Gesell Theory

The Theory

Gesell’s theory is known as a maturational-developmental theory. It is the foundation of nearly every

other theory of human development after Gesell. Early in the 20th century, Dr. Gesell observed and
documented patterns in the way children develop, showing that all children go through similar and
predictable sequences, though each child moves through these sequences at his or her own rate or pace.

This process is comprised of both internal and external factors. The intrinsic factors include genetics,
temperament, personality, learning styles, as well as physical and mental growth. Simultaneously,
development is also influenced by factors such as environment, family background, parenting styles,
cultural influences, health conditions, and early experiences with peers and adults. Gesell was the first
theorist to systematically study the stages of development, and the first researcher to demonstrate that
a child’s developmental age (or stage of development) may be different from his or her chronological
age.

The Cyclical Spiral

Gesell emphasized that growth always progresses in a pattern through predictable stages or
sequences. Sequential development begins within the embryo and continues after birth. While an
individual progresses through these stages at his or her own pace, the sequence remains the
same. According to Gesell, growth can be thought of as a cyclical spiral. Each cycle of the spiral
encompassing the time it takes to move through six stages, or half-year increments. Notice that the
time to complete a cycle of the six stages is quite rapid in early life and slows down with age. Gesell’s
cycles of development are divided into six well-defined stages which are repeated throughout life. One
cycle includes the following stages: Smooth, Break-Up, Sorting Out, Inwardizing, Expansion, and
Neurotic “Fitting Together”. See figure below of the cycles of development.

