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    Life Cycle Cost

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    vishwas gaur
    This project aims to create a life-cycle assessment of an aircraft to address environmental concerns in aviation. A literature review found that only two previous studies conducted a comprehensive life-cycle inventory of aircraft infrastructure and fuel. The project compares these methods and chooses to follow one approach for creating an LCA of the A320 aircraft using GaBi software. The results will help compare the environmental impacts of different phases of the aircraft's life cycle.

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    Life Cycle Cost

    Uploaded by

    vishwas gaur
    121 views64 pages
    This project aims to create a life-cycle assessment of an aircraft to address environmental concerns in aviation. A literature review found that only two previous studies conducted a comprehensive life-cycle inventory of aircraft infrastructure and fuel. The project compares these methods and chooses to follow one approach for creating an LCA of the A320 aircraft using GaBi software. The results will help compare the environmental impacts of different phases of the aircraft's life cycle.

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    How to assess life cycle cost in aircraft

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    This project aims to create a life-cycle assessment of an aircraft to address environmental concerns in aviation. A literature review found that only two previous studies conducted a comprehensive life-cycle inventory of aircraft infrastructure and fuel. The project compares these methods and chooses to follow one approach for creating an LCA of the A320 aircraft using GaBi software. The results will help compare the environmental impacts of different phases of the aircraft's life cycle.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    121 views64 pages

    Life Cycle Cost

    Uploaded by

    vishwas gaur
    This project aims to create a life-cycle assessment of an aircraft to address environmental concerns in aviation. A literature review found that only two previous studies conducted a comprehensive life-cycle inventory of aircraft infrastructure and fuel. The project compares these methods and chooses to follow one approach for creating an LCA of the A320 aircraft using GaBi software. The results will help compare the environmental impacts of different phases of the aircraft's life cycle.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    of 64

    Project

    Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering

    Creating a Life-Cycle Assessment of an Aircraft

    Author: Jeroen Verstraete

    Examiner: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Scholz, MSME

    Supervisor: Dipl.-Ing. Andreas Johanning

    Delivery date: 12 July 2012


    

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    3

    Declaration
    This project work is entirely my own work. Where use has been made of the work of others, it
    has been totally acknowledged and referenced.

    2012-07-19
    ....................................................................................
    Date Signature
    4

    Table of Contents
    Page
    Abstract .................................................................................................................. 1
    Task......................................................................................................................... 2
    Declaration ............................................................................................................. 3
    List of Figures ........................................................................................................ 6
    List of Tables .......................................................................................................... 7
    List of Symbols....................................................................................................... 8
    List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................. 9
    Terms and Definitions ......................................................................................... 11

    1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 12
    1.1 Motivation ............................................................................................................. 12
    1.2 Objectives .............................................................................................................. 13
    1.3 Structure of the Work ............................................................................................ 13

    2 Impact of Aviation on the Environment ........................................................... 14


    2.1 Emissions from Aviation ....................................................................................... 14
    2.1.1 Emissions from Fuel Combustion ......................................................................... 14
    2.2 Emission Index ...................................................................................................... 15
    2.3 Radiative Forcing .................................................................................................. 15
    2.4 Comparison with other Polluters ........................................................................... 18
    2.5 Environmental Effects Included ............................................................................ 18

    3 Life-Cycle Assessment ......................................................................................... 20


    3.1 Four Main Phases .................................................................................................. 20
    3.1.1 Goal and Scope ..................................................................................................... 20
    3.1.2 Life-Cycle Inventory ............................................................................................. 22
    3.1.3 Life-Cycle Inventory Assessment ......................................................................... 22
    3.1.4 Interpretation ......................................................................................................... 24
    3.2 LCA Terms ............................................................................................................ 24
    3.3 Environmental and Energy Data ............................................................................ 26
    3.4 Creating a LCA in GaBi ......................................................................................... 27
    3.4.1 Creating a Balance ................................................................................................. 27

    4 Literature Research for already existing Life-Cycle Assessments of Aircraft30


    4.1 Methods and Results of Chester ............................................................................ 31
    4.2 Method and Results of Lopes ................................................................................ 33

    5 Comparison of EIO-LCA and Simapro ............................................................ 35


    5.1 Engine in EIO-LCA............................................................................................... 35
    5.2 Airframe in EIO-LCA ........................................................................................... 37
    5.3 Aircraft in Simapro ................................................................................................ 37
    5.4 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 38
    5.4.1 EIO-LCA ............................................................................................................... 39
    5.4.2 Simapro ................................................................................................................. 40
    5

    6 LCA of the A320-200 ........................................................................................... 41


    6.1 Goal and Scope ..................................................................................................... 41
    6.1.1 Functional Units .................................................................................................... 42
    6.1.2 Extensive LCA Flowchart ..................................................................................... 42
    6.2 Life-Cycle Inventory ............................................................................................. 43
    6.2.1 Mass Method.......................................................................................................... 43
    6.2.2 Estimating Manufacturing Costs ........................................................................... 44
    6.2.3 Estimation of Engine Price .................................................................................... 45
    6.2.4 Estimation of Airframe Price ................................................................................. 45
    6.2.5 LTO Cycle ............................................................................................................. 46
    6.2.6 Cruise Phase .......................................................................................................... 46
    6.2.7 Cargo ..................................................................................................................... 50
    6.3 Life-Cycle Impact assessment ............................................................................... 50
    6.4 End of Life ............................................................................................................. 55
    6.5 Uncertainty ............................................................................................................ 55

    7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 56

    Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. 57

    References................................................................................................................................58

    Appendix: Compact Disk ...................................................................................................... 63


