Ground Penetrating Radar System

Group Members

Tahir Ali ECI-IT-11-074

Ayaz Irshad ECI-IT-12-106
Mehboob Alam ECI-IT-12-005
Mehtab Manzoor ECI-IT-12-064

Supervisor
Engr. Alif Shah

Hamdard Institute of Engineering and Technology

Hamdard University Karachi, Islamabad Campus
(Batch 2012-2016)
 Ground Penetrating Radar System

Submitted By

Tahir Ali, Ayaz Irshad, Mehboob Alam, Mehtab Manzoor

Towards partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of degree of
Bachelors of Electrical Engineering

Hamdard Institute of Engineering and Technology

Hamdard University Karachi, Islamabad Campus
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report entitled “Ground Penetrating Radar System” by Tahir
Ali,Ayaz Irshad, Mehboob Alam, Mehtab Manzoor submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Bachelors of Electrical Engineering from Hamdard University Karachi,
Islamabad Campus is the record of candidates own work carried out by them under this
supervision & guidance. In this opinion the work submitted has reached a level required for
being accepted for exam. The matter embodied in this project has not been submitted to any
other university or institute.

Committee:

1. Project Supervisor Signature

Engr. Alif Shah ___________________

2. Examiner 1 Signature

___________________ ___________________

3. Examiner 2 Signature

___________________ ___________________
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents ..............................................................................................................................i

Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgement ..........................................................................................................................iv

List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................v

List of Abbreviations .....................................................................................................................vi

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 1
1.3 Aims and Objective ............................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Project Objectives ................................................................................................................. 2
1.5 Report Organization .............................................................................................................. 2
CHAPTER 2 Literature Review ...................................................................................................4
CHAPTER 3 GPR System Architecture ....................................................................................6
3.1 Inroduction ............................................................................................................................ 6
3.2 Ground Penetrating Radar Survey......................................................................................... 6
3.3 GPR Data Processing ............................................................................................................ 6
3.4 GPR Sensing ......................................................................................................................... 7
3.5 GPR Power ............................................................................................................................ 7
3.6 GPR Block Diagram.............................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER 4 Theoretical Aspects of GPR System ...................................................................10
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Micro-controller .................................................................................................................. 10
4.2.1 Features ......................................................................................................................... 12
4.3 DC motor ............................................................................................................................. 12
4.4 Impulse GPR ....................................................................................................................... 12
4.5 Antennas .............................................................................................................................. 13
4.6 Antenna Directivity ............................................................................................................. 15
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 4.7 GPR Bandwidth................................................................................................................... 15
4.8 Signal Frequencies Sensor .................................................................................................. 15
4.9 H Bridge .............................................................................................................................. 16
4.10 Direction Control - H-Bridge Topology ........................................................................... 16
4.11 The Oscillator .................................................................................................................... 17
4.12 IR Sensor ........................................................................................................................... 18
4.13 Battery ............................................................................................................................... 19
4.14 Data Display ...................................................................................................................... 20
4.15 Optocoupler (PC 817) ....................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 5 Methodology of GPR System ..............................................................................22
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 22
5.2 Basic Principles of GPR ...................................................................................................... 22
5.3 Introduction to Protues ........................................................................................................ 23
5.3.1 Drawing the Circuit ...................................................................................................... 24
5.3.2 Product Features ........................................................................................................... 25
5.4 Simulation ........................................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 6 Results and Discussion ........................................................................................26
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 26
6.2 Results ................................................................................................................................. 26
6.3 Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 7 Conclusion and Future Recommendation..........................................................29
7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 29
7.2 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 29
7.3 Future Recommendation ..................................................................................................... 30
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 34
APPENDIX A-Application Code………………………………………………………………37

ii
 DEDICATION

Dedicated to our parents who have always supported us in our education career with their hard-
earned money, their affection and time.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we thank Almighty Allah who has given us knowledge, power and understanding to
complete this work. We would like to express our gratitude to our kind thesis advisor Engr. Alif
Shah for their guidance, support and encouragement. Working with him has been a true privilege
and great experience for us, their guidance and advice has been a great source of inspiration for
us throughout the thesis work. We would like to express sincere thanks to Engr. Alif Shah who
guided us to improve this work in many aspects. We also pay our gratitude to Mr. Inam-ur-
Rehman who provided us the key concepts of underlying theory and helped us in getting out of
many difficulties throughout the thesis. Other prominent personalities whose name we want to
mention is that of our parents, whose sincere and selfless help has been a source of great
encouragement for me throughout the degree and project. We would also like to thank our
parents and our family members who spared us for long time to do this work.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of GPR ............................................................................................... 8

Figure 4.1: PIC Microcontroller .................................................................................................. 10

Figure 4.2: Pin Layout of ATmega328 ........................................................................................ 11

Figure 4.3: DC Motor .................................................................................................................. 12

Figure 4.4: Main Components of a Typical Impulse System ...................................................... 13

Figure 4.5: Main Antennas .......................................................................................................... 14

Figure 4.6: Circuit of H-Bridge ................................................................................................... 16

Figure 4.7: Oscillator Crystal Chip .............................................................................................. 17

Figure 4.8: Depiction of the operation of an IR sensors .............................................................. 18

Figure 4.9: IR Sensor to measure brightness ............................................................................... 18

Figure 4.10: Battery ..................................................................................................................... 20

Figure 4.11: Data Display ............................................................................................................ 20

Figure 4.12: Optocoupler (PC 817) ............................................................................................. 21

Figure 5.1: Worksheet of Proteus ................................................................................................ 24

Figure 5.2: New Design Dialogue ............................................................................................... 24

Figure 5.3: Circuit Diagram of GPR in Proteus........................................................................... 25

Figure 6.1: Working Project by Parts .......................................................................................... 27

Figure 7.1: Working Project of GPR System .............................................................................. 28

