Haldia Institute of Technology

Engineering Chemistry Laboratory(CH 191 &CH 291)

Experiment No.: 01

Name: Redox Titration (Estimation of Iron Using Permanganometry

Theory:
In a chemical reaction, if one substance is oxidized the other is reduced. In other
words, oxidation and reduction occurs simultaneously. Oxidation is defined as the process of
one or more electrons and reduction is the gain of electron or electrons by atoms or ions. The
reagents undergoing reduction is called oxidizing agent (oxidant), the reagent which
undergoes oxidation is called reducing agent (reductant).
In a redox titration, a reducing agent is titrated against an oxidizing agent or vice-versa. In this
titration, potassium permanganate is the commonly used oxidizing agent which is titrated
against a reducing agent like ferrous ammonium sulfate.
Potassium permanganate oxidizes ferrous ion into ferric ion in acid medium in cold for its
higher standard reduction potential and is itself reduced to colorless manganous ion. But with
decrease in H+ conc. i.e. increase in pH of the medium, the potential falls and the oxidizing
power decreases.
MnO4- +8H+ +5e- → Mn+2 +4H2O E0 = 1.51V
5Fe+2 → 5Fe+3 +5e- E0 = 0.77V
_______________________________________________________

MnO4- +5Fe+2 +8H+ → Mn+2 +5Fe+3 +4H2O

Cl2 + 2e → 2Cl- E0 = 1.36V

Permanganate also oxidises Cl- present in the medium to Cl2. So excess MnO4 - is consumed. To
prevent this the titration is carried out in prsence of Zimmermann- Reinhardt (Z.R)solution
consisting of MnSO4 , H3PO4 and H2SO4.

Function of MnSO4: It supplies excess of Mn+2; as a result the formal potential of MnO4 - /Mn+2
system falls below 1.36V ; consequently MnO4 - can no longer oxidise Cl- to Cl2.

E = 1.51 + log

Function of H3PO4: It removes yellow Fe+3 by forming colourless soluble complex ion,
[Fe(HPO4)]+ ;as a result (i) the standard reduction potential of Fe +3/ Fe+2 system decreases and
the formal potential falls below 0.77V to permit quantitative oxidation of Fe +2 by MnO4, (ii)
sharp detection of the end point becomes possible.

Function of H2SO4: It maintains the proper acidity of the solution and thereby prevents the
precipitation of Manganese phosphate in the Z.R. solution.

Apparatus:
 1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Volumetric flask
5. Measuring cylinder
6. Beakers

Materials Required:
1. Dilute sulfuric acid
2. Ferrous ammonium sulfate solution [ (NH4)2SO4. FeSO4. 6H2O ]
3. Given KMnO4 solution
4. Zimmermann Reinhardt solution ( MnSO4 + conc. H2SO4 + H3PO4 )
5. Distilled water
Procedures:
(1) Preparation of standard oxalic acid solution
Equivalent weight of oxalic acid is 63. Hence in order to prepare 250 ml of (N/10) solution,
1.575 gm oxalic acid is required.
Weight out 1.575 gm of AR quality oxalic acid into a clean 250 ml volumetric flask. Wash the
entire quantity of solid into the flask by careful addition of distilled water. Hold the flask firmly
and shake carefully. When the entire solid has dissolved, makeup the volume to the mark.
Let the weight of oxalic acid taken = w gm
w
Strength of oxalic acid = (N/10)
1.575

Table 1: Weighing of oxalic acid

Initial Final Weight Weight to be

Strength
weight(gm) weight(gm) taken(gm) taken(gm)

W1 W2 W1-W2 = w 1.575

(2) Determination of strength of given KMnO4 solution

Take 5 ml of oxalic acid solution in a conical flask. Add 30 ml of 2(N) H 2SO4.Heat to about
800C. Run in the permanganate solution, with constant stirring and see that the temperature of
the solution may not fall below 600C during titration. Stop addition of KMnO4 solution when just
one drop imparts pink colour to the whole mass of the solution. Note that the pink colour after
lasting for 30 seconds may disappear again. Note the volume of KMno 4 solution added. Repeat
the titration twice at least.