    6

    List of Figures
    Figure 2.1 Fuel combustion emissions .......................................................................... 14
    Figure 2.2 Aircraft emissions and climate change (Global 2009) ................................ 16
    Figure 2.3 Impact of emissions on global warming, Low Emission Effect Aircraft
    project (LEEA 2006) (adapted from Schmitt 2009) ................................... 17
    Figure 2.4 Impact of aviation on global CO2-emission in 2004 (Schmitt 2009) ......... 18
    Figure 3.1 System boundaries of a life-cycle (see also section 6.1) ............................. 21
    Figure 3.2 Life cycle inventory table example .............................................................. 22
    Figure 3.3 Classification and characterisation example (GaBi 2012) .......................... 23
    Figure 3.4 Life cycle impact assessment. Schematic steps from inventory to
    category Endpoints (EC 2010) .................................................................... 23
    Figure 3.5 Plan of a steel paper clip .............................................................................. 27
    Figure 3.6 LCI of a steel paper clip ............................................................................... 28
    Figure 3.7 Diagram of the energy resources to produce one steel paper clip ............... 29
    Figure 4.1 Emissions of air transport in the entire life-cycle in MJ/PKT ..................... 32
    Figure 5.1 Manufacturing network model of the A330-200 aircraft, using
    Simapro through the ReCiPe Midpoint method........................................... 38
    Figure 6.1 Airbus A320 (Airbus 2012) ........................................................................ 41
    Figure 6.2 Extensive LCA flowchart ............................................................................ 42
    Figure 6.3 Aircraft purchase price against operating empty mass (data source
    Avmark 2012) ............................................................................................. 44
    Figure 6.4 Engine price estimation (Jenkinson 1999).................................................. 44
    Figure 6.5 ICAO reference LTO-cycle ......................................................................... 46
    Figure 6.6 Total life-cycle GHG emissions................................................................... 49
    Figure 6.7 Search in Education_DB for CO-emissions to air at various altitudes ........ 51
    Figure 6.8 GaBi diagram: emissions life-cycle A320 ................................................... 51
    Figure 6.9 GaBi diagram: emissions life-cycle A320, excluded CO2 .......................... 52
    Figure 6.10 GWP [kg CO2-eq.], CML2001-Dec.07, (GWP 100 years) ......................... 53
    Figure 6.11 Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP)
    [kg C2H4-eq.], CML2001-Dec.07 ............................................................... 53
    Figure 6.12 Acidification Potential (AP) [kg SO2-eq.], CML2001-Dec.07 ................... 54
    Figure 6.13 Eutrophication Potential (EP) [kg PO4-eq.], CML2001-Dec.07 ................. 54
    7

    List of Tables
    Table 3.1 Implementation of tools (Sipilä 2012, Menke 2012) .................................. 25
    Table 3.2 Comparison of tools (Developers websites, Sipilä 2012, Menke 2012 ...... 26
    Table 4.1 Overview of methods used to create LCA of aircrafts ................................ 31
    Table 4.2 Summary of the LCA methods of Chester................................................... 32
    Table 4.3 The respective climate impact of every life phase of the A330-200
    (Lopes 2010)................................................................................................ 33
    Table 4.4 Impact categories by Lopes 2010 ................................................................ 33
    Table 5.1 GHG emissions from manufacturing the GE CF6-80E1
    (EIO-LCA 2012) ......................................................................................... 36
    Table 5.2 GHG emissions from manufacturing the A330-200 (EIO-LCA 2012) ...... 37
    Table 5.3 Life-cycle impact assessment results for the impact category
    ‘Climate Change’ using the ReCiPe Midpoint method ............................... 38
    Table 6.1 LTO-cycle of the A320 (ICAO 2012) ......................................................... 46
    Table 6.2 Emission indices during cruise phase .......................................................... 46
    Table 6.3 Operational emissions of the A320 .............................................................. 47
    Table 6.4 Operational emissions per phase of the A320-200 ...................................... 48
    Table 6.5 Payload of the A320..................................................................................... 50
    8

    List of Symbols
    / Input or Output for component (α) and functional unit (β)
    $ 2002 U.S. dollars unless year stated otherwise
    m mass

    Subscripts

    ( )PL payload
    ( )pax passengers
    ( )baggage baggage
    ( )cargo cargo
    9

    List of Abbreviations
    Acare Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe
    AEDT Aviation Environmental Design Tool
    agg system proces
    AIC Aviation Induced Cloudiness
    AP Acidification Potential
    aps avoided product system
    APU Auxillary Power Unit
    CFRP Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer
    CML Institute of Environmental Sciences
    EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
    EI Emission Index
    EIO-LCA Economic Input‐Output Life‐cycle Assessment
    EDMS Emission Data Modelling Software
    EP Eutrophication Potential
    eq. equivalent
    EU European Union
    FAA Federal Aviation Authority
    FDR Flight Data Recorder
    FKT Freight Kilometers Travelled
    FMC Flight Management Computer
    GE General Electric
    GGE Greenhouse Gas Equivalence (KgCO2Eq.)
    GHG Greenhouse Gasses
    GPU Ground Power Unit
    GREET Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation
    Model
    GWP Global Warming Potential
    HAP Hazardous Air Pollutants
    HC Hydrocarbons
    HFC Hydrofluorcarbons
    ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
    IPC Illustrated Parts Catalog
    IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
    ISO International Standardization Organization
    LCA Life-Cycle Assessment
    LCI Life-Cycle inventory
    LCIA Life-Cycle Impact Assessment
    LCM List of Consumable Materials
    NICETRIP Novel Innovative Competitive Effective Tilt Rotor Integrated Project
    10

    NM Nautical Miles
    p-agg partly terminated system
    PAMELA Process for the Advanced Management of End-of-Life Aircraft
    Pb Lead
    PFC Perfluorcarbons
    PKT Passenger Kilometers Travelled
    PM Particulate Matter
    PM10 Particles that are smaller than 10 micrometer
    PM2,5 Particles that are smaller than 2,5 micrometer
    POCP Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
    POH Pilot Operating Handbook
    RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
    RER Processes that are valid for the situation in Europe.
    RF Radiadative Forcing
    SRM Structural Repair Manual
    TRACEY Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environ-
    mental Impacts (US Environmental Protection Agency Methodology)
    TSFC Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption
    u-bb process black box
    UK United Kingdom
    US United States
    u-so unit process single operation
    VKT Vehicle Kilometers Travelled
    VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
    W&B Weight and Balance
    

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    13

    1.2 Objectives

    The aim of this work is to investigate if it is possible to make a LCA of an aircraft. How can
    this be done? Have there been previous attempts before? The eventual goal is to create a basic
    life-cycle for an aircraft. Therefore life-cycle assessment is explained. The basis lies in
    applying this for the A320. In order to make a LCA, previous methods have to be considered.
    Enough relevant data has to be gathered to generate the LCA. The objective of this work is
    more directed to the aircraft.

    1.3 Structure of the Work

    This report is structured in six chapters as follows:

    Chapter 2 Explains the impact of aviation on the environment. The emissions of


    concern for the LCA are determined and explained.

    Chapter 3 Explains what life-cycle assessment is. Many terms are explained and a
    comparison of LCA tools is given. A LCA of a paperclip is conducted to
    familiarize with Gabi.

