CSS Islamic Studies Notes

INSTITUTE FOR CENTRAL SUPERIOR SERVICES
ISLAMIC STUDIES NOTES

Table & contents
Sr.# Topic name Page. #
1. Concept of Islam 03
2. Importance of Deen in human life 07
3. Different between Deen and Religion 13
4. Distinctive aspects of Islam 19
5. Tawhid (Monotheism) and its Impacts 25
6. Belief in Risalat (Prophethood) 33
7. Khatam E Nabuwwat (Finality of Prophethood) 33
8. Finality of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH): 38
9. Belief in AKHIRAT (hereafter) and its impacts 43
10. Belief in the revealed books 49
11. Islamic concept of worship 50
12. Salat (Prayer) and its impacts 55
13. Zakat (Poor Due) and its impacts 67
14. Saum (Fasting) and its impacts 78
15. Hajj (Pilgrimage) and its impacts 91
16. Prophet (PBUH) as role model for individual 102
17. Prophet (PBUH) as role model for diplomat 107
18. Prophet as military strategist 116
19. The prophet (PBUH) as Peacemaker 125
20. The prophet (PBUH) As Educator 134
21. Human rights & status of woman in Islam 146
22. Human rights in Islam 146
23. Status of Women in Islam 160
24. Dignity of Men and Women 166
25. Islamic civilization and culture 175
26. Salient features of Islamic civilization 176
27. The motives and factors of Islamic civilization 177
28. Elements of Islamic Civilization 178
29. Distinctions of Islamic civilization: 180
30. Islam and the world 190
31. Clash of civilization: Myth and reality 200
32. Muslim World and the Contemporary Challenges 207
33. Rise of Extremism and Modern Muslim Fundamentalism 215
34. Public Administration and Governance in Islam 221
35. Quranic Guidance On Good Governance 225
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36. Concept of Governance and its Applications in the Light Sunnah 238
37. Governance Structure in Islam 245
38. Sources of Islamic Law 249
39. Administration under pious caliphate 262
40. Responsibilities of Civil Servants in Islam 273
41. System of Accountability (Hisbah) in Islam 278
42. Social System of Islam 282
43. Political System of Islam 296
44. Economic System of Islam 307
45. Legal System of Islam 319
46. Judicial System of Islam 324
47. Moral System In Islam 331
48. Relationship of Morality and Faith 338
49. Ijma and its Procedure 346
2-L-A Gullberg III, Akbar Market Kalma Chowk Lahore #04235949199; 03008006931
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Concept of Islam
Introduction:
“It is not righteousness that you turn your faces towards the East or West, but righteousness is of
him who believe in Allah, the Last Day, the Angels, the Books and the Prophets; and spends of his money
for love of Him, on the relatives and the orphans and the needy, the way farer, the beggars, and for
ransoming of captives, and who establishes Salat and pays Zakat, and those who fulfill their promises
which they have made and the patient in affections and the steadfast in the time of War, it is these people
who in poverty have proved truthful and it is these who are the God-fearing” (Albaqarah 2:177)
Hazrat Umar (R.A) Narrates that Allah’s apostle said: Islam is based on (the following) five principles:
1. To justify that none has the right to be worshiped but Allah and Muhammad is Allah’s apostle.
2. To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly
3. To pay Zakat (i.e. obligatory charity)
4. To perform Hajj
5. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan
1- Literal Meaning of Islam
The word “Islam” is from the root of Arabic word SLM, which means “to surrender, to submit, to
yield, to give one’s self up. Thus it means “he committed himself to the will of Allah” or “he became
a Muslim”. The other major shade of meaning in the root is “to become reconciled with one another
or “to make peace”. Salam means “peace”. So does Silm, which also means “the religion of Islam.”
Imam Raghib al-Isfahani says in his al-Mufradat fi Gharaib al-Quran: “Islam in law, is
of two kinds: one is a simple confession with the tongue…. The other is that along with confession,
there is belief in the heart and a fulfillment in practice, and resignation to God in whatever He brings
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to pass or decrease”. Imam Raghib further says: “Islam means entering into salam, and salam and
slim both signify peace.”
Sayed Ameer Ali in his epic book “The Spirit of Islam” defines Islam as: “Salam (Salaam),
in its primary sense, means, to be tranquil, at rest, to have done one’s duty, to have paid up, to be at
perfect peace ; in its secondary sense to surrender oneself to Him with whom peace is made. The
noun derived from it means peace, greeting, safety, salvation. The word does not imply, as is
commonly supposed, absolute submission to God’s will, but means, on the contrary, striving after
righteousness”.
2- Terminological Meanings of Islam:
Islam is an Arabic word that denotes submission, surrender, and obedience. As a religion, Islam
stands for complete submission and obedience to Allah—that is why it is called Islam. The other
literal meaning of the word “Islam” is “Peace”. This signifies that one can achieve real peace of body
and of mind only through submission and obedience to Allah. Such a life of obedience brings peace
of the heart and establishes real peace in society at large. Those who believe and whose hearts find
rest in the remembrance of God-
“Indeed it is in the remembrance of Allah alone that the heart of man finds rest those who believe and
act righteously, joy is for them, and a blissful home return to. (13: 28-29)”
3- Concept of Islam
(i) The basic concept of Islam is that the whole universe was created by Allah, and who is the
Lord and sovereign of the universe, which he alone sustains. He created man and appointed
for each human being a fixed period of life that he is to spend upon the earth. Allah has
prescribe a certain code of life as the correct mankind, but has, at the same time, conferred
upon man the freedom of choice as to whether or not he adopts this code as the actual basis of
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his life. One who chooses to follow the code revealed by Allah become a Muslim (believer)
and one who refuse to follow it becomes a Kafir (Disbeliever).
(ii) Sayed Ameer Ali elaborates the concept of Islam as: “The essence of the ethical principles
involved and embodied in Islam is thus summarized in the second chapter of Quran. “There is
no doubt in this book, a guidance to the pious, who believe in the unseen, who observe the
prayers, and distributes (charity) out of what We have bestowed on them and who believe in
that which We have commissioned others with before thee, and who have assurance in the
life to come;---- these have received the direction of their Lord”.
