stage of the guidelines, consultant would like to express thanks to the staff of PMEU and other technical
personnel in DoR for their assistance in the preparation of this guidelines. Finally, I appreciate initiation taken by DoR
to enhance technical capacity by the publication of such documents.

Sincerely

Prof. Dr. Padma Bahadur Shahi

Consultant
June, 2013

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 2

 Abbreviation

AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
ADT Average Daily Traffic
BC Bituminous Concrete
BM Bituminous Macadam
CBR California Bearing Ratio
DBM Dense Bituminous Macadam
DoR Department of Roads
E Elastic Modulus
EF Equivalent Factor
esa Equivalent Standard Axles
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
GB Granular Base
GSB Granular Sub Base
IRC Indian Road Congress
MPa Mega Pascal
msa Million Standard Axles
ORN Overseas Road Notes
PC Premix Carpet
SDBC Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete
SSRBW Standard Specification for Road and Bridge Works
TRB Transportation Research Board
TRL Transportation Research Laboratory
VDF Vehicle Damage Factor
WBM Water Bound Macadam

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 3

 Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements

1. Introduction

Pavement is most important component of highway section. The overall functioning of highway system greatly
depends on the performance of its pavement. Furthermore, vehicle operating cost, and entire highway economics
and life cycle are interrelated to the pavement design practice. The design procedure of flexible pavement involves
the interplay of several variables, such as the wheel loads, traffic, climate, terrain and sub-grade soil conditions.
Depending upon specific regional or nationwide characteristics, most of the countries are practicing some empirical
and experience base methods for the design of flexible pavement.

This manual is written with the view to have a unified approach for working out the design of flexible pavement in
Nepal. The objective of this manual is to guide or assist the highway engineer with sufficient information on pavement
design so that one could propose a suitable pavement structure for any specific cases of sub-grade soil, traffic
scenario and materials available on the site.
2. Scope & applicability

Guidelines in this booklet are preferred to for the design of flexible pavements for National Highways and Feeder
Roads. Furthermore, this it could be followed for the design of Arterial and Sub-arterial roads of the urban road
categories.

For the purpose of guidelines, flexible pavements are considered to include the pavements which have bituminous
surfacing and granular base and sub-base courses conforming to Standard Specifications for Road and bridges
Works published by the Department of Roads in 2001.

The manual may require revision from time to time in the light of future experience and development in the field. The
principal users of this manual are the Highway Engineers from government or their agents (i.e. Consultants).
3. References

The design procedures incorporated in this document are based on the IRC 37-2001 guidelines, American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide for Design of Pavement Structures,
Transportation Research Board (TRB), Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) publications, Pavement Structural
Design’ of the Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology (Austroads, 2008) and Road Note 31 (TRL, UK).
4. Design Approach and Criteria

The design of flexible road pavement is generally thought to be a specialist activity that can only be undertaken by
consultants experienced in this type of design. Part of the reason for this may be that foreign consultants engaged on
the design of road pavements in Nepal have tended to use design standards from their respective countries, or other
international standards with which they are familiar. However, the design approaches and criteria for a country should
be defined on the basis of local conditions i.e. climatic socio-economic and technological development and so on. In
this way, intensive research activities should have conducted by the concerned authorities.

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 4

The flexible pavement has been modeled as a three layer structure and stresses and strains at critical locations have
been computed using the linear elastic model. To give proper consideration to the aspects of performance, the
following three types of pavement distress resulting from repeated (cyclic) application of traffic loads are considered:

• Vertical compressive strain at the top of the sub-grade which can cause sub-grade deformation resulting in
permanent deformation at the pavement surface.
• Horizontal tensile strain or stress at the bottom of the bituminous layer which can cause fracture of the
bituminous layer.
• Pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.

The permanent deformation within the bituminous layer can be controlled by meeting the mix design requirements as
per the Standards Specifications for Road and Bridge Works (DoR, 2001). Thicknesses of granular and bituminous
layers are selected by using the analytical design approach so that strains at the critical points are within the
allowable limits. For calculating tensile strains at the bottom of the bituminous layer, the stiffness of dense bituminous
macadam (DBM) layer with 60/70 bitumen has been used in the analysis. The relationships used for allowable
vertical sub-grade strain and allowable tensile strain at the bottom of bituminous layer along with elastic moduli of
different pavement materials and relationships for assessing the elastic moduli of sub-grade, granular and base
layers are given in the Annex I. These theoretical are referred from the IRC 37-2001 guidelines.