    Chapter 4 Gives an overview of LCA’s of aircraft and summarizes the results.

    Chapter 5 Compares the results of chapter 4. The tool EIO-LCA (Economic In-
    put‐Output Life‐cycle Assessment) is used.

    Chapter 6 A basic life-cycle assessment of the A320-200 is made in following phases:


    goal and scope, inventory and assessment.
    14

    2 Impact of Aviation on the Environment

    2.1 Emissions from Aviation

    In flight aircraft produce emissions from fuel combustion. These are amongst others Carbon
    dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur oxides
    (SOx), Hydrocarbons (HC) (or Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)) and particles. A subset
    of VOC and particles are considered as hazardous air pollutants (HAP). It is a good idea to
    differentiate emissions close to the ground (landing and take-off) from emissions in cruise be-
    cause cruise emissions contribute primarily to global warming and „lower“ emissions can be
    seen as local air pollutants. Also water in the aircraft exhaust at altitude has a greenhouse ef-
    fect and occasionally this water produces contrails that also have a positive warming effect
    (Avstop 2012). At last, the operation of the airport has an impact on the environment. For
    example the use of an auxiliary power unit (APU) or ground power unit (GPU) and shuttle
    services uses fuel. De-icing uses contaminating fluids etc.

    2.1.1 Emissions from Fuel Combustion

    Figure 2.1 Fuel combustion emissions

    CO2 and H2O are the products of complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, like jet A1.
    NOx are produced when nitrogen and oxygen are present in high temperature and pressure.
    HC are emitted due to incomplete fuel combustion. They are also referred to as VOC. CO is
    also formed due to the incomplete combustion of the carbon in the fuel. SOx are produced
    when small quantities of sulphur, present in essentially all hydrocarbon fuels, combine with
    oxygen from the air during combustion. Particulates are form as a result of incomplete com-
    bustion, and are small enough to be inhaled. They can be solid or liquid. Ozone (O3) is not
    emitted directly into the air but is formed by the reaction of VOC and NOx in the presence of
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    22

    3.1.2 Life-Cycle Inventory


    The Life-Cycle Inventory (LCI) is the most time consuming part of LCA. In the LCI quanti-
    tive and qualitative data from the product is collected. Data can be gathered by plant visits,
    this is named primary data, or by literature research and databases, named secondary data.
    Primary data is more accurate but also more time consuming.

    After validation of/and allocation of the data the boundaries can be redefinitionned. This is
    why LCA is an iterative process.

    When all the data of the system is available, the modelling of the system can be made (LCI
    modelling). Figure 3.2 represents a model of a paperclip. The LCI is in fact a Table containing
    all the input and output flows.

    Figure 3.2 Life cycle inventory table example

    3.1.3 Life-Cycle Inventory Assessment


    The LCIA consists out of four steps:

    1. Classification (mandatory)
    2. Characterisation (mandatory)
    3. Normalisation (optional)
    4. Evaluation (optional)

    With classification, all the outputs are classified to their impact category. Some emissions
    have one impact category and others have multiple. In the characterization phase, factors are
    given to each emission, representing the contribution to a category. Characterisation factors
    are determined by different scientific groups based on different methodology and philosophi-
    cal views of the problems. The most widely used methodologies are in the United States (US):
    Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts
    23

    (TRACEY) and in the European Union (EU): Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML)
    (website GaBi 2012a). An example is given in Figure 3.3.

    Figure 3.3 Classification and characterisation example (GaBi 2012)

    LCIA methods exist either for midpoint or for endpoint and both for integrated LCIA meth-
    odologies. They have advantages and disadvantages. In general midpoint assessments are
    classified to a higher number of impact categories (average around 10) and the results are
    more accurate than the endpoint assessments. In Figure 3.4 the weighing factors are not
    shown and they can start from either midpoints or endpoints. (EC 2010)

    Figure 3.4 Life cycle impact assessment. Schematic steps from inventory to category
    Endpoints (EC 2010)
    24

    3.1.4 Interpretation
    The final step is the interpretation of the results. This is a very important step. What are the
    environmental hot spots? The results must therefore be checked with the goal and scope defi-
    nition. This phase is also an iterative procedure. In the evaluation three important aspects have
    to be checked. First any missing or incomplete methods have to be added. Second the uncer-
    tainty effect has to be checked. How sensitive are the results to certain assumptions? Third,
    the information has to be consistent, i.e. no allocation or wrong data.

    The goal of the LCA is to draw a conclusion. The study can be documented in an LCA report,
    which is specified by ISO 14044. The layout of the document should contain the same com-
    ponents. Before the publication of the report a critical review is required.

    3.2 LCA Terms


    I order to work with GaBi some LCA terms have to be understood.

    Within a plan the system is made up from processes and flows. This represents the system
    with its boundary’s. Flows consist out of all the inputs and outputs of the system. They con-
    nect plans or processes. From a plan, a balance calculation can be made by GaBi. This results
    in a complete list of input and output flow, named LCI and eventually the LCIA. A process is
    a system with in- and outputs. Elementary flows are the flows that leave or enter the system
    from the natural environment. As defined by EC 2010 elementary flows are: “single sub-
    stance or energy entering the system being studied that has been drawn from the ecosphere
    without previous human transformation, or single substance or energy leaving the system be-
    ing studied that is released into the ecosphere without subsequent human transformation”.
    In the database flows can be found. Resources and emissions to air are examples of elemen-
    tary flows. These contain classification and characterization factors. A flow can be deter-
    mined as an input, output or both. The technical system is also called the technosphere. Ele-
    mentary flows enter or exit the technosphere. Track flows include valuable substances that
    can be used into other processes. These flows stay in the technosphere. Waste flows are used
    in the end of life scenario.

