Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics (also called the Law of Conservation of Energy):

Energy may be exchanged between a system and its surroundings but the total energy of the
system and the surroundings remains constant, that is, energy must be conserved. Any energy
lost from the system must be gained by the surroundings and any energy gained by the system is
lost from the surroundings.

[The system is that part of the environment that we are concerned with. The surroundings are
everything outside of the system. For example, a chemical reaction is a system and the
atmosphere outside of the reaction is the surroundings.]

Energy terms:

Endothermic – the system absorbs energy/ heat from the surroundings

Exothermic – the system loses energy/ heat to the surroundings

Enthalpy (H) – a thermodynamic function/ term used to describe the energy/ heat content of a
system

ΔH = Hfinal – Hinitial

For a chemical reaction: ΔH = Hproducts – Hreactants

The enthalpy (heat) change that accompanies a reaction is called the enthalpy of reaction or
heat of reaction (ΔHrxn)

If ∆H > 0 (i.e. a positive value) the reaction is endothermic

That is, energy must be supplied in order for the rxn. to proceed.

If ∆H < 0 (i.e. a negative value) the reaction is exothermic

That is, energy is released from the rxn. No energy is required for the rxn. to proceed.

This means that exothermic rxns. are quite feasible/ favorable as no additional energy is
required. The reactants possess enough energy and the rxn. is thermodynamically spontaneous.
  Calorimetry
The value of ΔH can be determined experimentally by measuring the heat flow accompanying a
chemical reaction. Measurement of heat flow is called calorimetry.

The device used to measure heat flow is called a calorimeter e.g. a Styrofoam cup

e.g. (1) How much heat is required to warm 250 g of water from 22oC to 98oC? The specific heat
capacity of water is 4.18 J g-1 K-1.

Use q = mCsΔT where q = quantity of heat lost or gained (J)

m = mass (g)

Cs = specific heat capacity (J g-1 K-1)

ΔT = change in temperature (K)

For the above question: ΔT = 98 – 22 = 76 K

Therefore: q = (250 g)(4.18 J g-1 K-1)(76 K)

= 7.9 x 104 J

e.g. (2) When 50 mL of 1.0M HCl and 50 mL of 1.0M NaOH are mixed in a Styrofoam cup, the
temperature of the resulting solution increases from 21.0oC to 27.5oC. Calculate ΔH for
the reaction in kJ mol-1 of HCl.

Assuming: Total volume of solution = 100 mL

Density of the solution = 1.0 g mL-1

Cs of the solution is 4.18 J g-1 K-1

Based on the first 2 assumptions, 1 mL = 1 g

Therefore: total mass of solution = 50 + 50 = 100 g

ΔT = 27.5 – 21.0 = 6.5 K

Therefore: q = mCsΔT

= (100 g)(4.18 J g-1 K-1)(6.5 K)

= 2.7 x 103 J
 Since the reaction was exothermic (because there was an increase in temperature):

ΔH = -q = -2.7 x 103 J or -2.7 kJ

No. of mols of HCl used = vol. x conc./ 1000

= 50 x 1.0/ 1000

= 0.050 mols.

Since 0.050 mols. produced 2.7 kJ of energy:

ΔH in (kJ mol-1) = -2.7/ 0.050 [i.e. Find ΔH for 1 mol]

= -54 kJ mol-1 of HCl

 Energetics of covalent bond formation (Bond enthalpy)

Bonds:

Single bonds are longer than double bonds which are longer than triple bonds.

As bond length increases, bond strength decreases.

Bond length C≡C < C=C < C–C

Bond strength C–C < C=C < C≡C

Also, as bond strength increases, bond enthalpy increases.

For covalent bonds to be formed, bonds in reactant molecules must be broken.

Bond enthalpy – enthalpy change/ energy required to break a chemical bond.

e.g. The bond enthalpy of Cl2 is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of Cl2 dissociates into Cl
atoms:

Cl–Cl (g) 2Cl (g) ΔH = 242 kJ

The higher the bond enthalpy, the stronger the bond.