Best on the performance of existing practices and using analytical approach, simple design charts and a catalogue of
pavement design have been added for the use of engineers. The Pavement design Charts are given for sub-grade
CBR value ranging from 2 percent to 10 percent and design traffic from 1 msa to 150 msa for an average annual
pavement temperature of 35 0C. The layer thickness obtained from the analysis has been slightly modified to adapt
the designs to stage construction. Using the following simple input parameters, appropriate design could be chosen
for given traffic and sub-grade soil strength:
a) Design traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles; and
b) CBR values of Sub-grade

5. Traffic

5.1 General
Road pavement failure is mainly due to the traffic movement from both the magnitude of the individual wheel loads
and the number of times these loads are applied. The total number of vehicles as well as wheel loads (axle load)
should be considered for pavement design. The load imposed by passenger cars does not contribute significantly to
the structural damage of the pavement. Therefore, cars and similar sized vehicles can be ignored for the structural
design of pavement. Only the total number and the axle loading of the commercial vehicles (heavy vehicles) that will
use the road during its design life need to be considered. In this context, heavy vehicles are defined as those having
an unladen weight of 3000 kg or more. In some circumstances, particularly for low volume roads, construction traffic
can be a significant component of overall traffic loading and the designs should take this into account. The total
number of anticipated commercial vehicles during the design life is converted in to the cumulative equivalent
standard axle of 8160 kg.

5.2 Design life

In the context pavement, design life does not mean that at the end of the period the pavement will be completely
worn out and in need of reconstruction; it means that towards the end of the period the pavement will need to be
strengthened so that it can continue to carry traffic satisfactorily for a further period. Condition surveys of bituminous
pavements are used to determine not only the maintenance requirements but also the nature and rate of change of
condition to help to identify if and when the pavement is likely to need strengthening.

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 5

The design life for the pavement is considered as cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before
strengthening of pavement is necessary. It is recommended that National highways should be designed for a life of
15 years. Expressways and urban roads may be designed longer life of 20 yrs. For other categories of roads, a
design life of 10 to 15 years may be taken.

5.3 Traffic Estimation

5.3.1 Base year traffic flow

For the determination of the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to estimate base year traffic
flows. The estimate should be the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) currently using the route, classified into the vehicle
categories of cars, light goods vehicles, trucks (heavy goods vehicles) and buses. The ADT is defined as the average
number of traffic summed for both directions. Further ADT is multiplied by the seasonal factors to convert it into
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT). Base year traffic flow can be expressed by using a single number i.e.
Passenger Car Unit. It is recommended that traffic count for the purpose of pavement design is conducted for twenty
four hours and for seven days..

5.3.2 Traffic forecasting

The extent of future traffic depends on the many factors such as economic, land-use and demographic factors.
Therefore, traffic forecasting is an uncertain process. In a developing economy the problem becomes more difficult
because such economies are often very sensitive to the world prices of just one or two commodities. In order to
forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic into the following three categories:

a) Normal traffic: Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new pavement were
provided. The commonest method of forecasting normal traffic is to extrapolate time series data on traffic
levels and assume that growth will either remain constant in absolute terms i.e. a fixed number of vehicles
per year (a linear extrapolation), or constant in relative terms i.e. a fixed percentage increase.

b) Diverted traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the project road because of
the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin and destination. Where parallel routes
exist, traffic will usually travel on the quickest route although this may not necessarily be the shortest. Thus,
surfacing an existing road may divert traffic from a parallel and shorter route because higher speeds are
possible on the surfaced road. Origin and destination surveys should be carried out to provide data on the
traffic diversions likely to arise.
Diverted traffic is normally assumed to grow at the same rate as traffic on the road from which it is diverted.

c) Generated traffic: Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or improvement of the road.
Generated traffic arises either because a journey becomes more attractive by virtue of a cost or time
reduction or because of the increased development that is brought about by the road investment. Generated
traffic is difficult to forecast accurately and can be easily overestimated. It is only likely to be significant in
those cases where the road investment brings about large reductions in transport costs. For example, in the
case of a small improvement within an already developed highway system, generated traffic will be small
and can normally be ignored. However, in the case of a new road allowing access to a undeveloped area,
there could be large reductions in transport costs as a result of changing mode from, for example, animal-
based transport to motor vehicle transport. In such a case, generated traffic could be the main component of
future traffic flow.

5.4 Axle loading

An accurate estimate of the current traffic loading is essential for an appropriate pavement design. Traffic volumes
can be determined by traffic counts, but for current vehicle loads can be found by an axle load survey. It is not
rational to design pavement layer on the basis of legal axle load limits because of the widespread problem of

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 6

overloading. In addition to this, the proportion of vehicles with partially loaded in unknown. In these circumstances of
axle loading, pavement design across the world is accepted to design on the basis of Standard Axle i.e. 8.16 tonnes
(80 kN). In Nepal, the legal axle load limit is 10.2 tonnes.