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

GPR Ground Penetrating Radar

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

DC Direct Current

RF Radio Frequency

SPWM Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

LED Lightning Emitting Diode

DC Direct Current

AC Alternating Current

RC Resistive-Capacitance

MHz Mega Hertz

DTR Data Terminal Ready

IDS Intrusion Detection Systems

DVD Digital Versatile Disc

LCD Liquid Crystal Display

CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit

CW Continuous Wave

SF Step-Frequency

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 ABSTRACT

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) technology has existed for many decades, but it has only been in
the last 20 to 30 years that it has undergone great development for use in near surface ground
investigations. The early 1980’s saw the first major developments in the application of GPR for
pavements (i.e. engineered structures designed to carry traffic loads), and it is now an established
investigation technique, with generic information included in several national standard guidance
documents. Analysis of GPR data can provide information on layer depths, material condition,
moisture, voiding, reinforcement and location of other features. Assessing the condition of
pavements, in order to plan subsequent maintenance, is essential to allow the efficient long-term
functioning of the structure and GPR has enhanced and improved the range and certainty of
information that can be obtained from pavement investigations. Despite the recent establishment
of the technique in pavement investigation, the current situation is one in which GPR is used
routinely for pavement projects in only a minority of countries, and the specialist nature of the
technique and the sometimes variable results that are obtained can mean that there is both a lack
of appreciation and a lack of awareness of the potential information that GPR can provide. The
fact that GPR is still a developing technique, and that many aspects of its use are specialized in
their nature, means that there are also several technical aspects of GPR pavement investigations
which have not been fully researched, and knowledge of the response of GPR to some material
conditions has not been fully established.
The overall aim of this project is to provide improved pavement investigation capabilities by
enhancing the methodologies and procedures used to obtain information from GPR. Several
discrete research topics are addressed through various research methods including a literature
review, fieldwork investigations, experimental laboratory investigations and a review of
previously collected data.

Keyword: Radio Frequency (RF), ground penetrating radar (GPR), nondestructive utility
locating and mapping,

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 1 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

When investigating the research methodology used in the earth sciences, there are vast
array of tools to assist in answering any of a multitude of different questions or problems. It was
within only hundreds of years ago that a map, compass and a shovel were the most advanced
pieces of equipment in a field researcher’s arsenal. In the last few decades that has changed a
great deal, there have been many great technological advances that contribute to the ease and
effectiveness of research. In today’s world, methods of investigation like satellite imagery and
global positioning systems (GPS) are integrated into everyday use. New technologies stem from
a scientific need for quicker, more extensive, and more accurate results. The more tools that are
available, the more options a researcher has in order to choose the right one for their application.
The main focus for it’s the advent of another technology called ground penetrating radar
(GPR).GPR is a technology that allows for the non-invasive study of subsurface stratigraphy
(layering) and underground phenomena, among other uses. Similar to the technologies of GPS
and satellite imagery, GPR provides yet another effective method of exploration. Though GPR as
a technique is used far less than GPS and satellite imaging, its advantages are becoming more
widely known with each new application.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The GPR is a non-destructive geophysical method that uses high frequency

electromagnetic waves, in the 1 GHz to 2.5 GHz range. Pulses of electromagnetic waves are
generated by a transmitting antenna into the ground and reflected waves are captured by a
receiver antenna also placed on the surface. Such setting allows the GPR to achieve high
resolution images of the shallow subsurface. The data are simultaneously displayed at a control
station. The chosen setup for this study is the Common Offset, which used of a 100 MHz RIS
antennas, manufactured by IDS. The starting parameters were inserted in the software. The

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antenna offset remained constant, which enabled real time visualization of the profiles. The
obtained values were also concordant with values found in the sandstones.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVE

The overall aim of this research project is to provide improved pavement investigation
capabilities by enhancing the methodologies and procedures used to obtain information from
GPR. The individual objectives required to achieve this aim included are following.
 Devise improved procedures for conducting GPR investigations used to provide
information for structural pavement assessment.
 Develop methods for enhancing the amount of information that can be obtained from
GPR pavement investigation data. Establish the significance of material properties
determined from GPR, and how they relate to the condition of the pavement.
 Determine the factors which affect the accuracy of GPR pavement investigations.

1.4 PROJECT OBJECTIVES

Locating and recovering buried bodies in clandestine graves is a problem that

enforcement agencies are faced with 1GH to 2.5GH. Forensic anthropologists and archaeologists
can contribute to the detection and recovery of clandestine graves and other forensic evidence by
applying field skills and methods used in an archaeological. Antennae to ascertain the effect of
different burial scenarios and the efficacy 10MH of detection for each antenna. The effect of
interment time on GPR imaging was also investigated. Analyzing these variables allowed the
author to establish guidelines for the use of GPR.

1.5 REPORT ORGANIZATION

This report describes the full development of a GPR system. The report is organized by
section of the development process. The upcoming chapters are going to provide further details
about and how it has been accomplished.

Chapter 1: It contains the basic introduction about the project to let the reader know about the
overall concept in a summarized form.

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Chapter 2: It contains the Literature review of the project in which all ways of detection are
discussed along with its background and history work.

Chapter 3: It contains the detailed theory of the project and block diagram.

Chapter 4: It contains the explanation about the parts and layout of the components used.

Chapter 5: This chapter covers the basic principle of the project.

Chapter 6: It contain the results and discussion carried out.

Chapter 7: This chapter contains conclusion and future recommendation.

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 2 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Ground penetrating radar technology has advanced in the last decade to the point where it is
possible to identify objects as small as a grave quickly and with great precision. This study
investigates its potential for identifying possible human burials alongside the grave site of
Kiacatoo Man [1] in central New South Wales. In 2011, the weathered remains of this individual
were discovered in a levee of an ancient course of the Lachlan River, and measurements taken
from the reconstructed femur suggest an individual of exceptional size and rugosity. Preliminary
OSL analyses of fine sandy sediment underlying the grave floor provide a maximum age for the
skeleton of around 17,000 years. A GPR [3] survey over a 200 m x 40 m grid of the level
revealed five disturbances that are consistent with the geophysical and morphological expression
of grave excavations. The technique appears to be an effective tool for mapping of unmarked
graves, and may be particularly useful for systematic archaeological exploration of the source
bordering dunes and levees of the Riverine Plain. These landforms may hold the key to
understanding burial patterning, the distribution of people, and land-use during the late
Pleistocene in Australia.In February 2011, a burial unearthed at Kiacatoo on the bank of one of
these ancient channels, along with other archaeological finds, presented a new opportunity for
linking our two disciplines to provide a richer understanding of Australia’s past. This paper
reports on a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) survey near the detecting burial [2] to investigate
the nature of the levee as well as potential archaeological contents, including further burials.

