EASA Part 66 Module 3

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Index
1
DC GENERATION ........................................................................ 1-1

1.1
SIMPLE SINGLE LOOP GENERATOR ........................................... 1-2
1.1.1 Induced emf ........................................................... 1-2
1.1.2 Output frequency ................................................... 1-3
1.2
COMMUTATION ...................................................................... 1-3
1.3
RING WOUND GENERATOR ...................................................... 1-4
1.4
PRACTICAL DC GENERATOR .................................................... 1-7
1.4.1 Construction ........................................................... 1-7
1.4.2 Lap wound generator ............................................. 1-9
1.4.3 Wave wound generator .......................................... 1-10
1.4.4 Internal resistance .................................................. 1-11
1.4.5 Armature reaction .................................................. 1-11
1.4.6 Reactive sparking .................................................. 1-13
1.5
GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS ................................................ 1-15
1.5.1 Series generator .................................................... 1-15
1.5.2 Shunt generator ..................................................... 1-16
1.5.3 Self excitation......................................................... 1-16
1.5.4 Compound generator ............................................. 1-17
DC MOTORS ................................................................................ 2-1

2.1
SIMPLE SINGLE LOOP MOTOR .................................................. 2-2
2.2
COMMUTATION ...................................................................... 2-2
2.3
PRACTICAL DC MOTORS.......................................................... 2-3
2.3.1 Construction ........................................................... 2-3
2.3.2 Back emf ................................................................ 2-3
2.3.3 Starting d.c. motors ................................................ 2-3
2.3.4 Torque.................................................................... 2-4
2.3.5 Armature reaction .................................................. 2-4
2.3.6 Reactive sparking .................................................. 2-4
2.3.7 Speed control ......................................................... 2-4
2.3.8 Changing the direction of rotation .......................... 2-5
2.4
MOTOR CLASSIFICATIONS ....................................................... 2-5
2.4.1 Series motor........................................................... 2-6
2.4.2 Shunt motor ........................................................... 2-7
2.4.3 Compound motor ................................................... 2-9
2.4.4 Split field motor ...................................................... 2-9
2.5
RATING ................................................................................. 2-10
STARTER GENERATORS ........................................................... 3-1
AC THEORY ................................................................................. 4-1
Issue 1 - 1 January 2002
Page 1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
4.1
4.2
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
PRODUCTION OF A SINEWAVE .................................................. 4-1

THE SINEWAVE ...................................................................... 4-2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.2.7
4.2.8
Peak and Peak-to-Peak values .............................. 4-3

Average values ...................................................... 4-3
RMS values ............................................................ 4-4
Form Factor............................................................ 4-4
Periodic time .......................................................... 4-4
Frequency .............................................................. 4-4
Angular Velocity. .................................................... 4-5
Phase Difference (Angular Difference). .................. 4-5
4.3
PHASOR OR VECTOR DIAGRAMS .............................................. 4-6
4.3.1 Addition of phasors ................................................ 4-7
4.4
ADDITION OF AC & DC ............................................................. 4-8
4.5
MEASURING AC USING OSCILLOSCOPES ................................... 4-8
4.5.1 The cathode Ray oscilloscope ............................... 4-8
4.5.2 Types of oscilloscopes ........................................... 4-11
4.5.3 using the oscilloscope ............................................ 4-15
4.6
OTHER TYPES OF WAVEFORMS ................................................ 4-27
4.6.1 Square waves ........................................................ 4-27
4.6.2 Triangular or sawtooth waves ................................ 4-27
4.7
AC VOLTAGE & CURRENT ........................................................ 4-28
4.7.1 Resistive loads ....................................................... 4-28
4.7.2 Capacitive loads ..................................................... 4-28
4.7.3 Inductive loads ....................................................... 4-30
4.7.4 Impedance ............................................................. 4-31
4.8
AC POWER ............................................................................ 4-32
4.8.1 Resistive loads ....................................................... 4-32
4.8.2 Inductive loads ....................................................... 4-33
4.8.3 Capacitive loads ..................................................... 4-34
4.8.4 The total load on a generator ................................. 4-35
4.8.5 Apparent Power & actual current ........................... 4-35
4.8.6 True power & Real Current .................................... 4-36
4.8.7 Reactive power & reactive current ......................... 4-37
4.8.8 Power Factor .......................................................... 4-37
4.9
SERIES L/C/R CIRCUITS ........................................................... 4-38
4.9.1 Inductance and resistance in series ....................... 4-38
4.9.2 Capacitance and resistance in series ..................... 4-39
4.9.3 Inductance, capacitance and resistance in series .. 4-39
4.9.4 Series resonance ................................................... 4-40
4.9.5 Voltage magnification ............................................. 4-41
4.9.6 Selectivity ............................................................... 4-42
4.9.7 Bandwidth .............................................................. 4-43
4.10 PARALLEL L/C/R CIRCUITS ....................................................... 4-44
Page 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
4.10.1
4.10.2
4.10.3
4.10.4
4.10.5
4.10.6
Inductance and capacitance in parallel .................. 4-44

Parallel resonance ................................................. 4-45
Impedance ............................................................. 4-46
Current magnification ............................................. 4-47
Bandwidth .............................................................. 4-47
Selectivity ............................................................... 4-48
TRANSFORMERS ........................................................................ 5-1

5.1
POWER TRANSFORMERS ........................................................ 5-1
5.2
CIRCUIT SYMBOLS & DOT CODES ............................................. 5-2
5.3
LOSSES ................................................................................ 5-4
5.3.1 Iron losses.............................................................. 5-4
5.3.2 Copper losses ........................................................ 5-4
5.3.3 Flux leakage losses ............................................... 5-5
5.3.4 Skin Effect .............................................................. 5-5
5.4
TURNS RATIO ........................................................................ 5-5
5.5
POWER TRANSFERENCE ......................................................... 5-6
5.6
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY .................................................... 5-6
5.7
TRANSFORMER REGULATION................................................... 5-6
5.8
APPLYING LOADS TO A TRANSFORMER ..................................... 5-7
5.8.1 No load conditions ................................................. 5-7
5.8.2 Resistive loads ....................................................... 5-8
5.8.3 Inductive load ......................................................... 5-8
5.8.4 Capacitive load ...................................................... 5-9
5.8.5 Combination loads ................................................. 5-9
5.9
REFLECTED IMPEDANCE ......................................................... 5-9
5.10 IMPEDANCE MATCHING TRANSFORMERS .................................. 5-10
5.11 AUTOTRANSFORMERS ............................................................ 5-11
5.12 MUTUAL REACTORS ............................................................... 5-12
5.13 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS ..................................................... 5-13
5.14 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS ............................................... 5-15
5.15 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS ............................................... 5-16
FILTERS & ATTENUATORS........................................................ 6-1

6.1
FILTERS ................................................................................ 6-1
6.1.1 High pass filters ..................................................... 6-1
6.1.2 Low pass filters ...................................................... 6-2
6.1.3 Band pass filters .................................................... 6-3
6.1.4 Band stop filters ..................................................... 6-4
6.1.5 Smoothing & decoupling circuits ............................ 6-5
6.2
ATTENUATORS ...................................................................... 6-6
6.2.1 T type attenuator .................................................. 6-7
6.2.2 Two section attenuator ........................................... 6-8
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.2.6
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Variable attenuators ............................................... 6-9

' ' type attenuators ................................................. 6-9
Balanced & unbalanced networks .......................... 6-10
Attenuator symbols ................................................ 6-10
AC GENERATION ........................................................................ 7-1

7.1
PRINCIPLES ........................................................................... 7-1
7.1.1 Output voltage ........................................................ 7-2
7.1.2 Output frequency.................................................... 7-2
7.1.3 Effects of a resistive load ....................................... 7-3
7.1.4 Effects of an inductive load .................................... 7-4
7.1.5 Effects of a capacitive load..................................... 7-4
7.2
PRACTICAL GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION .................................. 7-5
7.2.1 Rotating armature type ........................................... 7-5
7.2.2 Rotating field type .................................................. 7-5
7.2.3 Single phase generator .......................................... 7-6
Two phase generator .......................................................... 7-7
7.2.5 Three phase generator ........................................... 7-7
7.3
STAR & DELTA SYSTEMS ......................................................... 7-8
7.3.1 Delta connection .................................................... 7-9
7.3.2 Star connection ...................................................... 7-9
7.3.3 Power in ac systems .............................................. 7-10
AC MOTORS ................................................................................ 8-1

8.1
PRODUCTION OF A ROTATING FIELD ......................................... 8-1
8.1.1 Single phase .......................................................... 8-1
8.1.2 Two phase.............................................................. 8-2
8.1.3 Three phase ........................................................... 8-3
8.2
TYPES OF AC MOTOR .............................................................. 8-3
8.2.1 Induction motor ...................................................... 8-3
8.2.2 Synchronous motor ................................................ 8-5
8.2.3 Shaded pole motor ................................................. 8-6
8.2.4 Hysteresis motor .................................................... 8-7
Page 4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
1
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
DC GENERATION
If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic field, an emf is induced in

the conductor. If an external circuit is then connected to the conductor a current
will flow. The direction of the current flow depends on two factors, the:
direction of the magnetic field
direction of relative movement between the conductor and the field
and can be determined by using Flemings right hand rule.
The size of the generated emf depends on three factors, the:

strength of the magnetic field - B
effective length of the conductor in the field - l
linear velocity of the conductor - v
The three are related in the formula
E = Blv
Page 1-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 SIMPLE SINGLE LOOP GENERATOR

In its simplest form, a generator consists of a single loop of wire rotated between
the poles of a permanent magnet. The rotating part of the machine is called the
rotor or armature, it is connected to the stationary external circuit via two slip
rings, thus allowing a current flow.
1.1.1 INDUCED EMF
As the loop rotates an emf is induced in both sides of the conductor. Using
Flemings right hand rule, it can be seen that the resultant currents flow in
opposite directions on each side, but in the same direction around the loop.
Page 1-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
An emf is only induced in a conductor when it is moved at right angles to the lines
of flux in a magnetic field. Therefore, the loop will only have an emf induced in it
when it is moving at right angles to the lines of flux, when moving parallel with the
lines of flux, no emf will be induced. At any direction in between, there will be a
proportion of maximum emf induced in the loop.
The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is given by:
e(instant) = E(max) sin
where E(max) = lv and
of flux.
is the angle of the conductor with respect to the lines
As the loop passes the neutral point, the conductors direction of travel through
the field reverses. The conductor that was moving upwards through the field is
now moving downwards, therefore, the emf's induced in the conductors must
change direction, as must the resultant current flow.
1.1.2 OUTPUT FREQUENCY
As the loop rotates, the emf rises to a maximum in one direction, then falls to zero
and then rises to a maximum in the opposite direction, before once again falling
to zero. One complete revolution is one cycle, the loop having returned to its
start position.
The number of cycles per second gives the frequency. The faster the loop is
rotated, the more cycles per second and the higher the frequency. In this simple
generator the frequency depends on the number of loop revolutions per second.
The output from this generator changes polarity every time the loop rotates 180
degrees and is therefore of little use as a direct current generator.
1.2 COMMUTATION
In order to make the current flow in the same direction through the load, the
connections to the external circuit must be switched every time the loop moves
past its neutral position. This can be achieved using a commutator.
The commutator is used in place of the slip rings and connects the rotating loop
to the stationary external circuit.
Page 1-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
A commutator has 2 functions:

Firstly, to transfer current from the rotating loop to the stationary external
circuit.
Secondly, the periodic switching of the external circuit to keep the current
flowing in the same direction through the load. Switching takes place when
the loop is moving parallel to the field and has no emf induced in it.
Using a single loop generator and two segment commutator, the output will be as
shown above.
Although current now flows in the same direction through the external circuit, it is
still of little practical use, because the voltage and current fall the zero twice every
cycle. Using several loops and a multi-segment commutator, a more constant
output can be produced.
1.3 RING WOUND GENERATOR
The simple construction of the ring wound generator makes it ideal for explaining
the operation of a multi-coil machine.
The rotor consists of a laminated iron cylinder onto which is wound 8 equally
spaced coils. The junction between each pair of coils is connected to a segment
of the commutator. The number of segments equals the number of coils, this
being true for all d.c. generator armature windings.
Page 1-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The brushes are drawn inside for clarity and are positioned so that when they
short circuit a coil, that coil is moving parallel to the magnetic field and has no emf
induced in it.
The metal used for the rotor has a very low reluctance, therefore the flux of the
main field flows through it, rather than through the airgap in the centre. The parts
of the coils on the inside of the rotor are therefore not cutting any flux and have
no emfs induced in them.
The low reluctance rotor creates a radial field in the airgap as shown above. The
radial field means that the conductors are moving at right angles to the flux for a
longer period of time and are therefore producing maximum emf for longer. This
results in a flat top to the output waveform as shown above.
The 8 coils are split into two parallel paths of four, each group of four coils being
connected in series, because one set of four coils is moving up through the main
field and the other set is moving down through the field, the emf's induced in each
set of four coils is in the opposite direction, but it is in the same direction with
respect to the brushes.
Page 1-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The emf induced in four coils is as shown below. The emf in the other four coils
is in the opposite direction, but in the same direction with respect to the brushes.
It can be seen that the emf no longer falls to zero and only has a small ripple on
it.
The ring wound generator is no longer used. Although simple in construction,

there are difficulties in winding the coils through the rotor, also, half of each coil is
wasted because it has no emf induced in it.
Page 1-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1.4 PRACTICAL DC GENERATOR

1.4.1 CONSTRUCTION
The size and weight of generators vary considerably, but all are constructed in a
manner similar to that shown above.
The field assembly consists of a cylindrical frame, or yoke, onto which the pole
pieces are bolted. Generators generally have at least four pole pieces, although
small machines may have only two. Wound around each pole piece is a field
coil. The yoke has a low reluctance and provides a path for the main field of the
machine. To reduce eddy currents the yoke is usually laminated.
The armature core also provides a path for the main field and is therefore also of
low reluctance and laminated.
Page 1-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The armature windings are located in slots cut in the core, being wedged in with
insulation to prevent them being thrown out by centrifugal forces. The coils are
normally wound so they return along a slot in the rotor that is one pole pitch away
(see diagram below).
Pole pitch is a term used to describe the angle between one main pole and the
next main pole of the opposite polarity.
The emf induced in each side of the coil is again in opposite directions, but
assisting around the coil. This type of winding is called a drum winding and has
the advantage that the coils can be wound and insulated before being fitted into
the rotor. There are two types of drum winding, Lap wound and wave wound.
The armature windings are connected to risers attached to the commutator. The
commutator consisting of copper segments separated by mica insulation.
The brush gear assembly consists of a holder and rocker. The holder allows
the brushes to slide up a down, whilst preventing them from moving laterally. The
rocker allows the brushes to be rotated around the commutator so they can be
positioned on the magnetic neutral axis.
Page 1-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
It should be noted that the output power from a d.c. generator is governed
primarily by its ability to dissipate heat. Methods of cooling vary, a large, low
power generator would normally be cooled naturally by convection and radiation.
Smaller, higher power generators will need some form of cooling system that
blows or draws air through the generator. The cooling system may use ram air
from a propeller slipstream or from movement of the aircraft through the air, or
more commonly, a fan attached to the rotor shaft of the generator.
1.4.2 LAP WOUND GENERATOR
In a lap wound generator, the end of each coil is bent back to the start of the next
coil, the two ends of any one coil being connected to adjacent segments of the
commutator (see diagram above). This form of construction is used on large
heavy current machines. The number of parallel paths for current always equals
the number of brushes and the number of field poles (see diagram).
Page 1-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1.4.3 WAVE WOUND GENERATOR
In a wave wound generator, the end of each coil is bent forward and connected to
the start of another coil located in a similar position under the next pair of main
poles (see diagram above). The two ends of one coil are connected to segments
two pole pitches away. This type of machine has two parallel paths and uses only
two brushes irrespective of the number of poles (see diagram).
This type of winding is used in smaller machines and is therefore more common
on aircraft generators.
Page 1-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1.4.4 INTERNAL RESISTANCE
A d.c. machine has resistance due to the:

armature windings
brushes
brush to commutator surface contact
This is called internal resistance and can be measured across the terminals of
the generator.
For the purposes of calculation, the internal resistance is represented as a single
value in series with the generated emf.
Internal resistance causes the generators terminal voltage to vary with changes in
the load current. As the load current increases, the voltage dropped across the
internal resistance increases and the terminal voltage decreases.
The generated emf E = Ir + V
1.4.5 ARMATURE REACTION
When armature current is flowing, a field is produced around the armature