    Every process has its inputs and outputs. Multiple inputs and outputs can be assigned in GaBi.
    For example Steel wire has two inputs. Witch processes that have to be added are defined in
    the Goal and Scope. There are 5 types of processes:
    

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    GaBi diagram:Life Cycle Steel Paper Clip - Inputs/Outputs

    Life Cycle Steel Paper Clip

    0,499
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    Mass [kg]

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    0
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    Crude oil (resource) Lignite (resource) Renewable energy resources
    Hard coal (resource) Natural gas (resource)

    Figure 3.7 Diagram of the energy resources to produce one steel paper clip
    

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    31

    Table 4.1 Overview of methods used to create LCA of aircrafts


    Project Scelsi 2011 Lopes 2010 SINTEG NICETRIP Chester
    2009-2011 2006-2011 2008

    Software Simapro 7.1 Simapro 7.2 GaBi 4 GaBi 4 See below

    Database Ecoinvent Ecoinvent GaBi da- x


    tabases

    What Composite Whole a/c interior Rotorcraft- Whole civil


    aircraft com- sidewall system aviation
    ponents panel

    Who Scelsi 2011 Lopes 2010 Diehl Air- GaBi Chester


    cabin & 2008
    GaBi

    LCI (data x Matching x x x


    collection) SRM & W&B
    manuals

    LCIA x ReCiPe 2008 x x x

    Most environmental studies cover the cruise phase because aircraft have large fuel require-
    ments. Also many LTO-cycle studies are done because population exposure rates could be
    higher around airports. Some components of aircraft have been assessed. The lack of studies
    could be due to lack of data availability (Chester 2008).

    4.1 Methods and Results of Chester

    A PhD thesis of the Life-cycle Environmental Inventory of Passenger Transportation in the


    United States has been made in 2008 (Chester 2008). It covers a literature research for LCI‘s
    of aircraft. The results are; one reference about the manufacturing and end‐of‐life scenario (1)
    and nine references that cover the operational aspect (2).
    (1) Facanha 2007
    (2) Levinson 1998b, INFRAS 1994, Schipper 2003, FAA 2007, Greene 1992, EEA 2006,
    EPA 1999b, Lee 2001, Facanha 2007

    According to Chester 2008, his work is the first comprehensive LCI of the full passenger
    transportation system. Most LCI’s have a scope limited to the operation stage. Chester created
    his LCI with different methods. These are summarized in Table 4.2.
    32

    Table 4.2 Summary of the LCA methods of Chester


    Phase Data Sources Tool
    Manufacturing
    Airframe Janes 2004, AIA 2007, Boeing 2007 EIO-LCA
    Engine Jenkinson 1999 EIO-LCA
    At or Near‐Airport Operations
    APU FAA 2007 Process
    Start-up FAA 2007 Process
    Taxi Out FAA 2007 Process
    Take-Off FAA 2007 Process
    Climb Out FAA 2007 Process
    Approach FAA 2007 Process
    Taxi in FAA 2007 Process
    Cruise Operations EEA 2006, Romano 1999 Process, Literature
    Maintenance Disaggregated into
    Aircraft Components BTS 2007, fleet reports (EPA 1998) EIO-LCA
    Engine Components BTS 2007, fleet reports (EPA 1998)
    Insurance
    Vehicle Incidents EIO-LCA
    Flight crew Health & Benefits EIO-LCA

    EIO-LCA (Economic Input‐Output Life‐cycle Assessment) is a tool that calculates the emis-
    sion impacts according to the turnover of an industry process. The tool used to process at or
    near-Airport operations is Emission Data Modelling Software (EDMS) (FAA 2007).

    The results of Chester are shown in Fig 4.1.

    Figure 4.1 Emissions of air transport in the entire life-cycle in MJ/PKT


    33

    4.2 Method and Results of Lopes

    Lopes used Simapro to create the LCA of an A330-200. The results of Lopes 2010 are sum-
    marized in Table 4.3. Simapro offers the ability to perform an uncertainty analysis, which
    provided a reasonable uncertainty range regarding to the CO2 emission factor. Table 4.5 gives
    an overview of all the impact categories of the LCA. The conclusion of his work says that the
    environmental hot spot comes from fuel consumption. Further the manufacturing process
    modelled could be used for LCA practitioners in the future because it should be more realistic
    than the process from EconInvent database.

    Table 4.3 The respective climate impact of every life


    phase of the A330-200 (Lopes 2010)
    Phases of life-cycle A330-200 Impact on climate change
    (%)
    Fuel burn 99,9
    a
    Airport construction 0,0591
    a
    Aircraft maintenance 0,000158
    Manufacturing aircraft 0,00000468
    End-of life scenario Very small environmental
    benefit
    a
    Assumptions and uncertainties of the adapted EcoInvent
    processes must be taken into account.

    Table 4.4 Impact categories by Lopes 2010


    Impact category Unit Total life-cycle A330-200
    Climate change kg CO2 eq. 1,26E-01
    Ozone depletion kg CFC-11 eq. 1,58E-08
    Human toxicity kg 1,4-DB eq. 2,64E-03
    Photochemical oxidant formation kg NMVOC 6,41E-04
    Particulate matter formation kg PM10 eq. 1,65E-04
    Ionising radiation kg U235 eq. 8,07E-04
    Terrestrial acidification kg SO2 eq. 4,87E-04
    Freshwater eutrophication kg P eq. 4,82E-07
    Marine eutrophication kg N eq. 2,12E-04
    Terrestrial ecotoxicity kg 1,4-DB eq. 1,17E-05
    Freshwater ecotoxity kg 1,4-DB eq. 5,57E-05
    Marine ecotoxity kg 1,4-DB eq. 9,07E-05
    Agricultural land occupation m2a 1,17E-04
    Urban land occupation m2a 1,92E-04
    Natural land occupation m2 6,33E-05
    Water depletion m3 1,50E-04
    Metal depletion kg fe eq 5,37E-04
    Fossil depletion kg oil eq 4,37E-02
    

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    35

    5 Comparison of EIO-LCA and Simapro

    A method of Chester and Lopes will be compared in this chapter to see if those obtain the
    same results. Chester used EIO-LCA to model the manufacturing phase of the Boeing 737.
    Lopes used Simapro to model the manufacturing phase of the A330-200. With EIO-LCA the
    impact of manufacturing the A330-200 has to be assessed. This result can then be compared
    with Simapro. The impact category used for this comparison is Global Warming Potential
    (GWP). Because EIO-LCA has two different sectors for the engine and airframe, they will be
    separated.

    5.1 Engine in EIO-LCA

    The A330-200 can have different engines. The General Electric (GE) CF6-80E1 is used in
    this LCA. According to IASG 2012 the engine cost is around $ 12 million (2006 $). The
    A330-200 has two engines. To convert 2006 $ to 2002 $, a consumer price index tool of the
    US bureau of Labour statistics is used. This gives us 21 million 2002 $ for two engines (CPI
    2012). The price has to be reduced to production cost. According to an assumption of Chester
    2008 a 10% mark-up is used which results in $ 19 million.