5.4.1 Equivalence factor

The damage that vehicles do to a road pavement depends very strongly on the axle loads of the vehicles. For
pavement design purposes the damaging power of axles is related to a 'standard' axle of 8.16 tonnes (80 kN) using
equivalence factors which have been derived from empirical studies. In order to determine the cumulative axle load
damage that a pavement will sustain during its design life, it is necessary to express the total number of heavy
vehicles that will use the road over this period in terms of the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles (esa).
Axle load surveys must be carried out to determine the axle load distribution of a sample of the heavy vehicles using
the road. Data collected from these surveys are used to calculate the mean number of equivalent standard axles for
a typical vehicle in each class. These values are then used in conjunction with traffic forecasts to determine the
predicted cumulative equivalent standard axles that the road will carry over its design life. Equivalence factor is
calculated by using the following relationships:

4
 Axle load , kgf 
• Front steering wheel (single wheel) axle EF =  
 5410 kgf (53kN ) 
4
 Axle load , kgf 
• Single axle dual wheel EF =  
 8160 kgf (80kN ) 

4
 Axle load , kgf 
• Tandem axle dual wheel EF =  
 14968 kgf (146.8kN ) 

5.4.2 Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF)

Where sufficient information on axle load is not available and project size does not warrant conducting an axle load
survey, the indicative values of Vehicle damage factor (VDF) may be used as given in the table below

The Vehicle Damage factor (VDF) is the multiplier to convert the number of commercial vehicles of different axle
loads and axle configuration to the number of standard axle load repetitions. It is defined as equivalent number of
standard axle per commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with the vehicle axle configuration, axle loading, and terrain
type and from region to region. The VDF is arrived at axle load surveys on typical sections so as to cover various
influencing factors, such as traffic mix, mode of transportation, commodities carried, time of the year, terrain, road
conditions and degree of enforcement.

Table 1 Values of VDF

Vehicle type VDF Remarks
Heavy truck (three 6.50
axle or more)
Heavy two axle 4.75 hilly terrain 3.5
Mini truck/tractor 1.0
Large bus 0.50
Bus 0.35

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 7

 5.5 Distribution of commercial traffic over the carriageway
Total traffic AADT (both way) is distributed over the whole carriageway for design of pavement. During the calculation
of design traffic (total equivalent standard axle) realistic study should be done for the directional distribution of total
traffic. In the absence of adequate and conclusive data for particular project, it is recommended that following
distribution may be assumed for design.

a) Single lane roads: traffic tends to be more channelized on single lane roads than two-lane roads and to
allow for this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should be based on total number of
commercial vehicles in both direction.
b) Two-lane single carriage roads/ Intermediate lane roads: the design should be based on 75 percent of
the total number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
c) Four-lane single carriageway roads: the design should be based on 40 percent of the total number of
commercial vehicles in both directions.
d) Dual carriageway roads: The design of dual two lane carriageway roads should be based on 75 percent of
the number of commercial vehicles in each direction. For dual three-lane carriageway and dual four lane
carriageway, the distribution factor will be 60 percent and 45 percent respectively.

The traffic in each direction may be assumed to be half of the sum in both directions when the latter only is known.
Where significant difference between the two streams can occur, condition in the more heavily trafficked lane should
be considered for design.

Where the distribution of traffic between the carriageway lanes and axle loads spectrum for the carriageway lanes
are available, the design should be based on the traffic in the most heavily trafficked lane and the same design will
normally be applied for the whole carriageway width.

5.6 Computation of design traffic

The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative number of standard axles (in the particular lane carrying
maximum traffic) to be carried during the design life of the pavement. This can be computed as:

365 *[(1 + r ) n − 1]
N= * A* D * F
r

Where,
N = the cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the design in terms of msa
A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day
D = Lane distribution factor
F = Vehicle damage factor
n = Design life in year
r = annual growth rate of commercial vehicle (in the absence of detail traffic study r can be taken as 7% i.e
0.07)

The traffic in the year of completion is estimated using the following formula: A = P (1 + r ) x
Where, P is the number of commercial vehicles as per the last traffic count; x is the number of years between the last
traffic count and the year of completion of construction.

6. Sub-grade

The sub-grade in cut and fill should be well compacted to utilize its full strength and to economize on the overall
thickness of the pavement required. Heavy compaction is recommended for the construction of express ways,

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 8

National highways and feeder roads as well as urban roads. Current Standard Specification for Road and Bridge
Works (SSRBW) describes the provision of Capping layer (Clause 1004), mechanical stabilization (Clause 1005) and
Lime stabilization (Clause 1006) for the preparation of sub-grade in different soil conditions. The general
requirements for the construction detail of sub-grade should be referred to the Section 1000 of Standard
Specifications for Road and Bridge Works.

7. Pavement Thickness and Composition

Total pavement thickness is recommended to adopt from the Chart given in the Annex II of this document. Total
thickness of the pavement (in mm) is interpolated based on the given values of the CBR of sub-grade and cumulative
number of standard axles (msa). The composition of pavement layer and their thickness is found by using the
'Pavement Design Catalogue' given in the Annex III. Charts provided in the Annex II are based on the IRC 37-2001.
Pavement Design Catalogue has been developed for particular CBR value and cumulative number of standard axles.
The total thickness is reduced to granular sub-base, granular base and bituminous wearing course.
7.1 Pavement Composition

7.1.1 Sub-base
Sub-base construction material requirements and construction procedure shall be followed the standard Specification
for Road and Bridge Works (Clause 12001). Gavel, Sands, Silty and Clayey sands could be used for the
construction of sub-base course. The CBR values of the materials, after 4 days soaking, shall not be less than 30 %
at 95 % heavy compaction (Clause 1201-3b). these requirements and the specified grain size distribution of the sub-
base material should be strictly enforce in order to meet stability and drainage requirements of the granular sub-base
layer.
From drainage consideration the granular sub-base should extended over the entire formation width. The minimum
thickness of the sub-base layer shall be 150 mm. Where stage construction is adopted for pavements, the thickness
of sub-base shall be provided for ultimate pavement section for the full design life. In the areas affected by frost, care
should be taken to avoid using frost susceptible materials in the sub-base.

