1

Map
I. INTRODUCTION

Early Map of Eastern Europe

Early maps often served several purposes. They provided topographical details about a country as well as information about the area
in relation to the navigator’s country. This map from about 1600 depicts the maritime commerce of Barcelona, Spain, with the Near
East and the area around the Black Sea.
SEF/Art Resource, NY

Map is a representation of a geographic area, usually a portion of the earth's surface, drawn or printed on a flat
surface. In most instances a map is a diagrammatic rather than a pictorial representation of the terrain; it usually
contains a number of generally accepted symbols, which indicate the various natural, artificial, or cultural, features of
the area it covers.

II. TYPES OF MAPS

Maps may be used for a variety of purposes, and as a result a number of specialized types of maps have been
developed.
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A. Topographic Maps

Topographic Map
In addition to showing general locations and political boundaries, topographic maps depict the geology and special features of an
area. This type of map offers many advantages. For instance, most backpackers use topographic maps to navigate through
wilderness, planning their routes with obstacles and landmarks in mind. If they should get lost, they can find their bearings again by
aligning their map and compass to a prominent feature observed nearby. A key on each map indicates the distance scales and
special symbols (for features such as railroads, schools, airstrips and water towers) used to create it. Generally, the green on a
topographic map indicates forest or vegetation, while the white areas indicate areas that are bare of growth. Series of brown lines
indicate mountains and hills, showing elevation and relative steepness. Each line represents a specific unit of elevation; where the
lines are very close together, the terrain is quite steep.
Encarta Encyclopedia

The basic type of map used to represent land areas is the topographic map. Such maps show the natural features of
the area covered as well as certain artificial features, known as cultural features. Political boundaries, such as the
limits of towns, countries, and states, are also shown. Because of the great variety of information included on them,
topographic maps are most often used as general reference maps.

B. Special – Purpose, or Thematic, Maps

Relief Map
Relief maps are three-dimensional models of the terrain in an area; on them, color and scale are used to indicate geographical
features rather than simply to delineate political boundaries. Because of this feature, relief maps are extensively used in engineering
and the military. This map shows portions of Alaska and northwestern Canada.
United States Geological Survey
Among the most important of the special-purpose maps are hydrographic and aviation charts. Hydrographic charts are
used for the navigation of ships and cover the surface of the oceans and other large bodies of water and their shores.
Over the water portion of a chart, depths are shown at frequent intervals by printing the number of fathoms of water
at low tide. Shoal (shallow water) areas are circled or shaded to give them greater visibility, and the limits of channels
(routes of waterways) are shown by lines. The type of bottom, such as sand, mud, or rock, is also indicated. An
important feature of such charts is the exact location of lighthouses, buoys (floating signals), and other aids to
navigation. The only other shore features shown on a chart are such landmarks as tall buildings or prominent peaks
on which a navigator may wish to take a bearing. Aviation charts for use over land somewhat resemble topographic
maps but bear in addition the location of radio beacons, airways, and the areas covered by the beams of radio range
stations.
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Taking a Bearing
In navigation, the direction of one object from another is called a bearing. To take a bearing between a ship and an island, a
navigator would measure the horizontal angle of the island clockwise from north. Bearings are commonly measured in degrees, as
shown here.
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Other special-purpose maps include political maps, which show only towns and political divisions without topographic
features; geologic maps, showing the geologic structure of an area; and maps indicating the geographic distribution of
crops, land use, rainfall, population, and hundreds of other kinds of social and scientific data. Another useful type of
map is the relief map, which is a three-dimensional model of the terrain of an area. Such maps are usually carved out
of clay or plaster of paris. To emphasize relief, the vertical scale of relief maps is usually several times the horizontal
scale. Such maps can also be manufactured by stamping plastic sheets in a mold. Relief maps are extensively used in
military and engineering planning.

III. BASIC ELEMENTS OF A MAP

Map Legend
A legend is an explanatory list that defines symbols appearing in a map or chart. Some symbols, such as the mountain range and
waterfall symbols shown here, may resemble the features they represent.