4- Exposition of Religion of Islam:
Ahmad A. Galwash in his book “The Religion of Islam” has summarized the concept of
Islam as under; “The word Islam which literally signifies ‘resignation’ (to God’s will), is a
comprehensive name commonly applied to the religion of the followers of the Prophet
Mohammad (PBUH), It embodies the various sections of the law of Mohammad (PBUH) which
Allah has established for the guidance of His people, both for the worship of their Lord, and for
the duties of life.
These sections are five in Number namely:
(i) Beliefs
(ii) Practicle Devotions;
(iii) Transations;
(iv) Moralities;
(v) Punishments
(a) Beliefs: Five Articles of Faith
Beliefs embrace the five articles of the faith of Mohammad (PBUH) namely; Belief in:
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1. God 2. His Angles 3. His Books 4. His prophets 5. The Day of Resurrection
(b) Devotion/Worship: Five Pillars of Islam
Devotions are sub divided into five articles of practice:
1. Rectal of the creed (Kalimah)
2. Prayers to Allah (Salat);
3. Paying legal alms (Zakat);
4. Fasting the month of Ramadan (Saum);
5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) to the Temple of Makkah once in a life time, if means allow it.
 Devotion also embraces legal warfare (Jihad) for the defense of the religion of
Islam.
(c) Transactions
Transactions include such duties as are required between man and man, and may be divided
into three sub-divisions, namely: Contests; Nuptials; and Securities. Almost all various sections of
civil jurisprudence relating to barter, sale, agency, larceny, marriage, divorce, dower, partnership,
claims etc.., are embraced under those three heads.
(d) Moralities
Moralities embrace the consideration of all those moral excellences which are enjoined in the
Quran and in the teachings of the Prophet (PBUH), such as, Sincerity; Confidence in Allah; Humility;
Resignation; Keeping worldly ambitions within bounds; Giving good council and advice;
Contentment; Liberty; Love to Allah and man; Patience; Ethical instructions and rules of conduct
relating to:
(e) Punishments;
Punishments includes
1. Penalties exacted for manslaughter or serious bodily injures,
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2. Punishment for theft by the loss of a hand,
3. Punishment for fornication and adultery: stoning for a married person and one
hundred lashes for an unmarried person,
4. Punishment for slander by eighty lashes,
5. Punishment for apostasy by death,
6. Punishment for inebriation by Eighty lashes,
IMPORTANCE OF DEEN IN HUMAN LIFE
Introduction:
Deen plays a vital role in human life and society. Its massage is real and practical for it
comprehensive all human actions. It explains the Tawhid doctrine effectively. It tells us how to live a
virtuous life, how to conduct ourselves in public or at home, how to treat parents, relations, friends,
strangers, the poor and orphans; it instructs us about economic and about our social, educational and
political ends. It deals with the internal and foreign affairs, in peacetime and during war. It provides
advice in matters concerning marriage, divorce, birth and death, property, inheritance, buying and selling,
trade and commerce, civil and criminal law and many other practical matters. In short, it is complete code
of life, which provides guidance in all human situations. A divine religion such as Islam addresses all
people, of all ages, irrespective of race and colour through Quran.
“We have explained in detail in this Quran for the benefit of mankind, every kind of similitude. But man
is, in most things, contentious. And what is there to keep men back from believing, now that Guidance
has come to them?” (18: 54-55)
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Religion and divine Religion (Islam):
Religion deals man’s relations with God whereas Deen deals both with man’s relation with God
and his fellow beings. Religion deals with private affairs of life whereas Deen covers all aspects of life,
individuals as well as collective. In other words Deen is all embracing terms which includes religio-socio-
politico-economic systems. It touches upon the material as well as spiritual dimensions of human
existence and insists that all our thoughts and deeds should be performed with God consciousness. Islam
is not only a religion but also a Deen, which means a complete code of life.
What is religion?
The word religion is commonly used in a narrow sense, its scope being limited to a set of dogmas,
some rituals for worship, and a number of social customs to celebrate important life-events. Religion
deals with individual life only.
i. According to Sir E.B Taylor:
“Religion means the belief in spiritual beings”
ii. According to Mohammad Mazhar-uddin Siddiqui
“Religion affects every step of life. It has great impact on political life, economic
domain, philosophy and other spheres of life. It glorifies the concept of Universe”.
iii. Ibn-Khaldun (1332-1406)
“(Devine) Religions are introduced by Allah in order to leads mankind to eternal
blessings. Their objective is to worship Allah as well as management of worldly affairs.
Religion provides guidelines to establish a composite state and government on the
fundamentals enjoined by Allah”.
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Necessity of Religion:
i. Man is naturally a religious being; he requires a metaphysical being to fall upon
in his quest for unresolved mysteries of universe, life, death etc.
ii. Religion create mental satisfactions by giving meaning to life
iii. Religion also plays a very significant role in moral and ethical development of
society.
iv. Religion teaches msn as to how to seek support of God and how to please him.
v. Religion teaches equality and dignity of mankind.
vi. Religion gives us the concept of brotherhood of mankind.
vii. Religion teaches such concept as tolerance, coexistence and mutual cooperation
which are essentials for world peace.
viii. Religion leads to purification of soul.
ix. Research takes place in various branches of knowledge because of motivation
provided by religion.
x. Religion teaches us to care for the needy, the crippled, the minorities, the women,
the weak and all and sundry.
Concept of Deen:
Deen refers to a complete code of life. Religion deals man’s relation with God whereas Deen
deals both with man’s relation with God and his fellow beings. Religion deals with private affairs of life
whereas Deen covers all aspects of life, individual as well as collective. In other words Deen is all
embracing term which includes religion-socio-politico-economic systems. It touches upon the material as
well as spiritual dimensions of human existence. In this regard, Islam is not only a religion but also a
Deen as it is a complete code of life.
According to Dr. Khalifa Abdul Hakim:
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“Islam means peace as well as submission… The purpose of life is to live it well; in other words,
well being. The purpose of life is life edified, harmonized, enriched, strengthened and elevated”. He
further went to say that;
“The carving for peace is inherent in human nature; hence being naturally carves for Islam or peace”.