Gesell’s research established normative trends for four areas of growth and development, namely (1)
Motor, (2) Adaptive (Cognitive), (3) Language, and (4) Personal-Social behavior. Originally
published as the Gesell Developmental Schedules in 1925, these developmental schedules, most
recently updated in 2010, continue to serve and guide pediatricians and psychologists throughout the
world today.
ed on December 14, 2015by Sitwe
Reference as: Mkandawire, S. B. (2015). LTC 1000 Theories of Literacy and Theories of
Literacy Development. The University of Zambia Lecture notes for week 9. Retrieved
from https://sitwe.wordpress.com/2015/12/14/306/
What is a Theory?
A theory is an idealized representation of reality that help us explain some natural
phenomena. It is an idea or thought pattern about a particular subject matter and how it
should be perceived. Campbell & Zazkis (2002) contended that theories are like
toothbrushes where everyone has their own and no one wants to use anyone else’s
theory. Read the following theories or views or ideas
from http://www.public.asu.edu/~petergo/courses/eng556/556.html
There are other theories or views on what literacy is or should be and all these depend
on how individuals in different field view the concept of literacy.
6.3 Theories of Literacy Development
There are a number of theories associated with literacy development. These theories are
based on people’s ideas about early literacy development and how children learn. In
trying to discuss the subject matter, we explore by asking ourselves a number of
questions such how our ideas about early literacy have developed. What researchers and
educators have influenced the way reading and writing are approached today? It is
important for teachers who work with young children and their families to be familiar
with the history of early literacy as a foundation for current practices
(http://www.education.com/reference/article/early-literacy/).
Theories of literacy development include the following: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development, Maturation Theory, Theory of Literacy Development, Stage Models of
Reading, Emergent Literacy Theory, and Family Literacy Theory. These theories help us
explain how literacy development in children is done in the early years of education.
6.3.1 Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development
The cognitive development theory by Jean Piaget contends that there are different
phases of intellectual development and each stage is associated with certain behavioural
activities. It is these activities that guide educators and theorists in literacy on what is
and what is not tenable. Educationalists using this theory believe that the nature of
content that is given to pupils for learning must relate their level of intellectual
development. In other ways, the emphasis is sequencing learner’s activities based on
their stages of intellectual development. This position is based on Piaget’s theory that
children’s cognitive growth occurs in a sequential pattern through four related stages. In
this way, what and how a child learns is determined largely by the child’s present stage
of development. The Theory of Cognitive Development was conceptualized by Jean
Piaget in 1969 who is classified as both a constructivist an a developmental theorist. It is
one of the most famous theories used to explain children’s overall cognitive
development. It can be used by literacy educators to understand the learning stages
though which students’ progress as they mature and their relationship to literacy
achievement.
Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development describes the ways in which the quality
of children’s thinking changes over time based on their intellectual development.
According to Piaget, there are four factors that affect the quality of an individual’s
thinking: biological maturation, activity, social experiences and equilibration. All these
factors are linked to Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development as discussed by Godwin,
Herb, Ricketts & Wymer (2013) namely:
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years of age) – Children use sensory exploration of the
world: They do not use or have language skills and are dependent on their senses. Class
activities for literacy development in this stage include: (i) Board books with brightly
colored pictures and (ii) Books with sound, things to touch, or smell
2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years of age) – There is rapid language development skills
in this stage as children begin to categorize things with words. Literacy activities include
story book reading and discussing the story
3. Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years of age) – In this stage of development, children
use concrete objects to begin to think about abstract concepts. Activities for Literacy
development include Graphic Organizers {Venn Diagrams, Flow Maps}and others.
4. Formal Operational (11 years of age to adult) – In this stage, children use language in
an abstract way. Activities for Literacy include the use of metacognitive reading
strategies helps students to “think about their thinking” before and after they read.
Examples: Making Inferences and Summarizing information.
A literacy study that was conducted using theory of Cognitive Development concluded
that the mental age of six and half year old child performed better on reading
achievement than younger children (https://prezi.com/a4yxj-rcptjs/theories-of-
literacy-development/). Using this research and other related studies resolved that in
applying Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, the following should be observed for
literacy education:
(i) reading instruction should not be implemented until students reached the age of 6
1/2 years of age
(ii) Initial literacy activities that are given to children at home must be linked or related
to the level of child’s intellectual development. Other studies recommendations
suggested that parents should not attempt to teach reading to their children at home as
educators would cause damage to children’s reading ability if they attempted to teach
reading to children who were too young.
(iii) Reading abilities are linked to Maturation Theory which believe learning to read is
viewed as a natural developmental occurrence. Furthermore, theorists believed that
learning to read begins in the home when children first see their parents read and have
stories read to them. In other ways, parents here are the models for children and
children strive to emulate what their parents do by all means necessary. Emulation
results in children’s first attempts at reading, which are usually quite inaccurate and
parents should reinforce children’s first attempts at reading. As children’s attempts at
reading are reinforced, their skills develop, and children begin to read for real and this is
linked to the theory of Literacy Development which purport that the ways in which
children approach the task of reading qualitatively change as they mature
(https://prezi.com/a4yxj-rcptjs/theories-of-literacy-development/).
The site further reported that theorists believe that as children’s reading skills develop,
they increase both the number and type of strategies they can use during reading
experiences
Four stages of word development stages are discussed:
1. Pre-alphabetic Stage, 2. Partial Alphabetic Stage, 3. Full Alphabetic Stage and 4. The
Consolidated Alphabetic Stage. This is what is known as the Stage Models of Reading
which explains literacy development and provides instructional guidance to promote
early literacy growth. The emphasis on these stages is the period in a child’s life between
birth and when the child can read and write at a desirable level or in a conventional
manner.
6.3.2 Maturation Theory
The maturation theory states that Children would be ready to read when they have
developed certain prerequisite skills and there is little that teachers and parents can do
to hurry the process of cognitive development. In other ways, the theory advocate for
not teaching reading until children were mature enough for instruction. Scholars for this
theory hypothesized that this could happen when children were at mental age of 6 1/2.
Aldridge & Goldman (2007) noted that the Maturational Theory of child development
was developed by Arnold Gesell with his colleagues including Morphette and
Washburne who constructed a set of behavioral norms that illustrate sequential and
predictable patterns of growth and development. Gesell contended that all children go
through similar stages, although each child may move through these stages at their own
rate (Godwin, Herb, Ricketts & Wymer, 2013).
6.3.3 Theory of Literacy Development
The theory was developed by Holdaway in 1979 and it states that learning to read was a
natural development that is closely linked to a child’s natural development of oral
language skills. Holdaway’s theory of literacy further contends that literacy development
begins in children’s homes and is based on meaningful learning experiences. There are
four key components in this theory as itemized by (Godwin etal, 2013):
(a) observation -which demand that children need to have the opportunity to observe
literacy behaviours from others. For example, parents and siblings to read for them.
(b) Collaboration – this require that children need to interact with others who provide
encouragement and help with the reading process.
(c) Practice – children need the opportunity to practice alone in order to self-evaluate,
make corrections and increase their skills independently.
(d) Performance – children need the opportunity to share their new reading skills with
those who support them.