For a map to contain a large amount of easily read information, a system of symbols must be employed. Many
commonly used symbols have become generally accepted or are readily understood. Thus cities and towns are
indicated by dots or patches of shading; streams and bodies of water are often printed in blue; and political
boundaries are shown by colored ribbons or dotted lines. A cartographer, as mapmakers are called, may, however,
devise a great variety of symbols to suit various needs. For example, a dot may be used to symbolize the presence of
10,000 head of cattle, or crossed pickaxes may be used to denote the location of a mine. The symbols used on a map
are defined in the map's key, or legend.

A. Geographic Grid
In order to locate a feature on a map or to describe the extent of an area , it is necessary to refer to the map's
geographic grid. This grid is made up of meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude . By agreed convention,
longitude is marked 180° east and 180° west from 0° at Greenwich, England. Latitude is marked 90° north and 90°
south from the 0° parallel of the equator. Points on a map can be accurately defined by giving degrees, minutes, and
seconds for both latitude and longitude. Maps are usually arranged so that true north is at the top of the sheet, and
are provided with a compass rose or some other indication of magnetic variation.
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B. Scale

Scale
The scale of a map defines the relationship between distance on the map and the corresponding distance on the earth. (Left,) The
units of measurement shown in the scale represent 1000 mi, top, or 1000 km, bottom, on the earth. (Center,) One unit on the map
equals a distance of 10,000,000 units on the earth. (Right,) One unit on the map equals a distance of 1,000,000 units on the earth.
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The scale to which a map is drawn represents the ratio of the distance between two points on the earth and the
distance between the two corresponding points on the map . The scale is commonly represented in figures, as
1:100,000, which means that one unit measured on the map (say 1 cm) represents 100,000 of the same units on the
earth's surface. A map to this scale is also sometimes called a centimeter-to-the-kilometer map. On most maps the
scale is indicated in the margin, and frequently a divided line showing the scale length of such units as 1, 5, and 10
km or mi, or both, on the original area is provided. The scales used in maps vary widely. Ordinary topographic maps,
such as those of the U.S. issued by the U.S. Geological Survey, are usually made to a scale of 1:62,500 (about 1 in to
the mile). For military purposes scales as large as 1:15,800 are used. Since the early years of the 20th century, a
number of governments have been collaborating on a standard map of the world at a scale of 1:1,000,000.

C. Relief

Drawing a Cross-Section
The map on top is a topographical map. The map’s curving lines, or contours, are labeled with numbers indicating how high above
sea level the contours are. The second map is a cross-section of the map on top. The x-axis (the horizontal axis) of the cross-section
corresponds to the line from A to B on the topographical map. The y-axis (the vertical axis) of the cross-section is used with the x-
axis to plot the height of each contour where it crosses the A-B line. This creates a series of dots; by connecting the dots, a cross-
section of the landscape is created.
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The varying heights of hills and mountains, and the depths of valleys and gorges as they appear on a topographic
map, are known as relief (elevations of land ); unless the relief is adequately represented, the map does not give a
clear picture of the area it represents. In the earliest maps, relief was often indicated pictorially by small drawings of
mountains and valleys, but this method is extremely inaccurate and has been generally supplanted by a system of
contour lines. The contour lines represent points in the mapped area that are at equal elevations. The contour interval
selected may be any unit, depending on the amount of relief and the scale of the map, such as 50 m, and in drawing
the map the cartographer joins together all points that are at a height of 50 m above sea level, all points at a height
of 100 m, all points at a height of 150 m, and so on. The shapes of the contour lines provide an accurate
representation of the shapes of hills and depressions, and the lines themselves show the actual elevations. Closely
spaced contour lines indicate steep slopes.