    By entering this amount into the EIO-LCA tool the LCIA results are given. This tool uses a
    model to compute the results. Model US 2002 (last updated at 4 July 2010) is used because it
    is the most current version and it has a representative sector namely, „Aircraft and Engine
    Parts Manufacturing“. Even though the aircraft is not manufactured in the US, the model from
    Germany has no representative sector. Weighing factors are 100-year GWP values from the
    IPCC second assessment report. For example the 100-year GWP value for N2O is 310.
    36

    Table 5.1 GHG emissions from manufacturing the GE CF6-80E1 (EIO-LCA 2012)
    d e b c
    Total CO2 Fossil CO2 Proces CH4 N2O HFC /PFC
    Sector ↓ a a a a a a
    t CO2e t CO2e t CO2e t CO2e t CO2e t CO2e
    Total for all sectors 6690 5410 666 421 52,3 137
    Power generation and supply 2780 2730 0 7,52 17,0 17,6
    Iron and steel mills 868,0 328,0 535,0 5,28 0 0
    Aircraft engine and engine
    596,0 596,0 0 0 0 0
    parts manufacturing
    Truck transportation 283,0 283,0 0 0 0 0
    Oil and gas extraction 234,0 65,9 42,9 12,0 0 0
    Air transportation 123,0 123,0 0 0 0 0
    Coal mining 117,0 13,2 0 104,0 0 0
    Alumina refining and primary
    114,0 25,8 40,4 0 0 47,6
    aluminium production
    Petroleum refineries 114,0 113,0 0 0,352 0 0
    Waste management and
    88,4 3,23 0 84,2 0,957 0
    remediation services
    a: Metric tons of CO2 eq.
    b: Hydrofluorcarbons.
    c: Perfluorcarbons.
    d: Each sector from fossil fuel combustion.
    e: Sector sources other than fossil fuel combustion.
    37

    5.2 Airframe in EIO-LCA


    According to Airbus 2012, the average price list of the A330-200 is $ 208,6 million (2012 $).
    In a similar way as with the engine the assessment of the airframe can also be made. The re-
    sults are in Table 5.2

    Table 5.2 GHG emissions from manufacturing the A330-200 (EIO-LCA 2012)
    Total CO2 Fossil CO2 Process CH4 N2O HFC/PFC
    Sector ↓
    t CO2e t CO2e t CO2e t CO2e t CO2e t CO2e
    Total for all sectors 54400 41800 7340 3230 485, 1610
    Power generation and supply 20400 20100 0 55,4 125,0 129,0
    Iron and steel mills 9850 3720 6070 60,0 0 0
    Truck transportation 2780 2780 0 0 0 0
    Oil and gas extraction 1890 533,0 347,0 1010 0 0
    Aircraft manufacturing 1150 1150 0 0 0 0
    Alumina refining and primary
    1090 246,0 385,0 0 0 454,0
    aluminium production
    Other aircraft parts and
    1040 1040 0 0 0 0
    equipment
    Petroleum refineries 1010 1010 0 3,13 0 0
    Air transportation 1000 1000 0 0 0 0
    Coal mining 995,0 112,0 0 882,0 0 0

    5.3 Aircraft in Simapro

    Figure 5.1 shows the manufacturing network made by Lopes in Simapro. The LCIA method
    used is ReCiPe Midpoint. This is an international methodology developed by Rijksinstituut
    voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu (RVIM), CML, PRe Consultants, Radboud Universiteit Ni-
    jmegen and CE Delft. The LCIA result of the complete aircraft (with engines) is
    1,54 E06 kg CO2 eq. The LCIA result of the engines is 3,37 E055 kg CO2 eq.
    38

    Figure 5.1 Manufacturing network model of the A330-200 aircraft, using Simapro through
    the ReCiPe Midpoint method.

    Table 5.3 Life-cycle impact assessment results for the impact category ‘Climate Change’ using
    the ReCiPe Midpoint method.

    5.4 Discussion

    Engines:
    Simapro: 337 000 Kg CO2 eq.
    EIO-LCA: 6 690 000 Kg CO2 eq.
    Full aircraft:
    Simapro: 1 540 000 Kg CO2 eq.
    EIO-LCA: 61 090 000 Kg CO2 eq.

    The results of the EIO-LCA are much higher (The full aircraft is 40 times higher, the Engine
    is 20 times higher). The results of EIO-LCA might be more trustworthy. EIO-LCA has been
    used by Chester and many other LCA practitioners. The founder of EIO-LCA has won the
    Nobel-price in economics for his work.
    39

    EIO-LCA uses money to calculate the environmental impact. Money is therefore equivalent to
    emissions. In the case of gold, silver and other ores the purchase-price is very high. Mining of
    those materials produces a lot of toxic emissions. Also the melting of these products produces
    carcinogenic material. With the decision of Lopes to not include electronics, navigation, in-
    struments, hydraulic fluids and expensive systems (only heavy structural components), possi-
    ble important data might have been excluded. As mentioned in section 3.1.4 “missing or in-
    complete methods should be added”.

    Assumptions have been made in order to simplify the work. For the material distribution of
    one component (for example a landing gear) a mass distribution of 90 %, 5 % and 5 % has
    been used for respectively steel, aluminium and titanium. This approach has been used be-
    cause the aircraft manuals don’t give material distributions.

    5.4.1 EIO-LCA
    EIO-LCA has some advantages compared to the “bottom-up” approach of Simapro. No sys-
    tem boundaries have to be defined. The system boundary is the whole United Sates economy.
    No inventory has to be made because the data is already collected by the government. The
    “bottom-up” LCA probably took months to complete, EIO-LCA takes only a few hours. On
    this level accumulation, information is lost and a large accuracy cannot be guaranteed.

    Not all the emissions that are of concern for the LCA have been found with EIO-LCA. Proba-
    bly because EIO-LCA gives a LCIA result instead of an LCI result. CO2, CH4, N2O, HFC,
    PFC, sufur hexafluoride, energy, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Hazard-
    ous waste and Toxic Releases are available. SOx, Pb, CO, PM and Pb might not be available.
    Nevertheless Chester stated all emissions in his results.