Controlled experiments offer two advantages. First, the results can be used to form
guidelines for working with GPR in a variety of different settings. Local environments and soil
types can be tested to determine their effect on conducting GPR surveys. To ensure the best
application of GPR, controlled forensic research, in which GPR is tested on controlled burials for
a long-term period of time, must be funded and pursued. In the published literature showcasing
controlled research of GPR, there has been limited work using human cadavers (Freeland et al.,
2003) due to the difficulty of procuring and performing research with human remains. Instead,
the majority of studies utilize euthanized pig carcasses (Sus scrofa), as human cadaver proxies

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(e.g., France et al., 1992; Strongman, 1992; France et al., 1997; Freeland et al., 2003; Schultz et
al., 2006; Schultz, 2008; Schultz and Martin, 2011).

Eight kilometers of common offset GPR data were gathered using Mala 100 MHz and
250 MHz shielded antennae. Each antenna was mounted on a wooden sled and towed at walking
pace behind a low ground pressure tracked vehicle [4]. There are two main categories of horizon
control sensors in underground coal mining reactive and predictive. Reactive sensors are based
on detecting changes in the mining operational characteristics when the coal/clay interface is
encountered. The Predictive approaches however sense the remnant coal thickness before it is
mined and thus allow for optimal mining to improve productivity and increase safety [5]. One
sensors that has shown promise as a predictive sensors for horizon control is ground penetrating
radar (GPR). There are many application that use GPR for sub-surface imaging such as a buried
landmine detecting, pavement evaluation and forensic investigation [6]. Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) (Daniels [7]) is a well assessed diagnostic instrumentation that finds application in
a very large range of sectors when the objective is of achieving information about the presence,
the position and the morphological properties of targets embedded in opaque media. Therefore, it
is of interest in many sectors ranging from diagnostic (Hugenschmidt and Kalogeropulos [8]).

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 3 CHAPTER 3
GPR SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

3.1 INRODUCTION

The archaeological subsurface represents a potentially difficult problem for imaging

targets with ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems. Structures within the ground may be very
steeply dipping or exhibit large local variations in strike causing serious migration problems.
Furthermore, the target may be located in a medium.

3.2 GROUND PENETRATING RADAR SURVEY

The GPR functions by sending high frequency electro-magnetic waves into the from a
transmitter antenna. Some of these waves are reflected back to the surface as they encounter
changes in the dielectric permittivity of the matrix through which they are travelling, and are
detected by a receiver antenna. The amplitude and two- way travel time of these reflections are
recorded on a portable computer. This information is then used to construct a two-dimensional
plot of horizontal distance versus travel time. Data collected in the field are stored on a portable
computer for later analysis. A more complete and technical discussion of the method can be
found elsewhere.

3.3 GPR DATA PROCESSING

The analysis of GPR data is carried out by processing the data using different gains and
filtering techniques. Gain is a value, by which raw data are multiplied, to enhance low amplitude
reflections. Signal amplitude commonly de-creases exponentially at increasing travel times
(greater depths below surface). This is compensated by designing a time gain that increases the
signal strength at greater travel times.

Filtering is the use of mathematical processing algorithms to “clean” noises from the data
and/or enhance certain characteristics of the data. This process was specifically customized for
each profile. Data processing routine includes background noise removal, time-zero corrections
and band-pass filtering applied to the acquired data. Given that, most of the energy is limited to a

6
finite bandwidth, an appropriate use of band limiting filtering may improve signal-to-noise
without significantly altering the data. Taking into account the information obtained from the
amplitude spectra of the raw data, a common band pass filter of 250 MHz to 750 MHz was
applied to the whole set of 500 MHz pro-files, and 150 MHz - 300 MHz band-pass filter applied
to the whole set of 250 MHz profiles to improve the signal quality.

3.4 GPR SENSING

Sensors to get information about their surroundings as sensors work by measuring an

aspect of the environment and producing a proportional electric signal similar type of sensing.
Sensors usually imitate the way we sense but some sensors even sense things that we can't like
ultrasonic sound waves and magnetic fields. Light sensors whether they are photo resistors,
photo diodes or photo transistors work in the same way; when light falls on them they produce
an electric signal and a filter could be used in front of the light sensor to select what the sensor
sees To add, light sensors can also be used for simple navigation in case of following a line or by
infrared light which is invisible like the one used in TV remote controllers.

3.5 GPR POWER

There are different types of power supplies used in robots; power can be electric. Electric
motors are efficient because they require little maintenance and they are not very noisy.
Pneumatic acts as a power supply by making the use of compressed air with different variety of
sizes but pneumatic robots can't rely only on pneumatic as their power supply, they require
having another source of power like gasoline or even electric to be able to provide the
compressed air. The disadvantages of this type of power are that they are very noisy, heavier and
larger than any other power source and needs a lot of maintenance. The third type of power
supply is hydraulic which also needs another type of supply like pneumatic in order to move the
liquids into its components. The disadvantage of this type is that it requires a lot of maintenance
of the tubes used.

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3.6 GPR BLOCK DIAGRAM

A GPR system radiates short pulses of high-frequency EM energy into the ground from a
transmitting antenna. This EM wave propagates in the ground at a velocity that is primarily a
function of the relative dielectric permittivity of subsurface materials. When this wave
encounters the interface of two materials having different dielectric properties, a portion of the
energy is reflected back to the surface, where it is detected by a receiver antenna and transmitted
to a control unit for processing and display. In figure 3.1 we mention the Block Diagram, Depth
penetration is a function of antenna frequency and the electrical conductivity of the soils in the
survey area. Lower frequency antennas achieve greater depth penetration than higher frequency
antennas but have poorer spatial resolution. Conductive soils, such as clay, attenuate the radar
waves much more rapidly than resistors and rock. There are a variety of methods to measure soil
water content. The traditional method is to dry samples from the field and compare the weights
of the samples before and after drying. This method can analyses sampled soils in detail and the
results may be accurate.

Figure 3.1: Block Diagram of GPR

GPR has the potential to overcome these problems and is considered one of the most
suitable methods for monitoring soil water content during and after irrigation because of the
following features.
 The GPR response reflects the dielectric properties of soil that are closely related to its
water content.