Other methods of indicating elevation include the use of colors or tints, and of hachures (short parallel lines) or
shadings. When colors are used for this purpose, a graded series of tones is selected to color areas of similar
elevations; for example, all the land between 0 and 100 m above sea level may be colored a light shade of green, all
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land between 100 and 200 m a darker shade, and so on. Hachures are used to show slopes; they are made heavier
and closer together for steeper slopes. Often only southeast slopes are hachured or shaded, giving somewhat the
effect of a bird's-eye view of the area illuminated by light from the northwest. Shadings or carefully drawn hachures,
neither of which give elevations, are more easily interpreted than contour lines and are sometimes used in conjunction
with them for greater clarity.

IV. MAP PROJECTIONS

For the representation of the entire surface of the earth without any kind of distortion, a map must have a spherical
surface; a map of this kind is known as a globe. A flat map cannot accurately represent the rounded surface of the
earth except for very small areas where the curvature is negligible. To show large portions of the earth's surface or to
show areas of medium size with accuracy, the map must be drawn in such a way as to compromise among distortions
of areas, distances, and direction. In some cases the cartographer may wish to achieve accuracy in one of these
qualities at the expense of distortion in the others. The various methods of preparing a flat map of the earth's surface
are known as projections and are classified as geometric or analytic, depending on the technique of development.
Geometric projections are classified according to the type of surface on which the map is assumed to be developed,
such as cylinders, cones, or planes; plane projections are also known as azimuthal or zenithal projections. Analytical
projections are developed by mathematical computation.

A. Cylindrical Projections

Cylindrical Projection
If you imagine a paper cylinder wrapped around an illuminated globe, the projection onto the cylinder would resemble a cylindrical
projection map. The shape of the continents near the middle of the cylinder would be relatively free of distortion, but the regions
near the poles would be stretched out of proportion as in a cylindrical projection map.
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In making a cylindrical projection, the cartographer regards the surface of the map as a cylinder that encircles the
globe, touching it at the equator. The parallels of latitude are extended outward from the globe, parallel to the
equator, as parallel planes intersecting the cylinder. Because of the curvature of the globe, the parallels of latitude
nearest the poles when projected onto the cylinder are spaced progressively closer together, and the projected
meridians of longitude are represented as parallel straight lines, perpendicular to the equator and continuing to the
North and South poles. After the projection is completed, the cylinder is assumed to be slit vertically and rolled out
flat. The resulting map represents the world's surface as a rectangle with equally spaced parallel lines of longitude and
unequally spaced parallel lines of latitude. Although the shapes of areas on the cylindrical projection are increasingly
distorted toward the poles, the size relationship of areas on the map is equivalent to the size relationship of areas on
the globe.

The familiar Mercator projection, developed mathematically by the Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator, is related
to the cylindrical projection, with certain modifications. A Mercator map is accurate in the equatorial regions but
greatly distorts areas in the high latitudes. Directions, however, are represented faithfully, and this is especially
valuable in navigation. Any line cutting two or more meridians at the same angle is represented on a Mercator map as
a straight line. Such a line, called a rhumb line, represents the path of a ship or an airplane following a steady
compass course. Using a Mercator map, a navigator can plot a course simply by drawing a line between two points
and reading the compass direction from the map.

B. Azithmuthal Projection
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Azimuthal Projection
If you imagine a piece of paper touching an illuminated globe at one point, the projection of the globe onto the paper would resemble
an azimuthal projection map. Azimuthal projection maps are useful for viewing the polar regions of the world, because the poles
usually appear near the center of the map, with longitudinal lines meeting at the poles and spreading away from each other as they
move away from the poles. The polar regions are relatively free of distortion, but the distortion increases as the longitudinal lines
move toward equatorial areas.
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This group of map projections is derived by projecting the globe onto a plane that may be tangent to it at any point.
The group includes the gnomonic, orthographic, and stereographic plane projections. Two other types of plane
projections are known as the azimuthal equal area and the azimuthal equidistant; they cannot be projected but are
developed on a tangent plane. The gnomonic projection is assumed to be formed by rays projected from the center of
the earth. In the orthographic projection the source of projecting rays is at infinity, and the resulting map resembles
the earth as it would appear if photographed from outer space. The source of projecting rays for the stereographic
projection is a point diametrically opposite the tangent point of the plane on which the projection is made.

