T
T
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CIVIL ENGINEERING
Theory of Structures
Reinforce Concrete Design
Structural Steel Design
Timber Design
Surveying and Transportation
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics
Geotechnical Engineering
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Theory of Structures
Theory of Structures
Deflection of Beams
Double Integration Method
Area-Moment Method
Strain Energy Method
Three-Moment Method
Conjugate Beam Method
Virtual Work Method
Indeterminate Beams
Stability and Determinacy of Structures
Types of Indeterminate Beams
Three-Moment Equation
Moment Distribution Method
Slope-Deflection Method
Simple and Cantilever Beam Method
Propped Beam Formulas
Fully Restrained Beams Formulas
Influence Lines
Approximate Analysis of Structures
Dynamic (Impact Loading)
Trusses
Determinacy of Trusses
Deflection of Trusses
Indeterminate Truss
Reinforced Concrete
Basic Requirements
Modulus of Elasticity
Concrete Protection for Reinforcement
Loads
Load Factors
Strength Reduction Factor
Analysis and Design of Beams
Assumptions in Strength Design
Singly Reinforced Beam
Steps in Designing Singly Reinforced Beam
Steps in Computing Mu
Minimum thickness of Flexural
Double Reinforced Beam
Steps in Design
Steps in Computing Mu
Beam Deflection
NSCP Coefficient for Continuous Beams and Slabs
One-Way Slab
Shrinkage and Temperature Bars
Shear and Diagonal Tension
Spacing Limits of Shear Reinforcement
Critical Sections for Beam Shear
Steps in Vertical Stirrup Design
Bond, Development Length, Hooks, Splice
Development Length for Flexural Reinforcement
Hooks
Splices
Timber Design
Basic Code Requirements
Size Adjustment Factor
Slenderness Factor
Flexural Stress
Design of Horizontal Members
Compression Perpendicular to Grain
Column Design
Combined Flexure and Axial Load
Timber Connectors and Fasteners
Working Stress of Timber
Open Channel
Chezy Formula
Manning’s Formula
Uniform Flow
Velocity Distribution
Specific Energy
Most Efficient Sections
Moving Vane
Pressure Conduits
Drag and Lift
Water Hammer
Froude Number
Alternate Stage of Flow
Critical Depth
Non-Uniform Flow
Hydraulic Jump
Hydrodynamics
Geotechnical Engineering
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Elastic Curve
LOAD
Deflection
Elastic Curve
LOAD
X
y
x
EI 1
Therefore, = .
M y''
M 1
y'' = = M
EI EI
E I y'' = M
The first integration y’ yields the slope of the elastic curve and
the second integration y gives the deflection of the beam at any
distance x.
Any Loading
Area AB
cg
A B
XA XB
Moment Diagram
Theorem 1
The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the elastic
curve at any two points A and B is equal to the product of 1 / EI
multiplied by the area of the moment diagram between these
two points.
1
θAB = (AreaAB )
EI
Theorem 2
The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the
elastic curve at any point A, in a direction perpendicular to the
original position of the beam, is equal to the product of 1/EI
multiplied by the moment of an area about B of that part of the
moment diagram between points A and B.
1
tAB = (AreaAB ) XB
EI
1
tAB = (AreaAB ) XA
EI
Rules of Sign:
A B A B
θAB (+) tA/B (+)
Strain Energy, U
When an external force acts upon an elastic body and deforms
it, the work done by the forces is stored within a body in the form
of strain energy. The storm energy is always a scalar quantity.
P
1
U= Pδ
2
1
P
U= P (PL / AE)
2
δ
δ = PL / AE
P2 L
U=
2AE
L
P2 dx
U= ∫
0 2AE
T
1
U= Tθ
2
T
1
U= T (TL / JG)
2
θ
θ = TL / JG
T2 L
U=
2JG
If the torque T acts along the length of the bar, the total strain
energy is
L
T2 dx
U= ∫
0 2JG
For a bar length L subject to a bending moment M, the internal
strain energy U is
1 M θ
= = M
ρ EI L
ML M
θ=
EI
U=
1
Mθ =
1
M(ML / EI) θ
2 2 θ = ML / EI
M2 L
U=
2EI
If the bending moment varies along the length of the bar, the
total internal strain energy is
L
M2 dx
U= ∫
0 2EI
CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREM
The displacement of an elastic body under the point of
application of any force, in the direction of that force, is given by
the partial derivative of the total internal strain energy with
respect to that force.
CU
δn =
∂ Pn
For a body subject to combined axial, torsional, and bending
effects, Castigliano’s theorem is conveniently expressed as
A B C
h1 h2
L1 L2
Load on Load on
Span 1 Span 2
Loads on
MA MB MB MC
A B simply B C
supported
L1 span L2
V V V V
a b a b
Moment
diagrams of
cg loads on simply cg
supported spans
Area = A1 Area = A2
Moment
MA diagrams of MA
MB loading by end MB
moment
L1 L2
A
Elastic Curve
Parallel to C
h1 tA/B
Unloaded beam
h2
B tC/B
h1 - tA/B
Tangent to elastic curve
tC/B - h2
L1 L2
From proportions between similar triangles:
h1 - tA/B tC/B - h2
=
L1 L2
tA/B tC/B h1 h2
+ = + →(1)
L1 L2 L1 L2
1
tA/B = (Area)AB XA
E1 I1
1 1 1 1 2
tA/B = [A1 a1 + MA L1 x L1 + MB L1 x L1 ]
E1 I1 2 3 2 3
1 2 2
tA/B = [6A1 a1 + MA L1 + 2MB L1 ]
6E1 I1
1
tA/B = (Area)BC XC
E2 I2
1 1 2 1 1
tA/B = [A2 b2 + MB L2 x L2 + MC L2 x L2 ]
E1 I1 2 3 2 3
1 2 2
tA/B = [6A2 b2 + 2MB L2 + MC L2 ]
6E2 I2
1 6A1 a1
[ + MA L1 + 2MB L1 ]
6E1 I1 L1
1 6A2 b2 h1 h2
+ [ + 2MB L2 + MC L2 ] = +
6E2I2 L2 L1 L2
Simplify
MA L1 L1 L2 MC L2
+ 2MB ( + ) +
E1 I1 E1 I1 E2 I2 E2 I2
6A1a1 6A2 b2 h1 h2
+ + = 6( + )
E1 I1 L1 E2 I2 L2 L1 L2
MA L1 L1 L2 MC L2
+ 2MB ( + ) +
I1 I1 I2 I2
6A1a1 6A2 b2 h1 h2
+ + = 6E ( + )
I1 L1 I2 L2 L1 L2
MA L1 + 2MB (L1 + L2 ) + MC L2
6A1a1 6A2 b2 h1 h2
+ + = 6EI ( + )
L1 L2 L1 L2
6Aa 6Ab
Values of and of Common Loadings:
L L
6Aa 6Ab
L L
P
a b
L
Pa 2 2 Pa 2 2
(L - a ) (L - b )
L L
P
L/2 L/2
L
3 3
PL2 PL2
8 8
w (N/m)
L
3
wL wL3
4 4
w (N/m)
L
8 7
wL3 wL3
60 60
w (N/m)
L
7 8
wL3 wL3
60 60
w (N/m)
wL3 wL3
5 5
32 32
M
a b
L
M M
- (3a2 - L2 ) + (3b2 - L2 )
L L
CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
Conjugate beam method determines the slope and deflections
of a real beam by calculating the shears and moments of a
fictitious beam called the conjugate beam loaded with the M/EI
diagram.
L
Mmn dx
δB = ∫
0 EI
δ = u α (∆T)L
SUL
δ =∑
AE
INDETERMINATE BEAMS
Stability of Structures
A structure is geometrically unstable if there are fewer reactive
forces than equations of equilibrium; or if there are enough
reactions, instability occurs if the lines of action of these forces
intersect at a common point.
Determinacy of Structure
A structure is statically determinate if the number of equations
equals the number of external reactions. If the number of
external reactions exceeds the number of equations, the
structure becomes statically indeterminate.
R2 2
R1 R1
M1 M2
R1 R2 R3
R1 R2
Figure (c) Figure (d)
Figure (a) is called propped beam or supported cantilever
having three unknowns R1, R2, H and M. This is indeterminate to
the first degree.
Figure (d) has six unknown reaction. This type of beam that
rests on more than two supports is called a continuous beam.
This beam can be solved using the three – moment equation or
moment distribution method.
6A1 a1 6A2 b2
MA L1 + 2MB (L1 + L2 ) + MC L2 + + =0
L1 L2
For the beam shown in Figure (d), the moments MA and MC are
zero thus there is only one unknown, MB. Using three – moment
equation with A, B, and C as the three points, the moment MB
can found easily.
For the beam shown below, there are three unknown moments
(MA, MB, & MC) since MD is zero. Three equations will therefore
be needed to solve the beam. One equation can be obtained by
taking points A-B-C, a second equation is by taking points B-C-
D. The third equation can be obtained by extending an
imaginary beam beyond the restrained end A, and taking points
O-A-B, with all terms that refer to the imaginary span have zero
values. Thus for beams with restrained ends, extend an
imaginary beam to complete the necessary equations.
Imaginary Beam
Lo L1 L2 L3
AR B C
Note: the need to use this imaginary span will only arise if there
are fixed end.
MA MB
L
MB
MA
EItB/A =(Area)AB xB
1 1
0= ( MA L) (2L/3)+ ( MB L) (L/3)
2 2
1
MA = -
M
2 B
Therefore, the moment applied at B carries over to the fixed end
A, a moment that is half the amount and opposite sign.
Beam Stiffness
Beam stiffness is the moment required by the simply supported
end of a beam to produce a unit rotation of that end, the other
end being rigidly fixed.
E I θ = (Area)AB
1 1
EIθ= MA L+ MB L
2 2
1
but MA = - M
2 B
1 1 1
EIθ= (- MB ) L+ MB L
2 2 2
MB = 4E I θ /L
When θ equals 1 radian, MB is called as the beam stiffness and
it varies with the ratio I/L and E. Beam stiffness is denoted as K
and hence
4EI
Absolute K=
L
The following are the fixed end moments for common types of
loading to be used with moment distribution.
2 P
Pab
FEMAB =
L a b
2 L
Pba
FEMBA = + 2 A B
L
P
PL
FEMAB = -
8 L/2 L/2
PL L
FEMBA = + A B
8
wL2
FEMAB = - w (N/m)
12
wL2 L
FEMBA = + A B
12
5wL2 w (N/m)
FEMAB = -
192
2 L/2 L/2 B
11wL A
FEMBA = -
192
2 w (N/m)
wL
FEMAB = -
30
wL2 L
FEMBA = + B
20 A
w (N/m)
5wL2
FEMAB = -
96
5wL2 L
FEMBA = + A B
96
Mb 3a
FEMAB = + ( - 1) M
L L a b
Ma 3b
FEMBA = + ( - 1) A B
L L L
6EI∆
FEMAB = - Δ
L2 B
A
6EI∆ L
FEMAB = -
L2
Distribution Factor, DF
In a continuous beam, the moments between any two adjacent
spans are generally not equal. The unbalanced moment must
be distributed to the other end of each span. The ratio of
distribution to any beam is called the distribution factor, DF and
is defined by
K
DF=
∑K
At fixed – end, DF = 0
At hinged or roller end, DF = 1
where K is the stiffness factor and ∑ K is the sum of the stiffness
factors for adjacent beams. Ff the beams are of the same
material, only relative K need be used.
Steps of using moment distribution method:
1. Assume that all supports are fixed or locked and
compute the fixed end moments.
2. Unlock each support and distribute the unbalance
moment at each one to each adjacent span using the
distribution factor DF.
3. After distribution, carry – over one – half of the
moment in step 2 with the same sign, to the other end
of each span.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the carry – over moment
becomes distributing the rest of the moments.
Hint: For faster distribution, first distribute the joints with large
unbalanced moment (especially those hinge or roller end), and
carry – over the moment to the interior support, then begin
distributing the rest of the moments.
Modified K
For continuous beams with hinge or roller ends, the final
moment at that end is zero. The distribution of moment will
become easier if we multiply the beam stiffness K of the span
containing that support by ¾, which would eliminate any further
distribution of moment on that support. Do not apply this for
fixed support.
FEMAB
MAB
A
θA
α Δ
B
α = Δ/L θB
L
MBA
FEMBA
α= ∆ / L
2EI
Absolute K= ; Relative K= I / L
L
Where:
MN= internal moment in the near end of the span
FEMN = fixed – end moment at the near end support
θN, θF = near – and far – end slopes of the span at
support
A L1 L2 L3
B C D
MBA + MBC = 0
MCB + MCD = 0
wL2
Mmax = Mmid =
8
w (N/m)
5wL4
δmax = δmid =
384EI
A C B
wL2
θmax = θmid =
24EI
PL
Mmax = Mmid =
4 P
3
PL L/2 L/2
δmax = δmid =
48EI
L B
A
PL2
θmax = θmid =
16EI
Pab
Mmax = MP =
L
P
√L2 - b2
A a b B
x=
3
C L
2 2 3/2 x
Pb (L - b )
δmax = δC =
9√3 EIL
Pb 2 2
δmid = (3L - 4b ) when a>b
48 EI
2
2.5wL
δmid =
384EI y
w (N/m)
Location of max. δ
x
x = 0.481 L A
C L B
8wL3 7wL3 x
θB = ; θA =
360EI 360EI
wx 42 4
EIy =
360L
(7L - 10L x2 + 3x )
wL2
Mmax =
12
y
w (N/m)
5wL3
θA = θB =
192EI x
4 L
wL A B
δmax = δmid =
120EI
wx 4 2 4
EIy =
960L
(25L - 40L x2 + 16x ) for 0 < x < L/2
Mmax = M
y
ML ML
θA = ; θB = 0.577L M
6EI 3EI
Mx x
EIy = (L - x)(2L - x) A L B
6L
3
ML
δmax = at x = 0.577L
9√3 EI
Mmax = MA = - PL
PL3 y
θB = P
2EI
PL3 x
δmax = δB =
3EI A
L B
Px2
EIy = (3L - x)
6
Mmax = MA = - PL
y
P
Pa2
θB =
2EI a b
x
2 L B
Pa
δmax = δB = (3L - a) A
6EI
2
Px
EIy = (3a - x) for 0 < x < a
6
Pa2
EIy = (3x - a) for a < x < L
6
wL2
Mmax = MA = -
2
y
w (N/m)
3
wL
θB =
6EI
x
wL4 A
L B
δmax = δB =
8EI
wx2 2
EIy =
24
(6L - 4Lx + x2 )
2
wL
Mmax = MA = - y
6
w (N/m)
3
wL
θB = x
24EI
L B
4 A
wL
δmax = δB =
30EI
wx2 3 2 2
EIy =
120L
(10L - 10L x + 5Lx - x3 )
Mmax = MA = - M
y
ML
θB = M
EI
x
L B
A
ML4
δmax = δB =
2EI
2
Mx
EIy =
2
P
Pa2 (3L - a)
R= 3 a b
2L
B
A L
P 2 a2 b
MA = (b a + )
L2 2 R
P
5P
R=
16 L/2 L/2
B
3PL Aa L
MA =
16
R
w (N/m)
3wL
R=
8
B
A L
wL2
MA =
8 R
7wL w (N/m)
R=
128
L/2
B
2 A
9wL L
MA =
128 w (N/m)
wb3 R
R= 3 (4L - b) a b
8L B
A L
wa3
MA = RL - R
2
wL w (N/m)
R=
10
B
2 A L
wL
MA = -
15 R
11wL w (N/m)
R=
40
B
A
7wL2 L
MA = -
120 R
11wL w (N/m)
R=
64
B
5wL2 A L
MA = -
64
R
3EIΔ
MA = Δ B
L2 A
L
Pba2 a b
MB =
L2 L
A B
Pb2
δmid = (3L - 4b)
48EI
PL P
MA = MB = -
8
L/2 L/2
PL3 L
δmax = A B
192EI
3
wL
MA = MB = - w (N/m)
12
wL4 L B
δmax = A
384EI
5wL2
MA = -
192 w (N/m)
2
11wL
MB = -
192 L/2 L/2 B
A
4
wL
δmid =
768EI
2
wL
MA = -
30 w (N/m)
2
wL
MB = -
20
L
A B
wL4
δmid =
768EI
3 w (N/m)
5wL
MA = MB = -
96
4
7wL L
δmax = A B
3840EI
Mb 3a M
MA = ( - 1) b
L L a
Ma 3b
MB = - ( - 1) A
L
B
L L
6EIΔ
MA = -
L2
Δ
6EIΔ B
MB = 2 A
L L
x Pab2
MA = - ∫x 2 2 P = ydx
1 L
2
Any loading
x Pba
MB = - ∫x 2 2 y
1 L
a
a b
a = x; b = L – x A x L-x B
P = y dx
INFLUENCE LINES
Influence line shows graphically how the movement of a unit
load across a structure influences some functions of a structure
such as reactions, shears, moments, forces, and deflections.