Table 2: Determination of strength of KMnO4 solution

 Volume of Burette reading of Volume of Strength
No. of KMnO4 solution (ml) Strength
oxalic KMnO4 of oxalic
observation of KMnO4
acid (ml) (ml) acid
Initial Final

(2) Standardization of Ferrous ammonium sulfate against KMnO 4 solution:

Take 5 ml of ferrous ammonium sulfate solution in a conical flask. Add about to 2.5 ml of
Zimmermann Reinhardt mixture. Dilute to 50 ml with distilled water. Run the permanganate
solution from the burette till a faint pink colour develops through the whole mass of the solution

Table 3: Standardization of ferrous ammonium sulfate

Volume of
ferrous Burette reading of Iron
No. of ammonium KMnO4 solution(ml) Volume of Strength present
observation sulfate KMnO4(ml) of KMnO4 per
solution Initial Final litre(gm)
(ml)

Calculation:
Let the exact strength of KMnO4 solution as determined by experiment = S (N)
The volume of KMnO4 solution required to oxidize 5 ml 0f ferrous iron solution = V ml
Since 1000 ml of 1(N) KMnO4 solution = 56 gm of iron
1 ml of 1(N) KMnO4 solution =0.056 gm of iron
V ml of S (N) KMnO4 solution = (0.056  S  V) gm of iron
5 ml of ferrous iron solution contain (0.056  S  V) gm of iron
1000 ml of ferrous iron solution contain (0.056  S  V  200) gm of iron

Precautions:

 Titration is carried out at room temperature.

 All the apparatus should be washed with distilled water before use.
 Rinse the burette with a solution of KMnO4 to be taken in the burette.
 Rinse the pipette with a solution to be taken in the conical flask.
 Wash the conical flask with distilled after every titration.
 Haldia Institute of Technology
Engineering Chemistry Laboratory(CH 191 &CH 291)
Experiment No.: 02

Name: Complexometric Titration (Estimation of Calcium and Magnesium

Hardness separately using EDTA Titration)

Theory:
Complexometry involves the estimation of metal ions titrimetrically through complex formation
with a strong multidentate chelating ligand. Ligands having more than one co-ordinate centres
are known as chelating ligands. They give extra stability to a metal complex due to chelate
effect-the stability increases with the number of points . They give extra stability to a metal
complex due to chelate effect-the stability increases with the number of points of attachments of
the ligand to a metal ion. In this titration, Ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid(EDTA) is used as a
chelating ligand.
The total hardness of water is due to dissolved calcium salts and magnesium salts and expressed
as part of CaCO3 equivalent per million part of water(ppm). The total hardness is conveniently
determined by resin, i. e.,disodium hydro ethylene diamine tetra acetate dehydrate
Na2H2C10H12O8N2,2H2O(m.wt.=372.25)generally formulated as Na2H2Y,2H2O, using Erichrome
black T indicator(EBT).

+
CH2COO Na
HOOCH2C
N CH2 CH2 N
+ CH2COOH
Na OOCH2C
EDTA Salt

Between pH 7 to 11, Erichrome black T is blue colour. Addition of metallic salt produces in this
stage a brilliant change in color from blue to wine red.
 EBT(Blue)

M M = Ca or Mg

NO2

SO3- Na+

N= N
O
O
M

EBT Metal complex (Wine red)

When the wine red complex is treated with the disodium salt of EDTA, the complex is formed
rapidly; the wine red becomes blue, due to the formation of indicator itself, along with which is
colorless According to the equation.

M In + Na(HEDTA) = Na2(MEDTA) + In H2
Colorless Blue

The hardness of water due to dissolved calcium salts is conveniently determined by using also
dihydrate salt of disodium hydro ethylene diamine tetra acetate generally formulated as
Na2H2Y,2H2O with murexide as an another metal indicator ( its original color is purple or red
violet). Murexide, ammonium salt of purpuric acid is another metal indicator which complex
with only Ca+2 ions present in the hard water and the color of the solution becomes pink.