The nature of the projection varies with the source of the projecting rays. Thus the gnomonic projection covers areas
of less than a hemisphere, the orthographic covers hemispheres, the azimuthal equal area and the stereographic
projections map larger areas, and the azimuthal equidistant includes the entire globe. In all these types of projection,
however (except in the case of the azimuthal equidistant), the portion of the earth that appears on the map depends
on the point at which the imaginary plane touches the earth. A plane-projection map with the plane tangent to the
surface of the earth at the equator would represent the equatorial region, but would not show the entire region in one
map; with the plane tangent at either of the poles, the map would represent the polar regions.

Because the source of the gnomonic projection is at the center of the earth, all great circles, that is, the equator, all
meridians, and any other circles that divide the globe into two equal parts, are represented as straight lines. A great
circle that connects any two points on the earth is always the shortest distance between the two points. The gnomonic
map is therefore a great aid to navigation when used in conjunction with the Mercator.

C. Conic Projections

Conic Projection
If you imagine a paper cone placed over an illuminated globe, the projection on the cone would resemble a conic projection map.
Such a map is relatively free of distortion in the middle latitude regions, and is useful for viewing countries that fall within those
regions, such as some European countries.
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In preparing a conic projection a cone is assumed to be placed over the top of the globe. After projection, the cone is
assumed to be slit and rolled out to a flat surface. The cone touches the globe at all points on a single parallel of
latitude, and the resulting map is extremely accurate for all areas near that parallel, but becomes increasingly
distorted for all other areas in direct proportion to the distance of the areas from the standard parallel.

To provide greater accuracy, the Lambert conformal conic projection assumes a cone that passes through a part of
the surface of the globe, intersecting two parallels. Because the resulting map is accurate in the immediate vicinity of
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both parallels, the area represented between the two standard parallels is less distorted than the same area
reproduced by a single conic projection.

The polyconic projection is a considerably more complicated projection in which a series of cones is assumed, each
cone touching the globe at a different parallel, and only the area in the immediate vicinity of each parallel is used. By
compiling the results of the series of limited conic projections, a large area may be mapped with considerable
accuracy. Because a cone cannot be made to touch the globe in the extreme polar and equatorial regions, the various
conic projections are used to map comparatively small areas in the temperate zones. Polyconic maps offer a good
compromise in the representation of area, distance, and direction over small areas.

D. Mathematical Computation

Robinson Projection
A Robinson projection, also called an orthophanic projection, is one way of transferring information from a round globe to a flat map.
This type of projection, elliptical in shape, shows the entire world in a single plane. The poles are depicted as lines instead of points.
The Robinson projection was designed in 1963 by Arthur H. Robinson of the University of Wisconsin to minimize distortion,
particularly near the equator, and to give the world a realistic appearance.
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For accurate delineation of large areas on a small scale, a number of so-called projections have been developed
mathematically. Maps based on mathematical computation represent the entire earth in circles, ovals, or other
shapes. For special purposes the earth often is drawn not within the original form of the projection but within
irregular, joined parts. Maps of this type, called interrupted projections, include Goode's interrupted homolosine and
Eckert's equal-area projection.

V. MAPMAKING

Mapmaking, or cartography, has been greatly assisted by technological advancements since World War II. Perhaps
most important has been the use of remote sensing techniques, that is, techniques that gather data about an object
without actually touching it. Examples include aerial photography (including infrared photography) and satellite
photography. Satellite triangulation has substantially reduced the margin of error in determining the exact location of
points on the earth's surface. Among the more recent innovations has been the use of the computer to draw maps.

