STUDENTS

WITH
LEARNING
DISABILITIES
By:
Vannie Calugay
Patricia Villarey
Joyce Damagan
Vignette About a Teener with Learning Dis
abilities

-There are many other boys and girls in regular school who are
not learning as much as they should, not because of low mental
ability, poor vision or hearing, physical disabilities and other i
mpairments, but because of learning disabilities and ADHD. In
Philippines schools, many of these children are among the repe
aters of the different grades, flunkers in local and national ac
hievement test and dropouts from elementary and secondary s
chools. But what is difficult to understand about children with
learning disabilities is that their mental ability is within the av
erage, even the above- average range.
 Basic Concepts on Learning, Mental Ability and
Learning Disabilities

The Process of Learning

-There are two main concepts in the term
learning disabilities. The first concept describ
e the learning process and the second explains
the phenomenon about children who have avera
ge or even above average ability to learn but w
ho experience difficulties in learning.

What is learning?
-Learning is the process by which experi
ence and practice result in a stable change in t
he learner’s behavior.The permanent change in
behavior is not the result of maturation or gro
wing up through the years, or because of increa
se in chronological age.
 Stages of Learning
1. The “Knowing” Stage of Learning
Acquisition and Reversion
-Acquisition of knowledge and skills takes place w
hen the instructional goals and objectives, skills a
nd competencies, strategies and materials match
the learning ability of the student.
-In reversion the content and skills learned earlie
r are further strengthened to increase accuracy
and mastery.

Proficiency and Automaticity

-are determined by the strength of prior learning
-the goal is to attain fluency so that the skills ar
e automatically applied to appropriate situation in
everyday life.
 Stages of Learning
2. The “Using” stage of Learning
Maintenance
-When the student continues to use the skills thus acquired with proficiency and au
tomaticity over time without explicit instruction, coaching, prompt, help or reinforc
ement, then maintenance is achieved.
Application of the skills at home and in other environments outside the school is set
up.
Generalization
-Once a skill is learned proficiently, it should be available for use in any appropriat
e situation. The goals of generalization are: (a) for the learner to recognize a new or
different stimulus as a prompt to apply the learned skills and (b) to use the acquired
skills in various situation, behaviors, setting and time. The ability to apply generaliza
tion is a major indicator of learning.
 Stages of Learning
3. The “inventing” Stage of Learning
Adaptation
-In the last stage of learning, the student recognizes the need to apply learned skil
ls in situation outside the school. Although the basic skills have been learned earlier,
the student is able to think how they can be used to achieve a current objective in a
new situation with or without assistance or coaching vand prompts.
 Measures of Mental Ability
-Another significant concept to understand in teaching children with learni
ng disabilities is the level of the learner’s intellectual functioning or menta
l ability.

Concept 1.Standardized tests of mental ability measure intellectual functio

ning.
Standardized tests of mental ability have been proven to be the best single predic
tion of school achievement. A Standardized mental ability test or IQ test consist of
questions and problem solving tasks assumed to require certain amounts of intelligen
ce to answer or solve correctly. An IQ test samples only a small portion of an individ
ual’s full range of skills and abilities. The child’s performance in intelligence tests is
used to derive a score that represent his or her overall intelligence.
Concept 2. IQ scores seem to be distributed throughout the population according
to the normal curve.
Concept 3. Intelligence testing is not an exact science.
-There are many factors or variables that can affect an individual’s IQ score, such
as, motivation, the time and location of administration and the inconsistency or bias
of the test administrator in scoring responses that are not precisely covered by the
test manual. Even the selection of the test to use can affect the individual’s IQ sco
re.
Concept 4. There are children whose IQ scores fall within the average as
well as the above average areas of the normal curve who experience learni
ng difficulties.
-These are not learning like their peers not because their mental ability is below ave
rage. In fact, most children with learning difficulties have average intellectual func
tioning. They do not belong to the group of children with mental retardation but the
y cannot learn most of the basic learning competencies for average children. These
children have learning disabilities.
 Definition of Learning Disabilities

-The category of learning disabilities in special education, its concepts and definition h
as been the subject of much discussion, debate and research in the United States dur
ing the past 50 years. The term learning disabilities was introduced in 1963 by Dr. Sa
muel Kirk, a well- known American special education expert. At present the number of
American children identified to be learning disabled who receive special education ser
vice.

