ROCKY MOUNTAIN

Alchemy
TURNING THE PLAIN
INTO THE PRECIOUS

LEARNING TAXONOMIES IN THE COGNITIVE,

AFFECTIVE, AND PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAINS

VERSION 2.1 JANUARY 2004

WHITE PAPER KEN THOMAS
 LEARNING TAXONOMIES IN THE COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, AND PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAINS

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Learning domains ............................................................................................................................ 1
Crossing domains ............................................................................................................................ 1
Role of taxonomies in objectives ................................................................................................. 2

ROBERT GAGNÉ’S LEARNING TAXONOMY

Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Intellectual Skills................................................................................................................................ 3
Cognitive Strategy .......................................................................................................................... 5
Verbal Information .......................................................................................................................... 5
Motor Skills ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Attitude .............................................................................................................................................. 5

BLOOM ET AL.'S TAXONOMY OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 6

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 8

HARROW’S TAXONOMY OF THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 9

SIMPSON'S TAXONOMY OF THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 10

THOMAS’ TAXONOMY OF THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 12
Breaking down complex outcomes .......................................................................................... 12
Relation to other domains ........................................................................................................... 13
Taxonomy ........................................................................................................................................ 14

KRATHWOHL’S TAXONOMY OF THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 16

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
References ...................................................................................................................................... 17

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Introduction

Overview A taxonomy is an orderly classification of a field of study (e.g., botany,

animal kingdom, anthropology) according to the natural relationships
within the field. Taxonomies allow different researchers to study and
discuss the same field of study using shared terminology.
This document contains overviews of taxonomies in the field of
education and learning across the three learning domains. These
taxonomies should provide a helping hand in the development of solid
learning objectives.

Learning domains There are three primary learning domains:

Learning Domain Definition

Cognitive Learning related to knowledge (i.e., from simple
recognition and memory to complex problem
solving and evaluation)
Psychomotor Learning related to actions and motor skills (i.e.,
from simple actions to complex choreography)
Affective Learning related to attitudes, feelings, &
emotions

Crossing domains It’s possible to have an activity or task that spans multiple domains (e.g.,
performing a task with a computer system will require aspects from the
cognitive domain (navigation, button functions, field entry formats, etc.)
as well as the psychomotor domain (manipulating the mouse and using
the keyboard)). In such cases, the terminal objective should focus on the
dominant domain (e.g., in the case of the computer system, knowledge
of the system navigation, button functions, and field entry formats
would be dominant to using the mouse and keyboard).

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Role of taxonomies A common error designers make is selecting an inaccurate or mismatched

foundational verb for their objective. For example, a designer creating
in objectives training for a computer system may write the objective “describe the use
of the function keys,” when the actual on the job performance is “use
the function keys to perform tasks a, b, and c.” (Describing the use of
the keys may be an appropriate enabling objective, but if that is left as
the terminal objective, the learner could still leave the training unable to
perform the task.)
The taxonomies of the learning domains presented in this paper can be
used as job aids during the learning needs analysis to help identify and
define gap or criterion knowledge, skills, and/or attitudes (KSAs), which
will in turn form the foundational verbs for your objectives.

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Robert Gagné’s Learning Taxonomy

Overview The first taxonomy we’ll discuss is that of Robert Gagné. Although
Gagné's learning taxonomy does not specify the three primary domains
recognized today (cognitive, psychomotor, and affective), it’s not too
difficult to demonstrate how these domains are represented (see the
table below).
The following table illustrates how Gagné’s taxonomy is broken down
and shows its relationship to KSAs and the learning domains:

KSA Learning Domain Gagne’s Taxonomy

Knowledge Cognitive Intellectual Skills
Cognitive Strategy
Verbal Information
Skill Psychomotor Motor Skills
Attitude Affective Attitude
Perhaps the most important aspect of Gagné’s taxonomy is that it
focuses on learning outcomes. In addition, Gagné’s Intellectual Skills is
developed as a hierarchy; this set of skills is arranged in order of
complexity, implying the only way to master a higher skill is to first
master the lower level skills. This concept is foundational to the work
we’ll see later in Bloom et al.
Note: The learning taxonomy is only part of Gagné’s instructional
theory. In addition to the taxonomy that focuses on learning outcomes
are his propositions:
 Certain conditions (internal and external) are necessary to achieve
these outcomes.
 There are nine specific events of instruction (a.k.a., Gagné’s Checklist
or Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction), which serve as a guideline for
designing instruction.