conductors. The overall field of the machine is then produced by interaction
between the main field and the armature field.
Page 1-11
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The armature field is at 90 degrees to the main field of the machine and therefore
distorts it as shown below.
This distortion of the field is called armature reaction and has the effect of
weakening the field at points A and strengthening the field at points B.
The machine is working near to saturation and therefore the overall effect is a
weakening of the field and a reduction in the generators output voltage.
Distortion of the field also means that the magnetic, or electric neutral axis is
moved around in the direction of rotation, away from the machines geometric
neutral axis. When the brushes now short an armature coil, it is no longer at the
point where zero emf is induced in it, therefore the brushes must be moved. The
position they are moved to depends on the size of the armature current, the
greater the current, the further the brushes must be advanced.
Armature reaction can be reduced by fitting compensating windings.
Compensating windings are small windings wound in series with the armature
and fitted into slots cut in the pole faces of the main fields.
When armature current flows, current flows in the compensating windings and
produces a magnetic field that cancels the armature field.
With careful design, correction is applied for all values of armature current,
bringing the magnetic neutral axis back onto the geometric neutral axis and
restoring the overall strength of the machines field.
Page 1-12
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1.4.6 REACTIVE SPARKING
The diagrams above represent the movement of the commutator under the brush.
Prior to being shorted by the brush, current in coil A is at a maximum value left to
right. After leaving the brush, current will be flowing at maximum value in the
opposite direction through the coil, as shown in coil B. Whilst the coil is shorted
by the brush, the current must drop to zero ready for it to go to maximum value in
the opposite direction when it comes off the brush.
Unfortunately, the coil has inductance, when shorted, a back emf is produced that
tries to maintain current flow. When the coil comes off the brush, the current has
not reduced to zero, resulting in an excess of current that jumps as a spark from
the commutator to the brush. The sparking produced is called reactive sparking.
Not all sparking at the commutator is reactive sparking, sparks may also be
caused by:
worn or sticking brushes
incorrect spring tension
commutator flats
proud mica
Page 1-13
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
One way of overcoming the problem is to increase the resistance of the brushes,
this reduces the time constant of the inductive circuit and enables the current to
collapse to zero during commutation. However, increasing the resistance of the
brushes produces a power loss and increases the overall resistance of the
machine. The increase in internal resistance causes greater fluctuations in
output voltage with changes in load current.
1.4.6.1
EMF Commutation
Another way of overcoming reactive sparking is to use emf commutation. The

purpose of emf commutation is to neutralise the reactance voltages that lead to
reactive sparking. One way of achieving this is to advance the brushes beyond
the magnetic neutral axis, this means the coils are under the influence of the next
main pole before being shorted and will therefore have an emf induced in them.
The induced emf will be of opposite polarity to the reactance voltage and will
reduce it, reducing the reactance voltage reduces the current in the coil and
allows time for it to drop to zero whilst the coil is shorted.
Unfortunately, advancing the brushes is only good for one value of armature
current, if the current increases, the brushes must be advanced further.
Advancing the brushes also increases the demagnetising effects of armature
reaction.
A better way of applying emf commutation is to fit commutating or interpoles
between the main poles of the machine. Interpoles have the same polarity as the
next main pole and are connected in series with the armature.
The interpoles induce emfs in the short circuited coils that exactly cancels the
back emf, thus allowing the current to fall to zero instantly. Being in series with
the armature means that the reactance voltage is always eliminated irrespective
of the value of armature current.
By careful design, the interpoles can also be used to eliminate armature reaction
in the interpole region.
Page 1-14
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1.5 GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS

Generators are usually classified by the method of excitation used. There are
three classifications; permanent magnet, separately excited and self excited.
A permanent magnet generator has a limited output power and an output voltage
that is directly proportional to speed.
A separately excited generator has its field supplied from an external source. The
output voltage being controlled by varying the field current.
Self excited generators supply their own field current from the generator output,
again the output voltage is controlled by varying the field current. This group may
be subdivided into three sub-groups; series, shunt and compound.
1.5.1 SERIES GENERATOR
The series generator has a field winding consisting of a few turns of heavy gauge
wire connected in series with the armature.
On "No-load" there is no armature current and therefore no field current. The

only voltage generated is due to residual magnetism within the fields.
As the load current increases, the field current increases and the terminal voltage
rises, the increase in voltage more than compensating for the loss due to
armature reactance and internal resistance. The voltage continues to rise until
saturation of the field occurs.
A series generator therefore has a rising characteristic and is generally only used
as a line booster.
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1.5.2 SHUNT GENERATOR
The shunt generator has a field consisting of many turns of fine wire connected in
parallel with the armature.
On "No-load" the terminal voltage is a maximum. As the load current increases,
the terminal voltage decreases due to the resistance of the armature and
armature reactance.
The shunt generator has a falling characteristic and is used for d.c. generation on
aircraft.
1.5.3 SELF EXCITATION
For a d.c. generator to self excite, certain conditions must be met:

The generator must have residual magnetism.
The excitation field, when formed, must assist the residual magnetism.
For shunt generators, additional criteria need to be met:
The field resistance must be below a critical value.
The load resistance must not be too low.
Due to the first two points above, the only way to reverse the output voltage of a
d.c. generator is to reverse the polarity of the residual magnetism. If the supply to
the field winding, or the drive direction is reversed, the excitation will oppose the
residual magnetism and the field will be lost.
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
1.5.4 COMPOUND GENERATOR
Compound generators have both series and shunt field windings and fall into one
of two categories:
differential compound generators, in which the two fields are wound so as
to oppose each other.
cumulative compound generators, in which the fields are wound so as to
assist each other.
Differential compound generators are generally used where a high initial voltage
is required, but only a low running voltage. Devices such as arc welders or arc
lighting may use this form of generator.
Cumulative compound machines can be wound to produce over, level or under
compounding. Under compounding is more common in aircraft generators, the
output voltage falling as the load current is increased.
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Blank Page
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engineering
2
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
DC MOTORS
If a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles to a magnetic field, a force

will be exerted on it, causing it to move.
The direction of the force and the resultant movement depends on two factors,
the :
direction of current flow in the conductor
direction of the magnetic field
The direction of the force and the resultant movement can be found by using
Flemings left hand rule as shown below:
Page 2-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
2.1 SIMPLE SINGLE LOOP MOTOR
The simplest form of motor consists of a single loop of

wire able to rotate between the poles of a permanent
magnet.
If current is applied to the loop through slip rings, a motor
torque will be produced, and the loop will start to rotate.
As the loop rotates past vertical, the current appears to
change direction, this causes the torque to change
direction, so the direction of rotation changes.
When the loop passes vertical, the current appears to
change direction again, causing rotation to revert to its
original direction.
If left, the loop will simply oscillate back and forth either
side of the vertical position.
2.2 COMMUTATION
To make the loop rotate, the current must be made to change direction as the
loop passes the vertical position, this is achieved using a commutator and
brushes.
When current is applied to the loop a motor torque is produced and the loop
starts to rotate. When the loop is vertical no rotational torque is produced,
however, momentum keeps it moving. At the vertical position, the direction of
current in the loop is reversed by the commutator, so that as the vertical position
is passed, the torque produced is in the original direction, thereby maintaining
rotation.
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FUNDAMENTALS
To improve the torque and produce smoother running, more loops or coils are
added to the armature, each having its own commutator segment. The
construction is as described earlier in d.c. generators.
2.3 PRACTICAL DC MOTORS
2.3.1 CONSTRUCTION
Direct current generators are constructed in the same manner as d.c. generators,
therefore further description is unnecessary. The similarities are such that one
machine can be operated as the other with only minimal adjustment. In the case
of starter generators, the only adjustment necessary is achieved electrically.
Most motors have some form of rating, this being a limit on their performance.
Ratings take various forms depending on the type, size and use of the motor, but
are generally based on a limit on the speed, duration or altitude of operation.
As with generators, the limit on a motors performance depends very much on the
ability of the machine to dissipate heat. Cooling may be natural, by convection
and radiation, or assisted by rotor mounted fans, blast air or slipstream.
2.3.2 BACK EMF
When a conductor moves in a field, an emf is induced in the conductor.

The armature coils of the motor are
moving in a magnetic field and
therefore must have an emf induced in
them, this emf acts against the applied
voltage and is called back emf.
The resultant of the two voltages is
called the effective voltage. The
armature current is due to the effective
voltage, not the applied voltage.
When running, the back emf is almost equal to the applied voltage, therefore the
effective voltage and the current taken from the supply are both small.
2.3.3 STARTING D.C. MOTORS
On starting, the rotor is stationary and therefore producing no back emf, this
results in a high effective voltage and a large current being taken from the supply.
To limit the current, a starting resistor is often used, the resistor being removed
from the circuit once the motor is running.
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FUNDAMENTALS
2.3.4 TORQUE
The torque produced by a d.c. motor is directly proportional to the armature

current and the magnetic field strength.
T =
IARMATURE
Some torque is lost within the motor, especially if a fan is fitted to the rotor shaft.
The torque lost is not constant, usually increasing with an increase in speed.
2.3.5 ARMATURE REACTION
The overall field of a d.c. motor consists of the armature field and the stator field.
The two fields react, as in the d.c. generator, producing armature reaction.
Armature reaction causes the magnetic neutral axis of the motor to be moved
around in the opposite direction to that of the generator, against the direction of
rotation. The problem can be overcome as in d.c. generators, by fitting
compensating windings.
2.3.6 REACTIVE SPARKING
d.c. motors also suffer from reactive sparking. For fixed load motors, the problem
is overcome simply by moving the brushes onto the magnetic neutral axis. For
variable load motors, interpoles are used as in d.c. generators.
2.3.7 SPEED CONTROL
The effects of back emf make a d.c. motor a self regulating machine. If the load
is increased, load torque exceeds motor torque and the motor slows down, the
reduction in speed causing a decrease in back emf and an increase in the
effective voltage across the armature. The increase in effective voltage causes
an increase in the current drawn from the supply and an increase in motor torque,
which increases the motor speed to cope with the load increase.
The speed of a d.c. motor can be varied by controlling the field current or by
controlling the armature current.
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2.3.7.1
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Field control
With field control, a decrease in field current causes an increase in motor speed;
main field decreases
back emf across armature decreases
effective voltage increases
armature current increases
motor torque increases over load torque
motor speed increases
This occurs because a small change in the main field strength causes a large
change in the armature current. Of course, this cannot continue uncontrolled
because eventually the field will be lost. Field control is generally used for speed
control of normal running speed and upwards.
2.3.7.2
Armature control
With armature control, an increase in armature current causes an increase in

motor torque over load torque and an increase in motor speed. A decrease in
armature current causes a decrease in motor speed. Armature control is
generally used for control of normal running speed and downwards.
2.3.8 CHANGING THE DIRECTION OF ROTATION
To change the direction of rotation it is only necessary to change the direction of

the main field or the armature current. If both are changed, the motor will rotate
in the same direction.
In the majority of cases where a bi-directional d.c. motor is required on an aircraft,
a split field motor is used. This motor will be examined in more detail later in the
notes, suffice to say it has two fields windings, one for clockwise rotation, the
other for anti-clockwise rotation.
2.4 MOTOR CLASSIFICATIONS
The construction of d.c. motors is the same as d.c. generators, with armatures
being either wave wound or lap wound.
Motors are also classified in a similar way to generators - shunt, series and
compound. Each type having its own operating characteristics and uses.
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2.4.1 SERIES MOTOR
A series motor has a low resistance, heavy gauge field winding in series with the
armature winding. On light loads its speed is high, the armature current is low
and the field is weak. On heavy loads. speed is low, the armature current is large
and the field is strong. Series motors have a wide speed variation with load.
The armature torque is proportional to the field strength and armature current. In
series motors the field strength depends on the armature current, so the torque
produced is approximately proportional to the square of the armature current. In
practice it is slightly less (particularly on heavy loads) due to armature reaction
and saturation of the magnetic circuit.
As speed increases, the torque decreases, until the load torque and motor torque
balance. If the load of a series motor is removed, the speed may become
dangerously high. It is not normal practice to run series motors off-load .
When starting a series motor, it is normally connected straight to the supply, the
initial current being limited by the combined resistance of the field and armature
windings and by the inductance of field winding. The field strength builds up
quickly, giving a high starting torque, a fast acceleration and a rapid back-emf
build up. There is a short period of high current drain on the supply.
Where a large change in operating speed is required, as in turbine engine
starting, a starter resistor is initially connected in series with the motor and
removed when the motor is required to increase speed. The starter resistor must
be able to withstand the large initial current. Applications include starter motors,
winches and aircraft actuators.
Some series motors are fitted with two separate windings. This enables motor
rotation to be quickly reversed. Applications include fuel valves and landing
lights.
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2.4.2 SHUNT MOTOR
Shunt wound motors have a high resistance field winding connected in parallel
with the armature. The field current will be constant if the input voltage is
constant and no field control resistor is used.
When the load torque is increased, the motor slows down. The decrease in
speed, causes a fall in the back-emf and an increase in armature current which
produces more motor torque. When the motor torque and load torque are again
balanced, the speed becomes constant.
Small decreases in speed cause relatively large increases in armature current.
Between no-load and full-load, the variation in speed of a d.c. shunt motor with a
low resistance armature is small enough for it to be considered a constant speed
motor. With a high resistance armature, there is a more noticeable variation in
speed with load.
When a shunt motor has a constant input voltage:
on light loads, the magnetic field is constant and the torque is directly
proportional to the armature current.
on heavy loads the magnetic field is reduced by armature reaction and the
torque does not rise in direct proportion to the armature current.
If a shunt motor does not increase speed when connected to the supply, then no
back-emf is produced. This results in a very high armature current, a large
armature reaction and a reduced torque and the motor will not start.
Several options are available to overcome the problem:
use the motor only on a small load
start the motor with no load connected to it
increase the armature resistance
use a starter resistor
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A low resistance shunt motor is normally started with a variable resistor, set to
maximum resistance, placed in series with the armature. This reduces the
armature current and armature reaction, thereby increasing the starting torque.
As the speed increases, the back emf increases and armature current decreases.
As the speed builds, the resistance is gradually decreased until at normal running
speed it is totally removed from the circuit.
An automatic method used to insert a resistor is series with the armature for
starting, and to remove it once the back-emf has been developed is referred to as
a 'T Start circuit.
At the instant the motor is switched on, the armature is stationary and producing
no back-emf, therefore the voltage at A is almost zero and the relay is deenergized. The resistance is in circuit limiting the current.
As the rotor starts to turn and the back-emf increases, the potential at point A
starts to increase.
At a pre-determined speed the potential at point A and the current through the
relay coil will be sufficient to cause the relay to energize, removing the resistor
from the armature circuit.
Speed control - The speed of a shunt motor is
normally controlled by a variable resistor placed in
series with the field winding. When the resistance is
increased, the field current is reduced, the back-emf
decreases and the effective voltage increases. The
increase in effective voltage produces an increase in
armature current and an increase in speed. When
required to reduce the speed of the motor, the field
resistance is decreased.
Separately excited shunt motors - Separately excited d.c. shunt motors have
the same operating characteristics as self excited shunt motors and therefore
require no additional consideration.
Applications - Shunt motors are used where a constant speed is required and
will be found in inverter drives and windscreen wipers.
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FUNDAMENTALS
2.4.3 COMPOUND MOTOR
These are used to meet specific requirements, we may require a motor:

that has a high starting torque, but will not race off-load.
to increase, decrease or maintain speed as the load on it varies.
These requirements can be met with suitable compounding. As with generators,
there are two forms of compound motor.
Differential compound - fields connected to oppose each other
Cumulative compound - fields connected to assist each other
2.4.4 SPLIT FIELD MOTOR
In certain applications it is necessary to change the direction of rotation of a

motor. Typical examples would be in valves and actuators. We have already
seen that this can be achieved by reversing the direction of the armature or field
current, however, there is also a special form of reversible series motor known as
a split field motor.
A split field motor is simply a series motor with two field windings. The fields are
wound in opposite directions, with one being used for each direction of rotation.
The direction is usually controlled by a single pole, double throw switch as shown
above.
The circuit above is in fact that of an actuator and includes not only a split field
motor, but also a selector switch, limit switches and a brake solenoid.
The motor is shown as having driven to position 1, this can be seen because limit
switch A is not connected to the field winding. Whether this position is fully open,
fully closed, extended or retracted depends on the device being driven.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
When it is required that the actuator drive to position 2, the selector switch is
moved to position 2. Current flows through the field winding, brake solenoid and
armature winding. The brake is released and the motor starts to turn. As soon
as the motor moves, it is no longer in position 1, so switch A moves across. This
allows the direction to be reversed (by returning the selector switch to position 1)
should the need dictate. When the motor reaches the limit of travel at position 2,
switch B moves across, removing the motor power supply. The brake solenoid,
field winding and armature de-energise, the brake is applied and the motor stops.
If the selector switch is now moved to position 1, the upper field winding, brake
solenoid and armature are energised. The brake is released and the motor runs
in the opposite direction towards position 1. Again as soon as the motor turns, it
is no longer at position 2 so the lower switch moves over to contact the field
winding.
2.5 RATING
Most motors have a rating - a limit on performance or operation. Ratings take
various forms - output, time, speed, altitude. As with generators, the output
depends very much on the machines ability to dissipate heat. All machines
require some form of cooling. Low output motors, or those that are not used for
continuous operation may be cooled naturally. Others may be fitted with
centrifugal or straight fans to drive air through machine, this being usual on small
machines. Others use air ducted from slipstream.
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STARTER GENERATORS
Many gas turbine aircraft are equipped with starter-generator systems. These
starting systems use a combination starter-generator which operates as a starter
motor to drive the engine during starting, and after the engine has reached a selfsustaining speed, operates as a generator to supply the electrical system power.
The starter-generator unit shown below left, is basically a shunt generator with an
additional heavy series winding. This series winding is electrically connected to
produce a strong field and a resulting high torque for starting.
Starter-generator units are desirable from an economical standpoint, since one
unit performs the functions of both starter and generator. Additionally, the total
weight of starting system components is reduced, and fewer spare parts are
required.
The starter-generator shown below right has four windings; (1) series field, (2)
shunt field, (3) compensating, and (4) interpole. During starting, the series,
compensating, and interpole windings are used. The unit is operating in a similar
manner to a direct-cranking starter, since all the of the windings used during
starting are in series with the source. While acting as a starter, the unit makes no
practical use of its shunt field. A source of 24 volts and 1,500 amperes is usually
required for starting.
When operating as a generator, the shunt, compensating and interpole windings
are used. The output voltage is controlled in the conventional manner, by
connecting the shunt field in the voltage regulator circuit. The compensating and
interpole windings provide almost sparkless commutation from no-load to fullload.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The following diagram illustrates the external circuit of a starter-generator with an