In the Philippines, special education for children with learning disabilities is only in its
early years of implementation. Unlike the special education programs for children with
mental retardation, giftedness and talent, visual and hearing impairments and behavior
problem that date back to the 1950s, there are very few schools all over the country t
hat have started to offer programs for children with learning disabilities
The Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requir
es that the school use a Response to Intervention (RTI) mo
del to determine whether a student has a learning disabilit
y.
 3 CRITERIA IN DETERMINING THE
PRESENCE OF DISABILITY
1. Severe discrepancy between the child’s potential and
actual achievement
- Learning disabilities is present when mental ability tests and standardize
d achievement test results show discrepancy between general mental abilit
y and achievement in school.
- There are pieces of evidence of a discrepancy score of two or greater th
an two in intellectual ability and achievement in one or more of the followin
g areas:
Oral expression Reasoning
Written expression
Listening comprehension
Reading comprehension
Basic reading skills
Mathematics Calculation
2. Exclusion or absence of mental retardation, sensory impairm
ent and other disabilities
-The exclusion criterion means that a child has significant p
roblems that cannot be explained by mental retardation, sensory impai
rment like low vision, blindness, hearing impairment, emotional disturba
nce or lack of opportunity to learn.

3. Need for special education services

-Teaching disabilities involves strategies that are unique, unc
ommon, and unusual quality. They need special education services to re
mediate their achievement deficiencies.
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS
-It remains consistent across grade leve
ls both in school, in the community and a
t home. The common behavior problems
are inattention, impulsivity and hyperact
ivity.
short attention span (restless, easily dis
tracted)
PERCEPTUAL, PERCEPTUAL MOTOR AND
GENERAL COORDINATION PROBLEMS
1. Children with learning disabiliti What I did last summer
Mhat I bib last snwwer
es exhibit visual and/or auditory My friend Robbie bought a dog
perceptual disabilities. They have from the pet shop for P 2,800.00 .
Wy frieub Roddie
gavedonght a bop frow
problems in seeing and rememberi His parents
the said
det shod forhe
him the
6 2,800.00.
money
His darents
ng visual shapes that lead to reve but that would have to pay
pave hiw the wouey pnt saip that he
rsals (sees "b" for "d" or "p", "6" half to them over the summer by
wonlp have to day half to thew over the
doing special chores around the yard
for "9", "pots" for "stop" or "post snwwer dy poinp sbecial chores aronud
Heyarp.
figured he could repayrebay
his
") the He fipnreb he conlp
parents 1500
his dareuts 1500pesos.
desos.
Later that day, I came over to share
2. They have difficulties with phy Later that pay, I cawe over to share
his excitement.
sical activities that involve gross sih exciteweut. With the bop’s pip ears
Withaupthe dog’s tail,
mappinb big we
ears andall
blayeb wagging
bay.
and fine motor skills. tail, we played all day.
Roddie chose a dlne collar for hiw. The
Robbie
E of nschose
bassepaonr
blue collar
snwwer fordike
pays him.
3. They have problem with attent The 3ripinp,
of ushikiup,
passedandour summer
blayinp pall. days
ion and hyperactivity. bike riding, hiking, and playing ball.
MEMORY, COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE
PROBLEMS
Problems in memory, cognitive and metacognitive are related. If there
is a problem in memory then there are also problems in understanding
or cognition. Though smart they can forget the lesson easily and show
deficits memory because they do not use memory strategies like
rehearsal, categorizing and use of mnemonics.

PROBLEMS IN SOCIAL COMPETENCE

 Causes of Learning Disabilities

The causes of learning disabilities are attributed to genetic and enviro

nmental factors.

• Over the years, genetic researches show

that learning disabilities tend to run in fam
ilies and heredity is a possible cause.
• Identical or Monozygotic twins- When one
twin has a reading disability, the other twin
is more likely also to have a reading disabili
ty
• Fraternal or Dizygotic twins- Research sh
ows that it is not true in their case. Frater
nal twins carry different physical and ment
al traits.
 The Body’s Control System: Brain and Nerves

The Brain
• The brain and nervous system control our perceptions, thoughts, and voluntary actions,
and also most of the body’s internal processes.
• The brain makes up just two percent of the average adult’s weight but uses 20 percen
t of oxyen intake.
• The are three major areas in the brain: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain
stem.
Cerebrum- The largest part of the brain, and is associated with conscious activities and int
elligence. It is divided into two hemispheres, and consist of grey matter or neuron cells and
white matter or nerve fibers.
Cerebellum- Coordinates movement and balance.
Brain stem- Connects the brain to the spinal cord.
Structure and Regions in the Human
Brain The Brain’s Four Lobes
• The brain has about one thousand billion nerve cells.