A. Observation
The basis of a modern map is a careful survey giving geographical locations and relations of a large number of points
in the area being mapped. Today, nearly all original maps make use of aerial photographs in addition to traditional
land-surveying information (see Aerial Survey; Surveying). Satellite photographs can furnish a wealth of accurate
information about various features on the earth's surface, including the location of mineral deposits, the extent of
urban sprawl, vegetation infestations, and soil types.

B. Compilation and Reproduction

Once the data have been collected, the map must be carefully planned with regard to its final use so that all relevant
information can be rendered clearly and accurately. The collected surveys and photographs are then used to enter a
large number of points on a grid of crossed lines corresponding to the projection chosen for the map. Elevations are
determined and contour lines, if used, are drawn directly from stereoscopic pairs of photographs by using very
complex instruments such as the multiplex. The courses of roads and rivers and the positions of other features are
drawn in the same way. Final preparation of a map for printing begins by making a series of sheets, one for each color
used on the map. These sheets are made of an opaque coated plastic; lines and symbols are scribed onto the surface
by a sharp etching tool that removes the opaque coating. Each such sheet is a negative from which a lithographic
plate is made. See Lithography.

Another type of map is an orthophotomap, in which actual photographs form the body of the map. Such a map is a
mosaic of carefully pieced portions of aerial photographs, which have been changed by the use of an orthophotoscope
to eliminate scale and angle distortion. During the 1970s advancements were made in computer-generated maps.
Data can be stored on the coordinates of a geographic area and on the distribution of statistical phenomena in the
area. A device such as a continuous-curve plotter enables a computer to draw accurate maps from the stored data.
Computer-generated maps can also be displayed on a video screen, where an operator can easily make alterations in
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the content. Because such maps, and each incorporated change, can be stored in the computer, they are useful in
furnishing an animated picture of a change over a period of time.

VI. HISTORY OF MAPS

World Map of the 15th Century

This world map is attributed to 15th-century Italian mathematician Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli. Although his map contained the same
cartographical errors that had existed since classical times, Toscanelli was among the first scholars to postulate that ships could
reach Asia by sailing west from Europe, an idea later embraced by Christopher Columbus.
Scala/Art Resource, NY

The earliest existing maps were made by the Babylonians about 2300 BC. Cut on clay tiles, they consisted largely of
land surveys made for the purposes of taxation. More extensive regional maps, drawn on silk and dating from the 2nd
century BC, have been found in China. The ability and need to make maps would appear to be universal. One of the
most interesting types of primitive map is the cane chart constructed by the Marshall Islanders in the South Pacific
Ocean. This chart is made of a gridwork of cane fibers arranged to show the location of islands. The art of mapmaking
was advanced in both the Maya and Inca civilizations, and the Inca as early as the 12th century AD made maps of the
lands they conquered.

The first map to represent the known world is believed to have been made in the 6th century BC by the Greek
philosopher Anaximander. It was circular in form and showed the known lands of the world grouped around the
Aegean Sea at the center and surrounded by the ocean. One of the most famous maps of classical times was drawn
by the Greek geographer Eratosthenes about 200 BC. It represented the known world from England on the northwest
to the mouth of the Ganges River on the east and to Libya on the south. This map was the first to be supplied with
transverse parallel lines to show equal latitudes. The map also had some meridians of longitude but they were
irregularly spaced. About AD 150 the Alexandrian scholar Ptolemy published his geography containing maps of the
world. These were the earliest maps to use a mathematically accurate form of conic projection, although they
incorporated many errors, such as the excessive extent of the Eurasian landmass. Following the fall of the Roman
Empire, European mapmaking all but ceased; such maps as were made were usually drawn by monks, who often
portrayed the earth inaccurately. Arabian seamen, however, made and used highly accurate charts during this same
period. The Arabian geographer al-Idrisi made a map of the world in 1154. Beginning approximately in the 13th
century, Mediterranean navigators prepared accurate charts of that sea, usually without meridians or parallels but
provided with lines to show the bearings between important ports. These maps are usually called portolano or
portolan charts. In the 15th century, editions of Ptolemy's maps were printed in Europe; for the next several hundred
years these maps exerted great influence on European cartographers.