8
 GPR data acquisition is fast compared to other geophysical methods. This feature enables
measurements to be made quickly and repeatedly, yielding high temporal resolution
monitoring. This is very important for capturing rapid changes.

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 4 CHAPTER 4
THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF GPR SYSTEM

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Theoretical aspects of GPR System, describe in this chapter and also give the names
in this chapter we work on it and these are following.

4.2 MICRO-CONTROLLER

The Atmel Pico Power ATmega328/P is a low-power CMOS 8-bit micro-controller based
on the AVR enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock
cycle, the ATmega328/P achieves throughputs close to 1MIPS per MHz .This empowers system
designed to optimize the device for power consumption versus processing speed. This section
discusses the AVR core architecture in general. The main function of the CPU core is to ensure
correct program execution. The CPU must therefore be able to access memories, perform
calculations, control peripherals, and handle interrupts. In order to maximize performance and
parallelism, the AVR uses Harvard architecture with separate memories and buses for program
and data. Instructions in the program memory are executed with a single level pipe lining. While
one instruction is being executed; the next instruction is pre-fetched from the program memory.

Figure 4.1: PIC Microcontroller [14]

A flexible interrupt module has its control registers in the I/O space with an additional
Global Interrupt Enable bit in the Status Register. Figure 4.1All interrupts have a separate
Interrupt Vector. The interrupts have priority in accordance with their Interrupt Vector position.
The lower the Interrupt Vector address, the higher the priority. The I/O memory space contains

10
64 addresses for CPU peripheral functions as Control Registers. Programming mode is entered
when PAGEL (PD7), XA1 (PD6), XA0 (PD5), BS1 (PD4) is set to zero. RESET pin to 0V and
VCC to 0V. VCC is set to 4.5 - 5.5V. Wait 60 μs, and RESET is set to 11.5 - 12.5 V. Wait more
than 310 μs. Set XA1:XA0:BS1: DATA = 100 1000 0000, pulse XTAL1 for at least 150 ns,
pulse WR to zero. This starts the Chip Erase. Wait until RDY/BSY (PD1) goes high.
XA1:XA0:BS1: DATA = 100 0001 0000, XTAL1 pulse, pulse WR to zero.

Figure 4.2: Pin Layout of ATmega328 [18]

This concept enables instructions to be executed in every clock cycle. The program
memory is In-System Reprogrammable Flash memory. The fast-access Register File contains 32
x 8-bit general purpose working registers with a single clock cycle access time. This allows
single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) operation. In a typical ALU operation, two operands
are output from the Register File, the operation is executed, and the result is stored back in the
Register File in one clock cycle. In figure 4.2 Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit
indirect addresses register pointers for Data Space addressing enabling efficient address
calculations. One of these address pointers can also be used as an address pointer for look up
tables in Flash program memory. These added function registers are the 16-bit X-, Y-, and Z
register, described later in this section.

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4.2.1 FEATURES

 High Performance, Low Power

 Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
 Fully Static Operation
 Six PWM Channels
 -40°C to 85°C
 Low Power Consumption
 True Read-While-Write Operation

4.3 DC MOTOR

A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current (electrical energy)
into mechanical energy. It’s of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally important
for engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed in
this article. In figure 4.3 a dc motor the very basic construction of a dc motor contains a current
carrying armature which is connected to the supply end through commutator segments and
brushes and placed within the north south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet.

Figure 4.3: DC Motor [20]

4.4 IMPULSE GPR

Although all GPR systems operate by the EM wave principles described above, there are
different types of GPR system that exploit slightly different aspects of EM wave propagation and
use different hardware and data processing procedures. ‘Impulse’ GPR systems are the most

12
commercially available, and are by far the most commonly used. Figure 4.4, this type of GPR
system was used for all investigations during this project. Another type of GPR system is
continuous wave (CW) GPR, and step-frequency (SF) GPR, an advanced form of CW GPR, has
been recently developed for pavement investigation although it is not currently widely used.

Figure 4.4: Main Components of a Typical Impulse System

4.5 ANTENNAS

EM antennas are the devices which allow GPR to transmit and receive EM waves by
converting EM waves into current and vice versa, and the amplitude (strength) of a GPR signal
can be measured by recording the voltage associated with the current. It is possible to both
transmit and receive signals from a single antenna, but the technical requirements of GPR would
require an ultra-fast transmit-receive switch that has several technical difficulties associated with
it, and so for modern GPR systems separate transmitting (Tx) and receiving(Rx) antennas are
used. Surface-penetrating radar presents the system designer with significant restrictions on the
types of antennas that can be used. The propagation path consists in general of a loss,
inhomogeneous dielectric, which, in addition to being occasionally an isotropic, exhibits a
frequency dependent attenuation and hence acts as a low pass filter. The upper frequency of
operation of the system, and hence the antenna, is therefore limited by the properties of the
material. In figure 4.5 the main antennas shown the need to obtain a high value of range

13
resolution requires the antenna to exhibit ultra-wide bandwidth, and in the case of impulsive
radar systems, linear phase response.

Figure 4.5: Main Antennas

The requirement for wide band width and the limitations in upper frequency are mutually
conflicting and hence a design compromise is adopted whereby antennas are designed to operate
over some portion of the depending on the resolution and range specified. The requirement for
portability for the operator means that it is normal to use electrically small antennas, which
consequently results generally in a low gain and associated broad polar radiation patterns. The
classes of antennas that can be used are therefore limited, and the following factors have to be
considered in the selection of a suitable design; large fractional bandwidth, low time side lobes
and in the case of separate transmit and receive antennas, low cross coupling levels. The
interaction of the reactive field of the antenna with the dielectric material and its effect on
antenna radiation pattern characteristics must also be considered. We should provide a useful
guide to a complex subject but it is not intended to reduce the need for a designer to consult
those references cited. Practically it is found that provided an antenna is properly matched it will
couple well into a dielectric. The aspects of coupling, particularly as a function of distance from
the interface, are described in detail by the authors cited, and for those interested the references
should provide a useful source. Recent interest in ultra wideband radar systems has coincided
with the development of additional antenna designs, which can provide suitable performance,
and much work has been carried out on the development of antennas for ECM and ECCM
applications as well as the propagation of high energy electromagnetic pulses.