undercurrent controller. This unit controls the starter-generator when it is used as
a starter. Its purpose is to ensure positive action of the starter and to keep it
operating until the engine is rotating fast enough to sustain combustion. The
control block of the undercurrent controller contains two relays; one is the motor
relay which controls the input to the starter, the other, the undercurrent relay,
controls the operation of the motor relay.
To start an engine equipped with an undercurrent relay, it is first necessary to

close the engine master switch. This completes the circuit from the aircraft's bus
to the start switch, the fuel valves, and the throttle relay. Energising the throttle
relay starts the fuel pumps, and completing the fuel valve circuit provides the
necessary fuel pressure for starting the engine.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
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FUNDAMENTALS
When the battery and start switches are turned on, three relays close. They are
the motor relay, ignition relay and battery cut-out relay. The motor relay closes
the circuit from the power source to the starter motor; the ignition relay closes the
circuit to the ignition units; and the battery cut-out relay disconnects the battery.
On this particular aircraft opening the battery circuit is necessary because the
heavy drain of the starter motor would damage the battery, this is not the general
case. The majority of aircraft are designed to be started using the battery so as
to make the aircraft independent of ground resources, the battery will however be
disconnected from the bus when ground power is connected and care must be
taken to ensure the ground power unit is capable of supplying the current
required by the starter motor.
Closing the motor relay allows a very high current to flow to the motor. Since this
current flows through the coil of the undercurrent relay, it closes. Closing the
undercurrent relay completes a circuit from the positive bus to the motor relay
coil, ignition relay coil, and battery cut-out relay coil. The start switch is allowed
to return to its normal "off" position and all units continue to operate.
As the motor builds up speed, the current draw by the motor begins to decrease,
as it decreases to less than 200 amps, the undercurrent relay opens. This action
breaks the circuit from the positive bus to the coils of the motor, ignition and
battery cut-out relays. The de-energising of these relay coils halts the start
operation.
After the procedures described are completed, the engine should be operating
efficiently and ignition should be self-sustaining. If however, the engine fails to
reach sufficient speed, the stop switch may be used to break the circuit from the
positive bus to the main contacts of the undercurrent relay, thereby halting the
start operation.
On a typical aircraft installation, one starter-generator is mounted on each engine
gearbox. During starting, the starter-generator unit functions as a d.c. starter
motor until the engine has reached a predetermined self-sustaining speed.
Aircraft equipped with two 24 volt batteries can supply the electrical load required
for starting by operating the batteries in a series configuration.
The following description of the starting procedure used on a four-engine turbojet
aircraft equipped with starter-generator units is typical of most starter-generator
starting systems.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Starting power, which can be applied to only one starter-generator at a time, is

connected to a terminal of the selected starter-generator through a corresponding
starter relay. Engine starting is controlled from an engine start panel. A typical
start panel (see diagram below) contains an air start switch and a normal start
switch.
The engine selector switch shown has five positions ('1, 2, 3, 4, and off'), and is
turned to the position corresponding to the engine to be started. The power
selector switch is used to select the electrical circuit applicable to the power
source being used (ground power unit or battery). The air-start switch, when
placed in the "normal" position, arms the ground starting circuit. When placed in
the "air-start" position, the igniters can be energised independently of the throttle
ignition switch. The start switch, when in the "start" position, completes the
circuit to the starter-generator of the engine selected, and causes the engine to
rotate. The engine start panel shown above also includes a battery switch.
When an engine is selected with the engine selector switch, and the start switch
is held in the "start" position, the starter relay corresponding to the selected
engine is energised and connects that engine's starter-generator to the starter
bus. When the start switch is placed in the "start" position, a start lock-in relay is
also energised. Once energised, the start lock-in relay provides its own holding
circuit and remains energised providing closed circuits for various start functions.
An overvoltage lockout relay is provided for each start-generator. During ground
starting, the overvoltage lockout relay for the elected start-generator is energised
through the starting control circuits. When an overvoltage lockout relay is
energised, overvoltage protection for the selected started- generator is
suspended. A bypass of the voltage regulator for the selected starter-generator
is also provided to remove undesirable control and resistance from the starting
shunt field.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
On some aircraft a battery lockout switch is installed in the external power

receptacle compartment. When the door is closed, activating the switch, the
ground starting control circuits function for battery starting only. When the door is
open, only external power ground starts can be accomplished.
A battery series relay is also necessary in this starting system. When energised,
the battery is connected in series to the starter bus, providing an initial starting
voltage of 48 volts. The large voltage drop which occurs in delivering the current
needed for starting, reduces the voltage to approximately 20 volts at the instant of
starting. The voltage gradually increases as the starter current decreases with
engine acceleration and the voltage on the starter bus eventually approaches its
original maximum of 48 volts.
Some multi-engine aircraft equipped with starter-generators include a parallel
start relay in their starting system. After the first two engines of a four-engine
aircraft are started, current for starting each of the last two engines passes
through a parallel start relay. When starting the first two engines, the starting
power requirement necessitates connecting the batteries in series. After two or
more generators are providing power, the combined power of the batteries in
series is not required. Thus, the battery circuit is shifted from series to parallel
when the parallel start relay is energised.
To start an engine with the aircraft batteries, the start switch is placed in the
"start" position. This completes a circuit through a circuit breaker, the throttle
ignition switch and the engine selector switch to energise the start lock-in relay.
Power then has a path from the start switch through the "bat start" position of the
power selector, to energise the battery series relay, which connects the aircraft
batteries in series to the starter bus.
Energising the No 1 engine's starter relay directs power from the starter bus to
the No. 1 starter-generator, which then cranks the engine.
At the time the batteries are connected to the starter bus, power is also routed to
the appropriate bus for the throttle ignition switch. The ignition system is
connected to the starter bus through an overvoltage relay, which does not
become energised until the engine begins accelerating and the starter bus
voltage reaches about 30 volts.
As the engine is turned by the starter to approximately 10% r.p.m. the throttle is
advanced to the "idle" position. This action actuates the throttle ignition switch,
energising the igniter relay/ When the igniter relay is closed, power is provided to
excite the igniters and fire the engine.
When the engine reaches about 25 to 30% r.p.m., the start switch is released to
the "off" position. This removes the start and ignition circuits from the engine
start cycles, and the engine accelerates under its own power.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
AC THEORY
4.1 PRODUCTION OF A SINEWAVE

The only practical way of generating an electromotive force (emf) by mechanical
means is to rotate a conductor in a magnetic field. As the conductor rotates in
the magnetic field, its direction of motion relative to the magnetic field is
continually changing, therefore, the emf induced in the conductor is continuously
changing. The emf will start at zero when the conductor is moving parallel with
the lines of flux, it will rise to a maximum value when the conductor is moving at
90 to the lines of flux, before decaying back to zero rising to a maximum value in
the opposite direction. In this way, an alternating emf is produced which, when
connected to a circuit, produces an alternating current flow.
By making the conductor in the form of a loop, we have the basis of the simple ac
generator.
All generators, both dc and ac, have this basic design. In a dc machine the
output to the load is continually switched by the commutator, so that the load
current always flows in one direction. In an ac machine the output to the load is
continually reversing it direction.
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FUNDAMENTALS
If the generated emf of the loop is measured and plotted as the loop rotates, the
result will be as shown in the diagram below.
It can be seen that when the conductors are moving parallel to the lines of flux,
and not cutting them, the induced emf is zero. When the conductors are cutting
the lines of flux at right angles, maximum emf is induced in them. By convention,
the part of the waveform above the zero line is labelled positive and the part
below the line is labelled negative.
4.2 THE SINEWAVE
If the conductor is rotated at uniform speed in a uniform magnetic field, the output
waveform is said to be sinusoidal and we refer to this type of waveform as a
sine wave. There are many other wave shapes that can be generated or
developed, but it is the sine wave that is used for main power supply systems. It
is therefore necessary for the engineer to be very familiar with this particular
waveform and he is expected to be able to remember and use the various figures
and formulae associated with it.
The wave generated is called a sine wave because its amplitude (height) at any
instant can be calculated from sine tables, i.e. by plotting the sines of all angles
between 0 and 360.
When the conductor has completed 360 of rotation, it is said to have completed
one cycle.
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FUNDAMENTALS
4.2.1 PEAK AND PEAK-TO-PEAK VALUES
Amplitude values and their calculation apply equally to current and voltage
measurement.
The Peak or Maximum Value. The maximum value attained by the wave in
either direction is called the maximum value, or more usually, the peak value.
The Peak-to-Peak Value. The maximum value in one direction, to the maximum
in the other direction is called the Peak-to-Peak value. It must not be confused
with peak value, which is measured in one direction only. Peak-to-peak values
are often used on oscilloscopes because it is easier to measure from top to
bottom of the waveform, but the majority of calculations require the use of the
peak value. It must be remembered to divide the peak-to-peak value by two in
order to obtain the peak value for calculations.
The Instantaneous Value. As previously stated, the value at any instant can be
calculated by multiplying the peak value by the sine of the angle (from 0) through
which the conductor has rotated.
4.2.2 AVERAGE VALUES
The amplitude of an ac waveform may be defined in terms of its average values.

Over one complete cycle, this would mathematically be zero (the wave goes as
far positive as it does negative) If the pulses of voltage or current are always in
one direction, the average value can be calculated from:
For single-phase full-wave rectification
Average Value = Peak Value 0.637
For single-phase half-wave rectification
Average Value = Peak Value 0.318
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ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
4.2.3 RMS VALUES
Whilst the Peak and Average values of ac have their place and uses, they are not
a lot of use for everyday work on ac. What is required is a value of ac which
relates to an equivalent value of dc. Suppose an electric fire is operating with 5
amperes of d.c. current flowing through it and it is giving out a certain amount of
heat. We want to know the value of a.c. which will produce the same amount of
heat. Such a value is given by the Root Mean Square (rms) value of an a.c.
current.
For a sinusoidal waveform, the rms value = peak value 0.707.
In other words, a sine wave of peak value y produces a certain amount of heat
when passed through a given resistor. To produce the same heating effect, in
the same resistor using d.c., would require a d.c. with a steady current of only
0.707 of y.
By convention, it is not necessary to add rms to a voltage or current value but, if
peak or average values are being referred to, then the word peak (Pk) or
average (Av) must be added after the value.
4.2.4 FORM FACTOR.
The form factor of a waveform is a number which indicates its shape:

Form Factor =
rms value
average value
For a sine waveform, this works out at 0.707 / 0.637 = 1.11. For any other
waveform, the values will be different and so the Form Factor will be a different
number. (This is given in these notes for information only as the aircraft engineer
should not have to concern himself with the form factor).
4.2.5 PERIODIC TIME
The time taken to complete one cycle is called the periodic time (t). It is
measured in seconds or fractions of a second.
4.2.6 FREQUENCY
In electrical terms, frequency is the number of cycles completed in one second

(cycles per second) and is expressed in Hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle / sec.
10 Hz = 10 cycles / sec. etc.
1,000 Hz
(103 Hz) = 1 Kilo-Hertz
(1 kHz)
1,000,000 Hz
(10 Hz) = 1 Mega-Hertz (1 MHz)
1,000,000,000 Hz
(109 Hz) = 1 Giga-Hertz (1GHz)
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ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Periodic time and frequency are related.

T = 1/f
and
f = 1/T
4.2.7 ANGULAR VELOCITY.
The velocity at which a phasor rotates is very important and can be calculated
from:
Speed =
Distance
Time
Distance (one revolution) = 2 radians.

Time (periodic time) = 1/f.
Angular Velocity ( ) (omega)
2
radians per second
1/f
= 2 f radians per second.

(A proper understanding of this formula is essential as it is used in other
formulae).
Referring back to our simple loop it can be seen that, if the loop was rotating at
120 revolutions per second, the output frequency would be 120 Hz. It therefore
follows, that the frequency of the output of an ac generator is directly proportional
to its speed of rotation.
4.2.8 PHASE DIFFERENCE (ANGULAR DIFFERENCE).
If two conductors are caused to rotate at the same angular velocity, then two
waves would be generated. Any angle between them is said to be their phase
difference. In the following diagram, the phase difference is 90. As the
conductors rotate in an anti-clockwise direction, the dotted wave is said to lead
the solid wave by 90.
When two waves are 90 apart, they are said to be in quadrature with each
other.
When two waves are 180 apart, they are said to be in antiphase with each
other.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.3 PHASOR OR VECTOR DIAGRAMS

Waveform diagrams are difficult to visualise and engineers have devised a
diagrammatic method known as a phasor or vector diagram to simplify the
problem.
The terms vector and phasor are interchangeable, however, the term vector is
more general, being used to denote any quantity that has both magnitude and
direction, whereas the term phasor, tends to be associated with electrical
engineering. To avoid repetition, the word phasor will be used in these notes.
Imagine a phasor of length of Vm rotating in an anticlockwise direction, rather like
the conductor rotating in the magnetic field. If you plot the vertical displacement
of the tip of the line at various angular intervals, the curve traced out is a
sinewave.
When the line is horizontal, the vertical displacement of the tip of the line is zero,
corresponding to the start of the sinewave at point A. After the line has rotated
90 in an anti-clockwise direction, the line points vertically upwards, point B on
the diagram. After 180 of rotation the line points to the left of the page, and the
vertical displacement is again zero. Rotation through a further 180 returns the
line to its start point.
A phasor is a line representing the rotating line Vm, frozen at some point in time.
Although line Vm was drawn to represent the maximum values, a phasor is
normally scaled to represent r.m.s. values, and can be used to represent voltage
current, power or indeed flux. One rotation of the phasor produces one cycle of
the waveform, therefore the number of rotations completed per second gives the
frequency.
The 3 'o-clock position on a phasor diagram is considered to be the reference
point of the diagram. Whether the current, voltage, mmf or flux is drawn pointing
in this direction depends on the circuit under consideration. If two or more phase
displaced waveforms are to be drawn on the same phasor diagram they must
have the same frequency, their angular displacement is indicated by the angle
between the phasors. It must be remembered that phasors rotate anti-clockwise,
therefore if a voltage leads a current by 90 , the two phasors should be drawn so
that as they are rotated, the voltage phasor is leading.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.3.1 ADDITION OF PHASORS
The addition of sine waves is greatly simplified by the use of phasor addition,
however it should be remembered that, phasors can only be used to add
sinewaves of the same frequency.
To add two phasors, a parallelogram is produced, the two extra sides being
drawn parallel to the phasor already present.
Each extra side should start at the end of each phasor as shown. Once the
parallelogram has been produced, the resultant voltage is represented by a line
from the origin to the intersection of the two new lines. The length of this new
phasor represents the magnitude of the new voltage and the angle between it
and the other phasor is the phase angle between them. When adding more than
two phasors, it is simply a matter of reducing pairs to a single phasor, as
described, until a single resultant remains.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.4 ADDITION OF AC & DC
It is possible for both ac and dc to exist in the same circuit or conductor. In such
cases the ac is said to be superimposed on the dc, or the dc has an ac ripple.
The resultant waveform depends on the relative values of ac and dc, as shown in
the diagrams above.
4.5 MEASURING AC USING OSCILLOSCOPES
4.5.1 THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Cathode ray oscilloscopes are analogue-graphical instruments which enable

electrical waveforms to be displayed for analysis and measurement purposes. A
typical instrument is represented in the diagram below.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
With reference to the above diagram, the grids g1, g2 and g3 of the cathode ray
tube (CRT) form an electron gun which projects a stream of electrons between
deflecting plates onto the screen. The screen is coated with a phosphorescent
material so that a luminous spot is produced on the screen. A property of the
screen coating material allows the spot to persist for a period of time when the
stream of electrons is moved or interrupted. The amount of illumination depends
on the quantity of electrons in the stream and their velocity on impact with the
screen.
The potential at grid g1, which is negative with respect to the cathode, controls
the quantity of electrons emitted from the cathode. Adjusting R 1 varies the
potential at g1, hence R1 controls the brightness of the illuminated spot. Positive
potentials at g2 and g3 accelerate the electrons towards the screen. The potential
difference between g2 and g3, varied by adjusting R2, sets up an electrostatic field
which enables the electron stream to be focused at the screen.
The position of the spot on the screen is determined by the simultaneous effect of
voltages applied to the X and Y deflecting plates. A potential difference between
the X deflecting plates causes the spot to move across the screen in the
horizontal direction, through a distance proportional to the potential difference. A
potential difference between the Y deflecting plates exerts a similar control over
the vertical movement of the spot.
The outputs of the X and Y amplifiers establish the potential differences between
corresponding pairs of deflecting plates. If these voltages vary in magnitude the
spot moves over the screen to produce a continuous trace. Since one voltage
controls horizontal deflection and the other controls vertical deflection, the trace
forms a graphical representation of one voltage as a function of the other.
4.5.1.1
The Time Base
Most applications require that a signal waveform is