Magellan's Great Expedition

This Italian map of the world illustrates the last and greatest expedition of Spanish explorer and navigator Ferdinand Magellan. The
map is an example of a portolan chart, a type of nautical map that usually includes detailed coastlines and representations of the
winds, depicted here with cherubic faces. This chart, illuminated in gold leaf and ornamental colors, appears in an atlas produced by
Italian cartographer Battista Agnese in the mid-1540s. Agnese's atlases were intended for the Venetian elite and were probably
never used at sea. The heavy line on this map traces Magellan's route as he set out from Spain in 1519 to reach the Moluccas, or
Spice Islands (of present-day Indonesia), from the east. Many people doubted whether the voyage was possible—up to that time,
sailors had always approached these islands from the west. Magellan sailed southwest along the South American coast, passed
through what was later named the Strait of Magellan, and continued northwest across a calm ocean that he called the Pacific. He first
landed in what are now known as the Mariana Islands. Magellan then continued on to the Philippines, where in 1521 he died in a
battle between rival chieftains of the islands. One of Magellan's captains continued westward, forced by prevailing winds, and
returned a single ship to Spain, completing the voyage around the world.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.
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A map produced in 1507 by Martin Waldseemüller, a German cartographer, probably was the first to apply the name
America to the newly discovered transatlantic lands. The map, printed in 12 separate sheets, was also the first to
clearly separate North and South America from Asia. In 1570 Abraham Ortelius, a Flemish mapmaker, published the
first modern atlas, Orbis Terrarum. It contained 70 maps. During the 16th century many other cartographers
produced maps that incorporated the ever-increasing information brought back by navigators and explorers. It is
Gerardus Mercator, however, who stands as the greatest cartographer of the age of discovery; the projection he
devised for his world map proved invaluable to all future navigators.

Mercator Map of Europe

This map of Europe appeared in Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator’s world atlas, published in three volumes between 1585 and
1595. Mercator’s work in collecting data and refining mapmaking methods greatly improved the accuracy and quality of maps.
Royal Geographical Society, London/Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York

The accuracy of later maps was greatly increased by more precise determinations of latitude and longitude and of the
size and shape of the earth. The first maps to show compass variation were produced in the first half of the 17th
century, and the first charts to show ocean currents were made about 1665. By the 18th century, the scientific
principles of mapmaking were well established and the most notable inaccuracies in maps involved unexplored parts
of the world.

By the late 18th century, as the initial force of world exploration subsided and as nationalism began to develop as a
potent force, a number of European countries began to undertake detailed national topographic surveys. The complete
topographic survey of France was issued in 1793; roughly square, it measured about 11 m (about 36 ft) on each side.
Britain, Spain, Austria, Switzerland, and other countries followed suit. In the United States the Geological Survey was
organized in 1879 for the purpose of making large-scale topographic maps of the entire country. In 1891 the
International Geographical Congress proposed the mapping of the entire world on a scale of 1:1,000,000, a task that
still remains to be completed. During the 20th century, mapmaking underwent a series of major technical innovations.
Aerial photography was developed during World War I and used extensively during World War II in the making of
maps. Beginning in 1966 with the launching of the satellite Pageos, and continuing in the 1970s with the three
Landsat satellites, the U.S. has been engaged in a complete geodetic survey of the surface of the earth by means of
high-resolution photographic equipment. In spite of the great advancements in cartographic technique and
knowledge, substantial portions of the earth's surface have not been surveyed in detail. Surveying work continues, for
instance, on the continent of Antarctica.