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4.6 ANTENNA DIRECTIVITY

The directional characteristics of a short dipole antenna are controlled by the ground.
Understanding antenna directivity helps greatly with understanding the source of GPR returns
from within the ground. The analysis of this problems complex but the basic characteristic can be
fairly well explained. Before continuing a great length, it must be stressed that GPR amplitude
information has to date been used in a relative context. As a result, exact mathematical forms for
fields and measurements have not been needed. As the technology advances, more demand for
quantitative measurements are arising and further advances on quantifying responses which use
some of the numerical solutions discussed in the section of GPR modeling will become more
critical.

4.7 GPR BANDWIDTH

Instrument bandwidth determines a systems minimum response time (for a GPR this
translates into resolution). Bandwidth and response time (i.e. radar envelope width) are inversely
depicted. At one extreme, a narrow bandwidth amplitude modulated sine wave has a very
oscillatory pulse which has finite time duration. In the frequency domain, the frequency
bandwidth of the signal is quite small.

4.8 SIGNAL FREQUENCIES SENSOR

The EM signal transmitted by a GPR antenna covers a large range, or bandwidth, of

frequencies (GPR antennas are defined as ‘ultra-wide band’ (UWB) transmitters), allowing more
information to be obtained than for narrow bandwidth signals, and GPR antennas are defined by
the center frequency of that range. For pavement and shallow engineering investigations, center
frequencies of about 400 MHz to 2 GHz (2000 MHz) are typically used. High frequency GPR
signals are subject to greater attenuation, and so pulses from lower frequency antennas will be
able to penetrate deeper into the pavement structure than higher frequency signals. However, for
higher frequency signals the vertical resolution. Thus, when conducting GPR investigations, the
choice of antenna frequency is a tradeoff between depth penetration and data resolution /
precision.

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4.9 H BRIDGE

An H-Bridge is an electronic power circuit that allows motor speed and direction tube
controlled. Often motors are controlled from some kind of “brain” or micro controller to
accomplish a mechanical goal Figure 4.6. The micro controller provides the instructions to the
motors, but it cannot provide the power required to drive the motors. An H-bridge circuit inputs
the micro controller instructions and amplifies them to drive mechanical motor. This process is
similar to how the human body generates mechanical movement; the brain can provide electrical
impulses that are instructions, but it requires the muscles to perform mechanical force. The
muscle represents both the H-bridge and the motor combined. The H-bridge takes in the small
electrical signal and translates it into high power output for the mechanical motor.

Figure 4.6: Circuit of H-Bridge [19]

The H-bridge circuit derives its name from the full-bridge circuit. The motor forms the
crosspiece in the “H.” Speed and direction are controlled as current flows through the motor in
the direction determined by the position of the switches in the bridge.

4.10 DIRECTION CONTROL - H-BRIDGE TOPOLOGY

Most DC Motors can rotate in two directions depending on how the battery is connected
to the motor. Both the DC motor and the battery are two terminal devices that have positive and
negative terminals. In order run the motor in the forward direction, connect the positive motor
wire to the positive battery wire and negative to negative. However, to run the motor in reverse
just switch the connections; connect the positive battery wire to the negative motor wire, and the

16
negative battery wire to the positive motor wire. An H-Bridge circuit allows a large DC motor to
be run in both direction with a low level logic input signal.

4.11 THE OSCILLATOR

Oscillators are electronic circuits that generate an output signal without the necessity of an
input signal. It produces a periodic waveform on its output with only the DC supply voltage as
an input. The output voltage can be either sinusoidal or nonsinusoidal, depending on the type of
oscillator. Different types of oscillators produce various types of outputs including sine waves,
square waves, triangular waves, and sawtooth waves. Oscillatory behaviour is ubiquitous in all
physical systems, especially in electronic and optical. In radio frequency and light wave
communication systems, oscillators are used for frequency translation of information signals
and channel selection. Oscillators are also present in all digital electronic systems, which
require a time reference, i.e., a clock signal, in order to synchronise operations. In figure 4.7 an
ideal oscillator would provide a perfect time reference, i.e., a periodic signal. However all
physical oscillators are corrupted by undesired perturbation/noise. Hence signals generated by
practical oscillators are not perfectly periodic, since oscillator is a noisy physical system and
it makes them unique in their response to perturbation/noise.

Figure 4.7: Oscillator Crystal Chip

A variety of oscillators is available but the principle of operation, the frequency band of
oscillation and the performance in noisy environment are different from one class of oscillators
to the other. Recently, communication transceiver design in single IC demands monolithic
oscillator with low cost and low power dissipation. In this system, the design of ring oscillator
using delay stages inside the IC has created much more importance compared to other
monolithic oscillators like relaxation oscillators. Generally, the performance of ring oscillator is
better than relaxation oscillators although not as good as that of the sinusoidal oscillators. But

17
the continuous efforts of the scientists and researchers have yielded in improving the
performance of ring oscillators so as a good level of satisfaction which can now be used
successfully in the communication systems. The level of satisfaction has been achieved in both
cases: speed of operation and noise performance.

4.12 IR SENSOR

An infrared sensor is an electronic device that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the motion.
These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is called as a
passive IR sensor. The IR Sensor-Single is a general purpose proximity sensor. Here we use it
for collision detection. The module consists of an IR emitter and IR receiver pair. The high
precision IR receiver always detects an IR signal. In the Figure 4.8 we can see that there is a
system of module consists of 358 comparator IC. The output of sensor is high whenever it IR
frequency and low otherwise. The on-board LED indicator helps user to check status of the
sensor without using any additional hardware. The power consumption of this module is low

Figure 4.8: Depiction of the operation of an IR sensors [13]

Figure 4.9: IR Sensor to measure brightness [13]

It gives a digital output. The sensitivity of the IR Sensor is tuned using the potentiometer.
The potentiometer is tune able in both the directions. Initially tune the potentiometer in
clockwise direction such that the Indicator LED starts glowing. IR Sensor is a device that

18
transmit electromagnetic wave from a transmitter to a receiver if there is any object placed b/w
transmitter and receiver will detect the object and response. Figure 4.8 shows the operation of the
sensor. An infrared sensor is an electronic instrument which is used to sense certain
characteristics of its surroundings by either emitting and/or detecting infrared radiation. IR
sensors are used in various Sensor based projects and also in various electronic devices which
can measures the temperature, height, position and size etc. Anti-clockwise direction to turn off
the Indicator LED. At this point the sensitivity of the receiver is maximum. Thus, its sensing
distance is maximum at this point. If the sensing distance (i.e., Sensitivity) of the receiver is
needed to be reduced, then one can tune the potentiometer in the anti-clockwise direction from
this point.