Intellectual Skills Intellectual skills include discrimination, concrete concept, rule using, and
problem solving.
Note: As pointed out earlier, the Intellectual Skills are arranged in order
of complexity.

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Skill Description/Examples
Discrimination Making different responses to the different
members of a particular class. Seeing the
essential differences between inputs and
responding differently to each.
Examples:
Distinguish yellow finches from house finches on
the basis of markings.
Differentiate between gauges on an instrument
panel.
Concrete concept Responding in a single way to all members of a
particular class of observable events. Seeing the
essential similarity among a class of objects,
people, or events, which calls for a single
response.
Examples:
Classify music as jazz, country western, or rock.
Categorize a manhole cover, a penny, and the
moon as “round.”
Rule using Applying a rule to a given situation or condition
by responding to a class of inputs with a class of
actions. Relating two or more simpler concepts
in the particular manner of a rule. A rule states
the relationship among concepts. If a task is a
procedure, then use flowcharting to analyze the
task. If you can convert a statement into an “if-
then” statement, then it is a rule or principle.
Example:
Apply a simple geometrical theorem to find the
answer to a singular equation.
Problem solving Combining lower level rules to solve problems in
a situation never encountered by the person
solving the problem. May involve generating new
rules which receive trial and error use until the
one that solves the problem is found.
Example:
Combine multiple mathematical theories to solve
a complex problem.

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Cognitive Strategy An internal process by which the learner controls his or her own ways of
thinking and learning.
 Engage in self-testing to decide how much study is needed.
 Know what sorts of questions to ask to best define a domain of
knowledge.
 Form a mental model of a problem.

Verbal Information Verbal information includes labels and facts, and bodies of knowledge.

Skill Description/Examples
Labels and facts Naming or making a verbal response to a specific
input. The response may be naming or citing a
fact or set of facts. The response may be vocal
or written.
Examples:
Name objects, people, or events.
Recall a person’s date of birth or hobbies.
List the U.S. states and their capitals.
Bodies of knowledge Recalling a large body of interconnected facts.
Examples:
Paraphrase the meaning of textual materials.
State a set of rules or regulations.

Motor Skills Bodily movements involving muscular activity.

 Start a car.
 Shoot a target.
 Swing a golf club.

Attitude An internal state which affects an individual’s choice of action toward

some object, persons, or event (i.e., call to action).
 Choose to visit an art museum.
 Write letters in pursuit of a cause.

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Bloom et al.'s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain

Introduction Benjamin Bloom, M. Englehart, E. Furst, W. Hill, and David R. Krathwohl

worked together to develop a taxonomy of educational objectives to
measure the cognitive domain of human behavior.
 Since Bloom's name appears first on the report alphabetically, over
time the other names have been practically forgotten (i.e., it is
common to hear this taxonomy referred to as "Bloom's Taxonomy of
the Cognitive Domain").
 Although there are actually three sets of domains (cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor), the taxonomy for the cognitive domain
is by far the most well known.
These objectives relate to "levels" of learning. Level one (knowledge) is
the lowest level, and level six (evaluation) is the highest. Learning at the
lower levels must be achieved in order to master the higher levels.
The table below describes each level of the taxonomy and lists some
common foundational verbs.
 These foundational verbs will form the basis of the defined KSAs and
objectives.

Level Basic Description Objective Terms

Knowledge Remember (recall) appropriate, previously Define, Describe, Identify, Know,
(Level 1) learned facts and information. Label, List, Match, Memorize,
 Know common terms Name, Outline, Quote, Recall,
 Know specific facts Recognize, Relate, Repeat,
 Know basic concepts Restate, Select, State
 Know principles
Comprehension Interpret information (understand in your Classify, Convert, Describe,
(Level 2) own words). Discuss, Distinguish between,
 Understand facts Estimate, Explain, Extend,
 Interpret charts and graphs Generalize, Give Examples,
 Justify methods and procedures Interpret, Paraphrase, Predict,
 Estimate future consequences Reorder, Rewrite, Summarize
Application Apply information (use information to solve Apply, Arrange, Complete,
(Level 3) problems). Compute, Demonstrate,
 Apply concepts and principles to new Develop, Dramatize, Employ,
situations Exhibit, Modify, Operate,
 Solve mathematical problems Practice, Predict, Produce, Relate,
 Construct charts and graphs Show, Solve, Use
 Demonstrate correct usage of a method