Function = P x h
P1 P2 P3
h1 h2 h3
Function = P1 h1 + P2 h2 + P3 h3 + …
w (N/m)
Area
Function = w x Area
Portal Method:
Assumptions:
1. The building frame is divided into independent
portals.
2. A point of inflection occurs at the midspan of
each girder.
3. A point of inflection occurs at the midheight of
each column.
4. The horizontal shear at a given story is
distributed among the columns such that each
interior column resists twice as much as each
exterior column.
Note: Portal and Cantilever methods yield the same results for
frames such as shown below.
P
k= (N/mm or kN/mm)
δ
δst
L
3
PL 3EI
Static deformation, δst = ; k= 3
3EI L
δ
L
δ 2h
= 1 + √1 +
δst δst
2h
σmax = σst (1 + √1 + )
δst
For a mass m dropping freely through a height h before striking
a stop at the end of a vertical rod of length L as shown.
2L
δ= √ mgh
AE
m
2AE
σ= √ mgh L
AL
2E mv3 h
σ= √
AL 2 stop
TRUSSES
A truss is a structure composed of slender members joint
together at their end points. These are used to support roofs
and bridges.
Roof Trusses
Roof trusses are often used as part of a building frame. The roof
load is transmitted to the truss at the joints by means of a series
of purlins. The roof truss along with its supporting columns is
termed as a bent. The space between adjacent bents is called a
bay.
DETERMINACY OF TRUSSES
In any truss analysis problem, the numbers of unknowns
includes the forces in b members and the number of external
reaction r, making the number of unknown b + r. Since the truss
members are all straight axial force members lying in the same
plane, the force system acting at each joint are coplanar and
concurrent, making the moment at each joint equal to zero.
Thus, in each joint only two equation (∑ Fx = 0 & ∑ Fy = 0) are
left to be satisfied. If there is j number of joints, the number of
equations that can be made is 2j.
Therefore;
Where:
DEFLECTION OF TRUSSES
The deflection of truss at a joint is given as:
SUL
Deflection, δ= ∑
AE
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
DEFINITIONS
The following terms are defined for general use in this chapter.
Specialized definitions appear in individual Chapters of
Sections.
Modulus of Elasticity
Unlike steel and other materials, concrete has no definite
modulus of elasticity. Its value is dependent on the
characteristics of cement and aggregates used, age of concrete
and strengths.
According to NSCP (Section 5.8.5), modulus of elasticity E c for
concrete for values of wc between 1500 and 2500 kg/m 3 may be
taken as
'
Ec = w1.5
c 0.043 √fc (in MPa)
Eq. 2 - 1
Where f'c is the 28-day compressive strength of concrete in
MPa, wc is the unit weight on concrete in kg/m3. For normal
'
weight concrete, Ec = 4700 √fc. Modulus of elasticity Es for
nonprestressed reinforcement may be taken as 200, 000 MPa.
Aggregates
Aggregates used in concrete may be fine aggregates (usually
sand) and coarse aggregates (usually gravel or crushed stone).
Fine aggregates are those that passes through a No.4 sieve
(about 6 mm in size). Materials retained are coarse aggregates.
Water
According to Section 5.3.4, water used in mixing concrete shall
be clean and free from injurious amount of oils, acids, alkalis,
salts, organic materials, or other substances that may be
deleterious to concrete or reinforcement. Mixing water for
prestressed concrete or for concrete that will contain aluminum
embedments, including that portion of mixing water contributed
in the form of free moisture on aggregates shall not contain
deleterious amounts of chloride ion. Non-potable (non-drinkable)
water shall not be used in concrete unless the following are
satisfied: (a) Selection of concrete proportions shall be based on
concrete mixes using water from the same source and (b)
mortar test cubes made with non-potable mixing water shall
have 7-day and 28-day strengths equal to at least 90 percent of
strengths of similar specimens made with potable water.
Metal Reinforcement
Metal reinforcement in concrete shall be deformed, except that
plain reinforcement be permitted for spirals or tendons; and
reinforcement consisting of structural steel, steel pipe, or steel
tubing. Reinforcing bars to be welded shall be indicated in the
drawings and welding procedure to be used shall be specified.
PNS reinforcing bar specifications shall be supplemented to
require a report of material properties necessary to conform to
welding procedures specified in “Structural Welding Code –
Reinforcing Steel” (PNS/AWS D1.4) of the American Welding
society and/or “Welding of Reinforcing Bars” (PNS/A5-1554) of
the Philippine National Standard.
Deformed Reinforcement
Deformed reinforcing bars shall conform to the standards
specified in Section 5.3.5.3 of NSCP. Deformed reinforcing bars
with a specified yield strength fy exceeding 415 MPa shall be
permitted, provided fy shall be the stress corresponding to a
strain of 0.35 percent and the bars otherwise conforms to one of
the ASTM and PNS specifications listed in Sec. 5.3.5.3.1.
Plain Reinforcement
Plain bars for spiral reinforcement shall conform to the
specification listed in Section 5.3.5.3.1 of NSCP. For wire with
specified yield strength fy exceeding 415 MPa, fy shall be the
stress corresponding to a strain of 0.35 percent if the yield
strength specified in the design exceeds 415 MPa.
3 – 25 mm equivalent diameter, D
π π
(25)2 × 3 = (D)2 ; D = 43.3 mm
4 4
Figure 2 – 2: Equivalent single bar
Concrete Protection for Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement in concrete should be provided with
adequate covering as provided in Section 5.7.7 of NSCP. These
covering depend on the type of exposure of the member and fire
protection. Some of these values are; for concrete cast and
permanently exposed to earth such as footings, the minimum
concrete cover is 75 mm. For concrete members exposed to
weather, 40 to 50 mm. For concrete not exposed to weather or
in contact with ground, the minimum cover is 20 mm for slabs,
walls, and joists, and 40 mm for beams and columns.
Bundled Bars
For bundled bars, the minimum concrete cover shall be equal to
the equivalent diameter of the bundle, but need not be greater
than 50 mm, except for concrete cast against and permanently
exposed to earth, the minimum cover shall be 75 mm.
Standard Hooks
The term standard hook refers to one of the following:
(a) 180° bend plus 4db extension but not less than 65
mm at free end,
(b) 90° bend plus 12db extension, at free end of bar,
(c) For stirrups and tie hooks:
(1) 16 mm bar and smaller, 90° bend plus
6db extension at free end of bar, or
(2) 20 mm bar and 25 mm bar, 90° bend
plus 12db extension at free end of bar, or
(3) 25 mm bar and smaller, 135° bend plus
6db extension at free end of bar.
Minimum cover,
mm
(a) Concrete east against and 75
permanently exposed to earth
(b) Concrete exposed to earth or
weather: 50
20 mm through 36 mm bars 40
16 mm bar, W31 or D31 wire, and
smaller
(c) Concrete not exposed to weather
or in contact with ground:
Slabs, walls, joists
32 mm bar and smaller 20
Beams, columns
Primary reinforcement, ties, 40
stirrups, spirals
Shells, folded place members: 20
20 mm bar and larger 15
16 mm bar, W31 or D31 wire,
and smaller
Minimum cover,
mm
(a) Concrete exposed to earth or
weather:
Wall panels: 20
32 mm bar or smaller
Other members: 40
20 mm through 32 mm bars 30
16 mm bar, W31 or D31
wire, and smaller
(b) Concrete not exposed to
weather or in contact with
ground
Slabs, walls, joists: 15
32 bar and smaller
Beams, columns: db but not less than
15 & need not
Primary reinforcement exceed 40
The inside diameter of bend of stirrups and ties shall not be less
than 4db for 16 mm bar and smaller. For bars larger than 16 mm,
the diameter of bend shall be in accordance with the previous
paragraph.
Storage Materials
Cement and aggregates shall be stored in such manner as to
prevent deterioration or intrusion of foreign matter. Any material
that has deteriorated or has been contaminated shall not be
used for concrete.
Concrete Proportions
Proportions of materials for concrete shall be established to
provide: (a) workability and consistency to permit concrete to be
worked readily into forms and around reinforcement under
conditions of placement to be employed, without segregation or
excessive bleeding, (b) resistance to special exposures, and (c)
conformance with strength test requirements.
Loads
The most important and most critical task of an engineer is the
determination of the loads that can be applied to a structure
during its life, and the worst possible combination of these loads
that might occur simultaneously. Loads on a structure may be
classified as dead loads or live loads.
Dead Load
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one
position. This consists mainly of the weight of the structure and
other permanent attachments to the frame.
Live Load
Live loads are loads that may change in magnitude and position.
Live loads that move under their own power are called moving
loads. Other live loads are those caused by wind, rain,
earthquakes, soils, and temperature changes. Wind and
earthquake loads are called lateral loads.
Load Factors
Dead load, DL…………………………. 1.4
Live load, LL ………………...………… 1.7
Wind load …………………..…………. 1.7
Earthquake, E …………………………. 1.87
Earth or water pressure, H…………… 1.7
Where DL U
or=LL
1.4DL + 1.7LL
reduce + 1.7H
the effect of H Eq. 2 – 9
U = 0.90 DL Eq. 2 – 10
but not less than 1.4DL + 1.7LL
U = 1.4(DL + T) Eq. 2 – 12
Balanced Design
A design so proportioned that the maximum stresses in concrete
(with strain of 0.003) and steel (with strain of f y/εs) are reached
simultaneously once the ultimate load is reached, causing them
to fail simultaneously.
Underreinforced Design
A design in which the steel reinforcement is lesser than what is
required for balance condition. If the ultimate load is
approached, the steel will begin to yield although the
compression concrete is still understressed. If the load is further
increased, the steel will continue to elongate, resulting in
appreciable deflections and large visible cracks in the tensile
concrete. Failure under this condition is ductile and will give
warning to the user of the structure to decrease the load.
Overreinforced Design
A design in which the steel reinforcement is more than what is
required for balance condition. If the beam is overreinforced, the
steel will not yield before failure. As the load is increased,
deflections are not noticeable although the compression
concrete is highly stressed, and failure occurs suddenly without
warning to the user of the structure.
Overreinforced as well as balanced design should be avoided in
concrete because of its brittle property, that is why the Code
limits the tensile steel percentage (ρmax = 0.75ρb) to ensure
underreinforced beam with ductile type of failure to give
occupants warning before failure occurs.
Assumptions in Strength Design in Flexure
(Code Sections 5.10.2)
1. Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed
directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. Except
for deep flexural members with overall depth to clear span ratio,
h/L > 2/5 for continuous spans and h/L > 4/5 for simple spans, a
nonlinear distribution of strain shall be considered (See Sec.
5.10.7)
2. Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression
fiber, εc shall be assumed equal to 0.003.
3. For fs below fy, fs shall be taken as Es x εs. For εs > εy, fs = fy.
4. Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in axial and
flexural calculations.
5. Relationship between compressive stress distribution and
concrete strain may be assumed rectangular, trapezoidal,
parabolic, or any other form that results in prediction of strength
in substantial agreement with results of compressive tests.
6. For rectangular distribution of stress:
(a) Concrete stress of 0.85f'c shall be assumed
uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone
bounded by edges of the cross-section and a straight line
located parallel to the neutral axis at a distance of a = β1 c
from the fiber of maximum compressive strain.
(b) Distance c from fiber of maximum strain to the
neutral axis shall be measured in the direction perpendicular
to N.A.
(c) Factor β1 shall be taken as 0.85 for f'c < 30 MPa
and β1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.008 for each
1 MPa of strength in excess of 30 MPa, but β1 shall not be
taken less than 0.65. i.e.
(i) For f'c < 30 MPa, β1 = 0.85
(ii) For f'c > 30 MPa,
β1 = 0.85 – 0.008(f'c – 30) but shall not be less than 0.65
b 0.85 0.003
f’c
C = 0.85 f’c a b
c a c
d
M d – a/2
N.A. n
T = As fv Fy/Es
a = β1 c Eq. 2 - 13
For f’c < 30 Mpa, β1 = 0.85
For f’c > 30 Mpa, β1 = 0.85 – 0.008 (f’c – 30)
but shall
not be less than 0.65
[ΣFH = 0] C = T
0.85 f’c a b = As fv
As f y
a= Eq. 2 – 14
0.85 f'c b
A s fy d As fy d
a= × =
0.85 f'cb d bd 0.85 f'c
As
The term is called the ratio of steel reinforcement and is
bd
denoted as ρ
As
ρ= Eq. 2 – 15
bd
ρ fy d
And a = Eq. 2 – 16
0.85 f'c
ρ fy
ω= Eq. 2 – 17
f'c
ωd
a= Eq. 2 – 18
0.85
Nominal Moment Capacity:
From the stress diagram in the figure above:
a 1
Mn = C × (d - ) = 0.85 f'c ab (d - a)
2 2
ωd 1 ωd
Mn = 0.85 f'c = b (d - )
0.85 2 0.85
Coefficient of Resistance
ρ fy
Solving for ω and replacing it with , yields the following
f'c
formula for the steel ratio ρ:
0.85 f'c 2 Ru
ρ= [1- √1- ] Eq. 2 – 23
fy 0.85 f'c
b 0.003
c c
d d
As
0.003
c 0.003
= ; Es= 200, 000
d 0.003 + fy/Es
0.003 600
c= fy d= d
0.00 3 + 200, 000 600 + fy
But a = β1 c;
ρ fy d
a ρ f yd
c= = 0.85 f’c
=
β1 β1 0.85 f’c β1
ρ fy d 600
= d
0.85 f’c β1 600 + fy
0.85 f’c β1 600
ρb = Eq. 2 – 24
fy (600 + fy)
1.4
ρmin = Eq. 2 – 26
fy
Note: The assumptions made in steps II, V, VIII are the author's
recommendation based on his experience.
I. Identify the values of the dead load and live load to be carried
by the beam. (DL & LL)
II. Approximate the weight of beam (DL) between 20% to 25% of
(DL + LL). This weight is added to the dead load.
III. Compute the factored load and factored moment:
ex., Factored Load = 1.4DL + 1.7 LL
IV. Compute the factored moment to be resisted by the beam,
Mu
V. Try a value of steel ratio ρ from 0.5ρb to 0.6ρb , but must not
be less than ρmin. This value of ρ due to rounding-off of the
number of bars to be used, for it not to exceed the maximum ρ
of 0.75ρb.
ρ fy
VI. Compute the value of ω, ω =
f'c
VII. Solve for bd2:
Mu = Ф f'c ω b d2 (1 - 0.59ω)
bd2 =
VIII. Try a ratio d/b (from d = 1.5 b to d = 2b), and solve for d.
(round-off this value to reasonable dimension)
After solving for d, substitute its value to Step VII, and solve for
b.
IX. Solve for the required steel area and number of bars.
As = ρ b d
Number of bars (diameter = D)
π
(D)2 , number of bars = As
4
As = ρ b d =
As
I. Solve for ρ; ρ =
bd
Note: If ρ < ρmin the given As is not adequate for the beam
dimension.