Importance of Deen in Human life
1. Deen Provides Guidance to Mankind:
The primary function of Deen is to guide people towards the right path: “And We have sent
down to you the Book explaining all things as a guide, a Mercy and Glad tidings to Muslims”. The
Quran revelation which continuous the import of Deen of Islam is universal; but only the righteous
ones will take heed of it; “Surely, this Quran guides to that which is most right”. (5:17) and the God-
fearing ones: “This is the Book; in it is Guidance sure, without doubt, to those who fear Allah”.
2. Deen provides a clear path:
It is Divine Light of God which shows the clear path right from wrong, the true form the
false; “there has come to you from Allah a new light and a manifest Book. (5:17) and again in Surah
Taghabun; “Believe, therefore, in Allah and His Messenger; and in the Light which We have sent
down.”
3. Deen Leads Mankind from darkness to light
The Quran leads people out of the ignorance of darkness and evil into the light of goodness and
piety; “A Book which We have revealed unto you, in order that you might lead Mankind out of the
depths of darkness into light by the leave of their Lord”.This Divine Light offers a ray of hope to
those who have lost their way in the wildness of darkness: “He is the One Who sends to His servants
Manifest signs, that he may leads you from the depths of darkness into light”. (57:9)
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4. Divine Religion is a source of Wisdom and knowledge:
The book of Deen contains unsurpassable knowledge and wisdom: “Yasin’ by the Quran, full of
wisdom.” (4:113). Mohammad (PBUH) was taught the wisdom of the Quran so that he in turn could
divulge it to the rest of mankind.
5. Deen sets the criterion for the Right and wrong:
The Quran provides guidance on judgment and the justice:
“Ramadan is the month in which was sent down the Quran, as a guide to mankind, also clear
Signs for guidance and judgment between right and wrong”. (2:185) It is undoubtedly a manifest
criterion between truth and falsehood: “It is He who sent down to you, in truth, the Book as a guide to
mankind, and He sent down the criterion of judgment between right and wrong”. (3:3)
6. Deen Is spiritual Cure of Modern Man
God promises mercy to those who follow the guidance of the Quran: “And this is a Book
which we have revealed as a blessing; so follow it and be righteous, that you may receive mercy.
(6:155). This is the only hope for the spiritual future of man, a cure for the lost and hurts souls, a
guide for the evil and misled ones, and a joy for those who repent. “We sent down the3 Quran that
which is a healing and a Mercy to those who believe”. (17:82)
7. Teachings of Deen are Guard against Evil
The Quran develops fear of the God, and reverence and love for Him: thus it guards those
against those evils; “It is a Quran in Arabic without crookedness therein, in order that they may guard
against evil”. (39:28) A true believer is shield by the powerful cover of the Quran against evil and
wicked ways: Thus does Allah make His signs clear to men that they learn self-restraint (and guard
themselves against evil)”. (2:187)
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8. Deen Provides a Clear Message to Mankind
Allah says: “This is a Book with verses or fundamental (of established meaning), further
explained in the details—from One is wise and well-acquainted with all things”. (11:1) The details of
life are covered precisely: “And We have sent down to you the the Book explaining all
things”.(16:89) Problems of life are explained form all points of view and by different way, so as to
elucidate its meaning to any layman: “We have explained things in various ways in this Quran in
order that they may receive admonition, but it only increases their fight form the Truth.” (17:41)
Divine messages, no matter how simple, are always ignored and rejected by those who do not believe
in God.
9. Deen Induces In Man Peity and Remembrance of God
Piety refers to the inner fear man must have for his Creator. This profound fear centralizes the
concept of God and His remembrance in the mind of the believer: “Thus We have sent the Quran in
Arabic and explained therein detail some of the warnings, in oreder that they may fear Allah, or that it
may cause their remembrance of Him.” (20:113) God has clarified His massage aptly in the Quran for
man to attain Taqwa: “Thus does God make clear His Message to men, that they may fear Him.”
(187)
10. Deen Provides Principles for establishment of Justice
A vital function of the Deen is to guide in the establishment of balanced system of justice and
equality: “We have sent down to you the Book in truth that you might judge between men, as guided
by Allah.” (4:105)
Attempt will be made to defeat the system of justice. The Quran therefore, warns the
righteous to be on guard against such people and exhorts them always to seek the help of God for
protection: “it is God who has sent down the book which is truth, and the balance to Judge between
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right or wrong.’ (42:17) Thus the Quran, Being the last of the revealed Books and Islam provide the
most comprehensive Code of Justice.
Critical Assessment:
a. Professor H.A.R Gibb once said of Islam as a Deen
“Within the western world Islam still maintains the balance between exaggerated
opposites. Opposed equally to the anarchy of European nationalism and the regimentation of
Russian communism, it has not yet succumbed to that obsession with the economic side of
life which is characteristic of present day Europe and present day Russia alike.”
DIFFERENT BETWEEN DEEN AND RELIGION
Introduction:
Islam is not only a religion but also a Deen, which means a complete code of life. Religion deals
man’s relation with God whereas Deen deals both with man’s relation with God and his fellow beings.
Religion deals with private affairs of life whereas Deen covers all aspects of life, individual as well as
collective. In other words Deen is all embracing term which includes religio-socio-politico-economic
system. It touches upone the material as well as spiritual dimensions of human existence and insists that
all our thoughts and deeds should be performed with the will of God.
What is Religion?
The word religion is commonly used in a narrow sense, its scope limited to a set of dogmas, some
rituals for worship, and a number of social customs to celebrate important life events. Religion deals with
individual life only.
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What is Deen?
Contrary to religion Deen covers all aspects of human life. It covers both spiritual/scared matters
and mundane/secular affairs of this world. In brief, religion deals with man’s relation with God; while
Deen deals both man’s relation with God as well As his fellow beings. Deen provides guidance in the
individual and collective affairs. It offers a belief system, concept of worship to fulfill the spiritual and
metaphysical needs of individual, and provides social, political, economic, legal codes and cultural norms
for the betterment of society-taken as one community. When the term Deen is used for Islam, it obviously
means a system of life where Allah is worshipped and obeyed, not just in the narrow religious sense, but
in a manner that includes all aspects of human life. “This day, I have perfected your Deen for you,
completed my favor upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your Deen.”
Hence an impartial critic like Dr. Michael Hart is compelled to confess that “My choice of
Mohammad to lead the list of the world’s most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be
questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the
religious and secular level.”