7.1.2 Base course

Unbound granular bases which comprise conventional Graded Crushed Stone and Water Bound Macadam (WBM)
base shall be provided as per the Standard Specification (Clause 1202 and 1203). Materials used in the base must
satisfy the grading and physical requirements in the Standard Specification. The recommended minimum thickness
of granular base is 150 mm.

7.1.3 Bituminous surfacing

Bituminous surfacing shall consist of either a wearing course or a binder course with a wearing course depending
upon the traffic to be carried. The most commonly wearing course used are surface dressing, open graded premix
carpet, mix seal surfacing, semi dense bituminous macadam and dense bituminous macadam. For surfacing as well
as binder courses the Standard Specification prescribes surface dressing, penetration macadam, asphalt concrete,
sand asphalt and cold asphalt (Section 1300).

Specifications for Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) and Premix Carpet (PC) have been included herewith in
Annex IV. These specifications have been developed on the basis of the IRC SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD AND
BRIDGE WORKS (Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, India) and DoR publication SSRBW, Nepal.

The recommended pavement composition and thickness in terms of the cumulative standard axles to be carried
during the design life are given in the design catalogue in the Annex III. The thickness of surface treatments such as
Premix Carpet (PC) or Surface Dressing should not be counted towards the total thickness of the pavement as such
surfacing will be purely for wearing and will not add to the structural capacity of the pavement.

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 9

.
The choice of appropriate type of bituminous surfacing will depend upon several factors, like design traffic over the
service life, the type of base/binder course provided, whether the pavement is to be built up in stages, rainfall and
other related factors. The recommended types and thickness of wearing courses for traffic from 10 msa to 150 msa
are given in the design catalogue, which may be modified if the environmental conditions and experience so justify.

The grade of the bitumen will be selected keeping in view traffic, rainfall and other environmental conditions. The
selection criteria for the grade of the bitumen to be used is given in the Annex I. Special consideration shall be given
to the areas with high altitude with snow precipitation.

7.2 Pavement Design Catalogue

Based on the results of analysis of the pavement structure, practical requirements and specifications the
recommended designs for the traffic range from 1 to 10 msa and for 10 to 150 msa are given in the Annex III
(Pavement Design Catalogue). In some cases, the total pavement thickness are given in the recommended designs
is slightly more than the thickness obtained from the design charts. This is in order to:
a) provide the minimum prescribed thickness of sub-base
b) Adapt the design to stage construction which necessitated some adjustment and increase in sub-base
thickness.

8. Typical section of pavement layer

Typical section of the pavement layers is given in figure 1 as per the design approach in this design manual.
Functions of each layer are described in the table below.

Figure 1 Typical pavement cross section

9. Worked out Example

Design the flexible pavement for construction of a new road with the following data:

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 10

 • Two lane single carriage way is to designed in plain area
• Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction = 310 CVPD (sum of both directions) as mentioned
below:
o heavy truck three axle: 30
o heavy truck two axle: 70
o mini truck: 120
o large bus: 60
o bus: 30

• Traffic growth rate = 7.0 %

• Design life = 15 years
• Vehicle damage factor based on axle load survey
• vehicle
• Design CBR of sub-grade soil = 5%.

Solution:
a) Lane Distribution factor = 0.75
b) Cumulative number of standard axle for design life of 15 years

Vehicle type Numbers VDF Equivalent standard axle, per day

heavy truck three axle 30 6.50 195
heavy truck two axle: 70 4.75 333
mini truck: 120 1.0 120
large bus 60 0.50 30
bus 30 0.35 11
Total: 689 standard axles per day
Initial standard number of axles= A*F = 689 esa

365 *[(1 + r ) n − 1]
Cumulative Number of standard axles for design period: N = * A* D * F
r

365 * [(1 + 0.07)15 − 1]

N= * 0.75 * 689
0.07
N = 4.73 msa

c) Total thickness of the pavement with CBR 5% and 4.73 msa (figure 3) = 575 mm
d) Pavement composition from (Annex III):
i. Bituminous wearing course: Asphalt Concrete 50 mm.
ii. Bituminous Binder course: DBM 50 mm
iii. Base course: Water Bound Macadam: 150 mm
iv. Sub-base: Granular sub-base 325 mm CBR not less than 30 %
v. Pavement cross section:

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 11

 Figure 2 Cross section of the designed pavement

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 12

 10. Glossary of pavement Terms

Asphalt Concrete Bituminous concrete/ Asphalt Concrete is a dense graded premixed bituminous mix which is well
compacted to form a high quality pavement surface. The AC consists of carefully proportioned
mixture of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, mineral filler and bitumen and the mix is
designed by an appropriate method such as Marshall Stability method to full fill the requirements
of stability, density, flexibility and voids.
Base course main structural layer below wearing course
Binder course An asphalt layer that is placed between an asphalt base layer and an asphalt surface layer. The
binder layer is included for its better workability to reduce permeability and improve roughness
levels.
Bituminous BM or bituminous Bound Macadam is premixed type of construction consisting one or more
Macadam courses of compacted crushed aggregates premixed with bituminous binder, laid immediately
after mixing. BM is base course or binder course and should be covered by surfacing course
before exposing to traffic.