It is important to note that these components are linked to the child’s natural
development occurrence which begins at home which leads to a gradual formation of
literacy development practices. The classroom application or characteristics of natural
literacy development include;
i. Rich home literacy environment
ii. Parent – Child interactions of modeling literacy behaviors
iii. Rich literacy classroom environment by
 Labeling key items around the room
 Wide variety of high quality reading materials
 Meaningful language experiences
 Use of big books and shared reading
Holdaway highly recommends the use of big books and shared reading to foster natural
literacy development. He believes big books can create the same positive feelings about
story time that children have when they read at home. He believes that these natural
storytelling times build student’s oral language, print tracking, concept of letters, and
words (Godwin etal, 2013).

6.3.4 Stages Model of Reading

Stage Model theorists such as Frith (1985), Ehri (1991), and Gough, Joel & Griffith
(1992), believe that children’s reading is in stages of word identification and that
students increase the number of strategies used during reading as their reading skills
develop. Lower staged reading strategies remain available to a reader as they
incorporate more difficult reading skills in later strategies. Chall (1983) as quoted by
Godwin etal, (2013) noted that there are four Stages of Word Identification: 1. Pre –
Alphabetic Stage 2. Partial Alphabetic Stage 3. Full Alphabetic Stage 4. Consolidated
Alphabetic Stage, also available on the following site (http://www.tiki-
toki.com/timeline/entry/92488/Theories-of-Literacy-Development/).
The four stages of word identification as discussed by (Godwin etal, 2013) have been
expanded in detail:
(i) Pre – Alphabetic Stage {Logographic Stage}. This stage is associated with a number
of feature which include the following: (a) Visual cues are primary method of word
identification (b) One might memorize words by their shape or “look” (c) Use of
environmental print and logos (d) Word Identification is not yet related to letter –
sound knowledge. Class activities for Literacy in this stage include collecting samples of
Environmental Print to display in the classroom.
(ii) Partial Alphabetic Stage. This stage according to Godwin etal (2013) uses “Phonetic
Cue Reading” which further demand the use of some letter – sound cues. First letter of
the word and then use just a letter or two as children develop.

(iii) Full Alphabetic Stage. In this stage students relies more on letter – sound
knowledge. Student tries to process all the letters in a word and a child may become tied
to letter-by-letter reading which slows down the reading process. Class activities for
Literacy here includes: Puzzles, Word Card Games, Magnetic Letters, Alphabet Books.
Magazine Search, Letter Bingo and Word Sort: Beginning, Middle, and End Sounds