displayed as a function of time. To meet this
requirement a time base circuit supplies a voltage
which varies linearly with time, usually, to the
horizontal (X) deflecting plates whilst the signal to be
observed is usually applied to the vertical (Y)
deflecting plates. A time base (sawtooth) voltage
synchronised with a time dependent signal are
depicted in the diagram.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The period t1, is the sweep, that is the time the spot takes to move linearly from
left to right across the screen. During the much shorter period t 2, called the
flyback time, the spot returns rapidly to the left of the screen to start a new cycle.
During flyback the screen may blacked out by a negative pulse generated by the
time base circuit and applied to g1, the control grid.
If the sweep period (T) of the time base is equal to, or is a multiple of, the periodic
time of the signal applied to the Y deflecting plates, a stationary display of the
signal voltage variations with time will be obtained. In the diagram above, the
1
sweep period (T) equals the periodic time
of the signal waveform. In practice
f
the time base is adjusted so that signals over a wide frequency range may be
displayed against a convenient time scale.
4.5.1.2
Synchronisation
The time base and the displayed waveform may be synchronised by employing a
trigger circuit actuated by the signal itself, that is, by using the output of the Y
amplifier. Alternatively, an external signal source or the mains supply may be
used for this purpose.
The trigger circuit generates a pulse to initiate one sweep of the time base when
the voltage applied to the circuit reaches a predetermined value. The circuit is
adjustable so that a particular trigger point on either the positive or negative half
cycle of the displayed waveform may be selected.
Where the signal to be observed is nonperiodic, or when the signal appears
infrequently, the time base is triggered by the
signal, performs one sweep and then waits for
the next signal to appear. In order that the
beginning of a non-periodic signal can also be
examined, the vertical deflecting voltage is
delayed relative to the trigger pulse so that the
time base is started before the signal to be
observed appears on the screen. The time
relationship is shown in the diagram.
4.5.1.3
MOD
On many oscilloscopes, a terminal marked Z MOD is provided. The terminal is

connected through a blocking capacitor, to the control grid (g1) of the cathode ray
tube. The facility enables a suitable voltage pulse to be applied to the grid so that
selected portions of the display can be blacked out or brightened for the duration
of the pulse.
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4.5.1.4
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Amplifiers & Attenuators
The X and Y amplifiers and attenuators provide the voltage scaling required to
ensure that the instrument and the measured signal are compatible. Since the
oscilloscope is required to display complex voltage waveforms, it is essential that
fundamental and harmonic frequencies must undergo the same amplification or
attenuation, and that the time relationships between different frequencies must be
maintained. It therefore follows that both the amplifier and the attenuators, must
have flat amplitude against frequency and transit time against frequency,
characteristics.
4.5.2 TYPES OF OSCILLOSCOPES
4.5.2.1
Sampling Oscilloscopes
At very high frequencies, say above 300MHz, it is not possible using existing
techniques to produce a continuous display on an oscilloscope. To obtain a
satisfactory display a sampling technique must be used.
As shown in the diagram below, in a sampling oscilloscope the time base circuit
produces a stepped voltage waveform to deflect the electron beam in the
horizontal direction. Prior to each step, a pulse is generated which initiates the
sampling process.
The input signal is sampled later during each successive cycle to produce the
vertical deflection of an illuminated spot. In this way the display, which may
consist of 1,000 spots, is progressively built up over a number of cycles of the
input signal. An obvious limitation of the sampling oscilloscope is that it cannot
be used to display transient waveforms.
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4.5.2.2
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Multiple Trace Display
Oscilloscopes equipped with multiple trace facilities enable two or more signals to
be displayed simultaneously. Essential features of these instruments are a
separate input channel for each signal and a means of separating the electron
beams for display. The most widely used instruments enable two signals to be
compared, although four beam instruments are quite common.
Cathode ray tubes equipped with two electron guns and two sets of deflecting
plates, so that each channel is completely independent, are employed in
instruments known as Dual Beam Oscilloscopes. Alternatively, a single gun
may be used to produce two traces by switching the Y deflecting plates from one
input signal to the other for alternate sweeps of the screen. Although the signals
are sampled, the display appears to the eye as a continuous, simultaneous,
display of both signals. Oscilloscopes employing this techniques, which is called
the alternate mode, can only be used as single channel instruments to
investigate transient waveforms.
4.5.2.3
Dual Trace CRO
4.5.2.3.1
Alternate Mode
The electronic switch alternately connect the main vertical amplifier to the two
vertical preamplifiers. The switching takes place at the start of each sweep. The
switching rate of the electronic switch is synchronised to the sweep rate, so that
the CRO spot traces channel 1 signal on one sweep and channel 2 signal on the
next sweep. This is used for viewing high frequency signals.
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4.5.2.3.2
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Chopped Mode
The electronic switch is free running at 100 - 500KHz and is independent of the
frequency of the sweep generator. The switch successively connects small
segments of the 1 and 2 waveforms to the vertical amplifier. If the chopping rate
is much faster than the horizontal sweep rate, the individual little segments fed to
the vertical amplifier reconstitute the original 1 and 2 waveforms on the screen,
without visible interruptions in the two images.
4.5.2.4
Delayed Sweep
Both time bases in operation.

A - delaying sweep
B - delayed sweep
Either or both (alternate) signals can be fed to X plates. This allows a closer
examination of part of the waveform. CRO contains two linear calibrated sweeps,
a main sweep and a delayed sweep. The main sweep is initiated by its trigger
pulse at time t0. The delayed sweep will be triggered at time t 1, intensifying the
original display.
If the CRO sweep control is now set to delay position, the intensified portion will
be shown expanded on the screen.
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4.5.2.5
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Direct Viewing Storage C.R.T.
The dielectric storage sheet consists of a layer of scattered phosphor particles

capable of having any portion of its surface area written to. This dielectric sheet
is deposited on a conductive coated glass faceplate called the "storage target
backplate".
The flood electrons are distributed evenly over the entire surface area of the
storage target.
After the write gun has written a charge image on the storage target, the flood
guns will store the image. The written portions of the target are bombarded by
flood electrons that transfer energy to the phosphor layer in the form of visible
light. This light pattern can be viewed through the glass faceplate.
4.5.2.6
The Digital Storage CRO
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The digital storage CRO stores the data representing the waveforms in a digital
memory. The input signal is "digitised", i.e. it is sampled and then converted into
binary numbers by the A/D converter.
The resolution of the system depends on the number of bits used by the
converter. Converters are said to have a resolution of 1 part in 2 or 'n bit
resolution' where n is the number of bits, i.e. 10 bit resolution would digitise to 2 10
(1024) discrete levels: the resolution would be 1 part in 1024 or 0.098%.
This digitised input is then converted back to an analogue signal for display by
the D/A converter.
(1-2MHz which may be extended to 200MHz using sampling techniques).
4.5.3 USING THE OSCILLOSCOPE
An oscilloscope is an extremely comprehensive and versatile item of test

equipment which can be used in a variety of measuring applications, the most
important of which is the display of time related voltage waveforms. Such an item
probably represents the single most costly item in the average service shop and it
is therefore important that full benefit is derived from it.
The oscilloscope display is provided by a cathode ray tube (CRT) which has a
typical screen area of 8cm 10cm. The CRT is fitted with a graticule which may
be an integral part of the tube face or on a separate translucent sheet. The
graticule is usually ruled with a 1cm grid to which further bold lines may be added
to mark the major axes on the central viewing area. Accurate voltage and time
measurements may be made with reference to the graticule, applying a scale
factor derived from the appropriate range switch.
A word of caution is appropriate at this stage. Before taking meaningful
measurements from the CRT screen it is absolutely essential to ensure that the
front panel variable controls are set in the calibrate (CAL) position. Results will
almost certainly be inaccurate if this is not the case!
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The use of the graticule is illustrated by the following example:

An oscilloscope screen is depicted below. This diagram is reproduced actual size
and the fine graticule markings are shown every 2mm along the central vertical
and horizontal axes. The oscilloscope is operated with all relevant controls in the
'CAL' position. The timebase (horizontal deflection) is switched to the 1ms/cm
range and the vertical attenuator (vertical deflection) is switched to the 1V/cm
range. The overall height of the trace is 5cm 1V = 5V. The time for one
complete cycle (period) is 4 1ms = 4ms. One further important piece of
information is the shape of the waveform, which in this case is sinusoidal.
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4.5.3.1
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Layout of Controls
Layouts of the controls and display provided by a typical dual-channel

oscilloscope are shown in the diagrams above and below. The majority of the
controls identified in the above diagram are those associated with the position
and appearance of the display (e.g. vertical shift horizontal shift, intensity and
focus) whilst those shown in the diagram below include the vertical gain and
attenuator controls.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The dual-channel oscilloscope has three BNC coaxial input connectors:

Channel 1. This is the primary vertical input, but it is also used for the
horizontal (X) input when the mode switch is set to the 'X-Y' position.
Channel 2. This is the second vertical input which is also used for the vertical
input (Y) when the mode switch is set to the 'X-Y' position.
External trigger. This input is only used when the trace is to be locked to an
external trigger signal (both 'CH1' and 'CH2' trigger selector buttons must be
depressed on the trigger selector).
In addition, a voltage calibrator test point is provided (marked 'CAL 1V' on the
front panel). This connector provides an accurate 1V square wave signal which
may be used to calibrate the two vertical deflection channels.
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4.5.3.2
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Basic Adjustments
The basic adjustments for single-channel waveform measurements are shown in

the diagram below. The sequence of adjustments is as follows:
1. The input signal is applied, via a suitable probe, to the Channel 1 (CH1) input
connector.
2. The intensity and focus controls are adjusted for a satisfactory display.
3. The display is centred on the graticule using the vertical and horizontal shift
controls.
4. The variable gain (Var) and variable sweep (Var Sweep) controls are set to
the calibrate (Cal) positions.
5. The trigger selector (TRIGGER) is set the Channel 1 (CH1).
6. Positive edge trigger is selected '+' (note that negative edge trigger may also
be selected - in practice the sharpest edge of the waveform will produce the
most effective triggering).
7. The display mode switch (MODE) is set to Channel 1 (CH1).
8. The Channel 1 input selector is set to 'AC'.
9. The vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM) control is adjusted to produce a suitable
height display.
10. The trigger level control (Trig Level) is adjusted to obtain a stable (locked)
display.
11. The timebase selector (TIME/CM) control is adjusted to produce a suitable
number of cycles on the display (usually two to five cycles).
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The basic adjustments for dual-channel waveform measurements are shown in

the diagram below. The sequence of adjustments is as follows:
1. The first input signal is applied, via a suitable probe, to the Channel 1 (CH1)
input connector.
2. The second input signal is applied, via a suitable probe, to the Channel 2
(CH2) input connector.
4. The displays are centred using the horizontal shift control.
5. The displays are adjusted (vertically separated into the upper and lower parts
of the display) using the two vertical shift controls.
6. The two variable gain (Var) and variable sweep (Var Sweep) controls are set
to the calibrate (Cal) positions.
7. The trigger selector (TRIGGER) is set to either Channel 1 (CH1), or Channel
2 (CH2), as necessary.
8. Positive or negative edge triggering is selected as required.
9. The display mode switch (MODE) is set to dual-channel (Dual).
10. Both input selectors are set to 'AC'.
11. The vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM) controls are adjusted to produce displays
of a suitable height.
display.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The basic adjustments for measurement of DC offset voltages are shown in the
diagram below. The sequence of adjustments is as follows:
1. The input signal is applied, via a suitable probe, to the Channel 1 (CH1) input
connector.
3. The display is centred on the graticule using the horizontal shift control.
4. The variable gain (Var) and variable sweep (Var Sweep) controls are set to
the calibrate (Cal) positions.
5. The trigger selector (TRIGGER) is set to Channel 1 (CH1).
6. Positive edge trigger is selected '+' (note that negative edge trigger may be
also be selected - in practice the sharpest edge of the waveform will produce
the most effective triggering).
7. The display mode switch (MODE) is set to Channel 1 (CH1).
8. The Channel 1 input selector is set to 'GND'.
9. The vertical shift control is adjusted so that the trace is exactly aligned with
the horizontal axis of the graticule (this line will then correspond to 0V)
10. The Channel 1 input selector is set to 'DC'.
11. The vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM) control is adjusted to produce a suitable
height display.
display.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.5.3.3
Waveform Measurements
Examples of some basic waveform

measurements using an oscilloscope are
shown in the diagram to the left. In (a), a
square wave is displayed. One complete
cycle of this waveform occupies 2cm on
the display. Since the timebase range
selector (TIME/CM) is set to 1ms/cm, the
time for one complete cycle of the
waveform is 2 1ms = 2ms. The vertical
size of the waveform (i.e. its peak-peak
value) measures 2cm on the graticule.
Since the vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM)
is set to 1V/cm the peak-peak voltage is 2
1V = 2V.
A sine wave is shown in (b). One
complete cycle of this waveform occupies
2.5cm on the display. Since the timebase
range selector (TIME/CM) is set to
2ms/cm, the time for one complete cycle
of the waveform is 2.5 2ms = 5ms. The
vertical size of the waveform (i.e. its peakpeak value) measures 3cm on the
graticule. Since the vertical attenuator
(VOLTS/CM) is set to 50mV/cm the peakpeak voltage is 3 50mV = 150mV.
An irregular pulse is shown in (c). The display is 'low' for 3.4cm measured on the
graticule. Since the timebase range selector (TIME/CM) is set to 0.1s/cm, the
'low' time shown on the display is 3.4 0.1s = 0.34s. Similarly, the period for
which the wave next goes 'high' is 1.5 0.1s = 0.15s. The vertical size of the
waveform (i.e. its peak-peak value) measures 4cm on the graticule. Since the
vertical attenuator (VOLTS/CM) is set to 1V/cm the peak-peak voltage is
4
1V = 4V, equally distributed either side of 0V.
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4.5.3.4
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Pulse Rise and Fall Times
The rise and fall of a pulse can be

easily measured using the
techniques previously described
(note that this measurement is only
valid if the oscilloscope is fitted with
a properly compensated probe). The
diagram shows the parameters of a
pulse including:
Rise time (10% to 90%)
Fall time (90% to 10%)
On time (time above 50%)
Off time (time below 50%)
4.5.3.5
Pulse Delay
A dual-channel oscilloscope can be

easily used to measure pulse delay
(see diagram below). Note that this
measurement should be performed
with the timebase mode switch set to
'CHOP' rather than 'ALTERNATE' on
oscilloscopes that offer an alternate
sweep facility.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.5.3.6
Sine Wave Performance checks
An oscilloscope can provide a very rapid

assessment of the performance of an
amplifier. A pure sinewave (of appropriate
frequency and amplitude) is applied to the
input of the amplifier (or other system under
test) and the output is displayed on the
screen of the oscilloscope. The effects of
non-linearity, clipping noise, distortion, etc.
and be easily seen (see diagram).
4.5.3.7
Square Wave Performance

Checks
An alternative, but equally revealing

assessment of an amplifier can be made
using a square wave test. An accurate
square wave (of appropriate frequency
and amplitude) is applied to the input of
the amplifier (or other system under test)
and the output is once again displayed
on the screen. The effects of poor
frequency response, 'ringing', etc. can be
easily detected (see diagram).
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4.5.3.8
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Phase Measurement
A number of useful measurements can be

made with an oscilloscope in X-Y mode. It is
possible to carry out reasonably accurate
measurements of phase angle using
Lissajous figures (see diagram to the left).
In order to obtain these displays, the two
signals must be applied with identical
gain/attenuation and it is usually necessary
to calibrate the instrument by applying the
same sine wave signal to the X and Y inputs
and adjust the gain controls to obtain a
straight line at exactly 45 (see diagram).
Thereafter, the signal to be measured is
applied to vertical channel (Y) whilst the
reference signal is applied to the horizontal
channel (X). The shape of the display
indicates the phase shift between the two
signals. This technique is ideal for rapidly
checking the phase shift produced by a
network, filter or amplifier.
4.5.3.9
Frequency Measurement
Lissajous figures can also be used to

determine the frequency relationship
between two signals (see diagram). The
frequency ratio is given by the ratio of the
number of 'peaks' produced in the
horizontal direction to the number of
'peaks' produced in the vertical direction.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.5.3.10
Modulation Measurement
Finally, the depth of amplitude modulation

(AM) can be easily determined using an
oscilloscope (see diagram). The depth of
modulation (per cent) is given by the
relationship:
Modulation depth =
4.5.3.11
VM
VC
100%
Do's and Don'ts of using an Oscilloscope
Do ensure that the vertical gain and variable time/cm controls are placed in
the calibrate (CAL) positions before making measurements based on the
attenuator/timebase settings and graticule.
Do ensure that you have the correct trigger source selected for the type of
waveform under investigation.
Do remember to align the trace with the horizontal axis of the graticule with
the input selector set to 'GND' before making measurements of DC levels.
Do make use of the built-in calibrator facility (where available).
Do use a properly compensated oscilloscope probe.
Don't leave the intensity control set at a high level for any length of time.
Don't leave a bright spot on the display for even the shortest time (this may
very quickly burn the screen's phosphor coating).
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.6 OTHER TYPES OF WAVEFORMS