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Level Basic Description Objective Terms

or procedure
Analysis Break information down into parts. Break down, Categorize,
(Level 4)  Recognize the logical fallacies in Classify, Deduce, Detect,
reasoning Diagram, Dissect, Differentiate,
 Evaluate the relevancy of data Discover, Distinguish, Estimate,
Examine, Illustrate, Infer, Order,
Outline, Prioritize, Relate,
Restructure, Separate, Subdivide,
Survey
Synthesis Creatively or divergently apply prior Adapt, Anticipate, Categorize,
(Level 5) knowledge and skills to produce a new or Combine, Compose, Construct,
original whole. Create, Derive, Design, Explain,
 Write a well organized theme Formulate, Generalize, Model,
 Propose a plan for an experiment Modify, Organize, Plan, Produce,
 Formulate a new scheme for classifying Rearrange, Revise, Write
objects
Evaluation Make judgments against set criteria or Appraise, Argue, Compare,
(Level 6) standards. Conclude, Consider, Contrast,
 Judge the value of the work Criticize, Critique, Defend,
Discriminate, Explain, Grade,
Invent, Judge, Justify, Rank,
Relate, Support, Validate

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Psychomotor Domain

Overview There are several published taxonomies of the psychomotor domain; at

the time of this writing, none are accepted as a standard across multiple
industries. This section presents three taxonomies:
 Harrow’s taxonomy has a focus toward physical ability.
 Simpson’s taxonomy has a focus toward the progression of mastery
from observation to invention.
 Thomas’ taxonomy has a focus toward a hierarchical categorization
of sensory, physical, and psychomotor tasks and skills.

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Harrow’s Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain

Introduction Anita Harrow (1972) developed a taxonomy for children with special
physical needs. This taxonomy is better suited to assessing ability to
perform a task or activity or to sports and recreation activities than to
the typical physical activities performed in the workplace.

Level Description Foundational Verbs

Reflex Movements Actions elicited without learning in Extension, Flexion, Postural
(Level 1) response to some stimuli. adjustments, Stretch
Basic Fundamental Inherent movement patterns which are Grasp, Grip, Manipulate, Push, Run,
Movements formed by combining reflex movements Twist, Walk
(Level 2) (serve as the basis for complex skilled
movements).
Perceptual Interpretation of various stimuli that Catching, Coordinated movements
(Level 3) enable one to make adjustments to the (e.g., jumping rope), Punting
environment. Visual, auditory,
kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.
Suggests cognitive as well as
psychomotor behavior.
Physical Activities Endurance, strength, vigor, and agility All activities which require (a)
(Level 4) which produce a sound, efficiently strenuous effort for long periods
functioning body. of time; (b) muscular exertion; (c)
a quick, wide range of motion at
the hip joints; (d) quick, precise
movements
Skilled Movements The result of acquisition of a degree of All skilled activities obvious in
(Level 5) efficiency when performing a complex sports, recreation, and dance
task.
Non-Discursive Communication through bodily Body postures, gestures, and facial
Communication movements ranging from facial expressions efficiently executed in
(Level 6) expressions through sophisticated skilled dance movement and
choreography. choreography

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Simpson's Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain

Introduction Elizabeth Simpson’s (1966) taxonomy is focused on the progression of a

skill from guided response (i.e., doing what you are told to do) to reflex
or habitual response (i.e., not having to think about what you’re doing),
then includes origination as the highest level (i.e., invention of a new
way to perform a task).

Level Description Foundational Verbs

Perception The process of becoming aware of Associate, Compare, Feel, Hear,
(Level 1) objects, qualities, etc. by way of senses. Identify, Inspect, Listen, Notice,
Basic in situation-interpretation-action Recognize, Scan, Select, Smell,
chain leading to motor activity. May Taste
include sensory stimulation, cue
selection, translation.
Set Readiness for a particular kind of action Adjust, Arrange, Comprehend,
(Level 2) or experience. This readiness or Identify, Locate, Organize,
preparatory adjustment may be mental, Recognize, Respond, Select
physical or emotional.
Guided Response Overt behavioral act of an individual Adapt, Correct, Imitate, Match,
(Level 3) under guidance of an instructor, or Practice, Repeat, Reproduce,
following model or set criteria. May Simulate
include imitation of another person, or
trial and error until appropriate
response obtained.
Mechanism Occurs when a learned response has Assemble, Fasten, Manipulate, Mix,
(Level 4) become habitual. At this level the Mold, Set-up, Shape
learner has achieved certain confidence
and proficiency or performance. The
act becomes part of his/her repertoire
of possible responses to stimulus and
demands of situations.
Complex Overt Response Performance of a Adjust, Combine, Coordinate,
(Level 5) motor act that is considered complex Integrate, Manipulate, Regulate
because of movement pattern required.
May include resolution of uncertainty,
i.e., done without hesitation; and
automatic performance, finely
coordinated with great ease and muscle
control.
Adaptation Altering motor activities to meet Adapt, Adjust, Alter, Convert,
(Level 6) demands of problematic situations. Correct, Integrate, Order,
Standardize