Bituminous BSD is provided over an existing pavement to serve as thin wearing coat. It can be done in two
Surface Dressing layers. Function of surface dressing: to provide a dust free/mud free surface over a base course;
to provide a waterproof layer to prevent infiltration of surface water; to protect the base course
capping layer Where shown on the Drawing or where in-situ material in the subgrade in cutting does not meet
the requirements, in-situ materials shall be replaced with selected material from cuttings or
borrow pits
Design period The time span considered appropriate for the major structural elements of the road pavement to
function without rehabilitation and/or reconstruction. Treatments, such as replacement of
surfacing layers and stage construction treatments, that maintain the integrity of the other
components of the pavement are included within the design period. The time span considered
appropriate for the road pavement to function without major rehabilitation and/or reconstruction.
It is defined in terms of cumulative number of standard axles that can be carried before
strengthening of pavement is necessary
Diverted traffic Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the project road because of the
improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin and destination

Flexible Pavement Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure deflects, or flexes,
under loading. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of material.
Each layer receives the loads from the above layer, spreads them out, and then passes on
these loads to the next layer below. Thus, the further down in the pavement structure a
particular layer is, the less load (in terms of force per area) it must carry.
Formation level The level of the top surface of the sub-grade upon which pavement structures is built up

Generated traffic Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or improvement of the road

Normal traffic Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new pavement were
provided.
Penetration Penetration Macadam or grouted Macadam is used as a base or binder course. The course
Macadam aggregate are first spread and compacted well in dry state and after that hot bitumen of
relatively high viscosity is sprayed in fairly large quantity at the top. The bitumen penetrates into
the voids and binding stone aggregates together. After the penetration of bitumen, key
aggregates are spread over the previous layer and it is compacted.

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 13

Premix Carpet PC consists of course aggregates of 12.5 mm and 10 mm sizes premixed with bitumen or tar
binder are compacted to a thickness of 20 mm to serve as a surface course of the pavement.
Being open graded construction, the PC is to be covered by a suitable seal coat such as
premixed sand-bitumen seal coal before opening to traffic.
Prime coat Prime coat is applied over an existing porous or absorbent pavement surface (for example on
WBM) with low viscosity. Main function of prime coat is to seal the pores and waterproof the
underlying layer and to develop interface condition for bonding. Usually MC or SC cutback
binders with suitable grade are used.
Rigid pavement Rigid pavements are the pavement structure deflects very little under loading due to the high
modulus of elasticity of their surface course. A rigid pavement structure is typically composed of
a PCC surface course built on top of either (1) the subgrade or (2) an underlying base course.
Because of its relative rigidity, the pavement structure distributes loads over a wide area with
only one, or at most two, structural layers.
Seal Coat Seal Coat is usually recommended as a top coat over certain bituminous pavements which are
not impervious, such as open graded bituminous construction like premixed carpet and grouted
Macadam. Seal coat is also provided over an existing bituminous pavement which is worn out.
The seal coat is a very thin surface treatment or a single coat surface dressing which is usually
applied over an existing black top surface. A premixed sand bitumen (hot mix) seal coat is also
commonly used over the premixed carpet.
Stabilizer The selected natural or crushed material, lime, cement and other similar materials to be mixed
into the in-situ material of the subgrade is defined as the “stabilizer”.

sub-grade Up to 300 mm below formation level is designated as “sub-grade”.

Sub-Base Course The sub-base course is between the base course and the sub-grade. It functions primarily as
structural support but it can also: to minimize the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade into the
pavement structure; to improve drainage; to minimize frost action damage; to provide a working
platform for construction
Tack coat Tack coat is applied on relatively impervious layer for example existing bituminous or cement
concrete pavement or a pervious layer like the WBM which has already been treated by prime
coat.
Vehicle damage It is a multiplier to convert the number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads and
Factor (VDF) configuration to the number of standard axle load repetitions. It is equivalent number of standard
axles per commercial vehicle. The VDF varies with vehicle axle configuration, axle loading,
terrain, type of road and from region to region.
Water Bound The water bound macadam (WBM) is the construction known after the name of John Mac Adam.
Macadam Present understanding is made of crushed or broken aggregates. Crushed or broken aggregates
are bound together by the action of rolling. Binding is achieved by stone dust used as filler in
presence of water. The thickness of each compacted layer ranges from 10cm to 7.5 cm
depending on the size and gradation of the aggregates used.