    The disadvantage of EIO-LCA is price variability. E.g. The price of tip orange juice in the
    market might be twice as cheap as orange juice from another brand. Does this mean that tip
    orange juice has twice less the environmental impact? Another drawback (but not of concern
    for an aircraft) is that the use phase not is modelled. E.g. a computer can after his initial pur-
    chase cost consume electricity which is bad for the environment. Therefore also the electricity
    used has to be modelled in EIO-LCA (MIT 2012).
    40

    5.4.2 Simapro
    For the operational phase a simple copy of the “Operation, aircraft, passenger, intercontinen-
    tal/RER” has been used. This process comes from EcoInvent database. The process does not
    use EI specific for the A330-200. For the construction and operation of the airport the proc-
    esses “Airport=RER=I U” and “Operation; maintenance; airport=RERU” are used.

    LCA tools have not yet been used extensively in aviation. Therefore, not many aviation data
    is available. Especially accurate specific data is not yet made for LCA tools. Other models
    have been used for aviation which are more accurate than the LCA databases. These are the
    Emissions Data Modelling Software (EDMS) and Aviation Environmental Design Tool
    (AEDT).
    41

    6 LCA of the A320-200

    Figure 6.1 Airbus A320 (Airbus 2012)

    The LCA of the A320-200 is a typical LCA with four aspects, namely goal and scope, inven-
    tory, assessment and interpretation.

    6.1 Goal and Scope

    The goal is to create a basic life-cycle assessment of the A320-200. For the scope, the manu-
    facturing and operational phases will be included, because these have the largest impact on
    the environment (Chester 2008).

    The environmental emissions of concern are stated chapter 2.5. These are; GHG, SOx, CO,
    NOx, VOC, PM and Pb. The same impact categories as in Krieg 2010 will be used. These
    are; Eutrophication Potential (EP), Acidification Potential (AP), GWP, and Photochemical
    Ozone Creation Potential (POCP). Because LCA is an iterative process, the scope can be ad-
    justed during the execution.

    The LCA is not modelled completely in GaBi because the required EcoInvent database costs
    1500 EUR and it is not very accurate for aircraft. More accurate EI from other data sources
    will be used. The free education database has limited EcoInvent data. This should be good
    enough to classificate the emissions to their impact categories. The results of the LCI should
    be comparable to the LCI of the Boeing 737 (Chester 2008).
    42

    6.1.1 Functional Units

    The product description is quite simple: The product is the A330-200 which has to transport
    passengers over a certain distance. Sometimes cargo is transported. Therefore the most impor-
    tant functional unit could be Passenger Kilometres Travelled (PKT). It might be a good idea
    to include more than one functional unit to have a broader idea of the results. Therefore, also
    Vehicle Kilometres Travelled (VKT) and aircraft lifetime are incorporated.

    6.1.2 Extensive LCA Flowchart


    This project deals only with manufacturing and operation. But an extensive LCA flowchart
    has been drawn to be able to further expand the LCA.

    Figure 6.2 Extensive LCA flowchart

    The elements included in this flowchart define the scope of a more extensive LCA, in other
    words: the elements that should be included in a more detailed LCA. This chart represents dif-
    ferent life-cycle phases which are materials, energy, production, use, recycling and distribu-
    tion of components. This chart gives the most relevant processes (boxes) and flows (arrows).
    The complexity of the flowchart can be increased and so does the accuracy of the LCA result.
    However, it is impossible to make a complete LCA. LCA databases help us to link our new
    processes to existing flows and increase the complexity. Because it is difficult to properly
    rank the processes, the iterative property of LCA appears.
    43

    6.2 Life-Cycle Inventory

    The following life-cycle inventory consist out of the manufacturing phase and the operational
    phase. For the manufacturing, the engine and airframe is modelled separately. To find the
    emissions first the price of the engine and airframe has to be determined. For the operational
    phase, the flight is modelled and emissions for every flight phase are calculated.

    6.2.1 Mass Method

    It is possible to find the masses and materials of an aircraft by using the aircraft documenta-
    tion. However this work is very time consuming and the accuracy of the distribution of
    masses to their respective material can be questioned. Therefore the EIO-LCA method is
    used.

    For the mass method, the following manuals are required:


    The IPC (Illustrated Parts Catalogue) contains a list of all parts of the airplane with their re-
    spective part number from the manufacturer and vendor code. Cross-reference with part-
    numbers and illustration is possible. The Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) contains a Weight
    and Balance (W&B) equipment list (ATA 21-79). Given in the list are the arm (m), moment
    (kg*m), and weight (kg) of every item. The SRM (Structural Repair Manual) has a list of the
    material types, temper condition and thickness of every component. There is also a list of con-
    sumable materials (LCM) which are required for operation and maintenance of the aircraft.
    

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    $FFRUGLQJWR(,2/&$WKH*:3LVWRQ&2HT
    46

    6.2.5 LTO Cycle

    Figure 6.5 ICAO reference LTO-cycle

    The conventional way of determining the LTO emissions is by using the International Civil
    Aviation Organisation (ICAO) emissions and the ICAO LTO cycle. With this quite simple
    method we use the proper aircraft/engine combination per LTO, and calculate the: sum of the
    four LTO mode products of: _ _ ∙ _ ∙

    This result can be found on the website of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). For
    2 engines the LTO-cycle fuel (Jet A) and emissions are given in Table 6.1. Engine: CFM56-5-
    A1 (NIŢĂ 2012).

    Table 6.1 LTO-cycle of the A320 (ICAO 2012)


    Fuel (kg) HC (g) CO (g) NOx (g)
    TOTAL LTO 770 570 6186 9012

    6.2.6 Cruise Phase


    The LTO cycle only assesses the emissions below 915 m (3 000 ft) and therefore it may be
    less accurate to use the same emission indices for cruise.

    Table 6.2 Emission indices during cruise phase


    HC (g/kg) CO (g/kg) NOx (g/kg) SOx (g/kg) CO2 (kg/kg) Particles
    (g/kg)
    Emission indices 0,74026 8,03377 11,70390 0,8 3,16 0,02

    SOx, CO2 and particulates EI come from Schmitt 2009. These are about the same for every
    engine.
    