Fourier (1768-1830), a French mathematician was one of the first to realise that
all periodic waves could be built-up by combining sinewaves of the appropriate
amplitude, frequency and phase.
When considering waveforms made up of a number of sinewaves it is customary
to call the sinewave with the lowest frequency, the fundamental. The resultant
waveform will have the same frequency as the fundamental frequency.
The harmonics are those sine waves with frequencies that are twice, three-times,
four times etc. the harmonic frequency.
4.6.1 SQUARE WAVES
A perfect square wave has vertical sides and a flat top. Such a theoretically
perfect wave has an infinite number of odd harmonics and no even harmonics.
Such a waveform is not possible to achieve in electronic circuits, however, by
using the fundamental and the lowest nine odd harmonics (3 rd to 19th) a good
resemblance can be obtained. Limiting the number of harmonics causes a
sloping of the sides of the wave.
A voltage with a square waveform is often used as a test signal applied to the
input of a system. If the system does not respond well to higher frequencies, the
sides will slope, if it does not respond well to lower frequencies the flat portions
will become curved.
If an amplifier does not function correctly when a square wave is applied to the
input, it is unlikely to function correctly when other periodic waves are applied. A
skilled experimenter can make deductions about the response of an amplifier by
observing the output waveforms.
4.6.2 TRIANGULAR OR SAWTOOTH WAVES
A perfect sawtooth wave contains an infinite

number of both odd and even harmonics,
again this is not possible practically. The
lower harmonics affect the rising portion of
the wave, the higher harmonics, the decay
time.
Page 4-27
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.7 AC VOLTAGE & CURRENT

The type of load (resistive, capacitive or inductive) placed on an a.c. power
supply affects the phase angle relationship between the voltage and current.
Each type of load produces a different effect, so they are examined individually.
4.7.1 RESISTIVE LOADS
When a pure resistance is placed in an a.c. circuit, the instantaneous current is

given by the instantaneous voltage divided by the resistance (i.e. it follows Ohms
Law). This means that the current waveform is in-phase with the voltage
waveform. If the voltage and current values are known, then resistance may be
VPK
VAK
VRMS
calculated from
or
or
.
IPK
IPK
IRMS
4.7.2 CAPACITIVE LOADS
The diagram shows a pure capacitance or capacitor

connected in an ac circuit. This cannot actually
happen in practice as there must always be some
resistance, but we will introduce the resistive element
later in these notes.
Page 4-28
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
A capacitor will always charge up to, or discharge down to, the voltage which is
being applied to it. In other words, it follows the supply voltage. If we take the
point where the capacitor is charged in one direction, when connected across an
ac supply and the ac supply voltage starts decreasing, then a discharge current
will flow (conventionally) from the capacitors positive plate through the supply
source to the negative plate. This current flow will be small at first as the supply
voltage starts to drop but will increase to a maximum value when the supply is at
zero volts. It will continue to flow in the same direction but decrease as the
capacitor is charged up in the reverse direction, becoming zero at the point of full
charge. The following diagram illustrates this point and it can be seen that the
current is leading the supply voltage by 90.
The operation of the capacitor produces an opposition to the flow of current. It

will therefore act in a similar manner to a resistance in a circuit. It is a form of ac
resistance. The word resistance is kept for the physical resistance as we
already know it, so this form of ac resistance is called reactance. It is
calculated in Ohms and is given the symbol X. The opposition to current flow
produced by a capacitor is known as capacitive reactance and given the symbol
XC. Capacitive reactance is dependent on frequency, such that X C varies
inversely with frequency. If frequency increases, XC decreases and so the
current flow increases. If frequency decreases, XC increases and so the current
flow decreases. (This is why, after the initial charge current, no current flows
through a capacitor on dc).
Capacitive reactance, XC =
1
2 fC
ohms
Ohms Law still applies XC = V/I ohms

It should be clearly understood that, although we refer to alternating currents and
signals flowing through capacitors, no current actually passes through the
dielectric between the plates. Electrons circulate from plate to plate through the
circuit, being affected by the electrostatic fields on the plates.
Page 4-29
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.7.3 INDUCTIVE LOADS
The diagram shows a pure inductance

or inductor connected across an ac
supply. The notes assume that there is
no resistance in the circuit. This is
a situation which cannot exist in
practice, but we shall introduce the
resistive element later.
An inductance always opposes any change in current flow. When the current is
a.c. and constantly changing in value, the result is that it always lags behind the
supply voltage. For a pure inductance the angle of lag is 90.
The constantly changing current means that the magnetic field produced by the
inductance is also constantly changing. This gives rise to an emf being induced
into the inductors own windings in such a direction as to oppose the applied emf.
This self-induced emf is therefore known as a back-emf. The back-emf is
dependent on the rate of change of current and on the value of the inductor (in
Henrys).
Back-emf = -L Rate of Change of Current
Page 4-30
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Note that, the minus sign indicates that the back-emf is in opposition to the
applied emf. Note also that point F on the following diagram is a maximum
negative value because the current at that instant (point A) is changing at
maximum rate.
The appearance of this back-emf in the circuit means that there is an opposition
to the flow of current from the supply. The opposition due to an inductance, L, is
called inductive reactance, and given the symbol XL
It has already been stated that back-emf and therefore reactance, depends on
the rate of change of current in the circuit, but this is obviously dependent on the
frequency of the a.c. supply. As frequency increases, XL will increase and so
current flow will decrease. As frequency decreases, X L will decrease and so
current flow will increase. It can thus be seen that equipment marked For use on
a.c. only is depending on the reactance to control the current flow. If it was used
on dc at the same voltage, XL would not exist, the current flow would be too high
and the equipment would burn out.
Inductive Reactance, XL = 2 fL ohms.
Ohms Law still applies XL = V/I
4.7.4 IMPEDANCE
When inductance, capacitance and resistance appear together in an a.c. circuit,

in any combination, the total opposition to current flow is referred to as
impedance and given the symbol Z.
Resistance, inductance and capacitance in a circuit can be represented by
phasors in the same way as currents and voltages. The position of each phasor
relative to the reference position (3 o'clock) depends on whether a series or
parallel circuit is being considered.
Page 4-31
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MODULE 3 (part B)
engineering
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
For the purpose of deriving the

impedance formula shown, it is
only necessary to understand
that phasors for XL and R or XC
and R are at 90 to each other
and as such form a right angled
triangle.
In a circuit containing all three components, the values of X L and XC oppose each
other, leaving one dominant value that again forms a right angled triangle with R.
The resultant in each case is the circuit impedance, which can be calculated quite
easily using Pythagoras.
The total impedance in a circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and
capacitance C, is calculated using the formula:
Impedance Z =
R2 + (XL - XC)2
4.8 AC POWER
Alternating current power also needs to be examined under the three headings of
resistive loads, inductive loads and capacitive loads, as the calculation of power
in each type of load produces different results.
Power in a Resistive Circuit. When the instantaneous values of voltage and

current are multiplied, the resultant power waveform is as shown in this diagram
below.
Page 4-32
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MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
It can be seen that all of the power waveform is above the zero line, indicting
that it is all being dissipated in the resistance. The shaped area under the power
graph is the product of power time and represents the electrical energy
consumed in the circuit.
Peak Power
= V(Pk) I(Pk)
Average Power = Peak Power

2
= V(Pk) I(Pk)
2
= V(Pk) I(Pk)
2
= V(rms) I(rms)
= VI watts
4.8.2 INDUCTIVE LOADS
Power in a purely inductive circuit. No power is developed in a pure

inductance. Power is calculated by multiplying the instantaneous values of
voltage and current. If this is done for the two waveforms when they are 90 outof-phase , then the resultant power waveform will be as shown below.
It can be seen from the above diagram that each half-cycle of voltage and current
produces one full cycle of power. (Power wave frequency is twice the supply
voltage frequency).
Page 4-33
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
When the power curve is positive, the inductor takes power from the supply
source. When the power curve is negative, the inductor returns power to the
supply source.
Over a complete cycle, the net absorption of power is zero watts. It must be fully
understood that current is flowing in the circuit but that no work is being done
when that current is 90 out-of-phase with the voltage.
4.8.3 CAPACITIVE LOADS
As with pure inductance, a pure capacitance also produces a current flow which
does no work. On one half-cycle, power is delivered to the capacitor (charging)
from the supply source but the on the next half-cycle the capacitor returns power
to the supply source (discharging).
Each half cycle of the voltage and current again produces a full cycle of power.
When the power curve is positive, the capacitor takes power from the supply
source. When the power curve is negative the capacitor returns power to the
supply source.
Over a complete cycle, the net absorption of power is zero watts. Again it must
be understood that the current is flowing in the circuit, but no work is being done.
Page 4-34
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.8.4 THE TOTAL LOAD ON A GENERATOR
The following facts regarding power in a.c. circuits have already been established
in these notes:
In a purely resistive circuit, all of the current does work.
In a purely inductive circuit, none of the current does work.
In a purely capacitive circuit, none of the current does work.
We have also established that, depending on the relative values of resistance,
inductance and capacitance, the current can be at any angle, from 0 to 90,
leading or lagging the supply voltage.
If any number of individual loads are switched onto an a.c. generator, the
individual currents will all combine to give one load current on the generator at
one particular angle of lead or lag. As the angle is usually designed to be one in
which the current lags the voltage, we will concentrate on that, but the same
arguments we are going to use also apply to a leading current.
If the instantaneous values of two sinewaves are added together, the result will
be another sinewave. Conversely, any sinewave can be thought of as being
comprised of two separate sinewaves. If therefore, we assume the generators
load current is lagging the voltage by an angle , we can say that (irrespective of
the individual loads that produced it) it is comprised of one current which is in
phase with the voltage and one current which is 90 lagging the voltage.
4.8.5 APPARENT POWER & ACTUAL CURRENT
The load current (lagging the voltage by ) is called the actual current. This is
the current that would be indicated on an ammeter inserted into the circuit, or
would be detected by a current transformer (see transformer notes). If the supply
voltage is multiplied by this current, the power that is apparently being dissipated
is found. This however, is not the true power being dissipated and so it is called
the apparent power and is given the units of volts-amps.
Apparent power = V I(actual) volts amps
Page 4-35
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MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
If the rating plate on an a.c. generator is examined, it will be seen that the
generator is rated at, say 200 volts (rms); 30 kVA. The rating is not given in watts
because the designer has no way of knowing what the phase angle will be when
it is loaded.
4.8.6 TRUE POWER & REAL CURRENT
The component of the actual current that is in phase with the voltage is known as
the Active or Real load current, because it is the part of the load current that is
doing all the work. This component can only be calculated, as it is not possible
for a device such as an ammeter or current transformer to measure anything
other than actual current. In order to find the real load current, it is necessary to
multiply the actual current by the Cosine of the angle . If the supply voltage is
multiplied be the real load current, the true power being dissipated in the circuit
is found. The unit of true power is the watt (as in d.c.).
True power
= V I(actual) Cos
Watts.
= V I(real) Watts.
Page 4-36
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.8.7 REACTIVE POWER & REACTIVE CURRENT
The component of the actual current that is lagging the supply voltage by 90 is
known as the Reactive or Wattless load current, because it is the part of the
load current that does no work at all, even though it exists and has to be carried
by the cables, etc. It is brought into being by the nature of the capacitive and
inductive loads. Again, it can only be calculated by multiplying the actual load
current by the sine of the angle . If the supply voltage is multiplied by the
reactive load current, the reactive power is found, reactive power is given the
units of Volt Amps Reactive (VAR).
Reactive power
= V I(actual) Sin
VARs
= V I(reactive) VARs.
4.8.8 POWER FACTOR
The angle which the actual load current makes with the supply voltage is known
as the power factor of the circuit. The power factor is given by the Cosine of the
angle .
When the current is in phase with the voltage, the angle is 0.
The Cosine of 0 = 1 and so the power factor = unity (1).
When the current is in quadrature with the voltage, the angle is 90. The Cosine
of 90 = 0 and so the power factor = zero (0).
Page 4-37
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Because of considerations of automatic control over varying conditions, the

power factor in aircraft systems is kept well away from unity. It is usual to operate
at power factors in the order of 0.75 or 0.8 on aircraft.
Power factor can be obtained from anything that gives the Cosine of the angle.
For example, Power factor = R/Z (resistance divided by impedance).
It is also given by Power Factor =
True Power
Apparent Power
It also follows that True Power = Apparent Power Power Factor.

4.9 SERIES L/C/R CIRCUITS
It has already been stated that it is not possible to have an ac circuit consisting
only of inductance, or only capacitance. There must be some resistance in each
of these circuits and this resistance can be thought of as being in series with the
inductance, or in series with the capacitance. Of course, many circuits have
resistors deliberately inserted in series with the other components and some
circuits have all three components in series. It is these combinations of series
circuits that we will now consider:
4.9.1 INDUCTANCE AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES
As L and R are in series, the current I is the same through each component. The
current passing through the inductance gives rise to a potential across it, which
leads the current by 90. At the same time, the voltage developed across the
resistor is in phase with the current. As I is the common value in the circuit, it is
called the reference phasor and is usually drawn horizontally when drawing the
phasor diagram. This is shown below, along with the circuit diagram.
The applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VL and VR and leads I by phase angle
, which can be any angle between 0 and 90 depending upon the ratio of XL to
R. If required, the phasor diagram could now be re-drawn with the supply voltage
V in the horizontal position and showing the current lagging this voltage.
Page 4-38
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MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Z(ohms) =
R2 + XL2 = V/I = Total opposition to the flow of current.
4.9.2 CAPACITANCE AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES
As C and R are in series, the current through each component is the same. The
current applied to the capacitance gives rise to a potential across the capacitance
which lags the current by 90. At the same time, the voltage developed across
the resistor is in phase with the current. As I is the common value in the circuit, it
is called the reference phasor and is drawn horizontally when drawing the phasor
diagram. This is shown below, along with the circuit diagram.
The applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VC and VR and lags I by the phase
angle , which can be any angle between 0 and 90 depending upon the ratio of
XC to R. If required, the phasor diagram could now be re-drawn with the supply
voltage V in the horizontal position and showing the current lagging this voltage.
In this instance:
Z(ohms) =
R2 + XC2 = V/I = Total opposition to the flow of current
4.9.3 INDUCTANCE, CAPACITANCE AND RESISTANCE IN SERIES
As in the paragraphs above, the current is again common all three components
and so is used as the reference phasor when drawing the phasor diagram. This
will obviously be a combination of the two diagrams shown previously and is
drawn above, along with the circuit.
Page 4-39
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
In this example, XL is greater than XC and therefore VL is greater than VC.

Resolution of the diagram results in the applied voltage V being shown to lead the
current I by phase angle . The circuit is therefore acting as though it were
inductive. The opposite effect would be obtained if XC was greater than XL and
the circuit would then act as though it were capacitive. In this instance, the
impedance (Z) is given by:
Z(ohms) =
R2 + (XL - XC )2 = V/I = Total opposition to current flow
4.9.4 SERIES RESONANCE
It has already been shown that XL varies directly with frequency and that XC
varies inversely with frequency. If therefore, the frequency applied to the above
circuit was altered to decrease XL and at the same time increase XC, then at one
particular frequency XL would be equal to XC. This frequency is called the
resonant frequency and is denoted by the symbol fo. At the resonant
frequency, the applied voltage and the circuit current are in phase, as shown in
this phasor diagram below and the impedance of the circuit equals the resistance.
In a Series Circuit at Resonant Frequency (f O):

XL = XC
VL = VC
VL and VC are in antiphase and therefore cancel each other out.
VR = Applied Voltage V.
Z = R. The only opposition to the flow of current comes from the resistive
element of the circuit, therefore current rises to a maximum value.
Because I is a maximum, this series resonant circuit is known as an
acceptor circuit.
Page 4-40
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uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Also, because I is at a maximum value, VL and VC rise to very high values.