III. ρ < ρb
ρ fy
ω=
f'c
Mu = Ф f'c ω b d2 (1 - 0.59ω) =
IV. ρ > ρb
b 0.8 0.003
5 f’c
C = 0.85
a f’c a b
c c
d
d–
N M a/2
. n
A
. T= Fy
As fv /E
s
d-c
fs = 600 ; a = β1 c
c
Mu= Ф T (d - a/2) = Ф As fs (d - a/2)
or
Mu= Ф C (d - a/2) = Ф 0.85 f’c a b (d - a/2)
Minimum thickness, h
Simply One end Both ends Cantilever
supported continuous continuous
Member Members not supporting or attached to partitions or
other construction likely to be damaged by large
deflections
Solid L/20 L/24 L/28 L/10
one-way
slabs
Beams L/16 L/18.5 L/21 L/8
or
ribbed
one-way
slabs
Span length L is in millimeters
b 0.003
d
A
’ a c= fs/Es
+
A A
fv/Es
Mu
Mu1 Mu2
If the compression steel yields, then A's = As2, otherwise A's = As2
fy/f's where f's is the stress of compression steel and is given by
the following equation
(See derivation in Page 107)
c - d'
fs = 600 Eq. 2 - 27
c
f's
As max = 0.75 ρb b d + A's Eq. 2 - 28
fy
f's
The expression 0.75 ρb b d = As1, and A's = As2.
fy
STEPS IN COMPUTING AS AND A’S FOR DOUBLY
REINFROCED BEAM, GIVEN M U AND OTHER BEAM
PROPERTIES
ρmax = 0.75 ρb
0.85 f’c β1 600
ρmax = =ρ
fy (600 + fy )
fy
ω=ρ =
fc
0.85 f’c
b d C2 = A’s f’s
'
a A
’
d
d – d’
d – a/2
A
s
T1 = As1 fv T2 = As2 fv
Mu Mu1
Mu2
fs/Es 0.003
= d
d-c c ε's = fs/Es
d-c c
fs = 600
c
c – d’ Es = 200, 000
If fs > fy proceed to Step VI
If fs < fy proceed to Step VII
b 0.85 f’c
A d – d’
d – a/2
s
T1 = As1 fv T2 = As2 fv
0.85 f’c
d
'
a c
C1
d
d – a/2 d – d’
T = As fv
c-d
f's = 600
c
c-d
0.85 f’c β1 c b = A’s + f's = 600 = As fy
c
DEEP BEAMS
According to Section 5.10.7.1 of the Code, beams with overall
depth to clear span ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans,
or 4/5 for simple spans, shall be designed as deep flexural
members taking into account nonlinear distribution of strain and
lateral buckling.
T-Beams
Reinforced concrete floors usually consist of slabs and beams,
which are placed or poured monolithically. In this effect, the
beam will have an extra width at the top (which is usually under
compression) called flanges, and the resulting section is called a
T-beam. The beam may also be L-shaped if it is located at the
end of a slab.
b b
a t a
N
A
N
A A
b As b
(a) (b)
fs 0.003 (d - c) d-c
=
200, 000 c
fs/Es
d-c
fs = 600 Eq. 2 – 29
c
c
c = 0.59d c
d d
=
d
d-c
d-c d-c
0.0021 0.0014
>0.002
As shown in Figure (a), the grade 415 steel will not yield if c/d is
greater than 0.59 and will yield if c/d is less than 0.59. The
grade 276 steel as shown in Figure (b) will yield if c/d is less
than 0.7. Since the maximum steel strength commonly used in
construction is the grade 415 (fy = 415 MPa), we can therefore
conclude that if c/d is less than 0.59, the tension steel will yield.
c d-c
= ; Es = 200000 MPa
0.003 fy /Es
600 d 600 d
c= ; a = β1 c = β1 =
600 - fy 600 - fy
bw
Strain diagram in
balanced condition
NA
As
In checking for maximum ρ (ρmax), use ρ =
bf d
(only if a < t)
As
In checking for minimum ρ (ρmin), use ρ =
bw d
b t b
'f
b b
1 2
b b
S S S '
t > bw/2
b < 4 bw
b
b b
bw
II. a<t
bf 0.85 Pc
a C = 0.85 Pc a b
t
d d – a/2
As
T = As fv
Solve for a:
Mu = Ф C (d – a/2)
Mu = Ф 0.85 fc ab (d – a/2); a =
[T = C] = As fy = 0.85 fc ab; As =
Use As = ρmin bw d
bf 0.85 Pc
C1
t 0.85 Pc
a
d z C2
d – t/2
d’ d – z/2
As
T1 = As1 fy T2 = As2 fy
bw
Mu1 Mu2
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
Mu2 = Mu - Mu1 =
Mu2 = Ф C (d – z/2)
Mu2 = Ф 0.85 fc bw z (d’ – z/2)
z=
[T = C]
As fy = C1 + C2
As fy = 0.85 fc b t + 0.85 fc bw z
As =
Use As = ρmin bw d
a = β1 (600d/ fy + 600)
'
0.85 f c [b1 t + (a - t)bw ]
As max = 0.75 Asb = 0.75
fy
II. a < t
bf 0.85 Pc
a C = 0.85 Pc a b
t
d d – a/2
As
T = As fv
Solve for a:
Ac = bf x a; a =
Mu = Φ T (d – a/2)
Mu = Φ As fy (d – a/2)
c = a/β1
600 - c
fs = =
c
III. a > t
bf 0.85 Pc
C1
t 0.85 Pc
a
d z C2
d – t/2
d’ d – z/2
As
T1 = As1 fy T2 = As2 fy
bw
Mu1 Mu2
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
Solve for z:
Ac = Af + bw z (See Step I for the values of Ac and Af
z=
a=t+z=
600 - c
c = a/β1 = fs = =
c
Mcr 3 Mcr 3
Ie = ( ) Ig + [1- ( ) ] Icr Eq. 2 - 32
Ma Ma
Where
fr Ig
Mcr =
yt
fr = modulus of rapture of concrete, MPa, for normal
weight concrete, fr = 0.7 √f'c
Ma = maximum moment in member at stage deflection
is computed.
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about
centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement.
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed
to concrete
Yt = distance from centroidal axis to gross section,
neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension.
ξ
λ= Eq. 2 - 33
1+50ρ'
Positive moment
End spans
Discontinuous end unrestrained ………………..…. W u
Ln2/11
Discontinuous end integral with support ……..…... W u
Ln2/14
Interior spans ……………………………………………......... W u
Ln2/16
L1 L2
Shear
w L12/14 w L22/16
Moment
w L12/9 -w - w L22/9
Ln2/10
Ln = (L1 + L2) / 2
Figure 2 – 6: Shear and moment for continuous beam or slab
with spans ad discontinuous end integral with support
L1 L2 L3
Shear
Moment
-w -w -w
w L12/16
Ln2/10 Ln2/10 L32/24
Ln = (L1 + L2) / 2 Ln = (L2 + L3) / 2
L1 L2 L3
Shear
Moment
- w Ln2/10 -w Ln2/10
ONE-WAY SLAB
Reinforced concrete slab are large flat plates that are supported
at its sides by reinforced concrete beams, walls, columns, steel
beams, or by the ground. If a slab is supported on two opposite
sides only, they are referred to one-way slabs since the bending
occurs in one direction only. If the slab is supported on all four
sides, it is called two-way slab since the bending occurs in both
direction.
b = 1m
h
Figure 2 – 9: One-way slabs on simple support
Minimum Spacing of Reinforcement
According to Section 5.7.6.5, the flexural reinforcement shall not
be spaced farther apart than 3 times the slab thickness, nor 450
mm.
0.85 f'c 2 Ru
ρ= [1- √1- ]
fy 0.85 f'c
Abar
S1 = ×1000
As
Use the smallest of the following for the main bar spacing:
(a) S1, (b) 3 x h, and (c) 450 mm
Vu < Ø Vn Eq. 2 – 34
Vn = Vc + Vs Eq. 2 – 35
1
Vc = √f'c bw d Eq. 2 – 37
6
Where √f'c is in MPa and shall not exceed 0.7 MPa except as
provided by Section 5.11.1.2.1, bw is the width of web
in mm, d is the effective depth in mm, and ρw = As/bw
d. The quantity Vu d/Mu in Eq. 2 – 38 shall not be
taken greater than 1.
(d) Av = 2Ab
bw s
Av = Eq. 2 - 39
3 fy
A v fy d
Vs = Eq. 2 - 40
s
Av fy (sin α + cos α) d
Vs = Eq. 2 - 41
s
>d
d
2. For prestressed member, sections located less than a
distance h/2 from face of support may be designed for the same
shear Vu as that computed at a distance h/2.
> h/2
h/2
h/2
1. Vn = Vu/Φ
2. Vs = Vn – Vc = Vu/Φ - Vc
2
If Vs < √f'c bw d, proceed to Step IV
3
(Sect. 5.11.5.6.8)
2
If Vs > √f'c bw d, adjust the size of the beam
3
(Sect. 5.11.5.6.8)
A v fy d
Spacing, s = ; See Figure 2 – 11 in Page 134 for the value
Vs
of Av.
bw s
Minimum area of stirrup. Av = (Sect. 5.11.5.5.3)
3 fy
Where s = d/2 or 600 mm (whichever is smaller)
Bond
In reinforced concrete we assumed that the concrete and steel
work as a unit. For this to happen there must be absolutely no
slippage of the bars in relation to the surrounding concrete. The
steel and concrete must stick or bend together for them to act as
a unit. If there is slipping of steel with respect to surrounding
concrete, there will be no transfer of stress from steel to
concrete and vice versa and as a result, the concrete will act as
an unreinforced member and will be subject to collapse.
> Ld
Fbond F = Abfy
Ld
F = Fbond
Av fy = u × π db Ld
π 2
db fy = u × π db Ld
4
fy
Ld = db Eq. 2 – 43
4u
but shall not be less than 300 mm, except for the lengths
required for tension lap splices and for the development of shear
reinforcing.
0.02 Ab fy
Idb = ≥ 0.06 db fy Eq. 2 – 45
√f'c
For 36 mm bar:
Condition
(a) For bars in beams or columns with 1.0
a minimum cover not less than
specified the Code:
(b) Bars in beams or columns with 1.0
transverse reinforcement satisfying tie
requirements of Code:
(c) Bars n beams of columns with 1.0
clear spacing of not less than 3db:
(d) Bars in the inner layer of slabs or 1.0
wall reinforcement and with clear
spacing of not less than 3db:
(e) Any bars with cover of not less 1.0
than 2db and with clear spacing of not
less than 3db:
(f) For bars with cover db or less or 2.0
with clear spacing of 2db or less:
(g) For bars not included in items a to 1.4
f:
(h) For 32 mm bars and smaller with clear spacing not less than
5db and with cover from face of member to edge bar, measured
in the plane of the bars, not less than 2.5db, the factors in items
a to g may be multiplied by 0.8
(i) Top reinforcement: 1.3
(j) Lightweight aggregate concrete: 1.3
(k) Lightweight aggregate when fct is
specified: √f' c
(1.8 fct )
(l) For reinforcement enclosed within special reinforcement not
less than 6 mm diameter and not more than 100 mm pitch,
within 12 mm or larger circular ties spaced at not more than 100
mm on center or within 12 mm larger ties or stirrups spaced not
more than 100 mm on center and arranged such that alternate
bars such have support provided by the corner of a tie hoop with
an included angle of not more than 135° the factors in items a
through g may be multiplied by 1.8.
(m) Excess Reinforcement. As required
Development length may be reduced As provided
where reinforcement in a flexural
member is more than required by
analysis by a factor.
Mn
Ld ≤ + Ia Eq. 2 – 49
Vu
Where:
Mn is nominal moment strength assuming all reinforcement
at the section to be stressed to the specified yield strength
fy
Vu is factored shear force at the section (at point of support
for simple support and at point of inflection for continuous
beam)
Ia at a support shall be embedment length beyond center of
support
Ia at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective
depth of member or 12db, whichever is greater.
Mn
Ld ≤ 1.3 + Ia Eq. 2 – 50
Vu
Hooks
If sufficient space is not available to anchor tension bars by
running them straight for the required development length as
required by the Code, hooks may be used.
Development of Standard Hooks
According to Section 5.12.5, the basic development length I hb for
standard hooks with fv = 415 MPa is equal to 100 db / f’c.
Lap Splices
Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than 32 mm except
as provider by the Code. Bars larger than 32 mm lap splices in
flexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther apart
than 1/5 the required lap splice neither length nor 150 mm.
Splices in Tension
The minimum length of lap for tension lap splices shall as
required for Class A or B splice. But not less than 300 mm
where
Class A splice .......... 1.0 Ld
Class B splices…….. 1.3 Ld
P-Delta Moment
When a column subjected to primary moment’s m, such as
those caused by applied loads or joints rotation, the axis of the
member deflects laterally. This deflection additional moment
applied to the column, which is equal to the column, load times
lateral deflection. This moment called secondary moment or P-
Delta moment.
(a) Plain concrete pedestal – this may be used only if the height
does not exceed three times the least lateral dimension.
Tied and spiral columns are the most common forms. Either
type may be circular, octagonal, square, or rectangular section.
Tied columns may also be L. T or other irregular shape.
Where Ø = 0.70
Ag = gross concrete area = b x t
Ast = area of steel reinforcement
SPIRAL COLUMN
The axial load capacity of a spiral column is given by
Where Ø = 0.75
This maximum load limit governs wherever the moment is small
enough to keep the eccentricity under 0.05h.
A f'c
ρs = 0.45 ( g - 1) Eq. 2 – 56
Ac fy
Where fy is the specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement
but not more than 415 MPa.
fy
tmin = D√ Eq. 2 – 59
8 Es
fy
tmin = b1 √ Eq. 2 – 60
3 Es
fy
tmin = b2 √ Eq. 2 – 61
3 Es
Radius of Gyration
Radius of gyration r may be taken equal to 0.30 times the
overall dimension in the direction stability is being considered for
rectangular compression members, and 0.25 times the diameter
for circular compression members. For other shapes, r may be
computed for the gross concrete section.
r = 0.3 h Eq. 2 – 62
r = 0.25 D Eq. 2 – 62
Alignment Charts
The ACI Committee 441 has proposed that k should be obtained
from the Jackson and Moreland alignment chart as Shown in
Figure 2- 27. To use this chart, a parameter Ψa for end A of
column AB and similar parameter Ψb must be computed for end
B. The parameter Ψ at one end of the column equals the sum of
the stiffness (∑Еl/L) of the column meeting at that joint
(including the column in question) divided by the sum of the
stiffness of the beam meeting at that joint. Once Ψa and Ψb are
known, k is obtained by placing a straightedge between Ψa and
Ψb. The point where the straightedge crossed the middle
monograph is k
∑ EI/L of columns
ψ= ∑ EI/L of beams
Eq. 2 –64
For columns for which the slenderness ratio lies between 22 and
100, and therefore the slenderness effect on load - carrying
capacity must be taken into account, either an elastic analysis
can be performed to evaluate the effects of lateral deflections
and other effects producing secondary stresses, or an
approximate method based on moment magnification may be
used.
FOOTINGS
Footings are structural members used to support columns or
walls and transmit their load to the underlying soils. Reinforced
concrete is the most suited material for footing towers, bridges,
and other structures.
TYPES OF FOOTINGS
The common types of footing are the wall footing, isolated or
single-column footing, combined footing raft or mat, and pile
caps.
Column
Wall Footing
Footing
Pile Cap
Footing
Columns
Footing
qe = qa - γc hc - γs hs Eq. 2-76
Where γc is the unit weight of concrete (usually taken as 23.54
kN/m²) hc is the total depth of footing, γc is the unit weight of soil
above the footing, and hc is the height of soil above the footing.
Natural Grade
hs Soil, ys
Critical Section
Critical Section
a a/2
Short Side,S
Long Side,L
SHEAR IN FOOTINGS
The shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of
the columns, concentrated load, or reactions is governed
by the more severe of two conditions, the beam action or
one-way shear and the two-way or punching shear. In any
of these two conditions, the Code requires that the
maximum value of Vu if stirrups are not used ØVc is the
shear strength provided by concrete.
qu
L
CL
d
1
Vc = √f'c bw d Eq. 2-79
6
2 √f'c
Vc = (1+ ) bo d Eq. 2-80
βc 6
√f'c
Vc = bo d Eq. 2 - 82
3
One-way shear will very often control the depths for rectangular
footings, whereas two-way shear normally controls the depth of
square footings.
Dowels
If the computed bearing force is higher than the allowable value,
it is necessary to provide dowels to carry the excess force. This
can also be done by extending the column bars into the footing.
If the computed bearing force is less than the allowable
theoretically, no dowels are needed but the code specifies a
minimum value.
For cast-in-place columns and pedestal, the area of
reinforcement across interface shall not be less than 0.005
times the gross area of the column or pedestal, and at footings
and 36-mm longitudinal bars in compression only may be lap
spliced with dowels to provide the required reinforcement.
Dowels may not be larger than 32 mm bar and may extend into
column a distance not less than the development length of 36
mm bars or the splice length of the dowel, whichever is greater,
and into the footing a distance not less than the development
length of the dowels (Section 5.15.8.2.3)
COMBINED FOOTINGS
Combined footings support more than one column. One
situation where these footings may be used is when the
columns are close together so that isolated or individual footing
would run into each other. Another situation is when the column
is very near the property line. A trapezoidal footing or strap (T)
footings may also be used is the two adjacent column are very
near the property line.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Analogy of Prestressing
Row of books
lifted from the
table with the
application of
compressive force
at the end
Methods of Prestressing
There are two general methods of prestressing, these are
pretensioning and posttensioning. In pretensioning, tendons
were tensioned before the concrete was placed. After the
concrete had hardened sufficiently, the tendons are cut and
prestress force is transmitted to concrete by bond. This method
is well suited for mass production where the tendons can run to
several meters long across several beams in the casting bed, as
shown in the figure below.