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Level Description Foundational Verbs

Origination Creating new motor acts or ways of Construct, Create, Design,
(Level 7) manipulating materials out of skills, Develop, Formulate, Invent
abilities and understandings developed
in the psychomotor area.

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Thomas’ Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain

Introduction Harrow’s Taxonomy focuses on the ability to perform baseline physical

skills. In the corporate or industrial workplace, this taxonomy may be
used to establish prerequisite ability, but is not appropriate for
classifying outcomes of learning.
Simpson’s Taxonomy addresses the progression of learning a
psychomotor skill from observation to mastery. This taxonomy can be
applied in the workplace to address progression from apprentice to
master performer, but is also inappropriate for classifying outcomes of
learning.
Like Harrow’s Taxonomy, Thomas’ can be used to define minimum
psychomotor requirements for a task or set of tasks which define a job.
Like Simpson’s Taxonomy, Thomas’ is organized in a basic hierarchical
structure (although not all levels are necessarily “below” other levels, nor
are lower levels necessarily “prerequisites” for higher levels), building in
complexity and origination. However, Thomas does not focus on the
habitualization or reflex of the task, merely on the ability to perform the
foundational verb behavior.

Breaking down In Thomas’ Taxonomy, a complex outcome (represented by a

complex outcomes foundational verb selected from the appropriate level) should be broken
down into its component foundational verbs. For example:

Outcome Component Foundational Verbs

Build (construction) a brick wall.  Snap (operation of tools) a guiding plumb
line.
 Haul and stack (strength) required bricks.
 Mix (operation of equipment)mortar.
 “Butter” (construction) bricks with mortar.
 Lay and set (dexterity) bricks.
Note: Continue breaking down your verbs to meet your specific needs.
For example, if you’re defining job requirements that will impact hiring
and firing decisions, you’ll need to break tasks down to their lowest
possible level. However, this same level of effort may not be needed to
define some interventions.
In a similar approach, the outcome “create a sculpture” may “live” mostly
in the “art” level of the taxonomy, but the component foundational
verbs (mixing materials, using tools, etc.) may be classified elsewhere in
the taxonomy.

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Relation to other You can probably already see how other domains can also come into
play in psychomotor tasks. The foundational verb of mixing paints may
domains fall into art, but the selection of the pigments may be argued as
cognitive (i.e., the understanding of what colors mix to create new
colors). The same principle will apply to the operation of complex
equipment. For example, tasks such as steering a sail boat, adjusting the
timing of an engine, etc., are psychomotor tasks that require mastery of
cognitive concepts.

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Taxonomy The following table presents this author’s attempt to provide a more
categorized view of the psychomotor domain (as opposed to either a
baseline abilities checklist or a progressive mastery perspective). This
taxonomy is designed to classify psychomotor learning outcomes that
could be applied to corporate or industrial training.
Note: Although the fundamental approach is different, Thomas’
taxonomy borrows pieces from both Harrow & Simpson.

Level Description Foundational Verbs

Perception Gathering stimuli through the Examine, Feel, Hear, Identify, Inspect,
(Level 1) senses. Listen, Locate, Notice, Scan, See, Smell,
Taste
Communication Physical aspects of communication Diagram (verb), Send/Receive Signals
(Level 2) (e.g., organizing a persuasive speech (e.g., Semaphore, Morse Code, Sign
would rely on elements of the Language), Shout, Sing, Speak, Vocalize,
cognitive domain, but actually Write
delivering that speech would be
psychomotor).
Movement Physical movement from simple body Ascend/Descend, Bend, Climb, Crawl,
(Level 3) positioning to complex locomotion. Crouch, Fall, Jump, Kneel, Reach, Run,
Slide, Step, Stoop, Stretch, Swim, Walk