Meaning of Deen
There is several meaning of Deen.
a. One meaning is honour, government, empire, monarchy and ruleship.
b. The second meaning is quite opposite to it i.e. subordination, obedience, slavery, servitude
and subjection.
c. Third meaning is to account, to give judgment, and dispense reward and punishment of
actions.
The word Deen has been Used in the Quran in all these three meanings.
Allah says;
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“Deen with Allah is al Islam.” (3:19)
“And whosoever seeks a Deen other than Islam, it will not be accepted from Him.” (3:85)
“And fight them until persecution is no more and Deen is all for Allah.” (8:39)
Total Implementation of Islam: Requirement of Islam as Deen
The essence of true and authentic Islamic thought consists of the idea that it is not enough to
practice in the personal life only, but that the teaching of the Quran and those Sunnah need also be
implemented in their totality in the social, economic, and political fields. In other words, it implies the
establishment of the sovereignty of Allah in the “religious’ as well as “Mundane” domains, or the
removal of the dichotomy between collective life and state authority on the one hand and Divine guidance
on the other. The underlying and pervasive ideas in this context, which is also an integral part of the
Islamic evolutionary thought, is that the struggle to establish unqualified and unconditional ascendancy of
the Holy Quran and the Sunnah of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) is obligatory upon all members of the
Muslim Ummah. The goal of this is to achieve the domination of the true way of life (Deen al Haq), so
that the Islamic system of social justice which is the most balanced synthesis of human freedom,
fraternity, and equality, and which embodies the Divine attributes of Benevolence, Providence, and
Justice- can be established on earth.
Comparison of Deen and Religion:
A comparative study of religion or Madhab, and Deen, would help us understand the vital and
fundamental characteristics of each and the differences between the two:
Madhab/Religion Deen
Madhab is merely some sort of subjective Deen is an objective reality and a system of
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experience and is concerned only with the so- collective life.
called private relationship between God and man.
Every follower of a Madhab is satisfied that he The aim of Deen the other hand is the welfare and
established a communion with the Almighty, and progress of all mankind, and the character and
the objective of each individual is his own constitution of a society indicates whether or not it
salvation. is founded upon the Divine Law.
Madhab does not afford us any objective criterion In a social order governed by Deen, the
by which we could determine whether or not our development of a collective and harmonious life
actions are producing the desired results. correctly indicates whether or not the people are
pursuing the right course.
Madhab is hostile to scientific investigation and is Deen helps in the development of human reason
an adversary of of reason, so that it could flourish and knowledge, allows full freedom to accept or
unhampered with the aid of a blind faith. reject on the basis of reason and arguments, and
encourages investigation and discovery of all the
natural phenomena to illumine the path of human
life and its advancement in the light of the
permanent Values.
Madhab follows the susceptibilities and prejudices Deen seeks to lead men to a path of life that is in
of me and pampers them. harmony with the realities of life.
In every age, therefore, Madhab sets up new idols But Deen is rational and radical: it breaks all idols,
and mumbo-jumbo in order to keep the people’s old and new, and is never variable in its principles.
attention away from the real problems of life.
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Madhab includes a perpetual sense of fear in the While Deen treats fear as a form of polytheism and
minds of men and seeks to frighten them into seeks to make men courageous, daring and self-
conformity. reliant.
Madhab prompts men to how before every seat of Deen encourages man to walk about with his head
authority and prestige, religious as well as erect, and attain self-confidence.
temporal.
Madhab includes man to flee from struggle of life. But Deen calls upon him to face the realities of life
squarely, whatever the hazard.
Madhab encourages beliefe in fatalism, and this Deen gives man power to challenge fate, and
tends to dissuade man from active life and self- provides energy for a life of activity and self-
development. development.
Madhab enjoins religious meditation in the name Deen exhorts men to assert themselves and
of worship and thus induces self-deception. struggle perpetually for the establishment of the
Divine Social Order, and its betterment when
attained. Worship in Deen really means obedience
to the Laws of God.
Madhab denounces everything new and declares Deen holds that the needs and demands of human
all innovation as sin. life keep changing with the change in the
conditions of life; change and innovation are,
therefore, demanded by life itself. Only the Divine
Laws are immutable.
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Difference between Deen and Shariah:
The meaning of Shariah is mode and path. When one has acknowledged God as one’s sovereign
and accepted His servitude and has also admitted that the Messenger is the tangible ruler holding
authority on His and that Book has been sent by Him, it will mean one has entered Deen. After this, the
mode in which Muslim to serve God and the path he has traverse in order to obey him is called Shariah.
This mode and path has been indicated by God through his messenger who alon teaches the method of
worshiping the Master the way to become pure and clean. The Messenger shows us the path of
righteousness and piety, tha manner in which rights are discharged, the method of carrying on
transactions and dealings with fellow-beings and the mode of leading one’s life. But the difference is this
that while Deen always was, has been, and is still one and the same, numberous Shariah came, many were
cancelled, several were changed but these alternations did not change the Deen. The Deen of Noah was
the same as that of Abrahim, Moses, Jesus, Shuaib Saleh, Hud and Mohammad (PBUH) but the same
Shariahs of these prophets varied from each other to some extent. The modes of saying prayer and
observing fast were of one kind with one prophet and of another kind with the other. Injunction about
Halal and Haram, rules of cleanliness and codes of marriage, divorce and inheritance somewhat differed
from one Sharrah to another. In spite of this, all were Muslims the followers of Noah, the followers of
Abraham, the followers of Jesus and those Moses, and we are too Muslims because Deen is one and the
same for all. This shows that Deen is unaffected by differences in the rules of Shariah. Deen remains one
though modes of following it differ.