When considering bond enthalpy/ bond energy, the enthalpy change for a reaction (ΔHrxn) would
be equal to the total energy required to break all of the bonds in the reactants minus the total
energy released when all of the bonds are formed in the products:

ΔHrxn = (sum of bond enthalpies of bonds broken) – (sum of bond enthalpies of bonds formed)
e.g. (5) CH4(g) + Cl2(g) CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

H–CH3 + Cl–Cl Cl–CH3 + H–Cl

Bonds broken: Bonds formed:

C–H 413 kJ C–Cl 328 kJ

Cl–Cl 242 kJ H–Cl 431 kJ

ΔHrxn = ∑ of bond enthalpies of bonds broken – ∑ of bond enthalpies of bonds formed

ΔHrxn = [D(C–H) + D(Cl–Cl)] – [D(C–Cl) + D(H–Cl)] [D = symbol for Bond

= [413 kJ + 242 kJ)] – [328 kJ + 431 kJ] Enthalpy]

= -104 kJ

e.g. (6) Using bond enthalpies, calculate ΔH for the following reaction:

C2H6 (g) + 7/2 O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 3H2O (g)

[C-H (413 kJ); C-C (348 kJ); O2 (495 kJ); C=O (799 kJ); O-H (463 kJ)]

ΔH = ∑ D (bonds broken) – ∑ D (bonds formed)

= [D(C-C) + 6 D(C-H) + 7/2 D(O=O)] – [4 D(C=O) + 6 D(O-H)]

= [348 kJ + (6 x 413 kJ) + (7/2 x 495 kJ)] – [(4 x 799 kJ) + (6 x 463 kJ)]

= 4558.5 kJ – 5974 kJ

= -1415.5 kJ

[Hint: It is often useful to draw out all of the bonds in the reactant and product molecules.]
  Hess’ Law
Hess’ Law states that if a reaction is carried out in a series of steps, ΔH for the overall
reaction will be equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.

Hess’ Law provides a useful means of calculating energy changes that are difficult to measure
directly.

e.g. (3)
e.g. (4) Using the following thermochemical equations:

(i) 2C2H6 (g) + 7O2 (g) 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) ΔHf o = -3119.4 kJ mol-1

(ii) C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) ΔHf o = -1410.9 kJ mol-1

(iii) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l) ΔHf o = -571.66 kJ mol-1

Find the value of ΔHf o for the formation of ethene from ethane, i.e. ΔHf o for the reaction:

C2H6 (g) C2H4 (g) + H2 (g)

(i) ÷ 2: C2H6(g) + 7/2 O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ΔHof = -1559.7 kJ mol-1

Rev. (ii): 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) ΔHof = 1410.9 kJ mol-1

Rev. (iii) ÷ 2: H2O(l) H2(g) + ½ O2(g) ΔHof = 285.83 kJ mol-1

Overall Equ.: C2H6(g) C2H4(g) + H2(g) ΔHof = 137.03 kJ mol-1

Using Hess’ Law:

ΔHof (ethene) = -1559.7 kJ mol-1 + 1410 kJ mol-1 + 285.83 kJ mol-1 = 137.03 kJ mol-1

Born-Haber Cycle

Ionic compounds result from the electrostatic force of attraction between positively-charged ions
(cations) and negatively-charged ions (anions), creating a strong solid lattice structure.

The formation of ionic compounds can be envisioned as occurring via a series of distinct, defined
steps each with its own energy change. The graphical representation of all of these steps is
referred to as a Born-Haber Cycle.

Several energy transformations/ changes need to be defined:

Enthalpy of formation (ΔHf)

This refers to the energy change which occurs when one (1) mole of a compound in its standard
state is formed from its constituent elements in their naturally occurring standard states.
e.g. Na (s) + ½F2 (g) NaF (s)

2C (s) + 3H2 (g) C2H6 (g)

[Standard state – the physical state of the element at 1 atm.; 25oC (298 K)]

Enthalpy of vaporization (ΔHvap)

This refers to the energy change which occurs when a solid or liquid element is converted to one
(1) mole of its gaseous atoms.

e.g. Mg (s) Mg (g)

Enthalpy of atomization (ΔHatom)

This refers to the energy change which occurs when a gaseous molecule is converted into one (1)
mole of its constituent gaseous atoms.

e.g. ½O2 (g) O (g)

Since energy needs to be supplied to cause vaporization and atomization, these processes are
endothermic.

Ionization energy (ΔHi.e.)

This is the energy required to remove electrons from atoms or ions in their gaseous state to form
one (1) mole of gaseous cations.

e.g. K (g) K+ (g)

Electron affinity (ΔHe.a.)