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    48

    Table 6.4 Operational emissions per phase of the A320-200


    Life-cycle Component I/O per Aircraft-life per VKT per PKT
    Taxi
    Fuel (kg) 15166947 0,241 1,34E-03
    Nox (kg) 70252 0,001 6,20E-06
    HC (g) 25783810 0,410 2,28E-03
    CO (g) 515767201 8,192 4,55E-02
    Sox (g) 12133558 0,193 1,07E-03
    CO2 (kg) 47927553 0,761 4,23E-03
    Particles(g) 303339 0,005 2,68E-05
    lead x x x

    Take-off
    Fuel (kg) 4074879 0,065 3,60E-04
    Nox (kg) 112912 0,002 9,96E-06
    HC (g) 403413 0,006 3,56E-05
    CO (g) 2444927 0,039 2,16E-04
    Sox (g) 3259903 0,052 2,88E-04
    CO2 (kg) 12876616 0,205 1,14E-03
    Particles(g) 81498 0,001 7,19E-06
    lead x x x

    Climb out
    Fuel (kg) 10537710 0,167 9,30E-04
    Nox (kg) 247038 0,004 2,18E-05
    HC (g) 1053771 0,017 9,30E-05
    CO (g) 26344274 0,418 2,32E-03
    Sox (g) 8430168 0,134 7,44E-04
    CO2 (kg) 33299163 0,529 2,94E-03
    Particles(g) 210754 0,003 1,86E-05
    lead x x x

    Climb/cruise/descent
    Fuel (kg) 178106974 2,829 1,57E-02
    Nox (kg) 2550710 0,041 2,25E-04
    HC (g) 31225808 0,496 2,76E-03
    CO (g) 162898889 2,587 1,44E-02
    Sox (g) 142485579 2,263 1,26E-02
    CO2 (kg) 562818038 8,939 4,97E-02
    Particles(g) 3562139 0,057 3,14E-04
    lead x x x
    49

    Life-cycle Component I/O per Aircraft-life per VKT per PKT


    Approach landing
    Fuel (kg) 6590181 0,105 5,81E-04
    Nox (kg) 60904 0,001 5,37E-06
    HC (g) 59937700 0,952 5,29E-03
    CO (g) 252944341 4,017 2,23E-02
    Sox (g) 5272145 0,084 4,65E-04
    CO2 (kg) 20824973 0,331 1,84E-03
    Particles(g) 131804 0,002 1,16E-05
    lead x x x

    Flight total
    Fuel (kg) 214476691 3,406 1,89E-02
    Nox (kg) 3041815 0,048 2,68E-04
    HC (g) 118404502 1,881 1,04E-02
    CO (g) 960399633 15,253 8,47E-02
    Sox (g) 171581353 2,725 1,51E-02
    CO2 (kg) 677746343 10,764 5,98E-02
    Particles(g) 4289534 0,068 3,78E-04
    lead x x x

    Total life cycle GHG emission

    25640000 kg
    CO2 eq.

    Manufacturing
    Operation
    677746343 kg
    CO2 eq.

    Figure 6.6 Total life-cycle GHG emissions

    The GWP impact of the manufacturing phase is small compared to the operational phase but
    not negligible in the life-cycle assessment of the A320. The cruise phase is compared with
    Chester 2008’s cruise phase of the Boeing 737. The results of Chester are average 1,5 times
    higher than the results in this work. Possibly the emissions of the 737 are higher.
    50

    6.2.7 Cargo
    The primary purpose of an aircraft is to transport passengers. But often cargo is also trans-
    ported. To have an idea of the environmental impact to transport mass a new functional unit is
    introduced.

    Operation VKT VKT VKT


    I / O FKT = = = (6.5)
    m PL m pax + m + mc arg o 33 548
    baggage

    For a short to medium haul flight, the average masses are given by Roskam 1989 and
    NiŢĂ 2012. For the A320, the percentage of cargo attribution to passenger weight is 85 %.

    Table 6.5 Payload of the A320


    Average passenger mass 79,4 kg
    Mass of passengers 14 292 kg
    Average passenger baggage mass 13,6 kg
    Mass of passenger baggage 2 448 kg
    Average A320 cargo mass 2 516 kg
    Payload A320 33 548 kg
    % cargo to passenger 85 %

    6.3 Life-Cycle Impact Assessment


    We have to make a process that represents the operational phase of the A320, if we would like
    to model this phase in GaBi. It will require an input flow of kerosene and emission output
    flows. These emission output flows should be to air. There have to be different flows for dif-
    ferent altitudes because the impact of the emissions varies with altitude. Unfortunately GaBi
    Education database has not such flows. GaBi is a collection of data. Education_DB has a very
    small amount of data from aviation. The EcoInvent database has much more data and is
    widely used as database in LCA. The current price is 1500 EUR.

    To specify the functional unit PKT the EcoInvent “RER: operation, aircraft, passenger [Air]”
    is used. EcoInvent is developed in Switzerland. RER means that the processes is valid for the
    situation in Europe. This is because Switzerland’s economy is closely linked to the surround-
    ing countries. After the process has been created, the LCI results can be displayed in graphs
    (Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12).
    51

    Figure 6.7 Search in Education_DB for CO-emissions to air at various altitudes

    Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide


    Nitrogen oxides Sulphur dioxide
    Hydrocarbons (unspecified) Dust (PM2,5 - PM10)

    0,065

    0,060

    0,055

    0,050

    0,045

    0,040
    Mass [kg]

    0,035

    0,030

    0,025

    0,020

    0,015

    0,010

    0,005

    0,000
    Operational phase A320

    Figure 6.8 GaBi diagram: emissions life-cycle A320


    52

    Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide


    Nitrogen oxides Sulphur dioxide
    Hydrocarbons (unspecified) Dust (PM2,5 - PM10)

    0,00028

    0,00026

    0,00024

    0,00022

    0,0002

    0,00018
    Mass [kg]

    0,00016

    0,00014

    0,00012

    0,0001

    0,00008

    0,00006

    0,00004

    0,00002

    0,000
    Operational phase A320

    Figure 6.9 GaBi diagram: emissions life-cycle A320, excluded CO2

    GaBi is used to classificate the emissions to their respective impact categories. The impact
    categories are already defined in the goal and scope.

    CML2001 LCIA method is chosen to assess the results because, as said in section 3.1.3, this
    is the most widely used method in Europe. CML2001 – Dec. 07 is the most up-to-date ver-
    sion. The results are grouped in midpoint categories according to common mechanisms (e.g.
    climate change) or commonly accepted groupings (e.g. ecotoxicity).

    CML2001 is developed in Leiden University, Netherlands. From the CML website, a spread-
    sheet with characterization factors of over 1700 flows can be downloaded. Normalisation fac-
    tors are calculated via total substance emissions and characterization factors per substance.
    Characterisation factors can be found in Leiden 2012. Methodology principles can be found
    in Guinée 2002. The results are displayed in following 4 graphs:
    53

    Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides


    Sulphur dioxide Hydrocarbons (unspecified) Dust (PM2,5 - PM10)
    CM L2001 - Dec . 07, G lobal Warm ing Potential (G WP 100 years) [kg C O 2-Equiv.]