4.13 BATTERY

We have used a 12 volt DC lithium-ion battery. A lithium-ion battery is a member of a

family of rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to
the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Batteries operate by converting
chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical discharge reactions. Batteries are
composed of one or more cells, each containing a positive electrode, negative electrode,
separator, and electrolyte. Cells can be divided into two major classes primary and secondary.
Primary cells are not rechargeable and must be replaced once the reactants are depleted.
Secondary cells are rechargeable and require a DC charging source to restore reactants to their
fully charged state. Examples of primary cells include carbon-zinc (Leclanche or dry cell),
alkaline-manganese, mercury zinc, silver-zinc, and lithium cells (e.g. Lithium-manganese
dioxide, lithium-sulfur dioxide, and lithium chloride). Examples of secondary cells include lead-
lead dioxide (lead-acid), nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, nickel-hydrogen, nickel-metal hydride,
silver-zinc, silver-cadmium, and lithium-ion. In figure 4.10 we shown the Battery, The maximum
power available from a battery depends on its internal construction. High rate cells, for example,
are designed specifically to have very low internal impedance as required for starting turbine
engines and auxiliary power units (APUs).The state-of-charge of a battery is the percentage of its
capacity available relative to the capacity when it is fully charged. By this definition, a fully
charged battery has a state-of-charge of 100% and a battery with 20% of its capacity removed
has a state-of-charge of 80%.

19
 Figure 4.10: Battery [15]

The state-of-health of a battery is the percentage of its capacity available when fully
charged relative to its rated capacity. For example, a battery rated at 30 Ah, but only capable of
delivering 24 Ah when fully charged, will have a state-of-health.

4.14 DATA DISPLAY

The recorded scans can be displayed in several ways, this display is similar to the way
seismic data (which has a number of data recording and processing techniques similar to GPR) is
commonly displayed.

Figure 4.11: Data Display [16]

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronic visual

display that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit
light directly. LCDs are available to see in figure 4.11 images (as in a general-purpose computer
display) or fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as
preset words, digits, and 7-segment displays, as in a digital clock. They use the same basic

20
technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while
other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a wide range of applications
including computer monitors, televisions, and instrument panels. Small LCD screens are
common in portable consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile
telephones, including smart phones. LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products
such as DVD players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy,
bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens are available in a
wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes
ranging from tiny digital watches to huge, big-screen television set.

4.15 OPTOCOUPLER (PC 817)

An opto isolator is a semiconductor device that uses a short optical transmission path to
transfer an electrical signal between circuits or elements of a circuit, while keeping them
electrically isolated from each other. In figure 4.12 we shown, these components are used in a
wide variety of communications, control and monitoring systems that use light to prevent
electrical high voltage from affecting a lower power system receiving a signal.

Figure 4.12: Optocoupler (PC 817)

The optocoupler has good features Current transfer ratio (CTR: 50~600% at IF = 5mA,
VCE = 5V), and High isolation voltage between input and output (Viso = 5000Vrms)
Compact small outline package, and the Main Application of Optocoupler. . Programmable
controllers System appliances, measuring instruments, Telecommunication equipment’s
Home appliances, such as fan heaters, etc.

21
 5 CHAPTER 5
METHODOLOGY OF GPR SYSTEM

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The GPR involves the transmission of electromagnetic waves into the material under
investigation. The reflections of these waves at interfaces and objects within the material are
analyzed to determine the location (horizontal distance from a reference point) and depth
(vertical distance from the surface) of the detected interfaces and buried objects. GPR can also be
used to differentiate layers of material and to determine certain properties of the materials, such
as their dielectric constants or conductivity for electromagnetic waves. There are two basic types
of radar waves: pulse and continuous wave. The pulse radar transmits a burst of radar energy and
then waits for the energy (or echo) to be reflected back to the same antenna. The continuous
radar wave, on the other hand, transmits a constant beam of energy that returns to a separate
antenna when it meets a moving object. The returned wave has a frequency that is slightly higher
(if the object is moving toward the radar) or lower (if the object is moving away from the radar)
than the frequency of the original wave. By measuring this change in frequency, the speed of the
object can be determined. GPR is the propagation of short pulse radar waves (pulse duration less
than 1 ns) through the layers of materials under investigation. A radar signal that is emitted via
an antenna into a structure composed of three different materials. Signals are reflected at the
interfaces between the materials and their interfaces with the surrounding medium. Reflected
signals are received by the same antenna to present one scan or trace. Several scans are taken at
different locations on the investigated structure and their data are recorded in the storage device
of the central unit. These data are then processed and displayed on a monitor for further analysis
(manual or automatic interpretation). Analyzed GPR data can reveal significant information
about the materials within the structure (e.g. conductivity) and their condition (e.g. layers and
anomalies within the structure).