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 14

11. References

1 Guidelines for the design of flexible pavements (second edition), Indian Road Congress, 2001

2 Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, GoN, Department of Roads, July, 2001

3 A Guide to the Structural design of bituminous surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Overseas
Road Note 31. Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), 1993

4 A guide to axle load Surveys and traffic counts for determining traffic loading on pavements. Overseas Road
Note 40. Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), 2004
5 PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUAL, Supplement to ‘Part 2: Pavement Structural Design’, of the Austroads Guide
to Pavement Technology. Queensland Department of Main Roads Pavements & Materials Branch, Australia,
2009

6 Pavement Design Guide for Local and Collector Roads, Roads Department, Road Planning Section, October
1998
7 AASHTO, Guide for the Design of pavement structures, 1993

9 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA, Central Public Works Department, CPWD Specifications Volume 2, 2009

10 Pavement Design Guide for Roads & Highways Department, Government of the People’s Republic of
Bangladesh, Ministry of Communications, Roads and Railways Division2005

11 Flexible Pavement Design manual, Florida Department of Transportation Pavement Management Office 605
Suwanee Street, M.S. 32 TALLAHASSEE, FLORIDA, DOCUMENT NO. 625-010-002-g MARCH 2008

12 Guidelines for low volume sealed Roads, Southern African Development Community (SADC); SADC House,
Private Bag 0095, Gaborone, BOTSWANA, 2003
13 Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, UPGRADED SECTION 500, AND ITS RELATED,
ASPECTS IN SECTIONS, 900 AND 3000, (Addendum to Third Revision), Ministry of Road Transport and,
Highways, India, 2000

14 Design Manual for low volume sealed road Malawi, Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 2013

15 Gudelines for Traffic Prediction on Rural Highways, IRC 1996

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 15

 Annex-I: Failure Criteria

Failure criteria, relationship between number of cumulative standard axles, strains values and elastic moduli
of materials:

a) Fatigue criteria

Figure 3 Critical Locations on Pavement

A and B are the critical locations for tensile strains (εt). Thus the maximum value for tensile strain is adopted for
design is (εt). C is the critical location for the vertical sub-grade strain (εz) since the maximum value of the εz occurs
mostly at point C.

Bituminous surfacing of pavement displays flexural fatigue cracking if the tensile strain at the bottom of the
bituminous layer is beyond certain limit. The relation between the fatigue life of the pavement and the tensile strain in
the bottom of the bituminous layer can be obtained:

3.89 0.854
1
−4  1
N f = 2.21*10 *   * 
 εt  E
Where, Nf is the number of cumulative standard axles to produce 20 percentage cracked surface area; (εt) is the
tensile strain at the bottom of the bituminous concrete layer; E is the Elastic modulus of bituminous surfacing.

The values of the elastic moduli of Asphalt Concrete (AC), Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) and Bituminous
Macadam (BM) meeting the requirements of the Standard specifications of DoR are given below.

Table 1: Elastic Modulus (MPa) of Bituminous materials

Temperature, 0C
Mix Type
20 25 30 35 40
AC and DBM 80/100 Bitumen 2300 1966 1455 975 797
AC and DBM 60/70 Bitumen 3600 3126 2579 1695 1270
AC and DBM 30/40 Bitumen 6000 4928 3809 2944 2276
(75 blows compaction and 4 %
air voids)
BM 80/100 Bitumen - - - 500 -
BM 60/70 Bitumen - - - 700 -

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 16

The above fatigue equation was calibrated at 350 C for bituminous concrete surfacing having 80/100 bitumen and the
equation was generalized by introducing the term containing the elastic modulus (E) of the bituminous layer so that
pavement can be designed for temperatures from 200 C to 400 C using any grade of bitumen.

The Poisson's ratio of bituminous layer may be taken as 0.5 for pavement temperature of 35 0C and 40 0C. For
temperature from 20 0C to 30 0C, a value of 0.35 may be adopted. Fatigue equation at any pavement temperature
from 20 0C to 40 0C can be evaluated by substituting the elastic modulus of pavement temperature. Catalogue of
design has been worked for temperature of 35 0C.
b) Rutting criteria
The rutting criteria as mentioned in IRC 37-2001 is the allowable rut depth as 20 mm, the rutting equation was
obtained as:
4.5337
1
−8
N r = 4.1656 *10 *  
εz 

Where, Nr is the number of cumulative standard axles to produce rutting of 20 mm; ε z is the vertical sub-grade strain.

c) Modulus of Elasticity of Sub-grade, Sub-Base and Base layers

Sub-grade E = 10*CBR for CBR<5

E = 176*(CBR)0.64 for CBR > 5

Granular Sub-base E2 = E3*0.2*h0.45

Where, E2 is the composite Elastic Modulus of granular sub-base and Base (MPa); E3 is Elastic Modulus of
Sub-grade (MPa); h is the thickness of granular layers (mm); Poison's ratio for both the granular layers as
well as sub-grade layer may be taken as 0.4.

d) Calculation of equivalent modulus of elasticity

For two layered system of pavement system, equivalent modulus of elasticity can be found using empirical
relationship:
 h 
1.05 − 0.1 D (1 − E 2 / E1 ) E1
3