O O O O
NH NH NH NH
M O N
O N O O
N M= Ca NH N
NH
O O O
O NH + +
4
Ca

Purple Pink

When the pink complex is treated with the disodium salt of EDTA , the M-EDTA complex is
formed rapidly ; so the pink color becomes purple due to the formation of indicator itself which
is purple in color.
 M In + Na(HEDTA) = Na2(MEDTA) + In H2
Colorless Purple

Chemicals Required:

 0.01(M) EDTA solution

 Buffer of pH = 10 (Mixture of NH4Cl and NH4OH )
 EBT indicator
 2(N) NaOH solution
 Murexide indicator

Apparatus:

 Burette
 Pipette
 Conical flask
 Beaker

Procedure:

1. Determination of Total hardness of water by EDTA solution:

Take 25 ml of the given water sample in a clean conical flask. To this add 1 ml buffer solution of
pH = 10 and then add 2 drops of EBT indicator. Then titrate against EDTA solution from burette
until the color changes from wine red to blue with 1 drop of EDTA solution.

Table 1: Determination of Total Hardness of water by EDTA solution

Volume of Burette reading of EDTA Total

No.of Volume of
water sample hardness in
observation Initial(ml) Final(ml) EDTA(ml)
taken(ml) ppm
2. Determination of Calcium hardness of water by EDTA solution:

Take 25 ml of sample water in a conical flask. To this add 1 ml of 2(N) NaOH solution and then
add 1 drop of murexide indictor. Then titrate against EDTA solution from burette until the color
changes from pink to purple with 1 drop of EDTA solution.

Table 2: Determination of calcium hardness of water by EDTA solution:

No.of Volume of water Burette reading of EDTA Volume of Calcium

observation sample taken(ml) Initial(ml) Final(ml) EDTA(ml) hardness in
ppm

Calculation:
Let the burette reading of EDTA = V ml
1000 ml of 1(M) EDTA = 1000 ml of 1(N) CaCO3
= 100 gm of CaCO3
1 ml of 1(M) EDTA =10-1 gm of CaCO3
V ml of 0.01(M) EDTA = 10-1  V  0.01 gm of CaCO3
= V  10-3 gm of CaCO3
Hence, 25 ml sample water contain V  10-3 gm of CaCO3
6 V 103 106
Therefore, 10 ml sample water contain gm of CaCO3
25

Precautions:
 Use distilled water for washing and rinsing of glass apparatus.
 Prepare EDTA solution in double distilled water.
 Add same amount of indicator in each time.
 Maintain pH=10 during the titration by adding buffer.
 Correctly observe the end point.
 Haldia Institute of Technology
Engineering Chemistry Laboratory(CH 191 &CH 291)
Experiment No.: 03

Name: Determination of percentage composition of sugar solution from

viscosity

Theory:
Due to internal friction when a fluid passes through one another, it experiences a
resistance to its flow which is known as viscosity. The coefficient of viscosity is a measure of the
resistance and defined as the tangential force per unit area required to maintain unit difference of
velocity between two layers unit distance apart. Its unit in CGS system is dyne.sec/cm2.
When a homogeneous fluid of volume ‘v’ flows through a capillary tube of length ‘l’, radius ‘r’,
in time ‘t’, under a driving force ‘p’, the co-efficient of viscosity is given according to
Poisseuille’s formula by
 Pr 4 t

8lv
The experimental determination of viscosity is rather different. If 1 and  2 are the viscosity of
two different liquids of density 1 and  2 respectively which are successively allowed to fall
through the same length h of capillary e.g. between the marks of an Ostwald viscometer, the
pressures are given by h 1 g and h  2 g and thus 1 and  2 are given by

1 = and  2 = P = Pressure difference

between two ends.

1 1t1 t 
 , or1  2  1 1 
 2  2t2  1t2 

where x is the unknown concentration of supplied sugar solution.

Apparatus:

 Viscometer (Ostwald)
 Stop watch
 Stand with clamp
 Pipettes
 Beakers
  Specific gravity bottle

Materials:

 Supplied sugar solution

 Distilled water

Procedure:
The weight of dry specific gravity bottle, filled with water and with supplied solution was
taken. At first 5%, 10%, 15% and unknown sugar solution were prepared by proper dilution. The
density of the solution was determined. The viscometer was cleaned thoroughly a clamped
vertically. Then a fixed amount of sugar solution was taken in it by sucking up and allowed to
fall freely between the two marks and time was noted and repeated for three times. For 5%, 10%,
15% and unknown solution the same was repeated.

Experimental Data:

o Measurement of relative density of a solution

Room temperature= --------------------------0C
Density of water at that temperature = --------------------------- gm/ cc
Viscosity of water at that temperature = -------------------------- Poise

Wt. of dry and Wt. of sp.