DISTINCTIVE ASPECTS OF ISLAM
Introduction:
Islam is a religion of truth. It is the embodiment of the code of life which God, the Creater and Lord
of the universe, has revealed for the guidance of mankind. For the proper development of human life, man
needs two elements:
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(a) The resources to maintain life and to fulfill the material needs of the individual and society,
(b) Knowledge of the principles of the individual and social behavior to enable man to fulfill himself
and to maintain Justice and tranquility in human life. The Lord of the universe has provided for
both of these in full measure. To cater to the material needs of man, He has put all of the nature’s
resources at his disposal. To provide for his spiritual, social, and cultural needs, He has raised His
prophets from among men and has revealed to them the code of life that can guide man’s steps to
the right path. This code of life is known as Islam, the religion preached by all of the prophets of
God. God said:
“Say, O Mohammad we believe in God and in the revelation given to us, and to
Abraham, Ismael, Isaac Jacob and the tribes. We believe in the Revelation that was sent to Moses,
Jesus and all other Prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between them, and to Him
we surrender.” (3:83;2:136)
Basic Building Blocks of Islamic Belief System:
a. Tawhid: The Bedrock of Islam
The starting point of Islam is the belief in the oneness of God (Tawhid). Twahid is a
revolutionary concept and constitutes the essence of the teachings of Islam. It means that
there is only one supreme Lord of the universe. He is omnipotent, omnipresent and the
sustainer of the world and of mankind.
We find that the universe is like a superbly written, fascinating book can it be without an
author? Truly, God said:
“O Mankind: worship your Lord, Who created you and those before you, so that you may
ward off evil; Who has made the earth a resting place for you, the sky a canopy and Who
causes water to pour down from the heavens, thereby producing fruits as food for you. So do
not set up rivals to God, when you know better. (Quran 2:21-22)
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b. Prophet hood
The second part of the Kalimah signifies that God has not left man without any guidance
for the conduct of his life. He has revealed His guidance through His prophets, and
Mohammad was the last prophet. To believe in a prophet means to believe in revelation that
he has received, to accept the law that was transmitted to him by God, and to follow the codes
of conduct that he was instructed to pass on to humanity. Thus the second basic postulate of
Islam is to believe in the Prophethood of Mohammad (PBUH), to accept the religion that he
presented, and to follow his commands and his example. Every prophet of the God, according
to the Quran, strove to build man’s relationship with God on the principle of His sovereignty
and the individual’s acknowledgement of the authority of the prophet as a source of Divine
guidance. Every one of them said;
“I am to you God’s apostle, worthy of all trust. So be committed to God, heed Him, and
obey me.”
c. Life After Death
This automatically raises the question: Are those follow the law and those who refuse to
accept or abide by it on the same level existence? Are they going to be treated in the same way?
What are the consequences of differing attitudes and behaviors? This brings us to the third basic
postulate of Islam: belief in the Hereafter.
The world, according to Islam, is a place of trail, and man is being judged in it. One day, he
will have to give an account of all that he did during his lifetime. After his death, he will be
resurrected in a new world, and it is here that he will be rewarded or punished for his deeds
and misdeeds. Those who live a life of obedience to the Lord in the present world, will enjoy
eternal bliss in the hereafter, and those who disobey His commands will have to face the
fruits of their. According to the Quran:
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“And every man’s deeds have We fasted around his neck, and on the day of resurrection
will We bring forth a book which shall be proffered to him wide open: (It will be said to him)
Read your record: This day there need be none but yourself to make out an account against
you.” (17:13-14)
Distinctive Aspects/Characteristics of Islam:
George Bernard Shaw in his 1936 opus The Genuine Islam is reported to have said:
“I have always held the religion of Mohammad in high estimation because of its
wonderful vitality. It is the only religion which appears to me to possess that assimilating
capacity to the changing phases of existence which can make it appeal to every age. I have
studied him the wonderful man and I my opinion for from being an Antichrist, he must be
called the Savior of Humanity. I believe that if a man like him were to assume the
dictatorship of the modern world, he would succeed in solving its problems in a way that
would bring it much needed peace and happiness. I have prophesied about the faith of
Mohammad that it would be acceptable to the Europe of tomorrow as it is beginning to be
acceptable to the Europe of today.”
i. Revealed Ideology
Islam is a divinely revealed ideology which was revealed on Prophet Mohammad
(PBUH) who was the last Messenger of Allah. Holy Quran says: “Certainly Allah obliged the
faithful, when He raised up a Messenger from among themselves who recites them his sings and
purifies them and teaches them the book and wisdom.” (3:163)
All other religion claims to be revealed teachings are changed now.
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ii. Simplicity, Rationality and practicality
Islam is a religion without any mythology. Its teachings are simple and integible. It is
free, from superstitions and irrational beliefs. The oneness of God, the Prophethood of
Mohammad, and the concept of life after death are the basic articles of its faith. They are based
on reason and sound logic. All of the teaching of Islam flow from those basic beliefs and are
simple and straightforward. There is no hierarchy of priests, no farfetched abstractions, no
complicated rites and rituals. Everybody may approach the Quran directly and translate its
dictates into practice. Islam awakens in man the faculty of reason and exhorts him to use his
intellect. It enjoins him to see things in the light of reality. The Quran advised him to pray: “O,
my Lord! Advance me in knowledge (20:114)
iii. Unity of Matter and spirit:
A unique feature of Islam is that it does not divide life into watertight compartments of
matter and spirit. It stands not for denial of life but for the fulfillment of life. Islam does not
believe in asceticism. It does not ask man to avoid material things. It holds that spiritual elevation
is to be achieved by living piously in the rough and tumble of life, not by renouncing the world.
The Quran advises us to pray as follow: “Our Lord! Give us something fine in this world as well
as something fine in the Hereafter.”
iv. A complete Way of Life
Islam is not a religion in the common and distorted sense, for it does not confine its scope
to one’s private life. It is a complete way of life and is present in every field of human existence.
Islam provides guidance for all aspects of life individual and social, material and moral, economic
and political, legal and cultural, and national and international. The Quran enjoins man to
embrace Islam without any reservation and to follow God’s guidance in all areas of life. In fact, it
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was an unfortunate day when the scope of religion was to the private life of man and its social
and cultural role was reduced to naught, as has happened in previous century. No other factor,
perhaps, has been more important in causing the decline of religion in the modern age than this.
v. Balance between the Individual and Society:
Another unique feature of Islam is that it establishes a balance between individualism and
collectivism. It believes in the individual personality of man and holds everyone personal
accountable to God. It guarantees the fundamental rights of the individual and does not permit
anyone to tamper with them. It makes the proper development of the personality of man one of
the prime objectives of its educational policy. It does not subscribe to the view that man must lose
his individuality in society or in the state. According to the Quran: “Man shall have nothing but
what he strives for.”