5.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GPR

A GPR system consists of a few components, as emit an electromagnetic wave into the
ground and receive the response. If there is a change in electric properties in the ground or if

22
there is an anomaly that has different electric properties than the surrounding media, a part of the
electromagnetic wave is reflected back to the receiver. The system scans the ground to collect the
data at various locations. Then a GPR profile can be constructed by plotting the amplitude of the
received signals as a function of time and position, representing a vertical slice of the subsurface,
the time axis can be converted to depth by assuming a velocity for the electromagnetic wave in
the subsurface soil. As seen in the previous section, the electric and magnetic properties of a
medium influence the propagation and reflection of electromagnetic waves. These properties are
dielectric permittivity, electric conductivity and magnetic permeability. Soil can be regarded as a
three-phase composite with the soil matrix and the pore space that is filled with air and water.
The pure water phase of soil can be divided into free water and bound water that is restricted in
mobility by absorption to the soil matrix surface. The relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of
air is 1, is between 2.7 and 10 for common minerals in soils and rocks (while water has a relative
permittivity of 81, depending on the temperature and frequency. Thus, the permittivity of water
bearing soil is strongly influenced by its water content. Therefore, by analyzing the dielectric
permittivity of soil measured or monitored with GPR, the soil water content can be investigated
.As mentioned previously, water plays an important role in determining the dielectric behavior of
soils. The frequency-dependent dielectric permittivity of water affects the permittivity of soil.
Within the GPR frequency range, the frequency dependence is caused by polarization of the
dipole water molecule, which leads to relaxation. The model is often considered inappropriate
for clay and organic-rich soils, but it agrees reasonably well for sandy/loamy soils over a wide
range of water contents (5-50%) in the GPR frequency range. The model does not account for
the imaginary component of permittivity. A variety of individual topics have been addressed by
previous research undertaken in the originated from a number of sources, including the desire to
commercially exploit GPR, the technical improvement of GPR practices, the incorporation of
new hardware and software Developments into GPR technology and to improve the
understanding of how the physics of GPR can be used to determine useful engineering properties
of pavements.

5.3 INTRODUCTION TO PROTUES

PROTUES combines advanced schematic capture, mixed mode SPICE simulation, PCB
layout and auto routing to make a complete electronic design system. The PROTUES product

23
range also includes our revolutionary VSM technology, which allow you to simulate micro-
controller based design, complete with all the surrounding electronic. In figure 5.1 Work sheet
of Proteus is given below.

Figure 5.1: Worksheet of Proteus

5.3.1 DRAWING THE CIRCUIT

Start a fresh design, select New Design from File menu then the Create New Design
dialogue now appears as shown in Figure 5.2

Figure 5.2: New Design Dialogue

24
5.3.2 PRODUCT FEATURES

ISIS Schematic Capture an easy to use yet and extremely powerful tool for entering your
design. PROSPICE Mixed mode SPICE Simulation industry standard SPICE3F5 simulator
upgradeable to our unique virtual system modeling technology. ARES PCB layout modern
graphical user interface standardized across all modules. Runs on Windows 98/ME/2000/XP or
Later.

5.4 SIMULATION
The simulation of the hardware is done on the Proteus Software.

Figure 5.3: Circuit Diagram of GPR in Proteus

Circuit shown in figure 5.3 is made on Proteus worksheet space. In this circuit main box show
PIC microcontroller with serial ports and transistor are used to make H-Bridge for inputs. This
circuit was then designed on bread board (for testing) according to the circuit and then all the
required components were placed on the wire board and then these components were sold using
the soldering iron.

25
 6 CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) has been utilized by geologists and civil engineers for
several decades military personnel use GPR for underground tunnel detection; utility companies
use it for subsurface tank and pipe locating; and GPR was utilized on the moon for lunar
sounding experiments. GPR depth penetration ranges from a few centimeters to hundreds of
meters in electrically resistive materials such as dense granite or basalt.

6.2 RESULTS

The concept of GPR is based on the use of high frequency radar pulses to penetrate and
reflect off subsurface materials. The downward attenuation of the pulse is dependent upon the
electrical properties of subsurface materials. At the interface of electrically different materials, a
small portion of the electrical pulse will be reflected back to the surface. Receivers located on the
surface can intercept this reflected pulse and record the signal. Buried cultural materials, Natural
Occurring ground water, and varying soil horizons can provide excellent reflecting interfaces for
radar pulses in the subsurface environment. The recorded data, in profile form, allows for the
non-invasive investigation of the subsurface. Interpretation of the data resulted in identification
of several pavement layers and pavement types (rigid, flexible and composite) along surveyed
roadways. A typical flexible pavement profile. Upper panel shows the GPR profile with
interpreted layers picked, while lower panel shows calculated depth for each layer. Several
distinct layers are visible in the data. The first layer is the paving layer while the layers picked
below are several granular layers, which can be described as base, sub base and Sub grade. A
typical rigid pavement section. Reinforcements are clearly visible in this image in terms of wavy
layer above the first picked layer (red picks), which represents bottom of slab. A granular layer
(green picks) can also be identified in GPR profile shown which might be a granular base layer.
In a composite profile, as illustrated in, reinforcements are identifiable below figure 6.2.A
surface layer of asphalt (yellow picks). Concrete slab bottom (red picks) and a granular layer
(green picks) are also visible in shown picture.

26
 Figure 6.1: Working Project by Parts

As shown in this figure there is considerable variation in slab depth across the scanned
path. GPR profiles also capture several local features of roadways such as utility cuts, pavement
repairs, bridges, and culverts GPR profile of are paired roadway. The figure 6.1 shows a
composite pavement where in the middle of the profile one of the slabs is completely removed
and filled with asphalt. Capturing such local variation in pavement structure is quite impossible
with usual coring method.

6.3 DISCUSSION

The above case studies have demonstrated the usefulness of GPR surveys for
archaeologists and developers in a number of ways. By investigating archaeological sites during
initial phases of investigation GPR profile data can.

27
 Characterize soil strata non-invasively
 Locate subsurface features non-invasively
 Identify potential materials or disturbed areas to be avoided
 Map anomalous signals that could represent significant features
 Be used in specific situations to predict and characterize specific features

7
Figure 7.1: Working Project of GPR System

28
 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATION

7.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a summary of the key findings of the research, and aims to
highlight the innovative aspects of the work and the contribution to existing GPR practice. A
description is given of the impacts of the research that have directly benefited, and also those
issues that are of relevance and importance to the wider industry concerned with GPR and
pavement investigation. This chapter also includes a critical evaluation of the research
undertaken, and recommendations for industry and further research in this subject area.