Wt. of sp.
clean sp. Wt. of water Gravity bottle Wt. of solutions
Gravity bottle
Gravity bottle (gm) with solutions (gm)
with water (gm)
(gm) (gm)

W1 W2 W2- W1= Ww W3 W3-W1= Ws

2. Density of sugar solution at different concentrations

Unknown
Concentration 5% 10% 15%
solution

Density (gm/cc)
3. Calculation of relative density:

Relative density, or specific gravity, is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a
substance to the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity usually means relative
density with respect to water. It is unitless.
m
Density  = , where m = mass of liquid
v
V = volume of liquid
s
Therefore relative density of solution = where  s = density of sugar solution
w
 w = density of water
ms
= v where m s = mass or weight of sugar solution
mw
v
m w = mass or weight of water

v = volume of specific gravity bottle

ms
As v is same for both liquid, therefore  s = w
mw

4. Determination of Viscosity co-efficient

Substance No. of Time Mean time Density Viscosity

observation required (sec) (gm/cc) (Poise)
(sec.)

Pure water 1
2
3
5% solution 1
2
3
10% solution 1
2
3
15% solution 1
2
3
Unknown 1
solution 2
3

5. Calculation of viscosity of sugar solution:

s t
= s s
 w  wt w
 sts
Therefore,  s =  w where  s = viscosity of sugar solution
 wt w
 w = viscosity of water
 s = density of sugar solution
 w = density of water
t s = time required for sugar solution
t w = time required for water

Precautions:

 The viscometer must be cleaned and rinsed.

 The viscometer should be clamp in a vertical position and its height must remain
constant each time when it is clamped.
 Exactly same volume of the two liquids should be used.
 The viscometer should not be disturbed during measurement of time of flow.

Haldia Institute of Technology

Engineering Chemistry Laboratory(CH 191 &CH 291)
Experiment No.: 04

Name: Determination of Partition Co-efficient of Acetic Acid between Water

and n-butanol

Theory:
The Nerst distribution law states that at constant temperature, when different quantities
of a solute are allowed to distribute between two immiscible solvents I contact with each other,
then at equilibrium the ratio of the concentration of the solute in two solvent layers is constant.
When a solute is shaken in two immiscible liquids, then the solute is found to be distributed
between the liquids in a definite manner, if the solute is soluble in each of the solvent. According
C
to distribution law, the distribution co-efficient at a particular temperature is given by K  1
C2
where C1 and C2 represents the concentration of solute in solvent 1 and 2 respectively, when in
solution phase solute molecules are in same state of association.
Now, if water and n-butanol are taken as the pair of two immiscible solvents and acetic acid as
the solute then as acetic acid retains its normal molecular weight in both the solvents, so the
expression for partition co-efficient will be
 K=

Apparatus:
 Stoppered bottles
 Volumetric flask
 Conical flask
 Burette
 Pipette

Materials Required:
 Standard oxalic acid
 NaOH solution
 Acetic acid
 N-Butanol
 Distilled water
 Phenolphthalein indicator

Procedure:
1. A standard oxalic acid solution of (N/10) was prepared and NaOH solution was
standardized against standard oxalic acid solution using phenolphthalein
indicator.
2. In bottle 1, 20 ml acetic acid, 490 ml water and 490 ml n-butanol was added.
Similarly in bottle 2, 40 ml acetic acid , 480 ml water and 480 ml n-butanol was
added.
3. Stoppered bottles were shaken for one hour and allowed to stand till the two
liquid layers separated.
4. Definite volume of aqueous layer and organic layer from each of the two
bottles were taken out and standardized against NaOH solution Using
Phenolphthalein as indicator.