AbutmentR Tendons Beams Abutment
Casting Bed
Stress Calculation
P e
P
b
d
e
P
General Equation:
P Pec Mc
f=- ± ± Eq. 2-83
A I I
P 6Pe 6M
f=- ± ± Eq. 2-84
bd bd2 bd2
Rule of Sign
The first term of the equation is always negative (compressive).
For the second term of the equation use negative (-) to get the
stress at the bottom and positive (+) to get the stress at the top.
For the third term, use the positive (+) sigh if the bending
causes tension in the fiber and negative (-) if the bending
causes compression in the fiber.
Loss of Prestress
The immediate prestressing force applied on concrete is called
initial stress. The stresses, however, reduces with losses must
be considered to determine the effective prestress f se. According
to Section 5.18.6.1 the following losses must be considered.
n PO
∆fS = n fC = Eq. 2-85
Ag
Factor β1
0.05
For fC > 30 MPa, β1 = 0.85 - (fC - 30) ≥ 0. Eq. 2-89
7
√f' C
AS min = bW d Eq. 2-90
4fy
'
ϕ√f C Acp 2 3fpc
( ) 1+ Eq. 2-94
12 Pcp √
√f' C
'
ϕ√f C Acp 2
( ) Eq. 2-95
3 Pcp
'
ϕ√f C Acp 2 3fpc
( ) 1+ Eq. 2-96
3 Pcp √
√f' C
'
V 2 Tu ph Vc 2√f C
√( u ) + ( ) ≤ϕ + Eq. 2-97
bw d 1.7 Aoh 2 bw d 3
( )
'
Vu 2 Tu ph Vc 2√f C
( ) + ( ) ≤ϕ + Eq. 2-98
bw d 1.7 Aoh 2 bw d 3
( )
Tu
( ) Eq. 2 - 99
1.7 Aoh t
Where t is thickness of the wall of the hollow section
at the location where the stresses are being checked.
Tu ≤ ϕ Tn Eq. 2-100
2Ao At fyv
Tn = cot2 θ Eq. 2-101
s
At fyv
At = ph cot2 θ Eq. 2-102
s fyl
1 bw s
Av + 2At = Eq. 2-103
3 fv
Notations
ld=development length, mm
Mn= As fy (d-a/2)
Other cases Id 18 fy α β λ Id 9 fy α β λ
= =
db 25 √f'c db 10 √f'c
Id 9 fy α β γ λ
= Eq. 2-105
db c + ktr
10 √f'c ( )
db
In which the term (c + ktr)/db shall not be taken greater than 2.5
412.3.4 The factors for use in the expressions for development
of deformed bars and deformed wires in tension in Sections
412.1 through 412.20 are as follows:
Reinforcement factor, α
For horizontal reinforcement so α = 1.3
placed that more than 300 mm of
fresh concrete is cast in the
member below the development
length or splice
For other reinforcement α = 1.0
Coating factor, β
For epoxy-coated bars or wires β = 1.5
with cover less than 3db or clear
spacing less than 6db
All other epoxy-coated bars or
wires
For uncoated reinforcement β = 1.0
However, the product α β need not be taken greater than 1.7
Reinforcement size factor, γ
For 20 mm diameter and smaller γ = 0.8
bars and deformed wires
For 25 mm diameter and larger γ = 1.0
bars
Lightweight aggregate concrete factor, λ
When lightweight aggregate λ = 1.3
concrete is used, however, when
fct is specified, λ shall be
permitted to be fc/1.8fct but not
less than 1.0
When normal weight concrete is λ = 1.0
used
Where:
fy db
Idb = Eq. 2-106
4 √f'c
Notations
Ag = gross of section, mm²
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, mm²
A1 = loaded area
A2 =maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that
is geometrically similar to and concentric with the loaded area
bo = perimeter of critical section for slabs and footings, mm
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, mm
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, mm
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa.
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, MPa
Fc = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
√f’c = square root of specified compressive strength concrete,
MPa
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate
concrete, MPa
fs = permissible tensile stress in reinforcement, MPa
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, MPa
M = design moment
n = modular ratio of elasticity EᵟᶴEc
N = design axial load normal to cross section occurring
simultaneously with V; to be taken as positive for compression,
negative for tension, and to include effects of tension due to
creep and shrinkage
s = spacing of shear reinforcement in direction parallel to
longitudinal reinforcement. mm
v = design shear stress
vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete, MPa
Vh = permissible horizontal shear stress, MPa
V = design shear force at section
ɑ = angle between inclined stirrups and longitudinal axis of
member
βc = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or
reaction area
ρw = ratio of tension reinforcement = As/bw d
ϕ = strength reduction factor
424.2 Scope
® Joists:
Shear carried by concrete, Vc ………….. 0.09√f¹ c
® Two-way slabs and footings:
Shear carried by concrete, Vc
1 2
(1+ ) √f'c
12 βc
1
But not greater than √f’ c
6
3. Bearing on loaded area ………………. 0.3 f’ c
V
v= Eq. 2-107
bw d
bw s
Ay = Eq. 2-111
3 fy
(v - vc ) bw s
Av = Eq. 2 - 112
fy
424.8.5.6.3 When inclined stirrups are used as shear
reinforcement,
(v - vc ) bw s
Av = Eq. 2 - 113
fy (sin α+ cos α)
(v - vc ) bw d
Av = Eq. 2 - 114
fs sin α
1
Where (v – vc) shall not exceed √f¹c.
8
V
v= Eq. 2-115
bo d
1 2
Vc = (1+ ) √f'c Eq. 2 -116
12 βc
But vc shall not exceed (1/6) √f’c βc is the ratio of long side to
short side of concentrated load or reaction area. When
lightweight aggregate concrete is used, the modifications of
Section 424.8.4.6 shall apply.
Dead Load
The dead load to be assumed in design shall consist of the weight
of steelwork and all material permanently fastened thereto or
supported thereby.
Live Load
The live load shall be that stipulated by the applicable code under
which the structure is being, designed or that dictated by the
conditions involved.
Impact
For structures carrying live loads, which induce impact, the
assumed live load shall be increased sufficiently to provide for
same. If not otherwise specified, the increase shall be:
50 50 345 65 448
60 60 414 75 517
65 65 448 80 551
Corrosion 42 290 63 434
Restraint A242 46 317 67 462
High-Strength 50 345 70 483
Low-Alloy 42 290 63 434
A588 46 317 67 462
50 345 70 483
Quench & 100-
90 620 689-896
Tempered Alloy A514 130
110-
100 689 758-896
130
Table 3 – 2 Allowable Stresses for Structural Steel (Section 4.5)
NSCP
Types of Stresses & Condition Eq.
Specification
Tension:
Except for pin-connected members
1. On Gross Area Ft = 0.60 Fy A
2. On Effective Net Area Ft = 0.50 Fu B
For pin-connected members
1. On Net Area Ft = 0.45 Fy C
Shear:
1. On effective cross-sectional area
(except at reduced section, the
effective area of rolled and fabricated
Fv = 0.40 Fy D
shape may be taken as the overall
depth times the web thickness)
Compression members/Columns:
1. When kL/r < Cc
2π2 E kL 2
Cc = √ (r) F
Fy y
𝐹𝑎 = 1-
kL kL 3 2Cc FS F
5 3( r ) ( r ) [ ]
FS = + -
8 8CC 8Cc 3
200bf Fb = 0.60 Fy M
Lb ≤
√Fy
When:
1,172,100 Cb
Fb = ≤ 0.6Fy
𝐿 3,516,330𝐶𝑏 I 2 P
> √ (r )
T
𝑟𝑇 𝐹𝑦
For any value of L/rT
82,740 Cb
Fb = ≤ 0.6Fy
Note: Eq. Q is applicable only to Id
( )
sections with compression flange Af
Q
that is solid and approximately For channels bent about their
rectangular in cross section and major axis, Fb in compression
that has an area not less than the is determine from Eq. Q
tension flange
Bending on Weak Axis of I-shaped
Members, Solid Bars, and
Rectangular Plates
Doubly symmetrical I- and H-
shape members with compact
flanges continuously connected to
the web and bent about their Fb = 0.75Fy R
weaker axis; solid round and
square bars; and solid rectangular
sections bent about their weaker
axes
Members with non-compact Fb = 0.60Fy S
section
NSCP
Types of Stresses & Condition Eq.
Specification
Bending on Weak Axis of Box
Members, Rectangular Tubes and
Circular Tubes
Compact Section Fb = 0.66 Fy T
Non-compact Section Fb = 0.66 Fy U
Bearing
On contact area of milled surfaces
and ends of fitted bearing
stiffeners; on projected area of Fp = 0.90Fy V
pins reamed, drilled, or bored
holes
On projected area of bolts and
Fp = 1.50Fu W
rivets in shear connections.
Gross area
For angles, the gross width shall be the sum of the widths of the
legs less the thickness.
Net Area
s2 / 4g Eq. 3 – 1
g1
B
g2 p
S2
2
S
An = [B - ∑ Holes + ∑ ]t Eq. 3-2
4g
t = 10
90
80
t = 10
S = 100
g = 90 + 80 – 10 = 160
4. The critical net area An of the part is obtained from the
chain which gives the least net width.
5. In determining the net area across plug or slot welds,
the weld metal shall not be considered as a adding to
the net area.
Ae = U An Eq. 3 – 4
Where: An = net area of the member
U = a reduction coefficient
When the load is transmitted by welds through some but not all
of the cross-sectional elements of the member, the effective net
area Ae shall be computed as:
Ae = U Ag Eq. 3 – 4
Where: Ag = gross area of the member
Riveted and bolted splice and gusset plates and other connection
fitting subject to tensile force shall be designed in accordance
with the provisions of Sect. 4.5.1.1, where the effective net area
shall be taken as the actual net area, except that, for the purpose
of design calculations, it shall not be taken a greater than 85
percent of the gross area.
DESIGN OR ANALYSIS OF RIVETED OR BOLTED AXIALLY
LOADED TENSION MEMBERS
(CONNECTIONS)
Hole + 1.6mm
`
(Typ.)
W P
t t
Gross Area Net Area
Ag An ≤ 0.85 Ag
Gross Area, Ag = W x t
Net Area, An = [W - ∑(holes+1.6)] x t ≤ 85% Ag
Tearing
e Py
c b Px
Px
Yp
d a
Px PDx
Py
R
Py Px
Direct Load PDy = & PDx = Eq. 3 – 6
n n
Moment T = Pe = Py (Xp ) + Px (Yp ) Eq. 3 – 7
Ty
Px = Eq. 3 – 8
∑(x2 + y2 )
Tx Eq. 3 – 9
Py =
∑(x2 + y2 )
2
Total Load, R = √(Px + PDx)2 + (Py + PDy ) Eq. 3 – 10
Where n = number of rivets
x = x-coordinate of the rivet
y = y-coordinate of the rivet
Px & Py = load due to moment alone
PDx & PDy = load due to axial force alone (direct load)
If the rivets are equidistant from the centroid of the rivet group
such as those shown below:
P
P
P
P P
P d P
P
dP
c d
c
g
g P
T
T
P
P
P P
(P X d) n =T
T
Load due to moment alone, P = Eq. 3 - 11
nxd
WELDED CONNECTION
GROOVE WELDS
Shielded metal
arc J or U Joint
Submerged arc Depth of chamfer
All
Bevel or V joint ≥
Gas Metal Arc
60˚
Bevel or V joint < Depth of chamfer
Flux-cored arc
60˚ but ≥ 45˚ minus 3mm
FILLET WELDS
Effective Area
The effective area of groove welds shall be based on the
following:
1. The effective area of fillet welds shall be taken as the
effective length times the effective throat thickness.
2. The effective length of fillet welds, except fillet welds in holes
and slots, shall be the overall length of full-size fillets,
including returns.
3. The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld shall be the
shortest distance from the root of the joint to the face of the
diagrammatic weld, except that for fillet welds made by the
submerged arc process, the effective throat thickness shall
be taken equal to the leg size for 10mm and smaller fillet
welds, and equal to the theoretical throat plus 3 mm for fillet
welds larger than 10 mm.
4. For fillet welds in holes and slots, the effective length shall
be the length of the centerline of the weld along the center
of the lane through the throat. In the case of overlapping
fillets, the effective area shall not exceed the nominal cross-
sectional area of the hole slot in the plane of the faying
surface.
Limitation of Fillet Welds
1. The minimum size of fillet welds shall be as shown in
Table 3 – 6. Minimum weld size is dependent upon the
thicker of the two parts joined, except that the weld size
need not exceed the thickness of the thinner part. For this
exception particular case shall be taken to provide
sufficient preheat for soundness of the weld. Weld sizes
larger than the thinner art joined are permitted if required
by calculated strength. In the as-welded condition, the
distance between the edge of the base metal and the toe
of the weld may be less than 1.6 mm provided the weld
size is clearly verifiable.
Effective Area
The effective shearing area of plug and slots welds shall be
considered as the nominal cross-sectional area of the hole or
slot in the plane of the faying surface.
COMBINATION OF WELDS
Fillet Weld
Throat = 0.717 t Eq. 3 – 12
Capacity, P = Fv (0.707 t L) Eq. 3 – 13
BALANCING WELD
L1
a
P
L2
P = 0.707 t L Fv Eq. 3 – 14
L = L1 + L2 Eq. 3 – 15
L1 x a = L2 x b Eq. 3 – 16
Angular Section Fillet Welded on a Gusset Plate
(With Transverse Fillet Weld)
L1
a
L3 c P
L2
P = 0.707 t L Fv Eq. 3 – 17
L = L1 + L2 + L3 Eq. 3 – 18
L1 x a = L2 x b = L3 x c Eq. 3 – 19
F
Direct Load, PD = ∑L
Eq. 3 – 20
Moment, T = F x e Eq. 3 – 21
Ty
Px = Eq. 3 – 22
J
Tx
Py = Eq. 3 – 23
J
2
L
J = ∑ L [ + XG 2 +YG 2 ] Eq. 3 – 24
12
Euler’s Stress
For Hinged-Ended Columns:
π2 EI
Euler critical load, P = Eq. 3 – 26
L2
π2 E
Euler critical stress, Fa = (L⁄r)2
Eq. 3 – 27
4π2 EI
Euler critical load, P = Eq. 3 – 28
L2
4π2 E
Euler critical stress, Fa = (L⁄r)2
Eq. 3 – 29
NSCP/AISC Specifications
2π2 E
Cc = √ Eq. 3 – 30
Fy
Buckled shape of
column is shown
by dashed line
(KL⁄r)2 Fy
Fa = [1 - 2
] Eq. 3 – 31
2Cc FS
Eq. 3 – 32
5 3 (K L⁄ r) (K L ⁄ r)3
FS = + - 3
3 8 Cc 8 Cc
When KL/r > Cc (long column)
12 π2 E
Fs = Eq. 3 – 33
23 (KL⁄r)2
1
Fa = Fa [by Eq. 3-31 or Eq. 3-33] Eq. 3 – 34
L
1.6-
200 r
bf 170
Width-thickness ratio, ≤ Eq. 3 – 35
2tf √Fy
d 1680
Depth-thickness ratio, ≤ Eq. 3 – 36
tw √ Fy
For the member with compact section (excluding hybrid beams
and members with yield points greater than 448 MPa), the
allowable bending stress in both tension and compression is:
Fb =0.66 Fy Eq. 3 – 37
provided the flanges are connected continuously to the web or
webs and the laterally unsupported length of compression flange
Lb does not exceed Lc , where Lc is the smaller value of Eq. 3 – 38
and Eq. 3 – 39.
200 bf
Eq. 3 – 38
√ Fy
137,900
Eq. 3 – 39
(d⁄Af ) Fy
703,270 Cb L 3,516,330 Cb
When √ ≤ ≤√
Fy rT Fy
2 Fy (I⁄rT )2
Fb = [ - ] F ≤0.60 Fy Eq. 3 – 43
3 10.55 x 106 Cb y
Use the larger value of Eq. 3-45 and Eq. 3-43, but shall be
less than 0.60 Fy.
L 3,516,330 Cb
When >√
rT Fy
1,172,100 𝐶𝑏
𝐹𝑏 = ≤ 0.60 𝐹𝑦 Eq. 3 – 44
(𝐼⁄𝑟𝑇 )2
Use the larger value of Eq. 3-45 and Eq. 3-43, but shall be
less than 0.60 Fy.