This refers to the energy change which occurs when atoms in their gaseous state gain electrons to
form one (1) mole of gaseous anions.

e.g. ½ Cl2(g) Cl-(g)

Lattice energy (ΔHlatt)

This is the energy released when one (1) mole of an ionic compound is formed from its
constituent ions in their gaseous state. Lattice energy is therefore exothermic.

ΔHlatt
+ -
e.g. Na (g) + F (g) NaF (s) ΔHlatt is -ve

Unlike the other energy changes (ΔHvap, ΔHatom) lattice energy cannot be measured directly; its
value is determined by the construction of a Born-Haber Cycle.

Approach to the Born-Haber Cycle:

 Determine the naturally occurring states of all chemical species i.e. whether they are
solid, liquid or gas.
 Convert all solid or liquid reactants to their gaseous state (ΔHvap).
 Convert all molecular reactants (e.g. gases) to their atoms (ΔHatom).
 Ionize all reactants appropriately (i.e. whether by ionization energy (ΔHi.e.) or electron
affinity (ΔHe.a.)).
 Fill in the given energy value for each step/ energy change.
 Using Hess’ Law, determine the missing value.

e.g. (7) Construct a Born-Haber cycle for the formation of lithium chloride and use this cycle to
calculate the lattice energy of lithium chloride from the following data:

First ionization energy for lithium, ΔH = +520 kJ mol-1

Enthalpy of vaporization of lithium, ΔH = +159 kJ mol-1

Enthalpy of atomization of chlorine, ΔH = +121 kJ mol-1

Electron affinity of chlorine atoms, ΔH = -364 kJ mol-1

Enthalpy of formation of lithium chloride, ΔH = -409 kJ mol-1

Using Hess’ Law, ΔH for the overall change will be equal to the sum of all the ΔH values for the
individual steps:-

ΔHf (LiCl) = ΔHvap (Li) + ΔHi.e. (Li) + ΔHatom (Cl) + ΔHe.a. (Cl) + ΔHlatt (LiCl)

-409 kJ mol-1 = (+159 kJ mol-1) + (+520 kJ mol-1) + (+121 kJ mol-1) + (-328 kJ mol-1) + ΔHlatt

ΔHlatt (LiCl) = –845 kJ mol-1

e.g. (8) Given the following data:

Mg (s) Mg (g) ΔH = 167.2 kJ mol-1

Mg (g) Mg2+ (g) ΔH = 2182.0 kJ mol-1

Cl2 (g) 2Cl (g) ΔH = 241.6 kJ mol-1

Cl (g) Cl- (g) ΔH = -364.9 kJ mol-1

ΔH formation of MgCl2 = -639.5 kJ mol-1

Calculate the lattice energy of MgCl2, i.e. for ΔH the process:

Mg2+ (g) + 2Cl- (g) MgCl2 (s)

Using Hess’ Law:

∆Hf (MgCl2) = Σ ∆H values for all the individual steps

-639.5 kJ mol-1 = 167.2 kJ mol-1 + 2182.0 kJ mol-1 + 241.6 kJ mol-1 + 2(-364.9) kJ mol-1 + ∆Hlatt

-639.5 kJ mol-1 = 1861 kJ mol-1 + ∆Hlatt

∆Hlatt (MgCl2) = -2500.5 kJ mol-1

Lattice Energy

Ionic compounds are extremely stable due to the attraction between ions of opposite
charge. This attraction enables the ions to form a solid arrangement known as a lattice.

Lattice energy – This is the energy released when one (1) mole of an ionic compound is formed
from its constituent ions in their gaseous state.

ΔHlatt
e.g. Na+ (g) + F- (g) NaF (s)

This process releases a large amount of energy, i.e. it is highly exothermic.

Therefore, lattice energy is a measure of the stability of an ionic compound and the force of
attraction between its oppositely-charged ions.

Lattice energy increases as: (1) Ionic radius decreases

(2) Charges on the ions increase

e.g. Consider MgF2 and CaF2. Which would have the higher lattice energy?

MgF2 has the higher lattice energy. Due to the smaller ionic radius of Mg2+, the force of
attraction between Mg2+ and F- is greater than that between Ca2+ and F-. Mg2+ and F- are bonded
more strongly in its lattice and a larger amount of energy is therefore released when the lattice
is formed.

e.g. Consider NaF and CaO. Which would have the higher lattice energy?