Universality and Humanism:
The message of Islam is for the whole of the human race. God, in Islam, is the God of the entire
world (Quran 1:1) and the Prophet is a Messenger for the whole of Mankind. In the words of Quran: “O
People! I am but a messenger from God to you all.” (7:158) “We have sent you only as a mercy for
everybody in the universe.” (21:107)
In Islam, all men are equal, regardless of color, language, race or nationality. It addresses itself to
the conscience of humanity and banishes all false barriers of race, status, and wealth. There can be no
denying the fact that such barriers have always existed continues to exist today in the so called
enlightened age. Islam removes all of these impediments and proclaims the ideal of the whole of
humanity being one family of God to unrestricted exchange, to banking capital, to state loans, to indirect
taxes on objects of prime necessity, but it holds to the rights of the father and the husband, to private
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property, and to commercial capital. Here again it occupies an intermediate position between the doctrine
of bourgeois capitalism and Bolshevist communism.”
vi. Permanence and Change:
The elements of permanence and change coexist in human society and culture and are
bound to remain so. Different ideologies and cultural systems have erred in leaning heavily
towards one or other of these ends of the equation. Too much emphasis on permanence makes the
system rigid and robs it flexibility and progress, while a lack of permanent values and unchanging
elements generate moral relativism, shapelessness, and anarchy.
What is needed is balance between the two- a system that could simultaneously cater for
the demands of permanence and change. Mr. Justice Cardozo (American Judge) rightly says “that
the greatest need of our time is a philosophy that will mediate between conflicting claims of
stability and progress and supply a principle of growth.” Islam presents an ideology which
satisfies the demands of stability as well as of change.
vii. Complete Record of teachings Preserved:
Last, but not least, is the fact that the teachings of Islam have been preserved in their
original form. As a result, God’s guidance is available without adulteration of any kind. The
Quran is the revealed book and word of God, which has been in existence for the last fourteen
hundred years. It is still available in its original form. Detailed accounts of the life of the Prophet
and of his teachings are available in their pristine purity. There has not been even one change
made in this unique historic record. The sayings and the entire record of the life of the Prophet
have been handed down to us with unprecedented precision and authority in works of the Hadith.
Even a number of non-Muslim critics admit this eloquent fact. Professor Reynolds A. Nicholson,
in his A Literary History of the Arabs, says:
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“The Quran is an exceedingly human document, reflecting every phase of Mohammad’s
personality and standing in close relation to the outward events of his life; so that there we have
materials of unique and incontestable authority for tracing the origin and early development of
Islam, such materials as do not exist in the case of Buddhism or Christianity or any other ancient
religion.”
TAWHID (MONOTHEISM) AND ITS IMPACTS
Introduction
The starting point of Islam is the belief in the oneness of God (Twahid). Twahid is a
revolutionary concept and constitute the essence of teachings if Islam. It means that there is only one
supreme Lord of the universe. He is omnipotent, omnipresent and the sustainer of the world and of
mankind. We find that the universe is like a superbly written, fascinating book can it be without an
author? Truly, God said: “O, Mankind: worship your Lord, Who created and those before you, so that you
may ward off evil: Who has made the earth a resting place of you, the sky a canopy and Who causes
water to pour down from the heavens, thereby producing fruits as food for you. So do not set up rivals to
God, when you know better. (Quran 2:21-22)
Kinds of Twahid:
a. Unity in Person
This means that there is neither plurality of gods, nor plurality of persons in God hood. The Holy
Quran says; “Had there been in them (heaven and earth) any deities except Allah they would both
have certainly been ruined.” The above of the Holy Quran makes it clear that the peace and smooth
running of the universe is due to vthe fact that there is only one God and had there been more Gods,
they would have always quarreled with one another.
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b. Unity in Attributes:
His oneness in attributes implies that no other being possesses one or more of the divine attributes
in perfection. For example no one can claim that He is mightiest of all nor any person can claims that
he will live forever, because these are divine characteristics and only possessed by Allah. Man is
dependent on Allah for his necessities of life but Allah is independent of all. He is Eternal, Self-
Sufficient, Omnipotent, Omnipresent etc.
c. Unity in Actions
His Unity in actions means that no one can do or does tha works which Allah has done or does or
which Allah will do in future. For example Allah has created this entire unioverse, all living things on
earth, rivers and mountains, but no human being or other creature can do it, even they cannot create
an ant that is very small living organism.
Importance of Twahid in Quran:
The unity of God according to the Holy Quran means that God is one His person one in
His attributes and one in His works. His oneness in His person means that there is neither
plurality of persons in the Godhood.
i. The Quran is testimony to it. “Had there been in them (heaven and earth) any deities
except Allah they would both have certainly been ruined.”
ii. There are a number of verses in the Quran which clearly explain the oneness of God. In
Surah Baqara, the book says. “And your God is one. There is no other God. He is most
Merciful and Benevolent.”
iii. At other place the book says: “I am God and there no other God. Worship Me and keep
up prayer for My remembrance.”
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Aims and Objective of Twahid:
Twahid demands certains things from its believer:
1. A Muawwahid should not obey and worship anyone except God. All his acts of worship
and sacrifices should be totally reserved for Him alone.
2. He is required to call for help to God only and to no one else. He must present all his
demands and petitions to him alone and ask for his help under all circumstances. He is
Lord and Master of whole universe and has power all things. Therefore a believer must
always turn to Him for help for the fulfillment of all his needs and requirements. This is
expressed in Holy Quran. “You alone we worship, and you alone ask for help”.
3. A believer must also believe that God alone is the knower of the unseen the hidden and
the unknown treasures of the earth and the heavens.
4. It is also demands a believer should in no circumstances sacrifice any animal or gives
anything in the name of any-person other than God, nor mentions any other name along
with God when sacrificing. As a matter of everything really belong to God and is given
by Him, therefore it should be offered in His name alone as a mark of gratitude to Him.
And if it is offered in any other name it means that one is ready to make partner with Him
in those matters. This point has been clearly emphasized in Holy Quran. “When believers
are told to eat that over which the name of God has been mentioned and not to eat that
over which God’s Name has not been mentioned.”
5. A Believer must believe with full conviction and understanding that God has power over
all things and has full control over all His creation all the time and he should be grateful
to Him, call on Him and prostrate before Him with love and sincerity, live as His slave
and servant and not accept slavery of any kind, physical or spiritual, to any other being,
and he should obey and follows His Law and not his self nor any other person or persons.