7.2 CONCLUSION

In this project, the feasibility of the use of GPR as a non-destructive evaluation technique
for measuring the thickness of concrete pavement was investigated. Currently, NDOR performs
thickness measurement of concrete pavement. Although this method provides an accurate
thickness measurement, it is destructive, labor intensive, and time consuming. The GPR
technique was proposed because of its advantages over drilled cores, such as being non-
destructive, user friendly, efficient, and cost-effective when applied to long pavement sections.
However, the literature of using GPR for measuring the thickness of concrete pavement does not
provide sufficient evidence regarding accuracy and consistency. Therefore, the objective of this
project was to investigate GPR’s accuracy relative to drilled cores in measuring thickness of
concrete pavement for quality assurance purposes. The basic principles of technology and the
possibilities of application in agriculture. The main advantage of GPR technology reflects in
multiple time savings during the implementation of standard research in the domain of
agriculture, both from the point of the acquisition process and from the point of results
processing. For this technology, several typical examples of application in agriculture have been
chosen and analyzed. It should be noted that the list of possible applications in agriculture is
significantly higher, and is not final due to the possibility to expand through new projects and
experiments.

29
7.3 FUTURE RECOMMENDATION

The work conducted on the optimization of GPR use for pavement assessment, has raised
several issues for the GPR and pavement engineering industry. A clear and critical finding has
been to highlight the site and material specific nature of the dielectric properties of asphalt
materials, and to quantify some of the changes in those properties that can occur as a result of
changes in the condition of the asphalt. The specific nature of asphalt pavement material
properties has stressed the importance of calibration of GPR data, in order to provide the
optimum data from GPR surveys, and the importance of calibrating data on a site specific basis
in order to produce accurate depth information, through the use of coring or other intrusive data.

30
 REFERENCES

[1] Kiacatoo Man “A Ground Penetrating Radar Survey Near the excavated burial site”
of 2011.
[2] John J. Schultz, Ph.D. April 2012 “Detecting Buried Remains Using Ground
Penetrating Radar” 2008 pp132.
[3] Popik, M., Hyungski, L., Aho, B., Maser, K.R., and Holzschuher, C. “Using Ground
Penetrating Radar for Asphalt Density Measurements”, Transportation Research
Board,89th Annual Meeting, Paper No. 10-2266, Washington, DC, (January 2010).
[4] “Ground Penetrating Radar Evaluation of New Pavement Density” Project 24864 in
Lee, NH" Report submitted by Infrasense, Inc. to the New Hampshire Department of
Transportation, October, 2013.
[5] “Ground Penetrating Radar Evaluation of New Pavement Density - Intelligent
Compaction Demonstration on I-80, Solano, CA" Report submitted by Infrasense,
Inc. to the University of California, Davis Dept. of Civil Engineering, December,
2013
[6] ASTM (2007). “Standard Test Method for Measuring Deflections with a Light
Weight Deflectometer (LWD)”. American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA, USA.
[7] Daniels, D.J, “Ground Penetrating Radar. IEE Radar, Sonar and Navigation Series”,
London 2004
[8] Hugenschmidt, j. and Kalogeropoulos, “The inseption of retaining walls using GPR”,
Journal paper of Applied Geophysics,2009, pp 335-344
[9] Marwan., Rosli, S. and Syukri, M. (2014), “Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) study
over specific medium,” The Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 19,
Bund N, pp 149-157.
[10] Harry, M.J. “Ground Penetrating Radar: Theory and Application, 1st edition
Elsevier Science” Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2009.
[11] Dionne CA, Wardlaw DK, Schultz JJ. 2010. “Delineation and resolution of cemetery
gravesusing geophysical methods. Technical Briefs in Historical Archaeology” pp20-
30.

31
[12] Popik, M., Hyungski, L., Aho, B., Maser, K.R., and Holzschuher, C. Using Ground
Penetrating Radar for Asphalt Density Measurements, “Transportation Research
Board, 89thAnnual Meeting, Paper” No. 10-2266, Washington, DC, (January 2010).
[13] Robert J, Mathays, “Crystal Oscillator Circuits”, NOV 2009 pp13
[14] An introduction and features, available online at link
http://www.microcontrollerslab.com/wpcontent/uploads/2015/08/PIC16F877Amicroc
ontroller.jpg.
[15] 9-volt Battery Safety, NFPA, retrieved 13 May 2014
[16] Milestones: Liquid Crystal Display, 1968". IEEE Global History Network. IEEE.
Retrieved August 4, 2011
[17] Renesas (2010). Renesas Electronics Introduces New CMOS Isolator Technology
that Realizes Highly-Integrated Inverter Circuits for Energy-Efficient Home
Appliances and Electric Vehicles. July 20, 2010.
[18] "Atmel 8-bit AVR Microcontrollers ATmega328/P Datasheet Summary" June 2016.
Retrieved 2016-07-14.jpg
[19] Al Williams (2002). “H-Bridge projects using the (2nd ed.)”. pp. 344.
[20] R.O. Bailly and M. A. Alspaugh, “Bulk Material Handling by Conveyor Belt”,
1996.

32
 APPENDIX A
APPLICATION CODE

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
constintledPin = 1;
constintmetal_interrupt = 2;
constintir = 7;
constint led1=11;
constint led2=12;
constint led3=13;
constint led4=10;
longintwheel_c=0;
LiquidCrystallcd(0, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8);
void setup() {
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(metal_interrupt, INPUT_PULLUP);
attachInterrupt(1, detect, RISING);
//attachInterrupt(1, pulcc, CHANGE);
lcd.begin(16,2);
lcd.print("Metal Detector");
delay(5000);
pinMode(ir,INPUT);
pinMode(led1,OUTPUT);
pinMode(led2,OUTPUT);
pinMode(led3,OUTPUT);
pinMode(led4,OUTPUT);
//lcd.clear();
digitalWrite(led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(led2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(led3,LOW);

33
digitalWrite(led4,HIGH);
}
voidstopp()
{
digitalWrite(led1,LOW);
digitalWrite(led2,LOW);
digitalWrite(led3,LOW);
digitalWrite(led4,LOW);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("Metal End");
float distance=wheel_c/25;
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print(distance+0);lcd.print(" Inch");//accoracy of result set from here (distance+0)
while(1){}
//wheel_c=0;
}
longintttt=0;
int pc=0;
void loop() {
while(!digitalRead(2))
{
}
ttt=millis();
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("Metal Detected");
wheel_c=0;pc=0;
while(1)
{
lcd.clear();
lcd.print(wheel_c);
delay(250);

34
}
}
void detect() {
delayMicroseconds(5000);
wheel_c++;

if(digitalRead(2)){pc=0;}
if(pc>150)
{
detachInterrupt(1);
stopp();
}
}

35