They can be far higher than the supply voltage and can therefore be very
dangerous. For this reason, it is very rare for this type of circuit to be
operated continuously at resonant frequency.
Because XL = XC, then 2 foL =
1
1
by transposition fo =
2 foC
2 LC
If graph of current against frequency is made for a series circuit containing

both inductance and capacitance, the result is as shown below.
4.9.5 VOLTAGE MAGNIFICATION
At resonance, VL and VC can rise to very large values and be greater than the
supply voltage. This is known as voltage magnification and given the symbol Q O.
Off resonance the magnification factor is represented by the symbol Q. The
XL XC VL
VC
amount of magnification is expressed by the fractions
,
,
or
which
R R VS
VS
VL
VC
equals
or
since VS = VR and is sometimes called the Q factor of the
VR
VR
circuit.
Qo
Thus
And
XL
XC
=
R
R
2 fL
1
=
R
2 fCR
2 fL
R
QO 2 =
QO =
1
R
1
1
L
= 2
R
C
2 fCR
L
C
Page 4-41
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The actual increase in voltage depends on the resistive element of the circuit.
Below fO the circuit is capacitive, at resonance it is resistive and above f O

inductive.
4.9.6 SELECTIVITY
Selectivity is the ability of a tuned circuit to respond strongly to its resonant

frequency and to give a poor response to nearby frequencies. A sharp response
curve indicates high selectivity, a flat response curve indicates low selectivity.
High selectivity may be obtained by:

Either making XL and XC large, that is by using large L and small C, or in
L
other words using a large ratio.
C
This increases the circuit impedance off-resonance.
Or by making R smaller. This reduces Z at resonance.
Page 4-42
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Therefore selectivity
L,
1
,
C
1
R
Since both selectivity and QO are proportional to L and inversely proportional to C

and R the QO may be used as a measure of selectivity.
4.9.7 BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth (B) of a circuit is the difference between two frequencies either
side of the resonant frequency at which the power has fallen to half its value at
resonance, i.e. the half power points (these are also called the 3db points: see
Decibel notation later in the course). If the power has fallen to half its value at
resonance, then since:
P
I2
P
2
I2
2
P
2
I
I
(
= 0.707I)
2
2
The current has fallen to 0.707 of its value at resonance.
By definition Bandwidth (B) = f1 - f2

The narrower the bandwidth of a circuit, the higher the selectivity. Thus
bandwidth may also be used as a measure of selectivity, as well as the
magnification factor (QO).
A useful relationship is: B =
fO
QO
Page 4-43
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.10 PARALLEL L/C/R CIRCUITS

The effects of connecting these three components in series was studied in the
previous section, they can however be connected in parallel. This section studies
the effects of connecting the three components in parallel.
4.10.1 INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN PARALLEL
As with the series circuit, changes of frequency will again effect the inductive
reactance and the capacitive reactance and there will again be one particular
frequency at which the two will be equal for a given capacitor and inductor. This
is the resonant frequency of the circuit. The formula for this is the same as for
the series circuit, providing that the resistive element of the circuit is small. At
resonant frequency, the current circulating between the capacitor and the
inductor is high, but the current drawn from the supply is low. This type of circuit
is therefore commonly known as a rejector circuit.
The best way of understanding its operation is to imagine a capacitor and an
inductor connect as shown in the diagram.
Imagine also that the capacitor is charged to a given voltage and that there is no
resistance in the circuit. When the switch is closed, the capacitor will discharge
through the inductor, transferring energy to it. The inductor field will then
collapse, charging the capacitor up in the reverse direction. This action will
repeat itself ad infinitum and the current will continue to circulate backwards and
forwards at a natural frequency which, of course, is the resonant frequency of the
circuit. This ideal condition would need no external force to keep operating.
In practice, however, there must be some resistance in our circuit and so the
current will oscillate at resonant frequency, but will gradually die away as power is
lost across the resistance. In order to keep our circuit oscillating, it is only
necessary to keep the circulating current topped-up from the supply. The
current drawn from the supply at resonant frequency is therefore very small. At
supply frequencies less than resonance, the current through the inductor
increases and that through the capacitor decreases. The reverse occurs at
supply frequencies above resonance.
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
If a graph is drawn of supply current (or line current, as it is sometimes known)

against frequency, the result will be as shown below.
The very high impedance at resonance

associated with parallel circuits is most
often used in the tuning circuits of radio or
television receivers. When tuned to a
particular frequency, that frequency will not
pass through the parallel circuit. It is
therefore available for the amplifier to
amplify and use. All the other (unwanted)
frequencies coming in at the aerial are
passed through the parallel circuit to the
chassis, thereby by-passing the amplifier.
At frequencies above resonance, the
circuit acts as though it were capacitive
and at frequencies below resonance, as
though it were inductive.
4.10.2 PARALLEL RESONANCE
Unlike the series tuned circuit, the resistance does have an effect on the resonant
frequency of a parallel tuned circuit, the equation being:
fo =
1 R2
LC L2
1
2
However, if R is very small, the term involving resistance may be ignored and for
most practical purposes the resonant frequency is given by:
fo =
1
2
LC
Page 4-45
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MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
At resonance, the supply current (IS) is a minimum and is in phase with the
applied voltage. The value of the resonant current, as shown in the diagram
Vs
VsCR
below, is given by
or
ZD
L
In a Parallel Circuit at Resonant Frequency (f O):

XL = XC
VL = VC and are in antiphase and therefore cancel each other out
VR = Applied Voltage V.
Z =
L
and current is a minimum.
CR
Because the impedance is a maximum, the parallel resonant circuit is

known as a rejecter circuit.
4.10.3 IMPEDANCE
The impedance of a parallel circuit can be calculated using the formula shown
below, although knowledge of this formula is not essential on this course.
1
1
R
1
XL
1
XC
At resonance, the impedance is a maximum and called the dynamic impedance

(ZD) of the circuit. If the supply frequency is increased above or decreased below
fO then the circuit impedance will decrease.
The dynamic impedance is given by the equation:
ZD =
L
CR
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uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
4.10.4 CURRENT MAGNIFICATION
In a parallel tuned circuit at resonance, current magnification occurs, that is I L and

IC will be very large compared with IS. At any instant IL and IC act in the same
direction round the internal circuit, and I S flowing in the external circuit is the
difference between IL and IC. Thus, if IL and IC are large and very nearly equal, IS
will be small.
At any instant Kirchoffs first law applies, that is:
IS = I L + L C
The circulating current is the smaller of the two currents (IL or IC) and IS is the
make-up current.
Remember that QO for a series tuned circuit is its voltage magnification whereas
QO for a parallel tuned circuit is its current magnification at the resonant
frequency.
QO =
1
R
L
C
4.10.5 BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth is defined as the difference between two frequencies f 1 and f2, one
either side of resonance, at which the impedance has fallen to 0.707 of the
maximum value.
As for the series circuit:
Bandwidth B =
fO
QO
where QO =
1
R
L
C
L
decreased, then the impedance at resonance is
C
decreased, QO is decreased and hence bandwidth increased.
If R is increased, or the ratio
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engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
4.10.6 SELECTIVITY
As for the series circuit, selectivity is the ability of the tuned circuit to respond
strongly to its resonant frequency and to give a poor response to nearby
frequencies. Again, as for the series circuit, QO is used as a measure of
selectivity.
Below fO
Above fO
1. Z small due to small

XL
1. Z small due to small

XC
2. XC > XL
2. XL > XC
3. Thus IL > IC
3. Thus IC > IL
4. Thus circuit inductive
4. Thus circuit capacitive
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engineering
5
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers have no moving parts and are very efficient pieces of electrical
equipment. Transformers operate by mutual inductance, the flux from one coil of
wire linking with another coil. Because the flux must be changing state, static
transformers can only be used on alternating current. In order for a transformer
to be used on direct current, part of the transformer must be rotated.
5.1 POWER TRANSFORMERS
The main elements of a power transformer are:
The primary and secondary windings
A laminated core and coil former
A mounting and terminal strip
The windings consist of insulated wire wound onto a former. The secondary
winding is generally wound on top of the primary winding, the two being
separated by a layer of insulating material. The wire gauge used depends on the
current rating of the transformer. The ends of both primary and secondary
windings are connected to the terminal strip for connection into the circuit.
The core is made up of thin strips of iron approximately 07mm to 3mm thick, the
thickness being determined by the intended frequency of operation. Each sheet
is insulated from the next. This laminated form of construction is used to prevent
eddy currents joining together and producing large circulating current within the
core.
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The core is invariably one of two types, core or shell. A core type core has U
shaped and either I or L shaped laminations , staggered when assembled to
provide a single circular magnetic circuit. The windings may be wound on one
limb or split between the two. The laminations of a shell type core are usually
T and U shaped, staggered when assembled to produce a three-limbed core.
When made for single phase operation, both windings are wound on the centre
limb, when made for three phase operation, each phase is wound on a separate
limb. Whilst more expensive, the provision of two magnetic paths make the shell
type former more suitable for large current use.
All of the energy transferred from the primary winding to the secondary must be
stored in the magnetic field created in the core, therefore, sufficient iron must be
provided to store the energy of each half cycle of the a.c. waveform.
If the total power is kept the same, there will be less energy in half a high
frequency cycle than in half a low frequency cycle, therefore, the higher the
supply frequency, the smaller and lighter the transformer.
5.2 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS & DOT CODES
The basic symbol used for a transformer with one primary winding and one
secondary winding is as shown below. The two dots are used to indicate the
phase relationship between the two windings, the terminals marked with a dot are
always in phase with each other. In the diagram shown, when the top of the left
winding is positive, the bottom of the right winding is positive and vice versa.
Whilst it should be understood that there is a phase shift of 180 between the
primary and secondary voltages, the polarity of the secondary winding (at any
instant in time) with respect to the primary, depends purely on the way the
transformer is wound.
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To indicate the type of core material used, additional markings are added to the
basic transformer symbol. The core material is determined primarily by the
frequency of the supply on which the transformer is to be operated.
Three lines drawn between the primary and secondary windings on the
transformer below indicate that it has a laminated iron core. As such, the
transformer would be used at low frequencies and may be found on a.c. power
supply systems. The two coils drawn on the right show that this transformer has
two secondary windings, and the dot notation indicates that these two windings
are wound in opposite directions. The top of one winding being positive whilst the
top of the other is negative.
The dashed lines drawn between the windings of the transformer below indicate
that it has a ferrite core and as such it would be used on medium to high
frequencies.
When there are no lines between the two windings, the transformer is air cored
and as such would be used on very high frequencies (VHF) and above.
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ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
5.3 LOSSES
Transformer losses are very small, 98% efficiency being easily attained, however
some losses occur in all transformers. Generally the losses can be divided into
three groups; copper losses, iron or core losses and flux leakage losses.
5.3.1 IRON LOSSES
Iron or core losses are divided into two groups; hysteresis and eddy current.
Hysteresis losses arise through continually magnetising and demagnetising
the transformer core, the energy required for this is dissipated as heat.
Hysteresis loss is dependent on the operating frequency and type of material
used for making the core. The higher the frequency, or the greater the flux
density within the core, the greater the loss. Transformers are therefore
designed to operate on a specific frequency and the material used to make the
core has a narrow hysteresis loop. Typical materials used are stalloy,
permalloy or mumetal.
Eddy current loss is due to the formation of eddy currents within the
transformer core, the energy again being dissipated as heat. Any metal
located within the field of a transformer has emf's induced in it, these emf's
produce small circulating currents called eddy currents. The core of the
transformer is metallic and therefore has eddy currents flowing in it. Providing
the currents are small, loss is minimal, but if they are able to join together,
large circulating currents are produced. These large circulating currents result
in a power loss, the loss being proportional to the square of the supply
frequency.
Eddy currents are kept to a minimum by laminating the transformer core, thus
preventing the small eddy currents joining into large circulating currents.
5.3.2 COPPER LOSSES
Copper losses are the I2R losses in the windings. Part of the applied voltage is
used to overcome the resistance of the primary winding, this reduces the flux
available for inducing an emf in the secondary winding. Also, when the
secondary circuit is connected, the secondary voltage falls due to the resistance
of the secondary winding.
Copper losses are dependent on the primary and secondary currents and the
resistance of the windings and are independent of the supply frequency.
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5.3.3 FLUX LEAKAGE LOSSES
Flux leakage losses as the name implies, result from the fact that not all of the
primary flux links with all of the secondary coils. The reduction in flux linkages
results in a reduced secondary voltage. With modern production methods this
loss is negligible.
5.3.4 SKIN EFFECT
Another loss that occurs at high frequencies is caused by skin effect. Any current
carrying conductor has a field around it. In a conductor carrying a.c. current, the
field expands from and collapses to the centre of the conductor, and also
changes direction every half cycle. This alternating flux induces a back-emf in
the conductor. As the field is denser at the centre of the conductor, the back emf
at the centre of the conductor is larger than the back-emf at the surface of the
conductor. Consequently, the current tends to flow in the surface region of the
conductor rather than the centre, almost as thought the cable were a hollow tube.
The higher the frequency the greater the skin effect.
Although skin effect cannot be eliminated, the associated problems can be
reduced by using Litz wire (multiple stranded cable the current being divided
between the strands), or by reducing the resistance of the surface region of the
cable, this can be achieved by silver plating the conductor.
5.4 TURNS RATIO
A simple transformer consists of two coils, a primary and a secondary, wound on
a high permeability, soft iron core. The changing current in the first coil creates a
changing magnetic field that induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil.
The size of the secondary voltage compared to the voltage applied to the primary
depends on turns ratio, or transformation ratio. That is, the number of turns of
wire in the secondary winding compared to number of turns in the primary.
If losses are small, the turns ratio may be expressed as:
VSecondary
V Pr imary
NSecondary
N Pr imary
T (transformation ratio)
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If the number of turns on the secondary is less than the number of turns on the
primary, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage, and the transformer
is called a step-down transformer.
If the number of turns on the secondary is greater than the number of turns on the
primary, the transformer is a step-up type and the output voltage will be greater
than the input voltage.
By convention, when writing the transformation ratio, the secondary voltage
is put before the primary, therefore a 4:1 transformer is a step-up transformer,
the secondary voltage being 4 times the primary voltage.
5.5 POWER TRANSFERENCE
If losses are ignored, the power in the secondary winding equals the power in the
primary winding.
IPrimary = ISecondary
therefore:
IPrimary
but T =
VPrimary = ISecondary
VSecondary
VPrimary
VSecondary
In practice there are some losses in a transformer and the output power can
never equal the input power.
5.6 TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
A transformers efficiency, , is given by the ratio of output power to input power.
(eta) =
output power
input power
100%
The value of eta ranges from about 90% for small power transformers in
receivers, to 98-99% for large power transformers.
5.7 TRANSFORMER REGULATION
As the load on the secondary is increased, the output voltage falls. The amount
by which the voltage falls is expressed as a percentage of the no-load voltage,
and is termed the % regulation.
% regulation =
no load voltage - full load voltage

no load voltage
100%
Regulation of power transformers is generally less than 4%.
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5.8 APPLYING LOADS TO A TRANSFORMER

5.8.1 NO LOAD CONDITIONS
In a practical transformer there are losses in the

primary winding due to; resistance, hysteresis and
eddy currents. These losses produce a current flow
within the primary winding that is in phase with the
applied voltage, and is termed loss current.
The iron core and coils of the primary winding make
the circuit highly inductive. The resistance of the
primary winding is by comparison very small. The
magnetising current therefore lags the applied
voltage by 90 degrees.
The total current flowing in the primary, with the secondary winding off-load, is the
vector sum of the magnetising current and the loss current.
Due to the large reactance of the primary circuit, the primary current is very small.
If however, the transformer is operated at a lower than rated frequency, the
inductive reactance will be less, and a larger primary current will flow, therefore,
transformers should not be operated below their rated minimum frequency
without reducing the applied voltage.
It is the magnetising current that produces the primary field, and it is this
alternating field that induces an emf in the secondary winding. The induced emf
depends on the rate of change of flux, and therefore lags the primary field by 90 .
As the primary field already lags the applied (primary) voltage by 90 , the emf
induced in the secondary winding will lag the applied voltage by 180 . The
secondary voltage is anti-phase with respect to the applied voltage.
When a load is connected to the transformer, a current is set up in the secondary
winding and a flux is produced. The secondary flux opposes the primary flux and
effectively decreases the inductance of the primary winding. If the applied
voltage is kept constant, the decrease in inductance results in an increase in the
primary current. This increase in current is known as the load component of
primary current.
The load current in the primary winding sets up a flux that is equal and opposite
to the secondary flux. The ampere turns of the primary flux equalling the ampere
turns of the secondary flux.
NPrimary
IPrimary = NSecondary
ISecondary
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therefore
IPrimary
ISecondary
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
NPrimary
= T (the transformation or turns ratio)
NSecondary
The total primary current is the vector sum of the no-load current and the load
current. The larger the secondary current, the larger the primary current. Under
normal conditions, the load current is so much larger than the no-load current that
the latter can be ignored.
If the load on the secondary is purely resistive, the

secondary voltage and secondary current are in
phase. The secondary current decreases the
inductance of the primary circuit and the primary
current increases, the increase being the load
element of primary current.
The load element of primary current is anti-phase
with respect to the secondary current and equal to
the secondary current the turns ratio. The primary
current consists of the vector sum of the no-load
and load current.
From the diagram it can be seen that the primary
voltage and current become more in phase as the
resistive load applied to the secondary is increased.
It appears as though the secondary load has been
reflected back into the primary winding.
5.8.3 INDUCTIVE LOAD
If a purely inductive load is applied to the

secondary winding, the secondary current will
lag the secondary voltage by 90 . The load
element of primary current, equal to the
secondary current T, will still be anti-phase
with respect to the secondary current and will
therefore be in phase with the magnetising
current.
The primary current is again the vector sum of
the no-load and load currents. From the
diagram it can be seen that the primary current
now lags the applied voltage by almost 90 .
Again it appears as though the load on the
secondary has been reflected back into the
transformer primary winding.
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5.8.4 CAPACITIVE LOAD
If a purely capacitive load is applied to the

secondary, the load will again appear to be
reflected back into the primary winding, and
the primary current will lead the applied
voltage by 90 .
5.8.5 COMBINATION LOADS
Introducing resistance into the purely

inductive and capacitive circuits examined,
simply has the effect of reducing the phase
angle between the primary voltage and
current. The greater the resistance, the
greater the reduction in the angle. Or put
another way. The more resistance there is in
the secondary circuit, the more in phase the
primary voltage and current.
5.9 REFLECTED IMPEDANCE
The load placed on the secondary winding of a transformer always affects the
primary current by altering its phase angle in relation to the primary voltage.
Neglecting losses the reflected values of L / R / C can be shown to depend on the
transformation or turns ratio.
Iprimary
now
Vprimary = Isecondary
Vsecondary = Isecondary
Vsecondary (1)
Zsecondary (2)
where Z equals the load applied to the secondary winding. Substituting (2) in (1)
Iprimary
but
so
Vprimary = I2secondary
ISecondary = IPrimary
Iprimary
Vprimary
Zsecondary
NPrimary
NSecondary
2
IPrimary
2
Nprimary
2
Nsec
ondary
Z sec ondary
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therefore
Vprimary
2
Nprimary
Iprimary
2
Nsec
ondary
Z sec ondary
But the effective impedance in the primary is given by:

Z primary
so
Z primary
Vprimary
Iprimary
2
Nprimary
2
N sec
ondary
writing the transformation ratio
ZPrimary =
1
T2
ZPrimary =
ZSecondary
T2
T2 =
Z sec ondary
NSecondary
=T
NPrimary
ZSecondary
ZSecondary
ZPrimary
In a step down transformer T is less than unity and Z primary is greater than Z
secondary.
The fact that the impedance reflected from the secondary winding into the
primary winding depends on the transformers turns ratio, makes it useful for
impedance matching.
5.10 IMPEDANCE MATCHING TRANSFORMERS
Maximum power is transferred from the source to the load only when the load
impedance is equal to the internal impedance of the source. If this is not the
case, an impedance matching transformer can be used. The necessary turns
ratio being calculated using the formula:
T2 =
ZSecondary
ZPrimary
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For example a transformer could be used to match a pre-amplifier of 20 000

ohms input impedance to a moving coil microphone of 200 ohms. The turns ratio
required would be calculated as follows:
Z
20000
T2 = ZSecondary = 200
Primary
Therefore T =
100
1
10
N
= NSecondary
1
Primary
5.11 AUTOTRANSFORMERS
Auto transformers have only one winding, this serving as both the primary and
secondary. They may be used as "step up" or "step down" transformers.
When the primary terminals are connected to an a.c. source, current flows
between P1 and P2. The alternating flux produced, links with all of the turns on
the former, inducing a voltage in each. The output is taken from terminals S1 and
S2.
The voltage ratio is calculated from the turns ratio:
VSecondary
NSecondary
VPrimary = NPrimary
In the step up transformer shown, the number of turns on the primary are those
between points A and B, the turns on the secondary, those between points A and
C. If the transformer were a step down type, the input and output terminals would
be reversed.
The effects of different loads on the transformer are as for the power transformer,
however it should be noted that the primary and secondary currents oppose each
other in the common portion of the winding. This enables smaller conductors to
be used in the common portion of the transformer, producing a weight saving,
especially if the input and output voltages are almost the same.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Auto transformers are used for:

line boosters to compensate for the voltage drops in long cable runs
motor starting. Several tappings being used in sequence to apply an
increasing voltage to the motor
impedance matching
to step the 115V a.c. aircraft supply down to 26V for lighting circuits
The major disadvantage of auto transformers, especially step down types, is that
should the common portion of the winding go open circuit, the primary voltage is
applied directly to the load on the secondary. It was for this reason that
autotransformers were rarely used on aircraft, however, improved reliability
through modern manufacturing methods has made them increasingly more
common.
5.12 MUTUAL REACTORS
Mutual reactors or Quadrature transformers are devices that have been known
about for many years, however, until the introduction of constant frequency a.c.
systems, little use was made of them.
In order to detect the difference between the real and reactive loads on an a.c.
generator, there was a requirement for a device that produced a voltage signal,
that was at 90 to the current being sensed in a circuit.
For all practical purposes this is achieved in a mutual reactor or quadrature
transformer. When a current is passed through the primary winding, the voltage
across the secondary lags the primary current by almost 90 .
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ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
In order to explain the operation of a mutual reactor, it is necessary to examine

the "off-load" vector diagram of a basic power transformer. Under no-load
conditions a small, lagging current flows in the primary winding. If an air-gap is
cut in the former, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is increased and more
current is required to magnetise the core. The magnetising element of the
primary current lags the primary voltage by 90 . Therefore, as the magnetising
current is increased, the total "no-load" current is increased and moved around
until almost at 90 to the primary voltage. It also follows that the primary current
leads the secondary voltage by almost 90 .
In understanding the mutual reactor it is best to forget the applied voltage, and
remember that, the voltage across the secondary will be in quadrature (at 90 )
with any current passed through the primary winding.
When physically examining a quadrature transformer it looks very much like a
power transformer. The air-gap has to be of optimum size and is normally
located under the windings. Unlike power transformers, mutual reactors can only
be used to produce signal voltages and cannot be used supply a load.
5.13 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Current transformers (CT's) are designed to enable circuit currents to be
measured without breaking the circuit. The outputs are applied directly to
instruments, or used in control circuits. Although working on the same principles
as power transformers their construction and operation are vastly different.
Some have a primary winding comprising a few turns of wire capable of carrying
the load current that is to be measured, others known as bar primary current
transformers use the load supply cable as the primary. The bar primary type is
more common on aircraft.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The secondary former consists of a continuous strip of metal wound on itself to

form a ring, although not laminated in the true sense, this gives the effect of
laminations. The secondary winding is toroidally wound on the former, with the
two ends brought out for connection to the load. When a power transformer is
designed, the designer only needs to know the:
supply on which the transformer will operate
the output voltage required
maximum current that the transformer will be expected to supply
This is not the case with a CT. A CT is designed to operate on one particular
load, if a different load is attached, it will give a false indication. The CT designer
needs to know the load and the supply source, and then designs a CT to link the
two together.
When writing the turns ratio, the primary is written before the secondary, the
opposite to a power transformer. A 400:1 CT will have 1 ampere flowing in its
secondary winding and load, if 400 amps is flowing through the primary cable. A
bar primary counts as a single turn.
When a current passes through the supply cable it causes a magnetic field along
its entire length, this flux induces an emf into the coils of the secondary winding.
The ring former and the secondary winding only take up a very short length of the
primary conductor, therefore whatever happens to the secondary will have
virtually no effect on the primary.
The voltage induced in the secondary winding causes a current to flow through its
load, this produces a secondary flux that opposes the primary flux, keeping the
core flux to a very low level.
If the primary is operated with the secondary disconnected from its load, there will
be no secondary flux to oppose the primary flux, this results in; a high core flux,
increased eddy currents, and increased voltages in the individual secondary coils,
which can result in the CT overheating and burning out. Even if the CT is
switched off before it burns out, the core may become pre-magnetised or biased,
resulting in an inaccurate output. If it is necessary to operate a CT off-load, the
secondary terminals must be shorted.
If a CT is supplying a load such as an ammeter, the polarity of the connections
may not matter, this is not however the case when used in control circuits. If the
connections are crossed, or the CT is fitted the wrong way around on the primary,
the output is phase shifted by 180 . This will cause control circuits to operate in
the opposite sense.
A CT should never be operated on anything other than its designed load, in some
instances the CT and its load are a matched pair and may have the same serial
number, in this case they must be changed as a pair.
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ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
5.14 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Although it is possible to use three, interconnected, single phase transformers for
three phase a.c. it is more common to use a single, three limbed, transformer.
Using a three limbed transformer, the primary and secondary windings for each
phase are allocated a single limb.
Once the layout of the transformer has been established, it is only necessary to
decide how to interconnect the primary and secondary windings. There are four
possible alternatives:
The preferred methods of connection are the last two, however, the requirements
of the circuit must come first.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
5.15 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT's), rotary variable differential
transformers (RVDT's) and E and I bar transducers all use transformer principles
to produce electrical signals from mechanical movement. The magnitude of the
signals produced is dependent on the amount of movement, and the phase of the
signal on the direction of movement. All three devices are used in control
systems, and will be studied in more detail in module 4.
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6
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
FILTERS & ATTENUATORS
6.1 FILTERS
Filter circuits are four terminal networks designed to pass a band of frequencies
from the input to the output terminals, and to filter-off or attenuate, the remaining
unwanted frequencies present at the input terminal. Such circuits are made from
capacitors and inductors whose reactance changes with change in frequency.
Filter circuits take four main forms:
High pass
Low pass
Bandpass
Bandstop
6.1.1 HIGH PASS FILTERS
High pass filters allow all frequencies above a certain cut-off frequency to be
passed from the input terminals to the output terminals. All frequencies below the
cut-off frequency are filtered off or attenuated. The diagrams above show a
simple high pass filter together with its circuit symbol.
The capacitor C allows the high frequencies to pass onto the output terminals, but
offers a high reactance to the low frequencies. The inductance L offers a low
reactance to low frequencies, so they are filtered off through it, but it offers a high
reactance to the high frequencies and thus does not filter them off. A typical
attenuation/frequency graph for a simple high pass filter is shown below.
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FUNDAMENTALS
In practice a number of high-pass filter circuits are used in succession (cascade)

as shown. This improves the attenuation of the lower frequencies and so the cutoff region becomes more abrupt and clearly defined.
6.1.2 LOW PASS FILTERS
Low pass filters allow all frequencies below a certain cut-off frequency to be
passed from the input terminals to the output terminals. All frequencies above
the cut-off frequency are filtered off or attenuated. The circuit symbol and an
attenuation / frequency graph for a simple low pass filter are shown below.
In this circuit, L offers a low reactance to the low frequencies, allowing them to
pass easily onto the output terminals, but offers a high reactance to the higher
frequencies. The capacitor C offers a low reactance to the high frequencies, so
they are filtered off through it, but it offers a high reactance to the required low
frequencies and therefore does not attenuate them appreciably.
In practice a number of these filter circuits are used in succession. This improves
the attenuation of the higher frequencies, and so the cut off region becomes more
sharply defined.
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ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
6.1.3 BAND PASS FILTERS
These circuits allow a certain narrow band of frequencies to be passed onto the
output terminals and filter off, or attenuate the frequencies above and below this
band. A simple bandpass filter is shown above.
Rejecter circuit L1 C1 and acceptor circuit L2 C2 are tuned to the same frequency,
the centre frequency of the required band. No mutual coupling exists between L1
and L2.
The acceptor circuit offers low impedance to the resonant frequencies and
passes them onto the output terminals, but offers high impedance to all the other
input frequencies. The rejecter circuit offers low impedance to the unwanted
frequencies either side of the band and so they are filtered off through it. The
circuit symbol and attenuation / frequency curve for a band pass filter are shown
below.
A more practical band pass filter circuit is shown above. This ' type' band pass
filter circuit will give more clearly defined cut off regions.
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MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
6.1.4 BAND STOP FILTERS
These circuits pass onto the output terminals all frequencies except a certain
narrow band which is attenuated or filtered off. The circuit below is a simple
bandstop filter.
Acceptor circuit L1C1 and rejecter circuit L2C2 are tuned to the same frequencies;
the midpoint frequency of the unwanted band. No mutual coupling exists
between L1 and L2.
The rejecter circuit offers low impedance to all the required frequencies and
therefore passes them onto the output terminals, but it offers a high impedance to
the unwanted band of frequencies.
The acceptor circuit L1C1 offers a low impedance to the unwanted band of
frequencies and so they are filtered off through it. The acceptor circuit offers high
impedance to the wanted frequencies and so, does not attenuate them
appreciably.
The circuit symbol and frequency / attenuation graph for a simple band stop filter
are shown below.
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ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
A more practical ' type' band stop filter is shown above, again this will give more
clearly defined cut-off regions.
6.1.5 SMOOTHING & DECOUPLING CIRCUITS
Smoothing and Decoupling circuits are special applications of filters.

A smoothing circuit changes a pulsating d.c. to a smooth d.c. in power supply
circuits. In order to achieve this, the filter circuit offers a high reactance to a.c.
and a low reactance to d.c.
A Decoupling circuit removes any unwanted a.c. from a d.c. voltage. Such a
circuit offers a high reactance to d.c. and a low reactance to a.c.
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ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
6.2 ATTENUATORS
When a source is connected to and supplying power to a load, it may be
necessary to reduce the voltage, current or power in the load. This process is
called attenuation.
Attenuation can be achieved by adding a resistor in series with the load. The
addition of the attenuator section (ABCC) in the circuit below, results in the load
voltage and current being reduced by half, and the power in the load being
reduced to a quarter.
This simple method of attenuation however causes a mismatch. To the source,

(terminals AC) the load appears to be 180 . The load (terminals BC) sees a
power source with an internal impedance of 180 . For proper matching, the
supply should see a load of 60 and the load should see a supply with an
internal impedance of 60 .
This mismatch may cause a deterioration in the performance of the source and/or
load, eg; the frequency response may be affected, particularly where impedances
with reactance are involved.
To avoid mismatch, an attenuator must match the load and the source
impedances, ie; the source must see an impedance equal to its own internal
resistance and the load must see an impedance, looking back into the
attenuator, equal to its own value. Such attenuators are called matching
attenuators and different types now follow, although only the first will be
examined in the course.
Page 6-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
6.2.1 T TYPE ATTENUATOR
If the output terminals of the circuit above are open-circuited, the impedance
across the input terminals AC is 100 (Ra and Rc in series) or Zoc.
If the output terminals are short-circuited, the impedance at the input terminals is
36 (Ra plus parallel combination Rb and Rc) or Zsc.
The impedance of the input terminals can be any value between 36 and 100 ,
depending on the load placed across BC. The geometric means of these values
is equal to:
ZSC x ZOC =
36 x 100 = 60
and is called the characteristic impedance (Z o) of the network.

By suitable choice of resistor values, a network with any value of characteristic
impedance can be built.
The significance of Characteristic Impedance may be seen if the T type
attenuator above is connected between the source and the load in the first
diagram. This arrangement is shown below, with the appropriate values of
voltage, current and power shown.
The source (of 60 internal resistance) will see a load of 60 , ie; it will be
matched (Load + Rb in parallel with 80 , in series with Ra = 60 ).
Looking back, the load will see an impedance of 60 , ie; will be matched
(Source resistance + Ra in parallel with 80 , then in series with Rb = 60 ).
Page 6-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
60V
, and 60
1A
Watts is applied as input power to the attenuator. However, at the load, the
power has reduced to 15 W (30V 0.5A) i.e. one quarter of the input power. (In
units of decibels, which will be discussed later in the course, this is a reduction of
6 dBs). The source and load are matched; only a controlled reduction of power,
voltage and current has occurred at the load. Being matched, the performance of
the source and the load has not been affected in any other way.
Action. Across the input terminals AC, the impedance is 60 :
6.2.2 TWO SECTION ATTENUATOR
Two identical attenuators may be used to reduce the input power by 1/16 at the
load. i.e. attenuation of 12 dBs. Such an arrangement is below.
It will be seen that the input power is progressively reduced and that the
impedance at each of the junctions X, Y and Z is the same. Calculated values
are shown in the table below.
Voltage
Current
Impedance
Power
At X
60V
1A
60
60W
At Y
30V
0.5A
60
15W
At Z
15V
0.25A
60
3.75W
Any number of such sections may be added to give the required attenuation. The
extra sections may be switched in, to give manual control of the amount of
attenuation.
Page 6-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
6.2.3 VARIABLE ATTENUATORS
Fine adjustment of an attenuator may be achieved by having a section with all

three resistors variable as shown below. If the attenuator resistors were changed
to the values
Ra = 36
; Rb = 36
; Rc = 32
The impedances across AC and BC would be 60
as before.
If Ra and Rb were varied from 20 to 36 and at the same time Rc is varied from
80 to 32 , the attenuator would reduce the input power from 1/4 to 1/16 at the
load, i.e. attenuation would vary from 6dBs to 12dBs, whilst the impedances seen
by the load and the source would remain constant.
6.2.4 ' ' TYPE ATTENUATORS
In the type attenuator, the components are arranged to form the Greek letter
(Pi), as shown below. The same general principles apply to this network, as to
the T type.
Page 6-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
6.2.5 BALANCED & UNBALANCED NETWORKS
All the attenuators shown so far have a common line (the bottom line in the
diagrams), such as earth.
These networks are said to be unbalanced because the voltages in each line are
different due to the different impedances in each line.
In a balanced network, the two lines have equal anti-phase voltages and
therefore should have equal impedances in each line. Balanced attenuators are
shown below.
6.2.6 ATTENUATOR SYMBOLS
Functional diagram symbols for a fixed loss attenuator (pad) and a variable
attenuator are shown below.
Page 6-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
7
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
AC GENERATION
7.1 PRINCIPLES
The generation of an alternating current has already been examined in the
section on d.c. generation. The rules concerning the size of the generated emf
and the direction of current flow are as previously described.
Instead of a commutator being used to ensure the current flows in one direction
through the load, the load is connected via slip rings and the current flow is
alternating, as shown below.
Page 7-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
7.1.1 OUTPUT VOLTAGE
The instantaneous value of emf induced in the loop is given by:

e(instant) = E(max) sin
where E(max) = lv and
field.
is the angle of the conductor with respect to the
7.1.2 OUTPUT FREQUENCY
Referring back to our simple single loop generator, it can be seen that, if the loop
were to rotate at 120 revolutions per second, the output frequency would be 120
Hz. It therefore follows that the frequency of the output of an ac generator is
directly proportional to its speed of rotation.
Another factor which determines the output frequency of an a.c. generator is its
physical construction. A generator with 4 field poles will produce two complete
cycles of output for each revolution of the shaft.
Page 7-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
Similarly, a generator with six field poles will produce three complete cycles for
each revolution and so on. A cycle is complete whenever a conductor has
passed under the influence of two dissimilar magnetic poles.
So the output frequency of an ac generator is given by:
Frequency = Revolutions per second No. of pairs of poles
The speed of rotation is normally given in revolutions per minute (rpm), therefore
the output frequency is actually calculated from using:
Frequency =
Where:
NP
60
N is the speed of rotor rotation in RPM