Where:
bf = flange width, mm
tf = flange thickness, mm
d = depth, mm
tw = web thickness, mm
Af = area of compression flange = bf tf (mm2)
I = distance between cross-sections braced against twist and
lateral displacements of the compression flange mm
rT = radius of gyration of the section comprising the
compression flange plus 1/3 of the compression web area
taken about an axis in the plane of the web mm
Cb = 1.75 +1.05 (M1 ⁄M2 ) + 0.3 (M1 ⁄M2 )2 ≤ 2.3
M1 = smaller end moment; M2 = larger end moment
M1 ⁄M2 = (+) for reversed curvature
M1 ⁄M2 = (-) for single curvature
Cb = unity (1) if the moment within the unbraced length is
larger than M1 or M2. For example the simply supported
beam.
Allowable Stress on Weak Axis Bending of I – Shaped Members,
Solid Bars and Rectangular Plates
See Equations R & S in Table 3 – 2
h 998
When ≤ , the allowable shear stress on the overall depth
tw √Fy
time the web thickness (d tw) is:
Fv =0.40 Fy Eq. 3 – 46
V
or ≤0.40 Fy Eq. 3 – 47
dtw
h 998
When ≤ , the allowable shear stress on the clear distance
tw √Fy
between flanges times the web thickness, h tw is:
Fy
Fv = C ≤0.40 Fy Eq. 3 – 48
2.89 v
V Fy
or 0.40 Fy ≥ ≤ C Eq. 3 – 49
h tw 2.89 v
Where:
310,264 kv
Cv = when Cv is less than 0.80
Fy (h⁄tw )2
500 kv
Cv = √F when Cv is more than 0.80
h⁄tw y
5.34
kv = 4.00+ (a⁄ when a/h is less than 1.0
h) 2
4.00
kv = 5.34+ (a⁄ when a/h is more than 1.0
h)2
tw = thickness of web, mm
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, mm
h = clear distance between flanges at the section under
investigation, mm
h = d-2tf
d = overall depth of the beam, mm
COMBINED STRESSES
When fa/Fa ≤ 0.15, Eq. 3-52 is permitted in lieu of Eq. 3-50 and
Eq. 3-51.
fa fbx fby
+ + ≤1 Eq. 3 – 52
Fa Fbx Fby
Where:
Fa = allowable axial compressive stress if axial force alone
existed MPa
Fb = allowable compressive bending stress if bending moment
alone existed
12 𝜋2 𝐸
𝐹′𝑒 = = Euler stress divided by a factor of safety,
23 (𝐾𝐼𝑏 ⁄𝑟𝑏 )2
MPa (In the expression for F’e Ib is the actual unbraced
length in the plane of bending and rb is the corresponding
radius of gyration. K is the effective length factor in the
plane of bending). As in the case of Fa, Fb and 0.60 Fy, F’e
may be increased 1/3.
fa = computed axial stress, MPa
fb = computed compressive bending stress at the point under
consideration, MPa
Cm = a coefficient whose values is as follows:
1. For compression members in frames subject to joint
translation (sidesway), Cm = 0.85
2. For rotationally restrained compression members in
frames braced against joint translation and not subject
to transverse loading between their supports in the
plane of bending.
M1
Cm =0.6-0.4 but not less than 0.4
M2
When M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger
moments at the ends of that portion of the member
unbraced in the plane of bending under consideration.
M1/M2 is positive when the member is bent in reverse
curvature, negative when bent in single curvature.
3. For compression members in frames braced against
joint translation in the plane of loading and subjected to
transverse loading between their supports, the value of
Cm may be determined by rational analysis. However,
in lieu of such analysis, the following values may be
used:
a. For members whose ends are restrained
Cm = 0.85
b. For members whose ends are unrestrained
Cm = 1.0
COMPOSITE BEAMS
Encased Beams
Shear Connectors
For unstiffened elements, which are supported along one edge only, parallel to the
direction of compression force, the width shall be taken as follows:
1. For flanges of I-Shaped members and tees, b is ½ the full nominal width.
2. For legs of angles and flanges of channels and zees, b is the full nominal
dimension.
3. For plates, b is the distance from the free edge to the first row of fasteners or
line of welds.
4. For stems of tees, d is the full nominal depth.
For stiffened elements, i.e., supported along two edges parallel to the direction of the
compression force the width shall be taken as follows:
1. For webs of rolled, built-up or formed sections, h is the clear distance between
flanges.
2. For webs of rolled, built-up or formed sections, d is the full nominal depth.
3. For flanges or diaphragm plates in built-up section, b is the distance between
adjacent lines of fasteners or lines of welds.
4. For flanges of rectangular hallow structural sections, b is the clear distance
between webs less the inside corner radius of each side. If the corner radius is
not known, the flat width may be taken as the total section width minus three
times the thickness.
For tapered flanges of rolled sections, the thickness is the nominal value halfway
between the free edge and the corresponding face of the web.
Width Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios
Description of Element Thickness
Compact Non – Compact
Ratio
Flanges of I-Shaped rolled beams
b/t 170 √Fy 250 √Fy
and channels in flexure
Flanges of I-Shaped of welded e
b/t 170 √Fy 170 √Fy ⁄kc
beams in flexure
Outstanding legs if pairs of angels of
continuous contact; angels or plates
projecting from rolled beams or b/t NA 250 √Fy
columns; stiffeners on plate girders
675 √Fy
k
Toe of Fillet
k
tw
N + 2k
R
1992 NSCP
For Interior Loads
R
≤0.75 Fy Eq. 3 – 56
(N+2k) tw
2001 NSCP
R
≤ 0.66 Fy Eq. 3 – 58
(N + 5k) tw
Web Crippling
BEARING PLATES
A2
A1
Toe of Fillet
Base Plate
Thickness of plate:
3 fp n2 Eq. 3 – 63
t=√
Fb
Load
fb = Eq. 3 – 64
Bearing Area of Plate
Concrete
d 0.95d
Thickness of plate:
3 fn n2 Eq. 3 – 65
t=√
Fb
A1
Y1 Plastic NA
Y2
A2 = A1
Shapes Factor
Z MP
SF = = Eq. 3 – 69
S ME
For rectangular section, SF = 1.5
Definition
Blocked Diaphragm is diaphragm in which all sheathing edges
not occurring on framing members are supported on framing
members are supported on and connected to blocking.
Convention Light-Frame Construction is a type of construction
whose primary structural elements are formed by a system of
repetitive wood-framing members.
Diaphragm is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to
transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements when
the term diaphragm is used, it includes horizontal bracing
systems.
Fiberboard is a fibrous-felted homogeneous panel made from
lignocellulosic fibers (usually wood or crane) having a density
of less than 497kg/m3 but more than 160 kg/m3.
Glued Built-Up Members are structural elements, the sections
of which are composed of built-up lumber, wood structural
panels or wood structural panels in combination with lumber,
all parts bonded together with adhesive.
Grade (Lumber), the classification of lumber in regard to strength
and utility in accordance with the grading rules of an approved
lumber grading agency.
Hardboard is a fibrous-felted, homogeneous panel made from
lignocellulosic fibers consolidated under heat and pressure in
a hot press to a density not less than 497 kg/m3.
Nominal Size (Lumber), the commercial size designation of
width and depth, in standard sawn lumber grades, somewhat
larger than the standard net size of dressed lumber. In
accordance to Philippine National Standards (PNS).
Normal Loading, a design load that stressed a member or
fastening to the allowable stress tabulated in this chapter. This
loading may be applied for the remainder of the life of the
member or fastening.
Particleboard is a manufactured panel product consisting of
particles of wood fibers bonded together with synthetic resins
or other suitable bonding system by as bonding process, in
accordance with approved nationally recognized standard.
Plywood is a panel of laminated veneers conforming to
Philippine National standards (PNS) “Construction and
Industrial Plywood” and UBS Standard 23-3, “Performance
Standard for Wood-based Structural-User Panels”.
Rotation is the torsional movement of a diaphragm about a
vertical axis.
Sub diaphragm is a portion of a larger wood diaphragm
designed to anchor and transfer local forces to primary
diaphragm struts and the main diaphragm.
Treated Wood, is wood treated with an approved preservative
under treating and quality control procedures.
Wood on Natural Resistance to decay or Termites is the
heartwood of the species set forth below. Corner sapwood is
permitted on 5 percent of the pieces provided 90 percent or
more of the width of each side on which it occurs is heartwood.
Recognized species are:
Decay resistant: Narra, Kamagong, Dao, Tangile.
Termite resistant: Narra, Kamagong.
Wood Structural Panel is a structural panel product composed
primarily of wood and in meeting the requirements of the
Philippine National Standards (PNS). Wood structural panels
include all veneer plywood, composite panels containing a
combination of veneer and wood-based material and mal-
formed panel such as oriented stranded board and wafer
board.
Duration of Load
Values for wood and mechanical fastenings (when the worst
determines the load capacity) are subjected to the following
adjustments for the various duration of loading.
1. Where a member is fully stressed to the maximum
allowable stress either continuously or cumulatively for
more than 10 years under the conditions of maximum
design load, the values shall not exceed 90 percent of
those in the tables.
2. When the accumulated duration of the full maximum
load during the life of the member does not exceed the
period indicated below, the values may be increased in
the table as follows:
25% for seven days duration, as for roof loads
33.33% for earthquake
33.33% for wind (for connections and fasteners)
60% for wind (members only)
100% for impact
The foregoing increases are not cumulative. For
combined duration of loadings the resultant structural
members shall not be smaller than the required for the
longer duration of loading.
The duration of load factors in this item shall not apply
to compression-perpendicular-to-grain design values
based on a deformation limit, or to modulus of
elasticity.
3. Values for normal loading conditions may be used
without regard to impact if the stress induced by impact
does not exceed the values for normal loading
Size Factor Adjustment
When the depth of a rectangular sawn lumber bending member
125mm or thicker exceeds 300mm, the bending values, Fb1 shall
be multiplied by the size factor, C1 as determined by:
1
300 9
Cf = Eq. 4 – 1
d
Ie d
Cs = Eq. 4 – 2
b2
The effective lengths le in Table 4-1 are based on Lu/d ratio of 17.
For other Lu/d ratios, these effective lengths may be multiplied by
a factor equal to 0.85 + 2.55/( Lu/d) except that this factor shall
not apply to a single –span beam with equal end moments (le =
1.84 Lu) or to a single span or cantilever with any load (I e = 1.92
Lu).
Unsupported Length, Lu
When Cs ≤ 10
When the slenderness factor Cs does not exceed 10, the full
allowable unit stress in bending Fb may be used.
4
1 Cs Eq. 4 – 3
F'b = Fb [1- ( ) ]
3 Ck
0.438 E
F'b = 2 Eq. 4 – 4
Cs
Beam Span
For simple beams, the span shall be taken as the distance from
face to face of support, plus one half the required length of
bearing at each end; for continuous beams, the span is the
distance between centers of bearings on support over which the
beam is continuous
Flexure
Circular Cross Section
A beam of circular cross section may be assumed to have the
same strength in flexure as a square beam having the same
cross-sectional area. If a circular beam is tapered, it shall be
considered a beam of variable cross section
Notching
If possible, notching of beams should be avoided. Notches in
sawn lumber bending members shall not exceed one-sixth the
depth of the member and shall not be located in the middle
third of the span. Where members are notches at the ends, the
notch depth shall not exceed one-fourth the beam-depth. The
tension side of the sawn lumber bending members of 100mm
or greater nominal thickness shall not be notched except at
ends of members. Cantilevered portions of beams less than
100mm in normal thickness shall not be notched unless the
reduced section properties and lumber defects are considered
in the design.
Horizontal Shear
The maximum horizontal shear stress in a solid-sawn wood shall
not exceed:
3V
fv = Eq. 4 – 7
2bd
The actual unit shear fv shall not exceed the allowable for the
species and the grade as given in Table 4-3 adjusted for duration
of loading.
3V d
fv = Eq. 4 –9
2 An dn
2 d-d'
V= Fv b [d - ' e] Eq. 4 –10
3 d
Where: d = total depth of beam
d’ = actual depth of beam of notch
e = distance notch extends inside the inner edge of support
The shear for the notch on the compression side shall be further
limited to the value determined for a beam of depth d’ if e exceeds
d’.
3V
fv = Eq. 4 –11
2bde
For bearing less than 150mm in length and not nearer than 75mm
to the end of a member, the maximum allowable load per square
mm may be obtained by multiplying the allowable unit stresses in
compression perpendicular to grain factor given by:
Length of 150 or
13 25 38 50 75 100
bearing (mm) more
Factor 1.75 1.38 1.25 1.19 1.13 1.10 1.00
Lateral support
Solid-sawn rectangular lumber beams, rafter and joist shall be
supported laterally to prevent rotation or lateral displacement in
accordance with the following:
Column Classifications
Simple Solid-Wood Columns
Simple column consist of a single piece or of pieces properly
glued together to form a single member.
Buckled shape of
column is shown by
dashed line
FcE
Where α= *
Fc
c’ = 0.8 for sawn lumber & 0.85 for round timber pile
KcE E'
FcE =
(Ie ⁄d)2
Fc* = tabulated compression design value multiplied by
all of the applicable adjustment factors
KcE = 0.3 for visually graded lumber
KcE = 0.418 for products such as machine stress rated
sawn lumber
Tapered Columns
When designing a tapered column with a rectangular cross-
section, tapered at one end or both ends, the representative
dimensions, drep for each face of the column shall be:
drep = dmin + (dmax - dmin ) [a - 0.15 (1- dmin ⁄dmax )]
Eq. 4 –16
Where: dmin = minimum dimension for that face of the column
dmax = maximum dimension for that face of the column
Support conditions:
Large end fixed, small end unsupported.
a=0.70
Small end fixed, large end unsupported.
a=0.30
Both ends supported:
Tapered toward one end.
a=0.50
Tapered toward both ends. A=0.70
dmax - dmin
d = dmin + Eq. 4 –17
3
ft fb Eq. 4 –18
+ ≤ 1.0
Ft ' Fb *
fb − ft
and Eq. 4 –19
Fb **
fc fbx
+ ≤ 1.0 Eq. 4 –20
F'c F'bx − Jfc
Ie ⁄d -11 Eq. 4 –21
J=
K-11
E
K = 0.671 Eq. 4 –22
Fc
Where 0 ≤ J ≤ 1.0
Spaced columns
In the case of spaced columns, this combined stress formula
maybe applied only if the bending is in a direction parallel to the
greater d of the individual member.
1 + 0.62 Ie
CT = Eq. 4 –23
E0.05
Bolts
Safe loads in kN for bolts in shear in seasoned lumber shall not
exceed the values set forth in Table 4-4.
The loads given in Table 4-4 are for a joint consisting of three
members. The bolts are in double shear. The length of the bolt l,
is the thickness of the main member.
NAILS AND SPIKES
Safe lateral strength
A common wire nail driven perpendicular to grain of the wood.
When used to fasten wood members together, shall not be
subjected to a greater load causing shear and bending than the
safe lateral strength of the wire nail or spike as set forth in the
Table.
A wire nail driven parallel to the grain of the wood shall not be
subjected more than two thirds of the lateral load allowed when
driven perpendicular to the grain. Toenails shall not be subjected
more than five sixths of the lateral load allowed for nails driven
perpendicular to the grain.
Miscellaneous Fasteners
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Residual, v
Residual or deviation is the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value,
v = X − x̅
PROBABLE ERROR
The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and
subtracted from the most probable value, defines range within
which there is fifty percent chance that the true value of the
measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits this set.
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
Sum of Errors
Probable error of the sum
Product of Errors
Probable error of the product
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±√(𝑄1 𝑃𝐸1 )2 + (𝑄2 𝑃𝐸2 )2
Precision
PEm
Precision =
mpv
Standard Deviation
The MEDIAN is the middle value when all data are arranged in
decreasing or increasing order
-5, 2, 2, 2, 3, 5, 7, 7, 12 (9 terms)
The MODE is the value that occurs most frequently. The value “2” occurs
three times, therefore, is the mode.