• The average adult male brain weighs 1.4 kilograms or 3 pounds; the adult femal
e brain weighs 1.25 kilograms or 2.75 pounds. The mass of brain tissue reache
s a maximum at the age 20 years and thereafter decreases.
 The Nervous System

A network of nerves extends

throughout our bodies, carryi
ng sensory information to the
brain and instructions from it
. The Brain and the spinal cor
d together form the central n
ervous system (CNS). The res
t of the network is known as t
he peripheral nervous system
(PNS).
 The Genetic Factors in Learning Disabilities

1. Brain Damage- An increasing consensus attributes learning disabilities to neurological d

ysfunction or central nervous system pathology. The models on the causes of learning di
sabilities state that the condition can be:
a. Hereditary
b. Innate
c. Congenital or constitutional

In recent year, neurologists and other professionals use advance technology to assses brain
activities more accurately. Some of the new procedures are:
a. Electroencephalogram or EEG- This is a graphic measure and recording of
the brain’s electrical impulses.
b. Computerized tomographic scans or CT- This is neuroimaging technique w
hereby X-rays of the brain compiled by a computer to produce an overall pic
ture of the brain.
c.Magnetic resonance imaging or MRI- This is neuroimaging technique where
by radiowaves are used to produce cross-sectional images of the brain.
 The Genetic Factors in Learning Disabilities

2. Biochemical Imbalance- Some researchers claim that biochemical disturbances in

a child’s body cause learning disabilities. A study in 1975 (Feingold) suggested that
artificial food colors, flavors, preservatives, salicylates and megavitamins in many o
f the foods that children eat can cause learning disabilities and hyperactivity.
 The Genetic Factors in Learning Disabilities

3. Environmental Factors- The environmental factors are difficult to study. There

are pieces of evidence that show poverty, malnutrition and inadequate learning exp
eriences that include poor teaching and lack of instructional materials as causes of
environmental disadvantage that make children prone to learning problems.

Three types of environmental influences be;ieved to be related to children’s learni

ng problems are: (Lovitt 1978)
1. Emotional Disturbance
2. Lack of motivation
3. Poor instruction
 Assessment of Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities is a complex condition. Therefore, a battery of three to five tests are used t
o identify students who may have learning disabilities. These are norm-referenced tests, process
tests, informal reading inventories, criterion referenced tests, and direct daily measurement of le
arning. (Heward, 2003).

1. Norm-referenced Tests
2. Process Tests
3. Informal Reading Inventories
4. Criterion Referenced Tests
5. Direct Daily Measurement
Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities

Special education experts highly rec

ommend the use of the diagnostic-pr
escriptive-evaluation approach in te-
aching children with learning disabil-
ities as well as those with mental ret
a-rdation.
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit-Hype
ractivity Disorder (ADHD)

Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disord

er (ADHD) are conditions in which children exhibit significant differences in t
he ability to pay attention and to engage in active work compared to their nor
mal peers.

There is attention deficit when the child is not able to attend to a task expec
ted of his or her age and grade level. Hyperactivity is present when the child
enegages in high rates of purposeless movement. Impulsivity is displayed throu
gh inappropriate behavior.

The essential feature of ADD/ADHD is a persistent pattern of combination o

f inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that is more frequent and severe,
maladaptive and inconsistent with the developmental level of the child.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual on Mental Disorders IV of t
he American Psychiatric Association DSM IV, APA gives the sympt
oms and states that either of 1 or 2 are present.

1. Six or more of the following eight symptoms of inattention have persisted for a
t least six months.
a. often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistake
in schoolwork, work or other activities.
b. often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities.
c. often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish school
work, chores or duties in the workplace.
d. often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities.
e. often avoids dislikes or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sust
ained mental effort susch as schoolwork or homework.
f. often loses things necessary for tasks or activities such as toys, school
assignments, pencils, books or tools.
g. is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli.
h. is often forgetful in daily activities.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual on Mental Disorders IV of th
e American Psychiatric Association DSM IV, APA gives the sympto
ms and states that either of 1 or 2 are present.

2. Six or more of the eight symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity hyperactivity:

a. often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat.
b. often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining se
ated is expected.
c. often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inapprop
riate. In adolescents and adults this is an expression of subjective feelings
of restlessness.
d. often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly.
e. is often on the go or often acts as if driven by motor.

IMPULSIVITY:
a. often blurts out answers before questions have been completed.
b. often has difficulty waiting turn.
c. often interrupts or intrudes on others, butts into conversations or games.
Some symptoms are present before age 7.
 The ADD/ADHD Iceberg

ADD/ADHD is a complex condition. The condition may

range from mild, moderate, severe to profound and may
exist together with other disabilities. While there are
observable symptoms and characteristics, many of the
signs are not visible. Compared to an iceberg where only
one-eighth can be seen in the surface of the ocean,
most of the symptoms and characteristics are not
observable and remain hidden in the person’s behavior.