Experimental Results:

Table 1: Composition of materials in each bottle

Bottle 1 Bottle 2

20 ml acetic acid 40 ml acetic acid

490 ml water 480 ml water

490 ml n-butanol 480 ml n-butanol

Table 2: Preparation of standard oxalic acid solution

 Initial Final Weight Weight to be
Strength
weight(gm) weight(gm) taken(gm) taken(gm)
w
(N/10)
W1 W2 W1-W2 = w 1.575 1.575

Table 3: Standardization of NaOH solution by standard oxalic acid solution

Volume of Burette reading Volume of Strength Strength

No. of
oxalic acid NaOH of oxalic of NaOH
observation Initial(ml) Final(ml)
(ml) (ml) acid solution

Table 4: Standardization acetic acid in aqueous layer and n-butanol layer by NaOH
solution

Burette reading of Volume of Strength

Layer Volume of NaOH required of acetic
Bottle No
taken layer(ml) NaOH acid in
Initial(ml) Final(ml)
solution(ml) layer
Organic 5
layer 5
1
Aqueous 5
layer 5
Organic 5
layer 5
2
Aqueous 5
layer 5

Table 5: Determination of partition co-efficient

Bottle No partition co-efficient Mean

1
 2

Partition co-efficient of acetic acid = ----------------------------------

Calculation:
V1S1 = V2S2 where V1 = volume of NaOH
S1 = strength of NaOH
V2 = volume of acetic acid in layer
S2 = strength of acetic acid in layer

Therefore, partition co-efficient,

K=

Precaution:
 During withdrawing aliquot one layer must not be contaminated with the other.
 Pipette which is used during the experiment must be cleaned.

Haldia Institute of Technology

Engineering Chemistry Laboratory(CH 191 &CH 291)
Experiment No.: 05

Name: Conductometric Titration for determination of the strength of a

given HCl solution by titration against a standard NaOH solution.

Theory:
The monobasic acid HCl being a strong electrolyte undergoes complete ionization and
produces a large number of cations and anions in solution. Moreover ionic conductance of H +
ions being highest (I0 H+ = 350). Thus the initial conductance of a solution will be very high.

When this acid is gradually titrated against a base NaOH, being added from burette, the
following reaction will occur.
H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- → Na+ + Cl- + H2O

The salt, a strong electrolyte remains in the solution in completely ionized form, while water
being a very weak electrolyte (   109 and in presence of H+ ions its ionization is still smaller)
remains partially ionized.
Thereby H+ ions are gradually replaced by equivalent amount of Na + ions which have relatively
much lower ionic conductance than that of H+ ions. Thus the conductance of resulting solution
will decrease steeply.

This trend will continue until all the H+ ions are replaced by Na+ ions i.e. equivalent point is
reached. At equivalent point only NaCl is present.

Beyond equivalent point when further amount of alkali is added Na + and OH- of excess alkali
remain in the solution unutilized. Consequently the conductance of the solution increases due to
the presence of newly added Na+ and OH- ions (Io OH- = 200).

The point of intersection of curve representing the variation of conductance with the volume of
alkali added, corresponding to the minimum conductance and consequently equivalence point.

The volume of alkali added corresponding to the equivalent point represents the volume of alkali
required for neutralization of acid.

Instruments and apparatus:

 Conductivity meter
 Conductivity cell
 Beaker
 Burette
 Pipette
 Volumetric flask
 Conical flask
 Funnel

Materials:
N
 Standard oxalic acid  
 10 
N
   NaOH solution
2
N
   HCl solution
 10 
  Phenolphthalein indicator

Procedure:
N
1. Prepare 100 ml of standard oxalic acid order   .
 10 
N
2. Prepare 250 ml of an approximately   NaOH solution and standardize it against oxalic
2
acid solution using phenolphthalein as indicator.
N
3. Prepare 250 ml of an approximately   HCl solution.
 10 
4. Rinse the conductivity cell with de-ionized water.
5. Pipette out 25 ml of HCl solution into the conductivity cell and add water if necessary, so that
both the electrodes are completely immersed within the solution. Join the cell with the
conductive bridge and measure the conductivity very carefully.
6. Add NaOH solution from a burette dropwise.
7. Measure the conductance of the solution after addition of 10 drops of NaOH and mildly
shaking the beaker. Repeat the process until you have at least six points beyond the end points.
8. Draw a curve by plotting the conductance against the drops of alkali added, find the end point
and calculate the strength of the HCl solution.

Results:
Table 1: Weighing of oxalic acid

Initial Final Weight Weight to be Strength

weight(gm) weight(gm) taken(gm) taken(gm)
w
(N/10)
W1 W2 W1-W2 = w 1.575 1.575

Table2: Standardization of NaOH solution by standard oxalic acid

No. of Volume of Burette reading of Volume of Strength Strength

observation oxalic NaOH NaOH of oxalic of NaOH
acid (ml) (ml) acid
Initial(ml) Final(ml)

Table 3: Conductometric Titration of HCl solution against NaOH solution.