Contributed By: English, Van H. "Map." Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

Magnetic Navigational Compass

Magnetic Compass
A free-spinning magnetized needle points toward magnetic north on a compass dial. Magnetic north is located in a different place
than the geographic North Pole, or true north. The location of magnetic north is determined by the orientation of the earth’s
magnetic field. The location of the North Pole is determined by the axis of the earth’s daily rotation. On maps and navigational
charts, true north is offset from magnetic north. To find true north a correction, called the magnetic declination, must be made on all
compass readings.
Rolf Richardson/Robert Harding Picture Library
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Global Positioning System

I. INTRODUCTION

Launching a GPS Satellite

A Navstar global positioning system (GPS) satellite is launched into orbit by a Delta rocket. GPS satellites continuously transmit data
about the satellite’s position and the current time. Military and civilian navigators use the information gathered from several satellites
to compute their own position.
Time Life Pictures/Us Air Force/Time Life Pictures/Corbis

Global Positioning System (GPS), space-based radio-navigation system, consisting of 24 satellites and ground support.
Operated by the United States military but open to civilian uses, GPS provides users with accurate information about
their location and velocity anywhere in the world. GPS is one of three satellite-based radio-navigation systems. The
Russian Federation operates the Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), which also uses 24 satellites
and provides accuracy similar to GPS. The European Union (EU) launched the first satellite in its planned Galileo
program, also known as the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), in December 2005.

II. MANAGEMENT AND PURPOSE OF GPS

GPS, formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning System, is operated and maintained by the United States
Department of Defense. The National Space-Based Position, Navigation, and Timing Executive Committee manages
GPS. The deputy secretaries of the Departments of Defense and Transportation lead the committee, which has a
permanent staff that is responsible for the development of GPS.

GPS was initiated in 1973 to reduce the proliferation of navigation aids. By overcoming the limitations of many
existing navigation systems, GPS became attractive to a broad spectrum of users. It was initially used as a
navigational aid by military ground, sea, and air forces. In more recent years, GPS has been used by civilians in many
new ways, such as in automobile and boat navigation, hiking, emergency rescue, and precision agriculture and
mining.

III. HOW GPS WORKS

The GPS system was designed for 24 satellites. Each satellite lasts about ten years. Replacement satellites are placed
in orbit regularly to ensure that at least 24 satellites are always functioning. The device that receives the GPS signal is
known as a receiver. Handheld or wrist-mounted GPS receivers are available to the civilian population; GPS receivers
can also be installed in automobiles and boats.
An atomic clock synchronized to GPS is required in order to compute ranges from these three signals. However, by
taking a measurement from a fourth satellite, the receiver avoids the need for an atomic clock. Thus, the receiver
uses four satellites to compute latitude, longitude, altitude, and velocity.
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IV. THE COMPONENTS OF GPS

GPS Receiver with Map

A Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver links with an array of satellites to give users their location. Many GPS units have enough
memory capacity to store maps so that users can pinpoint their map location and use it to plot routes to their next destination.
Shizuo Kambayashi/AP/Wide World Photos

GPS has three components: the space component, control component, and user component. The space component
includes the satellites and the Delta rockets that launch the satellites from Cape Canaveral, in Florida. GPS satellites
fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 20,100 km (12,500 mi) and with a period of 12 hours. The orbits are tilted to
Earth's equator by 55 degrees to ensure coverage of polar regions. Powered by solar cells, the satellites continuously
orient themselves to point their solar panels toward the Sun and their antennas toward Earth. Each satellite contains
four atomic clocks.

The control component includes the master control station at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and
monitor stations at Falcon Air Force Base and on Hawaii, Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean, Diego Garcia Atoll in
the Indian Ocean, and Kwajalein Island in the South Pacific Ocean. These stations monitor the GPS satellites. The
control segment uses measurements collected by the monitor stations to predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit
and clock. The prediction data is uplinked, or transmitted, to the satellites for transmission to the users. The control
segment also ensures that the GPS satellite orbits and clocks remain within acceptable limits.