Pacing
Distance measured
PF = m/pace
Average pace
∑ Paces
Average pace =
no.of observation
Stadia Measurement
𝜃
a
d s
D
b'
v
f+c
f
c 𝜃
H
Where:
f/I = k = stadia interval factor (equal to 100 for most instruments)
S = stadia constant
f + c = stadia constant (equal to zero for internal focusing)
θ = angle of inclination of the line of sight
s
D=
θ
2 tan ( )
2
For S = 2 m
1 θ
D= = cot
θ 2
tan ( )
2
S = length of bar (usually 2 m)
𝜃= angle subtended by the bar
CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
Temperature Change
e = α Lo (T –To)
T = Temperature during measurement
To = Temperature when tape is length of Lo
-6 o
α = coefficient of thermal expansion of tape, 11.6 x 10 / C for
steel
Pull Correction
( P - Po ) Lo
e=
AE
P = pull during measurement
Po = pull when the tape is of length Lo
A = cross – sectional are of the tape
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape = 200 GPa for steel
TD = MD + Error
R R
By proportion of figures:
𝐷 𝐷ℎ 𝐷ℎ 𝑅
= 𝑜𝑟 𝐷 =
𝑅 𝑅+ℎ 𝑅+ℎ
Correction , ΔD = Dn - D
hcr = 0.0675 K2
y = 1000 K tan θ
LEVELING
HI = Elev. of A + BS
Elev. of B = HI - FS
Difference in elev. = FS - BS
Where: HI = height of instrument
BS = backsight
FS = foresight
ERROR OF CLOSURE
For any closed traverse where the north and south latitudes are
not equal and not equal and the east and west departure are not
equal E
Δ𝐿
Δ𝐷
Error of Closure:
E = √∆ L2 + ∆ D2
Error of closure
Relative Error =
Perimeter of traverse
Angular Closure
The sum of the internal angles of a polygon (traverse) is given by
the rule:
∑ α = 180° (n - 2)
Where n is the number of sides of traverse, and α is each internal
angle. Any variation from this sum is known as the misclosure
and must be accounted for, either through compensation (if it is
an acceptable amount) or elimination by repetition of the
observations. An angular closure is computed for traverses
performed with either theodolites or magnetic compasses. A
larger misclosure could be expected when using a magnetic
compass, but in any case it must be calculated and removed. The
reduction of magnetic compass bearings to angles also
eliminates the effect of local attraction.
CL Length of course
=
|NLat - SLat | Perimeter of Traverse
CL Length of course
=
|EDep - Wdep | Perimeter of Traverse
If the sum of the East Departures is greater than the sum of the
West Departures, the correction is subtracted for East
Departures and added for West Departures and vice versa.
1
Area = [∑ Double Areas]
2
DPD Method
1. The DPD of the first course is equal to the departure
of that course.
2. The DPD of any other course is equal to the DPD of
the previous course plus the Latitude of the previous
course plus the Latitude of the course itself.
3. The DPD of the last course must be numerically equal
to the Latitude of the last course but opposite in sign.
4. The double area of each course but opposite in sign.
Double Area = DPD x Latitude
5. The area of the traverse is one-half the absolute value
of the algebraic sum (consider the sign) of the double
areas of all the courses.
1
Area = [∑ Double Areas]
2
MISSING DATA
The missing elements of a traverse polygon that can be solved
for are as follows:
1. Bearing and length of one side
2. Bearing of one side and length of adjacent side
3. Bearing of two adjacent sides
4. Bearing of two non-adjacent sides
5. Bearing of one side and length of one non-adjacent
side
6. Length of two sides (adjacent or non-adjacent)
Only two missing elements can be determined as there are only
two redundancies in a traverse network.
AREA OF CROSS-SECTIONS AND VOLUME OF
EARTHWORKS
The area of any irregular plane figure (such as the one shown)
can be found approximately by dividing it into a number of strips
or panels by a series of equidistant parallel chords (offsets) h1, h2,
… hn the common distance between the chords being d
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5
d d d
d
Area = [h1 +2 ∑ hodd +4 ∑ heven +hn ]
2
AREA BY COORDINATES
The area of planar (convex or concave) with vertices
1 X1 X2 X X3 Xn X1
Area = (| |+ | 2 | +…+ | |)
2 Y1 Y2 Y2 Y3 Yn Y1
1 X X2 X3 X4 Xn X1
Area = | 1 … |
2 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y n Y1
1
Area = [X Y − X2 Y1 + X2 Y3 − X3 Y2 + … Xn Y1 − X1 Yn ]
2 1 2
C
B
D
C
B
L
VPC = (C1 - C2 )(D1 - D2 )
12
Corrected volume
Vc = Vendarea - VPC
ROAD, Gg Ground, Gs
FILL
CUT
L
FILL + CUT
Gg L
Gs L
L
HCUT + HFILL
L=
Gground - Groad
VOLUME BY UNIT AREA METHOD
Truncated Prism
h3
h2
h1
hn
A
∑h
V=A
n
A = base area
h = corner height
n = number of corners
h1 h2 h3 h4
A A
h2 h4 h2
A A
h1 h1
∑ h1 + 2 ∑ h2 + 3 ∑ h3 + 4 ∑ h4
V=A
4
h1 = height found on one area only
h2 = height common to two areas
h3 = height found on three areas
h4 = height common to four areas
d
V= [A1 + 2 ∑ Aodd + 4 ∑ Aeven + An ]
3
b
α
R-x O
L
I
T
PT
m
x
T P R
α
I/2
I/2
b
θ I
I/2
R O
PC
Radius of Curve
Arc Basis 20 m
τRD D
20 = R
180° R
Chord Basis
20 m 10m
D
10 = R sin D/2
2 D
R
R R
LENGTH OF CURVE
πRI
Lc =
180°
20I
Lc = (using arc basis)
D
TANGENT DISTANCE
I
T = R tan
2
LENGTH OF LONG CHORD
I
L = 2 R sin
2
EXTERNAL DISTANCE
I I
E = R sin - R = R (sec - 1)
2 2
MIDDLE ORDINATE
I I
m = R - R cos = R (1- cos )
2 2
e
θ
1
v2
Rmin = in meter
127 (e + f)
IMPACT FACTOR
v2
If = tan(θ+ ϕ) =
gR
COMPOUND CURVE
θ
x y
I1 I2
PI I = I1 + I2
T1 + T2
x θ y
I1 I2
PCC Common Tangent
T2
T1 Lc2
Lc1 PT
PI
I2 R2
R1
I1
T1
PC A
Lc1 T1
R1
I1 PRC
R2
R1
I2
T2
Lc2 R2
B
T2
PT
CS
Short tangent Spiral
Ic
Offset CT
Simple Curve
SC R
Ts
XC I
θS
LS Ic
X R
θS
Y Offset CT
L
Spiral
YC
TS = tangent to spiral
SC = spiral to curve
CS = curve to spiral
ST = spiral to tangent
LT = long tangent
ST = short tangent
R = radius of simple curve
XC
YC SC
X
θ
θS
Y
LC
Length of Throw
Xc Ls 2
P= =
4 24R
External Distance
I
E = (R + P) sec -R
2
L
L/2 L/2
Back Tangent
Forward Tangent
a x
H
d g1 y g2
h1 v
Summit H
h2
PC PT
S1 S2
g1 g
A g2
s Grade Diagram
g1
From the grade diagram shown:
S1 L g1 L
= or S1 =
g1 g1 - g2 g1 - g2
S2 L g2 L
= or S2 =
g2 g1 - g2 g1 - g2
v=A
1
h1 = As1 = g S
2 1 1
1
h2 = As2 = g S
2 2 2
Other Formulas
L
H= (g - g )
8 1 2
a = (L⁄2)g1 d = g1 x
𝑦 𝐻
=
𝑥2 (𝐿⁄2)2
UNSYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES
S1 S2
PI
g1
g2
H
Common Tangent g3
Summi h2
h1 t
y
PT
L1/2 L1/2 L2/2 L2/2
PC
L1 L2
x
g1 A1 g3
g2
(g1 - g2 ) L1 L2 L1
H= = (g1 - g3 )
2L 2
h1 = h2 = H⁄4
When L1g1 < 2H, the highest or lowest point is on the left side of
the curve,
g L1 2
S1 = 1 and S2 = L - S1
2H
SIGHT DISTANCE
The first two time intervals is called perception reaction time. Its
ranges from 2 sec to 2.5 sec. It depends on the alertness, care,
skill and vision of the driver, and weather.
v2
BD = , v in m/s
2g (f + G)
2
v
BD = , v in kph
2g (f + G) (3.6)2
Where f is coefficient of friction, G is the road grade (0 if
horizontal) and BD is the distance in meters.
Minimum PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL CURVES
LC
S
Obstruction
When S < LC
2
S
R=
8m
When S > LC
L (2S - L)
R=
8m
h1 h2
g1 g2
L
When S < L
2
AS
L= 2
100 (√2h1 + √2h2 )
When S > L
2
200 (√h1 + √h2 )
L = 2S -
A
A = change in grade in percent = g1 – g2
Headlight Beam
β A = g2 – g1
H
H = 2 ft (standard design value) β = 1˚
When S < L
2
AS
L= , ft or m
200 (S tan β+H)
For H = 2 ft & β = 1˚
2
AS
L= , ft
400+ 3.5S
When S > L
200 (H + S tan β)
L = 2S - , ft or m
A
For H = 2 ft & β = 1˚
400 + 3.5S
L = 2S - , ft or m
A
L = Length of Curve
S = sight distance
A = change in grade in percent = g2 – g1
SIGHT DISTANCE ON VERTICAL SAG CURVE WITH
OBSTRUCTING OVERPASS
When S > L:
Sight Distance, S
Overpass (obstruction)
Line of sight
h1 Z h2
PC PT
C H
g1 g2
2S (g2of- curve,
Length g1 ) - 8H
L
L=
g2 - g1
H=C–z
h1 + h2
z=
2
When S < L:
2
S (g2 - g1 )
L=
8H
H=C–z
h1 + h2
z=
2
Where C is the vertical clearance between the sag curve and the
obstruction (underpass)
PAVEMENTS
RIGID PAVEMENTS
A rigid pavement typically consist of a Portland cement-concrete
sla resting on a subbase course.
Joints
There are three basic joint types used in concrete pavement:
contraction, construction and isolation. Specific design
requirements for each type depend upon the joint’s requirements
for each type depend upon the joint’s orientation to the direction
of the roadway (transverse or longitudinal). Another important
factor is load transfer. Except for some isolation joint, all joints
provide a means to mechanically connect slabs. The connection
helps to spread a load applied on one slab onto slabs along its
perimeter(s). This decreases the stress within the concrete and
increases the longevity of the joints and slab(s). The efficiency of
the mechanical connection is expressed as load transfer
efficiency.
Contraction Joints
Construction Joints
Construction joints join concrete that is paved at different times.
Transverse construction joints are necessary at the end of a
paving segment, or at a placement interruption for a driveway,
cross road or bridge. Longitudinal construction joints join lanes
that paved at different times, or join through-lanes to curb and
gutter or auxiliary lanes. The details below show the different
types of construction joints and their dimensions.
Isolation Joints
Isolation joints separate the pavement from objects or structures,
and allow independent movement of the pavement, object or
structure without any connection that could cause damage,
isolation joints are used where a pavement abuts certain
manholes, drainage fixtures sidewalks and buildings, and
intersects other pavements or bridges. The details below show
the different types of isolation joints and their dimensions.
Load transfer
Each type of joint provides a different ability to transfer load
across slabs. This ability is termed load transfer efficiency (or
effectiveness). It is determined as shown in the figure. Note how
both sides of the joint deflect evenly at 100% load transfer
efficiency.
When dowels are not used, joint depend solely upon aggregate
interlock for load transfer. Aggregate interlock is the mechanical
locking which forms between the fractured surfaces along the
crack below the joint saw cut. Reliance on aggregate interlock
without dowels is acceptable on low-volume and secondary road
systems where truck traffic is low and slabs are less than 8 inches
thick. Ordinarily, transverse joints with dowel bars provide better
load transfer than those relying strictly on aggregate interlock.
OLDERS THEORY
Without dowels or Tie Bars:
3W
Thickness at edge, t = √
fcT
With Dowels or Tie Bars
3W
Thickness at edge, t = √
2fcT
3W
Thickness at center, t = √
4fcT
Where: W = wheel load in lb or N
fcT = allowable tensile strength of concrete in psi or MPa
t = thickness of concrete slab in inches or mm
∆PSI
log ( )
4.2 - 1.5
W 18 = (ZR )(SO ) + 9.36 log (SN + 1)-0.20 +
log 1094
0.4+
(SN + 1)5.19
+2.32 log MR -8.07
Where: W18 = 18,000 lb (80 kN) equivalent single axle loads
predicted to pt.
ZR = Z-statistic associated with the selected level of
design reliability
So = overall standard deviation of normal distribution of
errors associated with traffic prediction and pavement
performance.
SN = Structural Number (essentially a Thickness Index)
∆PSI = overall serviceability loss = po – pt
po = initial serviceability index following construction
pt = terminal serviceability index; and
MR = resilient modulus of the roadbed soil(s)
THICKNESS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Cone Pressure Distribution (45˚)
W Contact area of wheel and
pavement with radius r
Pavement
Stress, f1 Base
Stress, f2
W
t= √
πf
where : W= weight load in lb or N
f = bearing strength of subgrade or base in psi or MPa
r = radius of contact of wheel to pavement in inches
Note: To solve t, use f2 and use f1 to solve for t1.
McLeods Method
𝑊
𝑡 = 𝐾 log
𝑓
Where: W= weight load
f = subgrade pressure
K = constant
Hveem and Carmany (California Highways)
F P
K= , where F =
0.125 A
F
k= , where F = P/A
0.125
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
q = k us
DENSITY
Density, k is the number of vehicles per unit length
SPACING OF VEHICLES
1000
Spacing = in meters/veh
k
uave
Spacing = , (km/veh)
q
Uave = average speed of passing vehicles in km/hr
q = flow in vehicle/hr
vehicles
Flow, q (in )
hour
PHF =
Highest volume every 5 min x 12
TRAFFIC INDEX
The traffic index for n year is given as
TI = 1.35 (EWL)0.11
n
EWL = (1+r) (Total annual EWL)
2
Total annual EWL = Sum of products of ADT & EWL
Properties of Fluid
Weight of Fluid
γ=
Volume
Mass of Fluid
ρ=
Volume
For water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Density of Gases
p
ρ=
RT
Where: p = absolute pressure of gas in kPa
R = gas constant in Joule/kg-˚K
For air, R = 287 J/kg-˚K
T = absolute temperature in degree Kelvin
˚K = ˚C + 273
(˚Rankine = ˚Fahrenheit + 460)
Specific Volume, Vs
1
Vs =
ρ
Specific Gravity, s
γfluid ρ
s= = fluid
γwater ρwater
VISCOSITY
The property of a fluid which determines the amount of its
resistance to shearing forces. A perfect fluid would have no
viscosity.
CAPILLARITY
The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube which is caused by
surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the
cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls
of the containing vessel. Liquid rise in tubes they wet (adhesion
> cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion >
adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than
about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) in diameter.
d d
θ
h
h
θ
4σ
h=
γd
Where:
h = capillary rise or depression
γ = unit weight
d = diameter of the tube
σ = surface tension
pv = p1 v1
p1 v1 k = p2 v2 k
k
p= or pV = k
V
p1 V1 = p2 V2
Charle’s or Guy-Lussac’s Law (perfect gas)
If a given mass of gas can expand or contract with the pressure
remaining constant, the volume V of the gas varies directly as the
absolute temperature T, i.e. V/T is constant/
Pressure Disturbances
Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The
velocity or celerity is expressed as:
EB
c= √ ( m⁄s or ft⁄s)
ρ
where:
c = celerity or velocity of pressure wave in m/s or ft/s
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid in Pa or lb/ft2
UNIT PRESSURE
Variations in Pressure
The difference in pressure between
any two points in a homogeneous
fluid at rest is equal to the product 1
h
of the unit weight of the fluid and the
vertical distance between the points 2
p2 - p2 = γh
The pressure at any point below
the free surface of a liquid equals
the product of the unit weight of
the liquid and the depth of the h
point.
p2 - p2 = γh
Air Pressure = p
h1 Liquid 1
h2 Liquid 2
h3 Liquid 3
Pbottom
Pbottom = ∑ γ h + p =γ1 h 1 + γ2 h 2 + γ3 h 3 + p
TOTAL HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
e
c.g
c.g.
.
F = pcg x A or F = γh̅ A
Ig h̅
e= ̅=
Y
̅
AY sin θ
D C
Fv
F
FH θ
c.g.