P is the number of pairs of poles
From the foregoing, it will be seen that one cycle is completed in:
360 mechanical degrees for a two-pole machine,
180 mechanical degrees for a four-pole machine,
120 mechanical degrees for a six-pole machine,
90
mechanical degrees for an eight-pole machine, and so on.
It is therefore necessary to use electrical degrees when referring to angular

motion in the cycle. One cycle = 360 (electrical) degrees. It is not usual to use
the word electrical in this respect, but the concept should be clearly understood.
7.1.3 EFFECTS OF A RESISTIVE LOAD
When a resistive load is placed on an a.c. generator, armature reaction occurs. If

the generator is a rotating field type, the field is distorted against the direction of
rotation as shown below. If the load is increased, armature reaction is increased
and the field is distorted further.
A resistive load also places a physical load on the generator causing it to slow
down, this results in both the output frequency and voltage decreasing. The only
way to restore the output is to provide more drive torque to overcome the extra
load.
Page 7-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
7.1.4 EFFECTS OF AN INDUCTIVE LOAD
If an inductive load is placed on an a.c. generator, the current in the stator lags
the voltage by 90 , causing the stator field to move around 90 . The stator field
now opposes the main field, resulting in a weaker main field and a reduction in
output voltage.
The voltage is restored by increasing the field current, however this does
generate additional heat in the machine.
7.1.5 EFFECTS OF A CAPACITIVE LOAD
If a capacitive load is placed on an a.c. generator, the stator field is advanced by

90 and now assists the main field, this increases the main field strength and
increases the generators output voltage.
This can be corrected without adverse affects, by decreasing the field current.
Most aircraft systems have inductive loads and a lagging power factor.
Page 7-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
7.2 PRACTICAL GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

There are two types of alternating current generator, a rotating field type and a
rotating armature type. These names stem from the way they are both
constructed. Although the rotating field type generator is the one most
commonly used for the production of a.c. power on aircraft, both types will be met
later in the course.
7.2.1 ROTATING ARMATURE TYPE
A rotating armature generator is constructed in a similar manner to a d.c.

generator. The field is located on the stationary part of the machine (stator) and
the emf is induced in windings located on a rotating armature (rotor). The output
is then taken from the generator using slip rings as previously described.
7.2.2 ROTATING FIELD TYPE
It is possible however, to obtain the same output by rotating the field inside
stationary armature (stator) windings located around the frame of the machine.
The output is then taken from the stationary armature.
Page 7-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
This type of generator is called a rotating field generator. It has several

advantages over the rotating armature type:
Because the output windings are now stationary they are no longer subject to
high centrifugal forces and can therefore be larger.
By having the output windings on the outside of the machine there is more
room for good insulation and higher voltages can be used.
With the output windings on the outside of the machine they are more easily
cooled and can therefore carry larger currents.
Using a rotating field only requires the use of two slip rings and two brushes,
also the current required is relatively small.
These advantages mean a larger output can be obtained from a smaller machine.
7.2.3 SINGLE PHASE GENERATOR
A single phase a.c. generator consists of a single output winding wound on a pair
of stationary poles and a rotor fitted either with a permanent magnet or an
electromagnet. The electromagnet is energised from a d.c. supply via two
brushes and slip rings.
When the rotor is driven, emf's are induced in the stator windings. When the
output windings are connected to a load, load current flows. The output
frequency is dependent on the speed of rotor rotation and the number of poles on
the rotor.
If the generator shown was rotated at the same speed, but had two pairs of field
poles, the frequency would double.
Page 7-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 3 (part B)
uk
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
engineering
7.2.4 TWO PHASE GENERATOR
A two phase generator has two output windings wound on separate pairs of poles
positioned 90 degrees apart as shown. A single, common rotor comprising a
permanent or electromagnet is still used.
The 90 angle between the to two output windings means that when maximum
emf is induced in one winding, zero emf is induced in the other winding and vice
versa.
The output from the generator will be two voltages of equal amplitude and
frequency, but phase displaced from each other by 90 .
7.2.5 THREE PHASE GENERATOR
A three phase a.c. generator has three sets of output windings, each physically
displaced from the other two by 120 . The rotor is the same as that used in a
single phase or two phase generator.
The Three phase a.c. generator is really three single phase generators on one
stator, all using a common field. Due to the construction of the machine, the
emf's generated in each of the windings is phase displaced by 120 degrees, as
shown below.
The normal order of rotation is:
Red
Yellow
Blue
If two phases are reversed

then motors and control
circuits will try to operate in
reverse.
Page 7-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
MODULE 3 (part B)
engineering
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
If required, the three single phases can be used independently, however this is
not common practice. The windings are normally connected together in one of
two ways, called star or delta. Whether star or delta depends on the way the
windings are connected at the generator output terminals.
7.3 STAR & DELTA SYSTEMS

The three armature windings of a three phase generator can be connected in two
ways. Firstly, the end of one winding can be connected to the start of the next, so
that the three windings are connected in series to form a triangle. This form of
connection if called a Delta system. The delta system is a three wire system, a
single wire being taken from each of the three points of interconnection.
The alternative, is to connect the same end of each armature winding to a
common point and take the other end of each winding to an output terminal. This
form of connection is called a Star system. The star system is a four wire system,
as a wire is also taken from the common point to an output terminal.
Page 7-8
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
7.3.1 DELTA CONNECTION
A Delta system is a three wire system,

one wire coming from each of the
armature winding interconnection
points. In a delta connected system:
VLINE = VPHASE
ILINE =
Or
3 x IPHASE
ILINE = 1 73 x IPHASE
A delta connected system has no neutral line and is generally used on small
generators supplying virtually fixed, balanced loads.
7.3.1.1
Balanced loads
If the currents in each phase are equal in size and phase displaced from one
another by 120 degrees, the loads are said to be balanced. Under balanced
conditions, the loads on each phase are identical
7.3.1.2
Symmetrical loads
If the phase voltages are the same in magnitude, and phase displaced from one
another by 120 degrees, the system is said to be symmetrical. Aircraft systems
are naturally symmetrical.
7.3.2 STAR CONNECTION
Page 7-9
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Although a star connected system is considered to be a four wire system, if the

loads are balanced, the neutral line need not be connected. The neutral line only
carries out of balance currents.
The neutral, although connected to earth, should not be confused with the earth
in a three pin mains plug which is there for protection. Under the majority of
conditions, a star connected aircraft power system will have current flowing in the
neutral line.
The voltage from the neutral line, or star point, to the other end of each phase
winding is called the phase voltage, the voltage from one phase to another is
called the line voltage.
In a star connected system:
VLINE =
3 x VPHASE or
VLINE = 1 73 x VPHASE
and ILINE = IPHASE

The frequency is always expressed as the frequency of a single phase.
In aircraft a.c. systems, the phase voltage is 115V and the line voltage is 200V.
On some aircraft systems the frequency is variable (wild), however, on the
majority of modern aircraft, the frequency is kept constant at 400 Hz.
With a star connected a.c. power system, two possible systems are available:
three single phase systems each operating at the phase voltage
a single three phase system operating at line voltage
If the instantaneous values of two phases are added together to produce a line
voltage and the process is repeated for the other phases, three line voltages will
be produced. Each line voltage is displaced 120 degrees from the other two.
One point to note is that, there is a 90 degree phase angle between a phase
voltage and its opposite line voltage, this relationship is used in several aircraft
control and monitoring systems.
7.3.3 POWER IN AC SYSTEMS
In star and delta connected systems, the power dissipated in each phase is given
by the formula:
PPhase = VPhase x IPhase Cos
Watts
If the system is balanced and symmetrical then the total power is three times the
above value.
Page 7-10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
8
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
AC MOTORS
With few exceptions, the operation of an a.c. motor relies on the production of a
rotating magnetic field, therefore, we will examine the production of a rotating
field first.
8.1 PRODUCTION OF A ROTATING FIELD
Alternating current supplies are generally available in one of three forms, single
phase, two phase or three phase. Any of these three supplies can be used to
produce a rotating magnetic field, but there are differences in how it is achieved,
so they will be examined individually.
8.1.1 SINGLE PHASE
To produce a rotating field from a single phase a.c. supply requires a minimum of
two pairs of field windings and a four pole stator, as shown below. However, a
single phase supply connected to the windings shown, will only produce an
alternating field positioned at 45 degrees to the pole pieces.
To create a rotating field, the current in one pair of field windings must be 90
degrees out of phase with the current in the other pair of field windings. This can
be achieved by placing an inductor or capacitor in series with one pair of field
windings, whilst connecting the other directly to the supply. A capacitor is
generally used because it is more efficient.
Issue 1 - 20 March 2001
Page 8-1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The direction of rotation of the magnetic field depends on the order in which the
poles become magnetised.
The direction of rotation of the field can be reversed either by swapping the
supply to one pair of field windings, or by switching the capacitor from one field
winding to the other. The latter method is often used on aircraft motors.
If the supply to both field windings is reversed, the motor will run in the same
direction.
8.1.2 TWO PHASE
To produce a rotating field from a two phase supply also requires a minimum of
four field poles and two pairs of field windings. A two phase supply comprises
two voltages phase displaced from one another by 90 degrees. Therefore no
capacitor is required.
Page 8-2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
The only way to reverse the direction of rotation of such a motor is to swap the
power supply connections to one pair of field windings.
A two phase supply can be obtained from a three phase a.c. supply, by
using one phase voltage and the opposite line voltage.
8.1.3 THREE PHASE
To produce a rotating field from a three phase a.c. supply requires the use of a
six pole stator and three pairs of field windings. The stator of a three phase a.c.
motor is the same as that of a rotating field a.c. generator.
The direction of rotation of the field depends on the order in which the windings
are energised. To reverse the direction of rotation, it is only necessary to swap
the connection to any two of the field windings.
8.2 TYPES OF AC MOTOR
The two main types of a.c. motor used on aircraft systems are the induction motor
and the synchronous motor. Hysteresis and shaded pole motors are however
often found in instruments, and as they are both a.c. motors, they will also be
examined at this time
8.2.1 INDUCTION MOTOR
The rotor of an induction motor consists of a number of copper or aluminium bars

connected by two end rings to form a cage. The cage is enclosed in a laminated
iron core to reduce its reluctance. This construction is very simple but very
strong.
Page 8-3
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
When the rotor is placed in a rotating magnetic field, the bars are cut by the
rotating flux, causing emf's to be induced in them, because the bars are shorted
by the end rings, currents then flow in the bars. Current flow in the bars produces
a magnetic field around them, which reacts with the main field of the machine,
causing the rotor to turn.
At switch-on, the emf's induced in the rotor bars are at the same frequency as the
supply voltage and because the circuit is highly inductive the current lags the
voltage by almost 90 degrees. This means, that by the time the rotor field has
been produced, the main field has moved on by almost 90 degrees and the rotor
field can only react with the trailing edge of the main field, resulting in a small
starting torque.
As the rotor speed increases, the frequency of the emf's in the rotor decrease,
reducing the inductive reactance. The brings the current more in-phase with the
induced emf's, producing a good running torque.
It is not possible for the rotor to rotate at synchronous speed (the speed of the
field), because there would be no emfs induced in the rotor bars, no current flow
and no magnetic field produced. The difference between synchronous speed and
rotor speed is called slip speed and is usually expressed as a percentage of
the synchronous speed.
Page 8-4
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
When running, the field around the rotor bars induces an emf into the stator
windings, this back-emf is almost 180 degrees out of phase with the applied
voltage and therefore opposes it, resulting in a small effective voltage across the
field and a low current drawn from the power supply. If the load on the motor is
increased, it slows down, this causes the phase angle of the back-emf to change,
increasing the effective voltage, the current from the supply and the motor torque.
The increase in motor torque accelerates the motor back to its original running
speed.
When first started, the back-emf is almost at 90 degrees to the applied voltage
and therefore not opposing the supply voltage. The effective voltage is therefore
almost equal to the supply voltage and the current demand is high. In order to
reduce the starting current, some motors are designed to be started with the field
windings connected in star and run with them connected in delta. This increases
the impedance during starting and reduces the current drawn from the supply, but
it does not improve the poor starting torque.
If it is required that an induction motor be started on-load, then the poor starting
torque must be improved. To achieve this, the rotor current must be made to
appear more in phase with the voltage. This can be achieved by increasing the
resistance of the rotor windings, however, if the resistance is left in the rotor
circuit once the motor is running, there will be:
an increase in the slip speed
a greater speed variation with load changes
an increase the current taken from the supply
A compromise often used on aircraft induction motors is to fit a second, high
resistance, cage into the rotor. This gives an improved starting torque, with
minimal running problems.
8.2.2 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
The synchronous motor gets its name from the fact that the rotor runs at
synchronous speed (the speed of the field), for it to do this, the rotor must be a
permanent magnet or an electro-magnet.
Page 8-5
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
In order for the magnet to lock-on to the field, it must be brought up to about 75%
of synchronous speed, to achieve this the majority of synchronous motors have
the cage of an induction motor built into them. The motor starts as an induction
motor and when sufficient speed has been attained, the electromagnet is
energised, allowing the rotor to lock onto the field. Once running, no emf's are
induced in the rotor bars, however, they are useful in holding the rotor and rotor
windings in place and also assist in smooth running during load changes.
The rotor, although running at synchronous speed, will lag behind the field, the
angle of lag is proportional to the load placed on the motor.
If whilst running the load is increased, the angle of lag increases, changing the
angle of the back-emf and increasing the effective voltage. This increase in
effective voltage increases the current taken from the supply, producing an
increase in torque to cope with the load increase. Should the angle become too
great, the magnetic link will snap, the motor will run down, stop, and possibly burn
out due to the high current taken from the supply as a result of the loss of back
emf.
8.2.3 SHADED POLE MOTOR
The shaded pole motor

uses only a single set of
poles to create the
appearance of a rotating
magnetic field. The poles
are each cut into two
sections. One section of
each pole is then shaded
by a copper or aluminium
ring, or a shorted coil.
Page 8-6
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
When the field winding is energised, an alternating flux appears across the main
poles. The alternating main field induces emf's in the shaded ring or shorted
winding and causes a current flow within it that produces a second alternating
magnetic field. The field in the shorted ring lags the main field by approximately
90 degrees. The overall effect is to produce a field that appears to move through
an angle determined by the relative positions of the two sections of each main
pole. The field is not fully rotating, only moving through a small angle, therefore
the starting torque is low and the motor can only be used for small, fixed loads.
The operation of the rotor is as for an induction motor.
8.2.4 HYSTERESIS MOTOR
The construction of hysteresis motors vary. The motor is so named because the
material used for the rotor has a large hysteresis loop. This type of motor
requires a two phase a.c. supply and is often used as a servo motor, one phase
being supplied from a reference source, the other from a control circuit. The
current in the control phase is made to either lead or lag the reference phase by
90 degrees, depending on the direction of rotation required.
The motor shown employs a cobalt steel ring rotor. When the field is energised,
a North pole appears at A and a South pole at A1. Poles B and B1 are not
magnetised. The field across A-A1 induces a South pole in the rotor at X and a
North pole in the rotor at Y.
As the supply changes, A and A1 die away as B becomes a North pole and B1
becomes a South pole. The retention of flux by the rotor causes the south pole at
X to be attracted by the North pole at B and the North pole at Y to be attracted by
the South pole at B1. This causes the rotor to rotate. As the rotor moves to align
with the field, the field has moved on, so the rotor moves again to try and align.
The rotor continues to rotate following the field.
If the phase of the control supply is reversed (made to lag the reference supply
instead of lead it), the motor will change direction
Page 8-7
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk
engineering
MODULE 3 (part B)
ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
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What are the different types of DC generators discussed?

What are the different types of DC generators discussed?

What are the different types of DC motors discussed?

What are the different types of DC motors discussed?

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

DC GENERATION ........................................................................ 1-1

DC MOTORS ................................................................................ 2-1

STARTER GENERATORS ........................................................... 3-1

AC THEORY ................................................................................. 4-1

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

PRODUCTION OF A SINEWAVE .................................................. 4-1

Peak and Peak-to-Peak values .............................. 4-3

Inductance and capacitance in parallel .................. 4-44

TRANSFORMERS ........................................................................ 5-1

FILTERS & ATTENUATORS........................................................ 6-1

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

Variable attenuators ............................................... 6-9

AC GENERATION ........................................................................ 7-1

AC MOTORS ................................................................................ 8-1

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

If a conductor is moved at right angles to a magnetic field, an emf is induced in

The size of the generated emf depends on three factors, the:

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

1.1 SIMPLE SINGLE LOOP GENERATOR

1.1.1 INDUCED EMF

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

is the angle of the conductor with respect to the lines

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

A commutator has 2 functions:

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

The ring wound generator is no longer used. Although simple in construction,

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

1.4 PRACTICAL DC GENERATOR

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

1.4.3 WAVE WOUND GENERATOR

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

1.4.4 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

A d.c. machine has resistance due to the:

When armature current is flowing, a field is produced around the armature

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

1.4.6 REACTIVE SPARKING

Another way of overcoming reactive sparking is to use emf commutation. The

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

1.5 GENERATOR CLASSIFICATIONS

On "No-load" there is no armature current and therefore no field current. The

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

1.5.2 SHUNT GENERATOR

For a d.c. generator to self excite, certain conditions must be met:

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

1.5.4 COMPOUND GENERATOR

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

If a current carrying conductor is placed at right angles to a magnetic field, a force

Issue 1 - 1 January 2002

2.1 SIMPLE SINGLE LOOP MOTOR