    0,065

    0,060

    0,055

    0,050

    0,045

    0,040

    0,035

    0,030

    0,025

    0,020

    0,015

    0,010

    0,005

    0,000
    Operational phase A320

    Figure 6.10 GWP [kg CO2-eq.], CML2001-Dec.07, (GWP 100 years)


    GaBi diagram:Operational phase A320 - Inputs

    Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides


    Sulphur dioxide Hydrocarbons (unspecified) Dust (PM2,5 - PM10)
    CML2001 - Dec. 07, Photochem. Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) [kg Ethene-Equiv.]

    8,0e-6
    7,5e-6
    7,0e-6
    6,5e-6
    6,0e-6
    5,5e-6
    5,0e-6
    4,5e-6
    4,0e-6
    3,5e-6
    3,0e-6
    2,5e-6
    2,0e-6
    1,5e-6
    1,0e-6
    0,5e-6
    0,0e-6
    Operational phase A320

    Figure 6.11 Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential (POCP) [kg C2H4-eq.], CML2001-Dec.07
    54

    Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides


    Sulphur dioxide Hydrocarbons (unspecified) Dust (PM2,5 - PM10)

    0,00020
    CML2001 - Dec. 07, Acidification Potential (AP) [kg SO2-Equiv.]

    0,00018

    0,00016

    0,00014

    0,00012

    0,00010

    0,00008

    0,00006

    0,00004

    0,00002

    0,00000
    Operational phase A320

    Figure 6.12 Acidification Potential (AP) [kg SO2-eq.], CML2001-Dec.07

    Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Nitrogen oxides


    Sulphur dioxide Hydrocarbons (unspecified) Dust (PM2,5 - PM10)

    3,8e-5
    CML2001 - Dec. 07, Eutrophication Potential (EP) [kg Phosphate-Equiv.]

    3,6e-5
    3,4e-5
    3,2e-5
    3,0e-5
    2,8e-5
    2,6e-5
    2,4e-5
    2,2e-5
    2,0e-5
    1,8e-5
    1,6e-5
    1,4e-5
    1,2e-5
    1,0e-5
    0,8e-5
    0,6e-5
    0,4e-5
    0,2e-5
    0,0e-5
    Operational phase A320

    Figure 6.13 Eutrophication Potential (EP) [kg PO4-eq.], CML2001-Dec.07

    In Figure 6.16 can be seen that only NOx has an effect on Eutrophication Potential. Figure
    6.13 shows us that global warming is mainly caused by CO2. According to EPA 2012b, also
    CH4 and N2O should contribute to GWP. This is not seen in Figure 6.13.
    55

    6.4 End of Life

    Airbus has developed a project named PAMELA which stands for Process for the Advanced
    Management of End-of-Life Aircraft. Airbus began this project in 2005 to improve the dis-
    posal of aircraft (Airbus 2012). Many aircraft are left in desserts, corroding even though ma-
    terials could be recycled. This would reduce the waste and provide new materials to manufac-
    ture aircraft. The scope of the project was finished in 2007. It covered the entire process: dis-
    assembly, recycling and management of potentially hazardous waste.

    Present-day the end of life process by airbus is operational in Tarmac Aerosave. This is the
    first company dedicated to end-of life saving aircraft. The aim is to recycle 85 % of the mate-
    rials. On a pure environmental view this reduces the waste from 45 % to 15 %. Already a
    dozen of aircraft have been recycled including the A320 (Europe 2012).

    The environmental benefit to the total life-cycle is very small according to Lopes 2010. Ches-
    ter has not included an end of life scenario. This will also not be included in this project work.

    6.5 Uncertainty

    The uncertainty of the model depends from system boundary selection, process and hybrid
    flows, functional units, geographic variation of parameters attribution of inventory compo-
    nents to particular modes and component methodology (Huijbregts 1998). It is not possible to
    estimate the uncertainty of this LCA in a numeric way. To do a numeric uncertainty analysis
    Simapro can be used to create a monte-carlo analysis. A hybrid method between operation
    and manufacturing has been used in this project.
    56

    7 Conclusion
    This project work has addressed the life-cycle assessment of an aircraft. A basic life-cycle as-
    sessment of an aircraft has been made. Research has been done regarding the environmental
    concerns of the aviation sector.

    A literature research of already existing LCA’s of aircraft has been done. Some LCA’s of air-
    craft components have been found and some covering a part of the life-cycle. Only Chester
    and Lopes have performed a full life-cycle of an aircraft. The methods used have a large
    number of assumptions and a high degree of inaccuracy. The major problem in this work and
    those of Chester and Lopes was data availability. Most time has been spent in finding good
    data. For aircraft, much primary data has to be collected to make an LCI. Few secondary data
    is available. Information on aircraft material composition is protected.

    The results of Chester and Lopes are very different. A completely other method was used. The
    results of Chester are more reliable and therefore his approach has been followed. Neither
    Chester, nor Lopes included spare parts of the aircraft in the LCA.

    A life-cycle assessment of a paperclip has been made to gain knowledge of LCA’s. Then a
    basic life-cycle assessment of an A320-200 has been performed. The manufacturing phase
    and the operational phase of the A320 have been modelled in this project work and a life-
    cycle inventory assessment is made in GaBi.

    If aircraft should be designed for low environmental impact. They should consume less fuel
    because the operational phase is the hot spot in the life-cycle of the A330-200. The GWP im-
    pact of the manufacturing phase is small compared to the operational phase but not negligible
    in the life-cycle assessment of the A320. The results of Chester are average 1,5 times higher
    than the results in this work. Possibly the emissions of the 737 are higher.
    57

    Acknowledgements
    First, I would like to thank my parents for their support, patience, help, advices, and econom-
    ics efforts to let me study these years. Without your appreciation and words of encouragement
    I could never been writing this project work in Germany.

    I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Scholz for giving me this
    opportunity, to take up this project topic at Hamburg University of Applied Sciences. I also
    would like to thank Mr. Andreas Johanning for giving me ideas, advises and motivation. He
    has answered many questions and was guiding me in this work. He has corrected the flaws in
    this work until the final day.

    I am also grateful to have had the opportunity to work in the office of Aircraft Design and
    Systems Group (AERO).
    58

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