FH =pcg A
Fv = γ VABCD
F = √FH 2 + Fv 2
tan θ = Fv⁄FH
1m
X2
h X1
F
y W2 Toe
W1
Vertical
projection
Rx
of
submerged Heel Ry R
face 𝑥
Assumed uplift pressure
diagram
z
Overturning Moment
These are the moments about the toe causing rotation towards
the downstream side. From the figure shown,
OM = Fy + U z
Location of R
Ry x̅ = RM − OM
For e ≥ B/6:
2Ry
q=
3 x̅
BOUYANCY
VD
VD
BF
BF
𝐵𝐹 = 𝛾𝐹 𝑉𝐷
For homogeneous body floating on a homogenous liquid. The
volume displace is:
γbody Sbody
VD = Vbody = V
γliquid Sliquid body
S
Metacenter
Volume of M
wedge, v W
G x
Bo
D
BF L
B
vS
MBo =
VD sin θ
RM or OM = W (x) = W (MG sin θ)
here v = volume of the wedge of immersion
s = horizontal distance between the centroid of the
wedges
VD = volume displaced
θ = angle of tilting
If the body has the shaped of a rectangular parallelepiped
B2 tan2 θ
MBo = (1+ )
12D 2
Where B = width, D = draft
Metacentric Height
Metacentric height is the distance from the metacenter to the
center of gravity of the body measure along the axis of the body.
MG = MBo ± GBo
Horizontal Acceleration
a
θ
a
tan θ =
g
ay
a ax
𝑎ℎ
tan θ =
g ± 𝑎𝑣
ah = a cos α ; av = a sin α
𝑎
𝑝 = 𝛾 ℎ (1 ± )
𝑔
Use (+) for upward motion and ( - ) for downward motion.
ROTATION
ω2 x2
y=
2g
dy ω2 x
tan θ = =
dx g
Volume of Paraboloid
1
Volume = π r2 h
2
FLUID FLOW AND PIPES
Flow Rate
Volume Flow Rate, Q = Av
Mass Flow Rate, M = ρ Q
Weight Flow Rate, W = γ Q
Continuity Equation
Q
1
3
2 Q
Incompressible fluid
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = …
A1 v1 = A2 v2 = A3 v3 = …
Compressible fluid
ρ1 Q1 = ρ2 Q2 = ρ3 Q3 = …
ENERGY EQUATION
ZB
A
ZA
Datum
E1 + HA - HE - HL = E2
DARCY-WEISBACH FORMULA
fL v2
hf = in ft or meter
D 2g
2 2
v2 8Q fL 8 Q
= hf =
2g π2 g D4 D π2 g D4
2
0.0826 f L Q
For S.I. units, hf =
D5
2
128 μ L Q
hf = (for laminar flow)
π ρ g D4
MANNING’S FORMULA
1 2 1
S.I. units, v =
R 3 S 2 , (m⁄s)
n
1.486 2 1
English unit, v = R 3 S 2 ,(ft⁄s)
n
Where R = hydraulic radius = A/P
S = slope of EGL = hf / L
6.35 n2 L v2
hf = (m)
D4
⁄3
HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA
English Units
ft
v = 1.318 C1 R 0.63 S 0.54 , v in , R in ft
s
1 vn 2
hn = ( 2
)
Cv 2g
For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the head lost between
any two points is equal to the difference in pressure head
between the points.
P2 - P1
HL =
γ
For a pipe or system of pipes connecting two reservoirs, the total
head lost is equal to the difference in water surface elevation of
the reservoirs.
HL = H
PIPIE IN SERIES
A 1 B 2 C 3 D
Q1 Q2 Q3
Q1 = Q2 = Q3
HL = hL1 + hL2 + hL3
PIPE IN PARALLEL
1 Q1
2 Q2
3 Q3
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
HL = hL1 = hL2 = hL3
EQUIVALENT PIPE
For a pipe or system of pipes (O), the equivalent single pipe (E)
is must satisfy the following conditions:
QE = QO
and HLE = HLO
Value of H
H = head upstream - head downstream
va 2 pu p
H = hu + + - ho - o
2g γ γ
Where
va = velocity approach
pu = pressure at the upstream side
po = pressure at the downstream side
UNSTEADY FLOW (VARIABLE HEAD)
Qi
If water flows into a tank at the rate of Qi and
at the same time leaves Qo, the time for the
level to change from h1 to h2 is h1
h2 h2
As dh Qo
t= ∫
Qi - Qo
h1
If Qi = 0 (no inflow)
h2
As dh
t= ∫
Qo
h1
If water flows through the pipe connecting the two tanks shown,
the time for the head to change from H1 to H2 is
As1 As2 2 As
t= (√H1 - √H2 )
As1 + As2 C Ao √2g
WEIR
General Formula
2
C √2g L [(H+ hv)2⁄3 - hv 2 3 ]
⁄
Q=
3
or Q = Cw L [(H+ hv )2⁄3 - hv 2 3 ]
⁄
va 2
where hv = velocity head of approach
2g
C = coefficient of discharge
Cw = weir factor
Neglecting va:
2 2
Q= C √2g L H 3
3
2
or Q = Cw L H 3
Neglecting va:
2
Q =1.84 LH 3
Using English Units Cw = 3.33
Contracted Weirs
For contracted weirs, the value of L is reduced by 10% of the head
H in each end contraction
For one end contraction, use L = L – 0.10H
For two one end contraction, use L = L – 0.20H
CIPOLLETI WEIR
2
Q = 1.859 L H 3
θ = 75.9637°= 75° 57' 50"
β = 14.0363° = 14° 2' 10"
θ H
8 θ 5
Q=
C √2g tan H 2
15 2
SUTTRO WEIR (PROPORTIONAL FLOW WEIR)
X
H
Y
Q = C π K √2g H
K = x√y
2 As 1 1
t= [ - ]
Cw L √H2 √H1
Chezy Formula
The mean velocity of flow in an open channel may be computed
by the Chezy Formula
v = C √RS
Value of C
1. Manning (S.I.)
1 1
C= R6
n
2. Kutter (S.I.)
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
C= n S
n 0.00155
1+ (23 + )
√R S
English Units
1.486 2 1
v= R 3 S 2 , ( ft ⁄s )
n
1.486 2 1
Q=A R 3 S 2 , ( ft⁄s )
n
UNIFORM FLOW
Normal Depth
The normal depth dn is the depth at which uniform flow will occur
in an open channel. Normal depth may be determined from the
following equation for discharge:
Chezy : Q = AC √RS
1 2 1
Mannings: Q = A R3S2
n
SPECIFIC ENERGY, H
The specific energy (H) is defined as the energy per unit weight
relative to the bottom of the channel. It is given by:
v2
H= +d
2g
Rectangular Section
b = 2d
d
R = d/2
b
Trapezoidal Section x
Top width = sum of sides
x = y1 + y2
y1 d y2
R = d/2
b
x x
60˚ 60˚
x
Triangular Section
90˚ V-notched
1 1
90˚
1 1
FROUDE NUMBER
The ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given by the
expression:
V
F=
√gL
For rectangular channel L = depth of flow d.
V
F=
√gd
Lower Stage
Flow is rapid or shooting
Depth is called supercritical depth
Froude Number, F > 1
Critical Depth, dc
Critical depth is the depth at which for a given total specific energy
H, the discharge is maximum or it is the depth at which for a given
discharge Q, the total specific energy is minimum.
v2/2g SL
EGL, Slope = S
d1 v2/2g
SLo d2
v 2 v 2
( 2 + d2 ) ( 1 + d1 ) H - H
2g 2g 2 1
L= =
So -S So -S
The value of S can be computed using Manning Formula
1 2 1
vm = R 3 S2
n m
2
n vm
S= ( 2
)
Rm 3
Where
vm = mean velocity between the two section 1 and 2
v1 + v2
vm =
2
R +R
Rm = mean hydraulic radius = 1 2
2
HYDRAULIC JUMP
General Equation
2
Q 1 1
A2 ̅̅̅
h2 − A1 ̅̅̅̅
h1 = ( − )
g A1 A2
F1 − 1
Length, L = 220 d1 tanh , in meter
22
Where q= v d = Q/b
F1 = Froude number at section 1
HYDRODYNAMICS
RX
θ
V1
Qγ Qγ
Fx = (v1x- v2x ) ; Fy = (v1y - v2y )
g g
F =√Fx2 +Fy 2
Where: v1 = velocity of the jet before hitting the vane
v2 = velocity of the jet as it leaves the vane
Force Against a Moving Vane
u v
RY
v'
RX v
u
u vy
θ θ
v1 v'
v2x
v'
Q'γ Q'γ
Fx = (v1x - v2x ) ; Fy = (v1y - v2y )
g g
'
Q=A u u = v1y - v2y
If the vane is frictionless, such that the jet leaves the vane with
relative velocity (u) in the direction of θ:
Fx = ρA (v-v')2 (1- cos θ)
WATER HAMMER
Water hammer is the term used to express the resulting shock
(hammer rise) in a pipeline cause by the sudden decrease or
stoppage of motion (rate of flow or velocity) of the fluid
Instantaneous
Transient HGL
rapid
ph/ γ
Xo Normal HGL
x
B
A
GATE
v c
L
Consider the pipe line shown leading from a reservoir A to the
valve at B. If the value is suddenly closed, the lamina of the liquid
next to the valve will be compressed by the rest of the column of
liquid flowing against it. At the same time the walls of the pipe
surrounding this lamina will be stretched by the excess pressure
produce. The cessation of flow and resulting pressure increase
move along the pipe as a wave with the velocity c which is given
by the following equations:
The time for the pressure wane to travel from A to B and back
again is:
2L
T=
c
No matter how rapid the valve closure may be, so long as it is not
the idealized instantaneous case, there will be some distance xo
from the intake within which the pressure rise cannot extend all
the way to the reservoir intake:
PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Basic Formulas
Void Ratio, e
Void ratio is the ratio between the volumes of voids to the
volume of solids of a soil mass. It is usually expressed in
percent.
Vv
e=
Vs
Porosity, n
Porosity is the ratio between the volumes of voids to the total
volume of a mass. It is usually expressed in percent.
Vv
n=
V
Ww
MC or w = ×100%
Ws
Degree of saturation, S
The ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids
Vw
S= ×100
Vv
G × MC = S × e
G + Se G + GMC
γm = γw = γw
1 +e 1+e
Dry Unit Weight, γd
For dry soils, S = 0 and MC = 0
Ws G
γd = = γ
V 1+e w
γd
Ws =
1 + MC
γm
γd =
1 + MC
γb or γ' = γsat - γw
G-1
γb or γ' = γ
1 +e w
OTHER FORMULAS
These formulas may not be memorized. These can be derived
from the previous formulas.
e
Volume of voids, Vv = V
1 +e
V
Volume of solid, Vs =
1 +e
Se
Volume of water, Vw = V
1 +e
Se
Weight of water, Ww = V γw
1 +e
1
Weight of solid, Ws = V Gm γw
1+e
G + Se
Weight of soil, W = V γw
1 +e
γm
Dry unit weight, γd =
1 + MC
Specific Gravity of Some Minerals
Mineral Specific Gravity
Gypsum Volcanic Ash 2.32
Orthoclase 2.56
Kaolinite 2.61
Quartz 2.67
Calcite 2.72
Dolomite 2.87
Magnetite 5.17
emax - e
Dr = ×100
emax - emin
1⁄ 1
γmin - ⁄γd
or Dr =
1⁄ 1
γmin - ⁄γmax
Where:
emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state.
emin = void ratio of the soil in densest state.
e = void ratio of the soil deposit (in-situ sate)
γd max = dry unit weight in densest state.
γd min = dry unit weight in loosest state.
γd = dry unit weight in-situ state.
Designation of Granular Soils
Designation Dr (%)
Very Loose 0 - 15
Loose 15 - 53
Medium Dense 35 - 70
Dense 70 - 85
Very Dense 85 - 100
CONSISTENCY
Consistency is the term used to describe the degree of firmness
(e.g., soft, medium, firm or hard) of a soil.
Liquid state
Water content increase
Liquid limit, LL
Plastic State
Plastic limit, PL
Semisolid state
Shrinkage limit, SL
Solid state
Soil Indices
Activity Classification
Ac < 0.7 Inactive clay
0.7 < Ac <1.2 Normal clay
Ac =1.2 Active clay
30°
40mm
Fall cone apparatus
60
80 gram cone
55
Water content (%)
50
LL= 45% MC
45
35
10 20 30 40 100
PP
Penetration (mm) – logarithmic scale
Crank
Brass
cup
Soil
pat
Hard
N 15 20 22 30 36
50
LL= 44%
45
40
Figure flow Ncurve
= 25
35
10 20 30 40 100
Number of blows, N
Figure Flow Curve
Where:
N = number of blows in the liquid limit device for a 0.5-in groove
closure.
MCN =corresponding moisture content
tan β =0.121 (but note that tan β is not equal to 0.121 for all soils)
This method yields good results for the number of blows between
20 and 30
Shrinkage Limit
Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it. With continuing
lost of moisture, a stage of equilibrium is reached at which more
loss of moisture will result in no further volume change. The
moisture content, in percent, at which the volume of the soil mass
ceases to change, is defined as the shrinkage limit.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION
In this classification system, the soils are named after their
principal components, such as sandy clay, silty clay, silty loam,
and so on. There are number of classification system developed
by different organizations. Shown below is the one developed by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). This method is based
on the following limits of particle size:
100
10
90
20
80
30
70
40
clay
60
50Percent Silt
Percent Clay
50
60
40
70
silty clay
clay loam
30
Sandy clay
80
20 loam
90
Sandy silty loam
10 loam
Loamy silt
sand sand 100
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Percent Sand
UNIFIED SOIL
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
This system classifies soils into two broad categories.
1. Coarse-grained soil that are gravelly and sandy in
nature with less than 50% passing through the No.
200 Sieve, the group symbols start with prefixes of
either G or S. G for gravel or gravelly soil, and S for
sand or sandy soil.
2. Fine-grained soil with 50% or more is passing through
the No. 200 sieve. The group symbol start with
prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for
inorganic clay, and O for inorganic clay. The symbol
Pt is used for peat, muck, and other highly organic
soils.
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (USCS)
Major
Divisions Typical Names Classification Criteria
Well-graded
gravels and Cu = (D60/D10) > 4
5% to 12% pass No. 200 sieve – borderline classification requiring use of dual
GW gravel-sand Cc = (D30)2/(D10xD60)
Clean Gravels
Gravels 50% or more of coarse fraction
no fines
Poorly-graded
More than 12% pass No. 200 sieve – GM, GC, SM, SC
retained on No. 4 sieve
Atterberg limits
borderline
Clayey gravels, plot above “A”
classification
GC gravel-sand-clay line or plasticity
s requiring
mixtures index greater
use of dual
than 7
symbols
Well graded
Cu = (D60/D10) > 6
coarse fraction passes No.
sands and
Sands more than 50% of
SW Cc = (D30)2/(D10xD60)
Clean Sand
gravely sands,
Between 1 and 3
little or no fines
Poorly graded
4 sieve
sands and
SP Not meeting both criteria for SW
gravely sands
little or no fines
Atterberg limits Atterberg
Sand
SM
silt mixtures line or plasticity plotting in
index less than 4 hatched
area are
Atterberg limits
borderline
Clayey sands, plot above “A”
classification
SC sand-clay line or plasticity
s requiring
mixtures index greater
use of dual
than 7
symbols
Inorganic silts
Coarse-Grained Soils: More than 50% retained on No. 200
low to medium
plasticity, gravely
CL clays, sandy
clays, silty clays,
lean clays
Organic silts and
sieve
diatomaceous
MH fine sands or
silts, elastic silts
Inorganic clays of
CH high plasticity, fat
clays
Organic clays of
OH medium to high
plasticity
Highly Peat, muck, and
Visual-Manual identification, See ASTM
Organic PT other highly
Designation D2488
Soils organic soils
CH
40
30 Equation of A line
PI = 0.73(LL – 20)
CL
20
CL - ML MH & OH
10
ML&CL
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
LIQUID LIMIT
70
CH
60
U-LINE OR
CL OH
50
OR
PLASTICITY INDEX
40 OL
30
A-LINE
20 MH
CL - ML ML OR
10 OR OH
OL
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
LIQUID LIMIT
CL - Inorganic; LL < 50; PI > 7; Atterberg limits plot on or
above A – line
ML - Inorganic; LL < 50; PI < 4 or Atterberg limits plot
below A – line
OL - Organic; (LL – oven-dried)/(LL – not dried) < 0.75;
LL < 50
CH - Inorganic; LL ≥ 50; Atterberg limits plot on or
Above A – line
MH - Inorganic; LL ≥ 50; Atterberg limits plot below
A – line
OH - Organic; (LL – oven-dried)/(LL – not dried) < 0.75;
LL is greater than or equal to 50
CL – ML - Inorganic; Atterberg limits plot in the hatched zone
Sorting Coefficient, So
D75
So = √
D25
Where
D75 = diameter corresponding to 75% finer
D25 = diameter corresponding to 25% finer
To classify the soil using the tables below, one must apply the
test data from left to right. By process of elimination, the first
group from the left into which the test data fit is the correct
classification.