(iv) Consolidated Alphabetic Stage. Here there is automatic knowledge of sound – letter
relationships. Students read letter patterns within words and they use word family
knowledge to aid the reading process. Activities for Literacy include word Wheels, Word
Family Sorts, Poetry, Flip Books (Godwin etal, 2013
6.3.5 Family Literacy Theory
Godwin etal, (2013) contended that family literacy refers to a series of ideas that
researchers share, including the design, implementation, and evaluation of programs to
help facilitate literacy development of family members; the relationship between family
literacy and student achievement; and the ways in which literacy is naturally used in the
home. This theory stresses the importance of family involvement on student
achievement. The actions to encourage Family Literacy include;
i. Create a two – way street between parents and teachers in order to gain information
about literacy in the home.
ii. Teach parents about the school culture and necessary skills for a student to be
successful.
iii. Help parents understand what they can do at home to help support and encourage
their children’s academic success. Many studies have been done on parent and child
reading interactions to support the importance of the connection between home and
school.
iv. Parent Volunteers Reading in the Classroom

6.3.6 Emergent Literacy Theory

The Emergent Literacy Theory states that there are levels of literacy behaviours which
children acquire before they formally get into classroom which facilitates the acquisition
of reading and writing skills at a conventional level. Emergent literacy theorists believe
that literacy development starts in the maternity ward and is continuous and ongoing.
This early literacy development provides educators with instructional guidance to
promote early literacy growth among their students. Theorists believe that children’s
development in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, and writing are all interrelated
(http://www.tiki-toki.com/timeline/entry/92488/Theories-of-Literacy-Development/).
In other ways, Emergent Literacy Theorists believe that children’s listening, speaking,
reading, and writing skills begin at birth, it also emphasizes the importance of a literacy
rich home environment. Components of a literacy rich home environment include;
having large number of books available in the home, Newspapers and Magazines,
Parents read a variety of materials and Reading is associated with pleasure, Parents
frequently read to children.
Marie Clay’s studies on emergent literacy indicated that children know a great deal
about reading and writing before they come to school, and they are able to experiment
with and apply their knowledge in various ways (Clay, 1975). Reading readiness seemed
to be an inaccurate term, since Clay’s research showed that there was not a specific
sequence of skills children needed to master prior to reading and writing. The children
she studied seemed instead to “emerge” into literacy—with writing, reading, and oral
language abilities developing together.
Emergent literacy was recently defined as “the view that literacy learning begins at birth
and is encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful activities; these
literacy behaviors change and eventually become conventional over time” (Neuman,
Copple, & Bredekamp, 2000, p. 123). From a very young age, children who are exposed
to oral and written language gradually gain control over the forms of literacy. Print-
related knowledge develops similarly to the way children learn oral language (Morrow,
1997). When children are actively engaged with interesting and meaningful reading and
writing experiences, they develop literacy knowledge early in their lives.
6.3.7 Everyday Theories
These are ideas which individual people have about certain things in the society and
how they impinge on people’s lives. Everybody makes theories almost every day about
certain practices, values and norm in the society. These theories are not known to many
people and they are not conventional in nature as they may be known to one person only
(Barton, 2007).
6.3.8 Professional Theories
These are conventionally recognized theories worldwide such as those discussed above.
In other ways, examples of professional theories include Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development, Maturation Theory, Theory of Literacy Development, Stage Models of
Reading, Emergent Literacy Theory, and Family Literacy Theory.

References
Aldridge, j. & R. L. Goldman (2007). Current Issues and Trends in Education. Boston:
Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

Barton, D. (2007). Literacy: An introduction to the ecology of the written Language. 2nd
Ed.
USA. Blackwell Publishing.

Campbell, S. R., & Zazkis, R. (2002). Toward number theory as a conceptual field. In S.
R. Campbell & R. Zazkis (Eds.) Learning and teaching number theory: Research in
cognition and instruction (pp. 1-14). Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing.

Godwin, E., Herb, B., Ricketts, A. & Wymer, S. (2013). Theories of Literacy
Development 1930s – Present Day. Available at
http//:hillerspires.wikispaces.com/file/view/Theories%

Lilly, E. & Green, C. (2004). Developing Partnerships with Families through Children’s
Literature. Boston: Pearson Allyn Bacon Prentice Hall

http://www.education.com/reference/article/early-literacy/
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