No of observation Volume of HCl Drops of NaOH Conductance

taken (ml) added
 1 25 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 40
6 50
7 60
8 70
9 80
10 90
11 100
12 110
13 120
14 130
15 140
16 150

Calculations:

Let the number of drops of alkali required to neutralized 25 ml of HCl solution = x

Therefore, 20 drops = 1 ml
x
x drops = ml
20
V1S1 = V2S 2 where, V1 = Volume of HCl
S1 = Strength of HCl
V2 = Volume of NaOH
S2 = Strength of NaOH
VS
Then, S1  2 2
V1

Precautions:
 Conductivity cell must be thoroughly washed with de-ionized water.
 Ensure that there are no air bubbles in the burette.
 During titration, the beaker should be constantly swirled.
 For each titration, use same number of drops of NaOH solution.
 Haldia Institute of Technology
Engineering Chemistry Laboratory(CH 191 &CH 291)
Experiment No.: 06

Name: pH-metric titration for determination of strength of a given HCl

solution against a standard NaOH solution

Theory:
All pH meters have provision for standardizing the glass electrode in a buffer solution of
known pH.This is necessary because different electrodes have different asymmetry potentials.
Once the adjustment has been made so that the meter Registers correctly known the pH of the
buffer solution, the instrument gives the pH other solution without any calculation.

Measurements of pH are also employed to monitor the course of acid-base titrations. The pH
values of the solution at different stages of acid-base neutralization are determined and are
plotted against volume of acid/alkali added. On adding abase to an acid, the pH rises slowly in
1
the initial stages pH  log  (pH range is used for only dilute solution, not for concentrated
H
solution) and then it changes rapidly at the end point. Then it flattens out. The end point of the
titration can be detected where the pH changes most rapidly. However the shape of the inflexion
point (i.e. where the pH changes abruptly) and symmetry of the curve on its two sides depends
upon the ionisability of the acid and the base used and on the basicity of the acid and the acidity
of the base.
Apparatus:

 pH meter with glass electrode and standard calomel electrode.

 Beaker
 Burette
 Pipette

Materials:

 Buffer solution of pH 4 and 9

N
 Standard oxalic acid  
 10 
 HCl solution
 NaOH solution
 Phenolphthalein indicator

Procedure:

1. Wash the electrodes with distilled water and standardize the pH meter by using buffer solution
of pH =4 and pH=9, now the selector switch is put to a pH range of 7-14.
N
2. Prepare 100 ml of standard oxalic acid order   .
 10 
3. Prepare 250 ml of an approximately NaOH solution and standardize it against oxalic acid
solution using phenolphthalein as indicator.
N
4. Prepare 250 ml of an approximately   HCl solution.
 10 
5. Clean the electrodes by distilled water and wipe them with tissue paper.
6. Take 25 ml HCl solution in a 100 ml beaker and immerse the electrodes.
7. Add NaOH solution from the burette dropwise. Note the corresponding value from the meter.
Near the end point add very small amount of NaOH as possible because change in pH will be
very much appreciable because when the acid is neutralized, further addition of such a small
amount raises the pH to about 9 or 10.
8. Put back the selector to zero position after pH measurement and before removing the
electrodes from solution
9. Plot a graph between pH and drops of NaOH added. From this graph, determine the volume of
NaOH required for the complete neutralization of HCl.

Experimental Data:

Table 1: Weighing of oxalic acid

Initial Final Weight Weight to be

Strength
weight(gm) weight(gm) taken(gm) taken(gm)
w
(N/10)
W1 W2 W1-W2 = w 1.575 1.575

Table2: Standardization of NaOH solution by standard oxalic acid

Volume of Burette reading 0f Volume of Strength

No. of NaOH Strength
oxalic NaOH of oxalic
observation of NaOH
acid (ml) (ml) acid
Initial(ml) Final(ml)

Table 3: pH-metric titration of HCl solution against NaOH solution.