E eq =  
 1 . 35 h e  E 2 D
0.713 E 2 / E1 arctan   + 1 arctan
 D  E2 π h

Where,
E1 - Modulus of elasticity of upper layer
E2 – Modulus of Elasticity of lower layer
h – Thickness of upper layer
D – Diameter of circular area of contact between transferring wheel loads to the pavement.
heq = 2 h 3 E1 / 6 E eq
- equivalent thickness of materials of lower layer with E2

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 17

 e) Substitution of Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM):
Part of DBM can be substituted for BM on the basis of equal flexural stiffness given as:

E1H13 E2 H 23
=
12(1 − µ12 ) 12(1 − µ 22 )
Where, E1, H1, µ1 and E2, H2, µ2 are the parameters (Elastic modulus, Thickness and Poisson's ratio) of DBM and BM
respectively. Based on the above equation, following equivalent thickness may be used:

Conversion factors for the thickness of pavement layers (i.e different constituent materials) can be done in terms of
modulus of Elasticity. Considering the equal value of the Poisson's ration (µ ) for both the layers, the equivalent
thickness (H1) of layer 1 is equal to:

1
E 3
H1 =  2  H 2
 E1 

Where, H2 is the thickness of layer 2 ; E1 and E2 are Modulus of elasticity of layers.

Examples:
The vales of modulus of elasticity of Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) and Bituminous Macadam (BM) are 1695
and 700 MPa respectively.
The thickness of 180 mm DBM can be split into: 125 mm DBM + 75 mm BM.

The 55 mm thickness of DBM can be converted into 75 mm of BM using above relationship.

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 18

 Annex-II: Pavement Design Chart

Figure 4 Pavement Thickness Design Chart 1-10 msa

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 19

 Figure 5 Pavement Design Chart, 10-150 msa

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 20

Annex III: Pavement Design Catalogue

Pavement Design Catalogue

Plate I - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 1 - 10 msa

CBR 2%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Bituminous Surfacing
Pavement Granular
Traffic, Granular Capping
Thickness, Wearing Binder Sub-base,
msa Base, mm Layer, mm
mm Course, mm Course, mm mm
1 650 20 PC 150 200 300
2 710 20 PC 50 DBM 160 200 300
3 750 20 PC 50 DBM 160 240 300
5 790 50 AC 50 DBM 150 240 300
10 850 50 AC 100 DBM 200 200 300
Thickness & Composition (mm)

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 21

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate I - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 1 - 10 msa

CBR 3%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Bituminous Surfacing
Pavement Granular
Traffic, Granular Capping
Thickness, Wearing Binder Sub-base,
msa Base, mm Layer, mm
mm Course, mm Course, mm mm
1 550 20 PC 150 200 200
2 610 20 PC 50 DBM 160 200 200
3 645 20 PC 50 DBM 150 245 200
5 690 50 AC 50 DBM 150 240 200
10 760 50 AC 50 DBM 200 260 200
Thickness & Composition (mm)

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 22

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate I - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 1 - 10 msa

CBR 4%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous Surfacing
Traffic, msa Thickness, Granular Granular Sub-
Wearing Binder Base, mm base, mm
mm
Course, mm Course, mm
1 475 20 PC 150 325
2 525 20 PC 50 DBM 150 325
3 560 20 PC 50 DBM 200 310
5 610 50 AC 50 DBM 200 310
10 695 50 AC 100 DBM 200 345
Thickness & Composition (mm)

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 23

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate I - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 1 - 10 msa

CBR 5%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous Surfacing
Traffic, msa Thickness, Granular Granular Sub-
Wearing Binder Base, mm base, mm
mm
Course, mm Course, mm
1 430 20 PC 150 280
2 480 20 PC 50 DBM 150 280
3 510 20 PC 50 DBM 150 310
5 580 50 AC 50 DBM 150 330
10 660 50 AC 50 DBM 200 360

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 24

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate I - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 1 - 10 msa

CBR 6%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous Surfacing
Traffic, msa Thickness, Granular Granular Sub-
Wearing Binder Base, mm base, mm
mm
Course, mm Course, mm
1 400 20 PC 150 250
2 450 20 PC 50 DBM 150 250
3 475 20 PC 50 DBM 150 275
5 530 50 AC 50 DBM 150 280
10 610 50 AC 50 DBM 200 310

CBR 6%
900 900
Thickness & Composition (mm)

800 800

50 AC
600 50 AC
600
50 DBM
20 PC 20 PC
20 PC 50 DBM 50 DBM
50 DBM
400 200 400
150 150 150
150

200 275 280 310 200

250 250

1 2 3 5 10
Design Traffic (msa)

Premix Carpet Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM)

Bituminous Concrete
Granular base

Granular Sub-base

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 25

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate I - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 1 - 10 msa

CBR 7%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous Surfacing
Traffic, msa Thickness, Granular Granular Sub-
Wearing Binder Base, mm base, mm
mm
Course, mm Course, mm
1 360 20 PC 150 210
2 410 20 PC 50 DBM 150 210
3 450 20 PC 50 DBM 150 250
5 500 50 AC 50 DBM 150 300
10 575 50 AC 50 DBM 150 325