Recall: NaF = Na+ F- CaO = Ca2+ O2-

CaO has the higher lattice energy due to its composite ions having higher charges than those
of NaF, therefore the force of attraction between Ca2+ and O2- is greater and a larger amount of
energy is therefore released when the lattice is formed.

In the above examples, since MgF2 and CaO have the higher lattice energies, they are more
stable ionic compounds than CaF2 and NaF respectively.

 Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatic Attraction and Repulsion

This relates the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged particles (ions) to the
product of their charges and the distance between them.

F α Q1Q2
d2

F = k Q1 Q2 where F = electrostatic force

d2 k = constant of proportionality
Q1 = charge on ion 1
Q2 = charge on ion 2
d = distance between the two ions
Coulomb’s Law can be used to determine the energy of attraction or repulsion:

E = Force x distance (or F x d)

= k Q1Q2 x d
d2

= k Q1Q2
d

E can actually represent the lattice energy of an ionic compound.

So the equation: E = k Q1Q2

d

can be used to calculate the lattice energy of an ionic compound.

e.g. (9) Using Coulomb’s Law of electrostatic interaction, calculate the energy released per mole
of ion-pairs in the reaction described by the equation:

A (g) + B (g) A+B- (s)

Given the following data:

(i) A (g) A+ (g) + e- I1 = +376 kJ mol-1

(ii) B (g) + e- B- (g) EA1 = -348 kJ mol-1

(iii) The proportionality constant, k = 2.31 x 10-16 J pm

(iv) The distance between the centers of the two ions (A+ and B-) = 350 pm

Step 1: First, calculate the lattice energy:

E = k Q1Q2
d

E = (2.31 x 10-16 J pm)(+1)(-1) = -6.60 x 10-19 J

350 pm
For 1 mole of ion pairs:

E = (-6.60 x 10-19 J)(6.023 x 1023) = -397 kJ mol-1

Step 2: Write all the energy transformations and their enthalpy values:

A (g) A+ (g) + e- I1 = +376 kJ mol-1

B (g) + e- B- (g) EA1 = -348 kJ mol-1

A+ (g) + B- (g) A+B- (s) L.E. = -397 kJ mol-1

Step 3: Use Hess’ Law to calculate the energy change for the given reaction:

A (g) A+ (g) + e- I1 = +376 kJ mol-1

B (g) + e- B- (g) EA1 = -348 kJ mol-1

A+ (g) + B- (g) A+B- (s) L.E. = -397 kJ mol-1

A (g) + B (g) A+B- (s) ∆H = -396 kJ mol-1

e.g. (10) Using Coulomb’s Law of electrostatic interaction, calculate the energy released per
mole of ion-pairs in the reaction described by the equation:

Cs (g) + Cl (g) Cs+Cl- (s)

Given the following data:

(i) Cs (g) Cs+ (g) + e- I1 = +376 kJ mol-1

(ii) Cl (g) + e- Cl- (g) EA1 = -348 kJ mol-1

(iii) The proportionality constant, k = 2.31 x 10-16 J pm

(iv) The distance between the centers of the two ions (Cs+ and Cl-) = 350 pm
E = k Q1Q2
d

E = (2.31 x 10-16 J pm)(+1)(-1) = -6.60 x 10-19 J

350 pm

For 1 mole of ion pairs:

E = (-6.60 x 10-19 J)(6.023 x 1023) = -397 kJ mol-1

Cs (g) Cs+ (g) + e- I1 = +376 kJ mol-1

Cl (g) + e- Cl- (g) EA1 = -348 kJ mol-1

Cs+ (g) + Cl- (g) Cs+Cl- (s) L.E. = -397 kJ mol-1

Cs (g) + Cl (g) Cs+Cl- (s) ∆H = -396 kJ mol-1

Summary:

To work out the above questions [(9) & (10)] concerning Coulomb’s Law, you would have to:

 First calculate lattice energy (L.E.) using E = kQ1Q2/ d.

 However, this is the L.E. for the formation of only 1 particle/ ion pair.
 Multiply this E value by Avogadro’s constant to find L.E. for 1 mole of ion pairs.
 Write out the equations for ionization and electron affinity (usually given in the question)
together with their ΔH values.
 Write the equation for L.E. as well and the ΔH for this equation would be the value you
calculated above.
 Use Hess’ Law to add the equations and cancel out the extra species and of course, you
would have to add up the ΔH values as well (the I1, E.A.1 and L.E. values) to get ΔH for
the overall rxn.