Volume of HCl Drops of NaOH

No of observation pH
taken (ml) added

25

Calculation:
Let the number of drops of alkali required to neutralized 25 ml of HCl solution = x
Therefore, 20 drops = 1 ml
x
x drops = ml
20
V1S1 = V2S 2 where, V1 = Volume of HCl
S1 = Strength of HCl
V2 = Volume of NaOH
S2 = Strength of NaOH
V2 S2
Then, S1 
V1

Precautions:

 Electrodes must be immersed properly in the solution and sufficient time to be allowed
for the electrodes to assume the temperature of the solution.
 For pH-metric titration, solution should be stirred mechanically from time to time’
 Leave the selector in zero position when not in use.

Primary knowledge about Chemistry practical:

Standard solution: A solution of known strength i.e. a solution which contains a known weight
of a solute in a definite volume of solvent is called a standard solution. The
strength(concentration) of a standard solution is usually expressed in Normality(N), Molarity(M)
or Formality(F).
Two types of standard solutions are used.
1. Primary standard solution: Substances used for preparing such a standard solution
should be (a) available in pure crystalline form (b) inert to atmosphere (not hygroscopic,
not oxidized by air, no reaction with CO2) (c) of high equivalent weight, so that the
weighing error is negligible (d) dried easily at 1100-1200C (e) of ready solubility of
solvents like water and the solution should be stable and its reaction should be
instantaneous. Na2CO3, H2C2O4.2H2O, Na2C2O4 ( sodium oxalate), K2Cr2O7. NaCl, KCl,
ZnCl2 are used as primary standard solution.

2. Secondary standard solution: Water soluble impure (crystalline) substances of high

equivalent weight and of instantaneous reactivity with others, but strength of the solution
of which changes with time, are used to be prepare secondary standard solution. HCl,
H2SO4, KOH, NaOH, KMnO4, EDTA are commonly used as secondary standard
solution.

Gram-Equivalent weight: Gram-Equivalent weights of different substances are determined

using the following formulas:
Gram-Equivalent weight of Acid =
Gram-Equivalent weight of Base =

Gram-Equivalent weight of Salt =

Gram-Equivalent weight of oxidant =

Gram-Equivalent weight of reducdant =

Normality:
Normality of the solution is the no. of gram-equivalent of the solute present in 1000 ml or 1 lt of
the solution.
Normality of solution is temperature dependent because although mass of solute is temperature
independent, the volume of the solution depends on temperature.

Molarity:
The molarity of the solution is the gram-molecule of solute dissolved in 1 litre of the solution.
Molarity of the solution is temperature dependent because although the mass of the solute is
independent of temperature, the volume of the solution changes with temperature.

Formality:
The formality of the solution is the no. of gram-formula weight of the solute present in 1 liter of
the solution.
The highly electrolyte compounds like NaCl, KCl, CaCl2 etc. when dissolved in water, ionize to
form cations and anions. As in the aqueous solutions of ionic compound, there is no existence of
any molecule or molecular entity, so in these cases, in expressing the strength of the solution, the
unit of formality, is used instead of molarity.

Molality:
Molality denotes the no. of gram-molecule or mole of the solute dissolved 1000gm of the
solvent.

Acid-base indicator:
Organic weak acids or bases, which can indicate the end point of an acid-base titration by change
of their own colour, are called acid-base indicator. They show different colors in acid and
alkaline medium.
Ex: Phenolphthalein -------colorless in acid but pink in alkali.

Buffer:
A buffer solution means a solution, the pH of which does not practically change on addition of
small amounts of acid or alkalies.
The buffer solution generally consists of a mixture of weak acid and one of its salt in solution
(e.g. acetic acid and sodium acetate) or a mixture of weak base and one of its salt solution (e.g.
ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride)

Haldia Institute of Technology

Engineering Chemistry Laboratory
(CH 191 &CH 291)

Expt. No Name of Experiment

1 Redox Titration (Estimation of Iron Using Permanganometry)

2 To determine Calcium and Magnesium hardness of a given water

sample separately.
3 Viscosity of solutions (Determination of percentage composition of
sugar solution from viscosity)

4 Heterogeneous equilibrium (Determination of Partition Co-efficient

of Acetic Acid between Water and n-butanol)

5 Conductometric Titration for determination of the strength of a

given HCl solution by titration against a standard NaOH solution.

6 pH-metric titration for determination of the strength of a given HCl

solution against a standard NaOH solution