CBR 7%
900 900
Thickness & Composition (mm)

800 800

50 AC
600 50 AC 600
50 DBM
20 PC 50 DBM
20 PC
150
50 DBM
400 20 PC 50 DBM 150 400
150
150
150

200 300 325 200

210 250
210

1 2 3 5 10
Design Traffic (msa)

Premix Carpet Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM)

Bituminous Concrete
Granular base

Granular Sub-base

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 26

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate I - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 1 - 10 msa

CBR 8%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous Surfacing
Traffic, msa Thickness, Granular Granular Sub-
Wearing Binder Base, mm base, mm
mm
Course, mm Course, mm
1 340 20 PC 150 190
2 375 20 PC 50 DBM 150 175
3 420 20 PC 50 DBM 150 220
5 460 50 AC 50 DBM 150 210
10 550 50 AC 50 DBM 150 300
Thickness & Composition (mm)

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 27

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate I - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 1 - 10 msa

CBR 9 & 10%

Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous Surfacing
Traffic, msa Thickness, Granular Granular Sub-
Wearing Binder Base, mm base, mm
mm
Course, mm Course, mm
1 300 20 PC 150 150
2 350 20 PC 50 DBM 150 150
3 400 20 PC 50 DBM 150 200
5 450 50 AC 50 DBM 150 200
10 540 50 AC 50 DBM 175 265
Thickness & Composition (mm)

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 28

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 2%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Bituminous Granular
Pavement Granular Capping
Traffic, Surfacing Sub-
Thickness, Base, Layer,
msa Asphalt base,
mm DBM mm mm
Concrete mm
10 850 50 100 200 200 300
20 880 50 100 200 230 300
30 900 50 100 200 250 300
50 925 50 100 250 225 300
100 950 50 100 250 250 300
150 975 50 150 250 225 300

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 29

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 3%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous
Traffic, msa Thickness, Surfacing Granular
Granular
mm Sub-base,
Asphalt Base, mm
DBM mm
Concrete
10 760 50 100 250 360
20 790 50 120 250 370
30 810 50 130 250 380
50 830 50 150 250 380
100 860 50 180 250 380
150 880 50 200 250 380

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 30

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 4%
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous
Traffic, msa Thickness, Surfacing Granular
Granular
mm Sub-base,
Asphalt Base, mm
DBM mm
Concrete
10 695 50 100 200 345
20 730 50 100 250 330
30 750 50 120 250 330
50 770 50 140 250 330
100 800 50 170 250 330
150 820 50 190 250 330

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 31

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 5 %
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous
Traffic, msa Thickness, Surfacing Granular
Granular
mm Sub-base,
Asphalt Base, mm
DBM mm
Concrete
10 660 50 50 200 360
20 700 50 100 250 300
30 710 50 110 250 300
50 730 50 130 250 300
100 750 50 150 250 300
150 770 50 170 250 300

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 32

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 6 %
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous
Traffic, msa Thickness, Surfacing Granular
Granular
mm Sub-base,
Asphalt Base, mm
DBM mm
Concrete
10 610 50 50 200 310
20 640 50 100 200 290
30 655 50 100 200 310
50 675 50 110 250 265
100 700 50 120 250 280
150 730 50 150 250 280

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 33

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 7 %
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous
Traffic, msa Thickness, Surfacing Granular
Granular
mm Sub-base,
Asphalt Base, mm
DBM mm
Concrete
10 575 50 50 150 325
20 610 50 100 200 260
30 630 50 120 200 260
50 650 50 140 200 260
100 675 50 140 250 235
150 695 50 150 250 245

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 34

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 8 %
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous
Traffic, msa Thickness, Surfacing Granular
Granular
mm Sub-base,
Asphalt Base, mm
DBM mm
Concrete
10 550 50 50 150 300
20 575 50 50 200 275
30 590 50 50 200 290
50 610 50 100 200 260
100 640 50 100 250 240
150 660 50 100 250 260

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 35

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 9 %
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous
Traffic, msa Thickness, Surfacing Granular
Granular
mm Sub-base,
Asphalt Base, mm
DBM mm
Concrete
10 540 50 50 175 265
20 570 50 50 200 270
30 585 50 50 200 285
50 610 50 100 200 260
100 635 50 100 250 235
150 655 50 120 250 235

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 36

 Pavement Design Catalogue
Plate II - Recommended Design for Traffic Range 10 - 150 msa

CBR 10 %
Pavement Composition
Total
Cumulative Pavement Bituminous
Traffic, msa Thickness, Surfacing Granular
Granular
mm Sub-base,
Asphalt Base, mm
DBM mm
Concrete
10 540 50 50 175 265
20 565 50 50 200 265
30 580 50 50 200 280
50 600 50 100 250 200
100 630 50 130 250 200
150 650 50 150 250 200

Pavement Design Guidelines (Flexible Pavement) 37