The user component includes the equipment, or receivers, used by military personnel and civilians to receive GPS
signals. Military GPS receivers have been integrated into fighter aircraft, bombers, tankers, helicopters, ships,
submarines, tanks, jeeps, and soldiers' equipment. In addition to basic navigation activities, military applications of
GPS include target designation, close air support, “smart” weapons, and rendezvous.

The general population typically uses lightweight, handheld receivers or receivers that have been integrated into
automobiles or boats. The general population uses GPS in many different ways. Surveyors use GPS to save time over
standard survey methods. GPS is used in aircraft and ships for en route navigation and for airport or harbor
approaches. GPS tracking systems are used to route and monitor delivery vans and emergency vehicles. In a method
called precision farming, GPS is used to monitor and control the application of agricultural fertilizer and pesticides.
GPS is available as an in-car navigation aid and as such, is used by vacationers and businesspeople who make
frequent calls on clients or customers. Handheld GPS receivers are often used by hikers and hunters. Rescue crews
use GPS to locate persons in emergency situations. A pastime known as caching or geocaching uses GPS to locate
objects deliberately concealed in certain locations in an adult version of a child’s treasure hunt. GPS is also used on
the space shuttle.

V. GPS CAPABILITIES

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) is a network of 24 satellites in orbit around the earth that provides users with
information about their position and movement. A GPS receiver computes position information by comparing the time taken by
signals from three or four different GPS satellites to reach the receiver.
NASA
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GPS is available in two basic forms: the standard positioning service (SPS), or civilian signal, and the precise
positioning service (PPS), or military signal. Prior to 2000 the U.S. military intentionally corrupted or degraded the
SPS signal for national security purposes by using a process known as Selective Availability. As a result, the SPS
signal was much less accurate than PPS. In May 2000 President Bill Clinton announced that the military would stop
Selective Availability. This increased the accuracy and reliability of SPS by a factor of ten. Today, the military and
civilian GPS signals are believed to be of the same accuracy. For national security reasons the Defense Department
retained the ability to jam the SPS signal on a regional basis if necessary. Both the SPS and the PPS signals provide a
horizontal position that is accurate to about 10 m (about 33 ft).

Finding Location with GPS

Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites orbit high above the surface of Earth at precise locations. They allow a user with a GPS
receiver to determine latitude, longitude, and altitude. The receiver measures the time it takes for signals sent from the different
satellites (A, B, and C) to reach the receiver. From this data, the receiver triangulates an exact position. At any given time there are
multiple satellites within the range of any location on Earth. Three satellites are needed to determine latitude and longitude, while a
fourth satellite (D) is necessary to determine altitude.
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Several techniques have been developed to enhance the performance of GPS. One technique, known as differential
GPS (DGPS), employs two fixed stations on Earth as well as satellites. DGPS provides a horizontal position accurate to
about 3 m (about 10 ft). Another technique, known as WAAS, or Wide Area Augmentation System, was developed by
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to improve the safety of aircraft navigation. WAAS monitoring stations
around the United States catch GPS signals, correct errors, and send out more-accurate signals. A technique involving
the use of carrier frequency processing (see Carrier Wave), known as survey grade GPS, was pioneered by surveyors
to compute positions to within about 1 cm (about 0.4 in). SPS, DGPS, WAAS, and carrier techniques are accessible to
all users.

VI. EUROPEAN RIVALRY AND COOPERATION

The European Union (EU) launched the first satellite in its planned space-based radio-navigation system in December
2005. The EU system will eventually have 30 satellites and is expected to become operational in 2009. It will have an
accuracy of 1 m (3.3 ft) and will be operated as a strictly civilian enterprise. Other countries outside the EU, such as
China and Israel, are contributing financially to the creation of the system. Known as the Galileo program and also as
the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), the system will be compatible with GPS. The United States negotiated
an agreement under which satellite signals could be jammed over a battlefield area without shutting down the entire
GNSS or GPS system. The two systems, however, were expected to compete for commercial applications.

Contributed By: Leonard R. Kruczynski. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights
reserved.