Strength Actions or tasks requiring a degree Break, Carry, Drag, Haul, Hoist, Lift,
(Level 4) of physical strength and/or Load/Unload, March, Move (relocate an
endurance. object), Paddle, Pull, Push, Row, Stack,
Throw, Twist
Dexterity Tasks requiring hand control and Adjust, Aim, Assemble/Disassemble/
(Level 5) skill. Reassemble, Cut (surgical), Grip,
Manipulate, Solder, Splice, Suture, Tie,
Trace, Tune, Wind (as in wind a watch)
Coordination Synchronization of multiple physical Adapt, Adjust, Balance, Catch,
(Level 6) activities. Coordinate, Dance, Multitask, Pitch,
Swing & Hit (golf, baseball bat, etc.),
Throw (with aim)

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Level Description Foundational Verbs

Operation of Actions and skills associated with Adapt, Adjust, Align, Avoid (steer), Bore,
Tools & operating tools and/or pieces of Calibrate, Click (mouse, touchscreen),
Equipment equipment. Compile, Configure, Connect, Correct,
(Level 7) Dig, Drill, Drive, Fill, Fit, Flip (switches),
Focus (lenses), Hammer, Log-On/Off,
Lubricate, Maneuver (vehicle), Mortar,
Mouse, Nail, Navigate, Open/Close,
Operate, Pile, Plug/Unplug, Press, Push
(buttons), Regulate, Replace, Run
(operate), Sand, Saw, Screw, Select, Set,
Sharpen/Hone, Shift (gears), Shut
Down, Start/Stop, Steer, Test,
Tighten/Loosen, Turn (dials), Turn
On/Off, Twist, Type
Construction Activities or tasks involved in Apply (glue/paint), Arrange, Assemble,
(Level 8) building or constructing an object or Attach, Break, Build, Clean, Combine,
structure. Connect/Disconnect, Construct,
Create, Dig, Dismantle, Fasten, Fill, Fix,
Gauge, Glue, Hammer, Install, Knock
Down, Level, Mix, Mold, Order,
Organize, Package, Plane, Plant, Pound,
Pour, Prepare, Repair, Sew, Shape, Sift,
Smooth, Sort, Stitch, Tear Down, Wire
Art Refined and/or skilled actions Arrange, Bend, Chisel, Compose, Create,
(Level 9) associated with creating art. Design, Draw, Manipulate, Mold, Paint,
Play (instrument), Sculpt

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Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of the Affective Domain

Introduction Translating affective goals into observable behaviors or performance

objectives is challenging, at best. Objectives from the affective domain
are typically measured through survey instruments or similar tools.
Note: This taxonomy is controversial largely due to its limited scope and
failure to include affective constructs of self-concept, self-esteem, and
motivation.
Note: It’s also worth noting that Krathwohl worked on the team that
developed the taxonomy commonly referred to as “Bloom’s Taxonomy.”

Level Description Foundational Verbs

Receiving Being aware of or sensitive to the Accept, Choose, Differentiate, Follow,
(Level 1) existence of certain ideas, material, List (for), Respond to, Show interest
or phenomena and being willing to
tolerate them.
Responding Committed in some small measure Acclaim, Answer, Commend, Comply,
(Level 2) to the ideas, materials, or Comply with, Follow, Spend leisure
phenomena involved by actively time in, Volunteer
responding to them.
Valuing Willing to be perceived by others as Associate with, Assume responsibility,
(Level 3) valuing certain ideas, materials, or Believe in, Debate, Increase measured
phenomena. proficiency in, Participate, Relinquish,
Subsidize, Support
Organization Relates the value to those already Adhere to, Balance, Classify, Defend,
(Level 4) held and brings it into a harmonious Discuss, Examine, Formulate, Identify
and internally consistent philosophy. with, Theorize
Characterization Acts consistently in accordance with Avoid, Change behavior, Develop life
by Value or Value the values he or she has philosophy, Influence, Manage, Rate
Set internalized. high in the value, Require, Resist,
(Level 5) Resolve, Revise

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Bibliography

References Committee of College and University Examiners. (1956). Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive Domain, B.S. Bloom
(Ed.). New York: David McKay Co.
Gagné, R.M. & Briggs, L.J. (1979). Principles of Instructional Design (2nd
ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc.
Harrow, A.J. (1972). A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain. New York:
David McKay Co.
Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S., & Masia, B.B. (1964). Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives: Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York:
David McKay Co.
Seels, B. & Glasgow, Zita (1990). Exercises in Instructional Design.
Columbus Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Simpson, J. S. (1966). The classification of educational objectives,
psychomotor domain. Office of Education Project No. 5-85-104.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.

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