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Impacts of Twahid on Human Life and Society:
a. Impacts on individual Life:
i. Creates Sense of Accountably: Tawhid creates in man a sense of responsibility
in upright person towards people. The sense of accountability to God for all his
acts and policies in this world creates in him the sense of responsibility and
makes him vigilant and cautious against all kinds of evils. This sense of
responsibility keeps him on guard and makes him virtuous and follower of good
deeds.
ii. Width of Vision: A believer in Twahid can never be narrow-minded. He
believes in a God who is the Creator of the heavens and the earth, the Master of
the East and the West and the Sustainer of the entire universe. After this belief he
does not regard anything in the world as a stranger to himself. He looks upon
everything in the universe as belonging to same lord whom he himself belongs
to. His vision is enlarged, his intellectual horizon widens, and his outlook
becomes liberal. How can this width of vision and breath of mind be achieved by
an atheist, a polytheist, or one who believes in a deity supposed to possess
limited and defective powers like a man?
iii. Self-respect: This belief produces in man the highest degree of self respect and
self esteem. The believer knows that Allah alone is the possessor of all power, or
harms a person, or provides for his needs, or give and take away life his
conviction makes him indifferent to, and independent and fearless of, all powers
other than those of God. He never bows his head in homage to any of God’s
creatures, nor does he stretch his hand before anyone else. This quality of mind
cannot be produced by any other belief. Those who associate other beings with
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God or who deny God, should bow in homage to some creatures, fear them and
response all their hopes in them.
iv. Modesty and Humility: Along with self-respect this belief also generates in man
a sense of modesty and humbleness. It makes him unostentatious and
unpretending. A believer never becomes proud, haughty or arrogant. The
boisterous pride of power, wealth and worth can have no room in the heart,
because he knows that whatever he possesses has been given to him by God, and
that God can take away just as He can give. In contrast to this, an unbeliever,
when he achieves some worldly merit, becomes proud and conceited because he
believes that his merit is due to his own worth.
v. Virtuous and Upright: This belief makes man virtuous and upright. He has the
conviction that there is no other means of success and salvation for him except
purity of soul and righteousness of behavior. He has perfect faith in God who is
above all need, is related to none, is absolutely just, and none has influence in the
exercise of His powers. This Belief creates in man the consciousness that unless
he lives rightly and acts justly he cannot succeed. As against this, the Kafirs and
mushriks always live on false hopes something that they are God’s favorites, and
will not be punished, other believe that their saints will intercede with God on
their behalf, while others make offering to their deities and believe that by so
bribing the deities they have acquired a license for all frivolities and ill-deeds and
can do whatever they like. Such false beliefs keep them always entangled in the
meshes of sin and evil deeds.
vi. Satisfaction of Heart: The believer does not become, despondent and
brokenhearted under any circumstances. He has firm faith in God who is the
Master of all the, treasure of the earth and the heavens, whose grace and bounty
have no limit and whose powers are infinite. This faith imparts to his heart
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extraordinary consolation, fills it, with satisfaction and keeps it filled with hope.
Such a profound confidence can result from no other belief than belief in one
God. Mushriks, Kafirs and atheists have small hearts, they depend upon limited
powers, therefore in hours of trouble they are soon overwhelmed by despair and
frequently, they commit suicide.
vii. Determination: This belief produces in man a very strong degree of
determination and trust in God. When he makes up his mind and devotes his
resources to fulfill the Divine commands in order to secure God’s pleasure, he is
sure that he has the support and backing of Lord of the universe. This certainty
makes him firm and strong like a mountain, and no amount of difficulties,
impediments, and hostile opposition can make him give up his resolution. Shirk,
Kufr, and atheism have no such effect.
viii. Bravery: This declaration inspires bravery in man. There are two things which
make a man cowardly (i) Fear of death and urge for safety, and (ii) the idea that
there is someone else besides God who can take way life and that man, by
adopting certain devices can ward of death. Belief in (There is no God but Allah)
purges the mind of both these ideas. The first idea goes out of his mind because
he knows that his life and his property and every thing else really belong to God,
and he becomes ready to sacrifice his all for His pleasure. He gets rid of the
second idea because he knows that no weapon, no man or animal has the power
of taking away his life, God alone has the power to do so. A time has been
ordained for Him, and even all the forces of the world combined cannot take
away anyone’s life a moment before the appointed time. It is for his seasons that
no one is braver or than the one faith in God. Mushriks and Kafirs and the
atheists hold life dearest of all in the world, and they believe that death is brought
about by the enemy and can be warded off by running away from him!
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ix. Peace and contentment: The belief in (There is no God but Allah) creates an
attitude of peace and contentment, purges the mind from envy and greed, and
keeps away the ideas of resorting to fair and unfair mean for achieving success.
The believer understands that wealth is in God hands, and He does it out more or
less as He likes, that honor, power, reputation, and authority everything is
subjected to His will, and He bestows the as He wills, and that man’s duty is only
to endeavor and struggle fairly. He knows that success and failure depends upon
God’s grace, if He wills to give, no power in the world can prevent Him from
doing so: and if He does no will it, no power can force Him to give. On the other
hand, the Mushriks, the Kafirs, and the atheists consider success and failure ad
dependent upon their own efforts alone and upon the help-or opposition of
earthly powers. Therefore they always remain slaves to stupidity and envy.
x. Obedience: The most important effect of (There is no God but Allah) that it
makes man obey and observe God’s Law. One who has belief in, it is sure that
God knows everything hidden or open and is nearer to Him than his own Jugular
vein. If he commits a sin in a secluded corner and in the darkness of night, God
knows it, He even knows our thoughts and intentions, bad or good we can hide
from everyone, but we cannot need anything from God, we can evade everyone,
but it is impossible to evade God’s grip. The firmer a man’s belief in this respect,
the more observant will he be of God’s commands, he will shun what God has
forbidden and he will carry out His behests even in solitude and in darkness,
because he knows that God’s police never leaves him alone. It is for this reason
that the first and the most important condition for being a Muslim is to have faith
in La ilahaillallah (There is no God but Allah).