Where:
F200 = percentage passing No. 200 sieve
LL = liquid limit, PI = plasticity index
60
50
A-7-6
PLASTICITY INDEX
40
30
A-2-6 A-2-7
A-6 A-7-5
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
LIQUID LIMIT
DARCY’S LAW
v=ki
Where
H
i= =hydraulic gradient
L
k = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity, m/s or
m/day
n = porosity
Constant-Head Test
The constant-head test is used to determine the coefficient of
permeability of coarse-grained soils.
VL
k=
tAh
Where:
V = volume of water collected in time t
h = constant head
A = cross-sectional area of the soil
L = length of soil sample
T = duration of water collection
aL h1
k= ln ( )
A(t2 - t1 ) h2
Where:
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
h1 = head at time t1
h2 = head at time t2
Effect of Water temperature on k
The hydraulic conductivity of soil is a function of unit weight of
water, and thus, it is affected by water temperature. The
relationship is given by:
kT1 μT γwT
= 2 1
kT2 μT γwT
1 2
Where
kT1 , kT2 =hydraulic conductivities at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively
μT1 , μT2 =viscosity of water at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively
γwT1 ,
γwT2 = unit weight of water at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively
Kozeny-Carman Equation
e3
k = C1
1+e
(kx )eq H = ∑ kx z
H z1 𝑧2 𝑧𝑛
= + +⋯ +
(kz )eq kz1 kz2 kzn
keq (H) = k1 H1 + k2 H2
Flow per unit width, q = keq i a
D1 - D2 D1 + D2
i= ;a= (1)
L 2
L L1 L2
= +
keq k1 k2
Flow per unit width, q = keq i a
D1 - D2 D1 + D2
i= ;a= (1)
L 2
HYDRAULIC OF WELLS
Underground water constitutes an important source of water
supply. The stratum of soil in which this water is present is known
as an aquifer. On the basis of their hydraulic characteristics, well
are divided into two categories: gravity or water table wells, and
artesian or pressure wells. If the pressure at the surface of the
surrounding underground water is atmospheric, the well is of the
gravity type; if this pressure is above atmospheric because an
impervious soil stratum overlies the aquifer, the well is artesian.
GRAVITY WELL
πk(h2 2 - h1 2 )
Q=
ln(R2 ⁄R1 )
Artesian Well
Artesian wells are wells drilled through impermeable rocks into
strata where water is under enough pressure to force it to the
surface without pumping
2πkt( h2 - h1 )
Q=
ln(R2 ⁄R1 )
Where:
h1, h2, R1, R2 are in meters
k = coefficient of permeability
Q = discharge in m3 / hr
Flow Nets
Seepage losses through the ground or through earth dams and
levees and the related flow pattern and rate of energy loss, or
dissipation of hydrostatic head, are frequently estimated by
means of a graphical technique known as flow net.
Flow nets
A flow net must meet the following criteria
1. The boundary conditions must be satisfied
2. Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right
angles,
3. The area between flow lines and equipotential lines
must be curvlinear squares. A curvilinear square has
the property that an inscribed circle can drawn to touch
each side of the square and continuous bisection
results, in the limit, in a point.
4. The quantity of flow through each flow channel is
constant.
5. The head loss between each consecutive equipotential
line is constant.
6. A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
7. An equipotential line cannot intersect another
equipotential line
Flow line is the path followed by a particle of water as it moves
through a saturated soil mass.
Where:
K = coefficient of permeability
H = head
Nf = number of flow channels
= number of flow lines minus 1
Nd = number of equipotential (pressure) drops
= number of equipotential line minus one
Nf/Nd is called the shape factor
Total Stress, pT
pE = pT + pw
STRESS IN SOIL WITHOUT SEEPAGE
𝛾𝑚 h4
h1 A
Water table h2
h5
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡1 , 𝛾𝑏1 = 𝛾1 ′
h2 B
H6
′ h3
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡2, 𝛾𝑏2 = 𝛾2
C
At Point A:
Total stress, pT = γm h4 +q
Neutral stress, pw = 0
Effective stress, pE = pT − pw
At point B:
Total stress, pT = γsat1 h5 + γm h1 +q
Neutral stress, pw = γw h5
Effective stress, pE = pT − pw
or p E = γb1 h5 + γm h1 + q
At point C:
Total stress, pT = γsat3 h3 + γsat1 h2 + γm h1 + q
Neutral stress, pw = γw h6
Effective stress, pE = pT − pw
pE = γb2 h3 + γb1 h2 + γm h1 + q
STRESS IN SATURATED SOIL WITH SEEPAGE
Upward seepage
h
overflow h1
H1
A
soil
H2
B
inflow
At Point A:
pT = γw H1
pE = γw H1
pE = pT - pw = 0
At Point B:
pT = γsat z1 + γw H1
pw = γw (z1 + H1 + h1 )
pE = pT - pw = γb z1 - γw h1
At Point C:
pT = γsat H2 + γw H1
pw = γw (H2 +H1 + h)
pE = pT - pw = γ b H2 - γw h
The seepage force per unit volume of soil is:
F =i γw
Downward Seepage
inflow
h1
overflow
H1 h
A
soil
Z1
H2
B
outflow
Hydraulic gradient, i= h⁄H2
h1 = i × z1 = i (h⁄H2 )
At Point A:
pT = γw H1
pE = γw H1
pE = pT - pw = 0
At Point B:
pT = γsat z1 + γw H1
pw = γw (z1 + H1 - h1 )
pE = pT - pw = γb z1 + γw h1
At Point C:
pT = γsat H2 + γw H1
pw = γw (H2 +H1 - h)
pE = pT - pw = γ b H2 + γw h
The pore water pressure, pw, at a point in the layer of soil fully
saturated by capillary rise is:
pw = -γw h
Where h is the height of the point under consideration measured
from the ground water table.
Capillary S1, γ2 , e A h
rise WT h3
B
Ssat= 1 γ3 S=1
h4
C
For the soil shown above
At point A:
Total stress, pT = γ1 h1 + γ2 h2
Pore water stress, pw = -S1 γw h3
At point B:
Total stress, pT = γ1 h1 + γ2 h
Pore water stress, 𝑝𝑤 = 0
At point C:
Total stress, pT = γ1 h1 + γ2 h+ γ3 h4
Pore water stress, pw = γw h4
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL
The increase in stressed caused by foundation and other loads
compresses a soil layer. This compression is caused by (1)
deformation of soil particles, (2) relocation of soil particles, and
(3) expulsion of water or air from the void spaces.
H
H = Hs (1+ e); Hs =
1+ e
H
H ' = Hs (1+ e' ); H' = (1+ e' )
1+ e
∆H = H - H'
H
∆H = H - (1+ e' )
1+ e
1+ e - (1+ e' ) e- e'
∆H = H =
1+ e 1+ e
H(eo - e' ) ∆e
∆H= =H
1+ eo 1+ eo
Where:
H = thickness of stratum
eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
e’ = void ratio after the vertical load is applied
Where:
H = thickness of stratum
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
po = initial vertical effective soil stress
pf = final vertical effective soil stress
pf = po +∆p
When pf < pc
Cs p
∆H = H log f
1+ eo po
When pf > pc
Cs p Cc p
∆H = H log c + H log f
1+ eo po 1+ eo pc
Where:
Cs = swell index
pc = preconsolidation pressure
Rendon-Herreo:
1.2 1+ eo 2.38
Cc = 0.141 G ( )
G
Nishida:
All clays
Cc =1.15 (eo - 0.27)
Where
Cα =secondary compression index
∆e = change in void ratio
t1 =time for completion of primary settlement
t2 =time after completion of primary settlement,
where settlement is required
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
ep = eo - ∆e
H = thickness of clay layer
t1 U1 2
Also, =
t2 U2 2
Coefficient of Consolidation
0.848(Hdr )2
Root time method, Cv =
t90
0.197(Hdr )2
Log time method, Cv =
t50
Where:
t90 =time for 90% consolidation ( √t curve)
t50 =time for 50% consolidation (logt curve)
The hydraulic conductivity of the layer for the loading range is:
k = Cv mv γw
Where eo= initial void ratio
e = final void ratio
Δp = rise in pressure
IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT
Immediate or elastic settlement of foundation occurs directly
after application of a load, without change in moisture content.
This depends on the flexibility of the foundation and the type of
material on which it is resting.
1 1 + √1 + m1 2
If = [m ln ( ) +ln (m1 + √1 + m1 2 )]
π 1 m1
τf = C+ σ tan∅
Where C = cohesion
ᶲ = angle of internal friction
= ∅ ∅
σ1 = σ3 tan2 (45+ ) + 2c tan (45+ )
2 2
τ = σ tan ∅ = R sin2θ
R = 1⁄2 (σ1 - σ3 ) = τmax
σ1 - σ3
sin∅=
σ1 + σ3
θ = 45° + ∅⁄2
COHESIVE SOIL
τ = C + σ tan∅ = R sin2θ
Where:
σ1 =Major principal stress at failure
σ3 =Minor principal stress at failure
τ = Shear stress
C = Cohesion of soil
∅=angle of internal friction
θ = angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.
TRIAXIAL TEST (SERIES)
σ1 - σ3 σ' 1 - σ' 3
R1 = ; R2 =
2 2
σ1 + σ3 σ' 1 + σ' 3
C1 = ; C2 =
2 2
R2 - R1
sin∅= ; c = x' tan∅
C2 – C1
R1
x' =x-C1 and x=
sin∅
qu = 2Cu
Where:
γd =actual compacted dry unit weight of the sand behind the wall
γdmin = dry unit weight of t5he sand in the loosest state
Preconsolidation pressure
OCR =
Present effective overburden pressure
ph = Ko γ H
F= 1⁄2 Ko γH2
RANKINES THEORY
Coefficient of active pressure:
COULOMB’S THEORY
Because of frictional resistance to sliding at the face of the wall,
Fa and Fp is inclined at an angle of 𝛿 with the normal to the wall,
where 𝛿is the angle of wall friction
ACTIVE PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
cos2 (∅- β)
Ka = 2
sin(∅+ δ) sin(∅-i)
cos2 βcos(β + δ) [1 + √ ]
cos(β + δ) cos(β-i)
√sin∅ cosδ
tanθa = +tan∅
cos∅√sin(∅ + δ)
1- sin∅
Ka = (Rankine or Coulomb)
1 + sin∅
Cohesion:
pc1 = 2c1 √Ka1 ; Fc1 = pc1 × H1
pc2 = 2c2 √Ka2 ; Fc2 = pc2 × H2
Surcharge:
p1 = Ka1 q ; F1 = p1 × H1
p2 = Ka2 q ; F2 = p2 × H2
Soil:
p3 = Ka1 γ1 H1 ; F3 = 1⁄2 p3 H1
p4 = Ka2 γ1 H1 ; F4 = p4 H2
p5 = Ka2 γb2 H2 ; F5 = 1⁄2 p5 H2
Water:
p6 = γw H2 ; F5 = 1⁄2 p5 H2
Total active force:
Fa = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 + F6 - Fc1 - Fc2
1- sin∅
Ka = (Rankine or Coulomb)
1 + sin∅
Cohesion:
p1 = 2c√Kp ; F1 = p1 H
Soil:
1
p2 = Kp γb H ; F2 = p H
2 2
Water:
1
p3 = γw H ; F3 = p H
2 3
The force F at the base of the wall consist of the friction and
cohesion. It is given by:
F= μN+Cb B
0.5c ≤ cb ≤ 0.75c
Ry = ∑ Fy
Ry x =RM-OM
B
e= -x
2
Where:
RM = righting or stabilizing moments
OM = overturning moments
When e ≤ B⁄6
Considering 1m length of wall
Ry 6e
qmin = - (1 ± )
B B
When e > B⁄6
Considering 1m length of wall
2R1
qmax = -
3x
The force F per unit length of wall caused by the strip load can
be obtained by approximating the area of the shaded portion
using trapezoidal rule or Simpson’s one-third rule.
BRACED CUTS
Bracing is used when temporary trenches for water, sanitary, and
other lines are opened in soil. A braced cut is an excavation in
which the active earth pressure from one bulkhead. The box-
shoring and close-sheeting methods of support are shown in the
figure below
If 4 < γH⁄c <6, the soft and stiff clay cases should both be
evaluated, the case that results in greater pressure should be
used when designing the bracing.
Where:
qu =ultimate bearing capacity
γe =unit weigth of the soil in kPa or pcf
B = width of footing in meter or feet
Nγ =factor for unit weight of soil
Nc =factor of soil cohesion
Nq =factor of overburden pressure
q = overburden pressure (effective stress)
Kc , Kq , Kγ =constant
Square Footings
qu = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.4γe BNγ
Circular Footings
qu = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3γe BNγ
Where:
γe =unit weight of soil at base of footing in kPa or pcf
B = width of footing in meter or feet
c = cohesion of soil in kPa of psf
Nγ =factor for unit weight
Nc =factor of soil cohesion
Nq =factor of overburden pressure
q = overburden pressure (effective stress) at base of footing
Df =depth of footing in meter or feet
LOCAL SHEAR FAILURE
Square Footing
qu = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.4γe BNγ
Circular Footing
qu = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3γe BNγ
1
For example, on strip footing, qa =cd Nc + qNq + γe Bnγ
2
Alternatively, if the maximum applied foundation stress,
(fa )max is known, the factor of safety can be computed by
replacing qa by (fa )max.
qu
FS = ;q < (fa )max
(fa )max - q
When dw < B
γe = γb (1 + dw ⁄B) = approx.
When dw ≥ B
γe = γ
MEYERHOF’S EQUATION
(General Bearing capacity equation)
Vertical load:
qu = cNc Sc dc + qNq Sq dq + 0.5γBNγ sγ dγ
Inclined load:
qu = cNc Sc dc ic + qNq Sq dq iq + 0.5γBNγ sγ dγ iγ
Nc = (Nq - 1) cot ∅
ULTIMATE LOAD FOR SHALLOW FOUNDATION UNDER
Nγ = (Nq - 1) ECCENTRICITY)
ECCENTRIC LOAD (ONE-WAY tan(1.4∅)
Where:
N = standard penetration number
CN =correction factor for over burden pressure
Cw = correction factor if the groundwater level is below the base of footing
PILES AND DEEP FOUNDATION
AASHTO Formula
2h(Wr + Ar p)
Qu =
s +0.1
Navy-McKay Formula
eh Eh
Qu = ,lbs
Wp
s (1 + 0.3 )
Wr
Recommended factor of safety = 6
Eytelwein Formula
eh Eh
Qu = , lbs
s + 0.1(Wp ⁄Wr )
Where:
eh = efficiency of hammer
Ar =ram cross-section, in2
P = pressure, psi
Eh = rated hammer energy, in-lb
Wp = total weight of pile, pounds
Wr = weight of ram, pounds
Where:
Qf = skin/shaft friction or side shear (ultimate)
Qb = end bearing or point resistance (ultimate)
Qf = α cu PL
Qb = fb Ab
q su
cu = u of
2 2
Qf = β peff PL
Qb = Nq (peff ) Ab
CAPACITY OF PILE GROUP b
Some piles are installed in groups, spaced approximately 4 to 3.5
times the pile diameter apart. The files function as a group due to
the use of the concrete load-transfer cap encasing all of the pile
heads. The weight of the cap subtracts from the gross group
capacity. The capacity due to the pile cap resting on the ground
(as a spread footing) is disregarded.
For cohesionless (granular) soils, the capacity of the pile group is
taken as the sum of the individual capacities, although the actual
capacity will be greater. In-situ tests should be used to justify any
increase.
For cohesive soils, the group capacity is taken as the smaller of
(a) the sum of the individual capacities and (b) the capacity
assuming block action. The block action capacity is calculated
assuming that the piles from a large pier whose dimensions are
group’s perimeter. The block depth, L, is the distance from the
surface to the depth of the pile points. The width of the pile group
as measured from the outside (not center) of the outermost piles.
Perimeter, p = 2(b + w)
Area, Ap =(b + w)2
The average undrained shear strength, cu, along the depth of the
piles is used to calculate the skin friction capacity. The average
undrained shear strength at the pile tips, cub , is used to calculate
the end-bearing capacity.
The group capacity can be more or less than the sum of the
individual pile capacities. The file group efficiency, is
Group capacity, Qug
ηG =
∑ individual capacities, Qu