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b. Impacts on Society:
i. Equality and Dignity:
Tawhid eradicates distinctions along tribal, racial lines. It creates equality in the
society and brings the poor and the rich, the strong and the week, the white and the black,
all on one platform. All are equal in the eyes of Islamic law. And if there is any
distinction; it is due to Taqwa as the Holy Quran says: “He is dearer to God who is more
pious (the one who fears Allah)”. So if there is ant yard stick to measure the rank of man
that is the fear of God. On the day of Hajjat-ul-Wada the prophet Mohammad (PBUH)
said: “Oh people! Your Lord is one, and certainly your father is one. There is no
preference to an Arab over non-Arab and non-Arab over an Arab, white over Black, and
black over white but only due to Taqwa.”
ii. Unity and Brotherhood:
The belief of Twahid creates unity and co-operation among all the believers.
Before Islam all tribes and races were divides into a number of groups. The concept of
Twahid brought all these dispersed and divided people into one fold and united them
under the banner of Islam The Holy Quran says: “Certainly all Muslims are Brothers.”
The Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) says that all believers are like a body: when one part of
the body is ill, all other parts of the body share this illness. Thus the belief of Twahid
creates bonds of unity among the believers. In the teachings of Prophet (PBUH) faith in
one God is the most important and fundamental principle. It is the bedrock of Islam and
the mainspring of its power. All other beliefs, commands and laws of Islam stand firm on
this very foundation. All of them receive strength from this source. If Tawhid is taken
away from the structure of Islam then there is left nothing in Islam.
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(A): BELIEF IN RISALAT (PROPHETHOOD)
&
(B): KHATAM I NABUWWAT
(FINALITY OF PROPHETHOOD)
Introduction:
In Islamic terminology Risalat means the transmitting or reaching the commandment of Allah
revealed to a chosen person by Him, to the creature of God. These commandments and precepts may be in
the form of verbal message or practice of a Prophet and these are to be conveyed to people by an Apostle,
this is called Risalat or Prophethood. When God created human beings, He made it clear to them that His
guidance would be transmitted to them on earth. If people from among them shall obey these Prophets
then on the Day of Judgment they need not to fear any punishment. It is, therefore, essential that light
should be thrown from different angles on the subject of Risalat because without realizing the importance
and value of Prophethood it is not possible to obey the dictates of God successfully.
The Distinct Qualities of the prophet:
Allah nominates the prophets Himself. However, the Prophets are quite different from the common
people. God when sent Prophets to guide the people, He particularly mentioned and described the distinct
qualities which distinguish a Prophet from the followers (common men). He communicated these
qualities through his revealed words in the Holy Quran. It is, therefore, thought essential to describe them
so that the people may gauge the right standard of conduct and benefit from the same.
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1. Humanity:
This is the first attribute of the Prophets. In their inner nature and significance, they are above all
mankind in their times but in spite of this remained beings, they were not angles or Jinns, so that
every human aspect of their lives becomes a source of guidance for common people, so that none may
think that they (the Prophets) in their natures were different from common people and therefore it is
not possible for them to follow them. In this manner, the deceitful nature of man will conjure excuses
to escape from following the path of virtue. Side by side this belief also must not be fostered that he
(the prophet) is the son of God or transcends human nature, as the Hindus regard their Awtars, who
are put on a pedestal, considered super-natural; and have not cared to follow them. The fact is this,
that if the slightest hint of divinity is attributed to the Prophets both monotheism and Prophethood
become doubtful, this is why every Prophet has explicitly announced, the Holy Prophet (PBUH) has
said and Allah through the Holy Quran has made the Holy Prophet (PBUH) announce that: “I am a
man like you.”
2. Bounty of God:
This does not mean that a man can achieve Prophethood by his efforts, but that it is a bounty of
Allah, bestowed upon those whom Allah desires to bestow without regard to human efforts and
struggles. In the lives of most Prophets, we see this aspect that before being ordained and beginning
their mission, they have spent their early life in prayer and meditation like Moses being in the
wildness for forty days, similarly, Jesus passed his days in abstinence. In like manner, the Holy
Prophet (PBUH) meditated in the cave of Hira. This abstinence was to prepare the soul receive the
revelation; in spite of this, Prophethood is not gained by human efforts, it is not an acquired status, it
means simply this that justices God has bestowed different qualities of different persons out to attain
perfection in it, a person has to combine his own efforts. Similarly, Prophets have the essence of
Prophethood in them but they have to prepare themselves to develop the capacity to receive
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revelations. Now if anyone strives, he will receive the status commensurate with it. But for the office
and responsibilities of Prophethood, Allah makes the choice Himself. This choice has been termed
Istifa in the Holy Quran, which means selecting the best from many.
3. Knowledge Bestowed by Allah:
The third attribute of the Prophets is that whatever they present in the form of faith or law
emanates from God. The personal wishes of neither the messenger nor their personal will interfere
with their message, and they speak and act according to the commands from Allah. In the Holy
Quran, this is made clear in this verse. “He does not speak according to personal desires but says only
what is revealed to him.” (An-Najam: 3-4)
4. Infallibility:
A prophet does not err in judgment or thought neither is his conduct or morals open to the
slightest criticism. Their souls, feelings, thoughts and conducts are our and safe from satanic
temptations. This does not mean that they were immune from such evils in their human states.
Although possesses of natural desires but Allah protects them. This is the reason that the insight and
thinking of Prophets and the degree of perfection. And his moral strength is extremely, secure. On
one side, he has the capacity to understand injunctions and to formulate more injunctions through his
judgment, and on the other, he has full self-control, because he is under the complete guardianship of
his creator. Actually for Prophets to be infallible and free from faults was very necessary for the
purpose for what the Prophethood was created. The infallibility of the Prophets and their being free of
error in judgment or in conduct of character is the light which belongs to the chosen creature of God.
That is why their conducts are the models to be followed and their lives are above criticism. Now
according to this revelation of Allah that:
“There is no nation in which a warner (Prophets) has not come.”
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The Status of Prophethood:
There have always been misunderstandings about the Prophets. Some places they have
been considered superman or above humanity and somewhere have been considered God, or that
they are incarnations of God appearing to us in human form. This was great misunderstanding,
and on this basis man sought excuses to claim that such holy lives and natures cannot be emulated
and to absolve themselves from emulation declared such person God or partners of God. This has
been the trait of mankind in its early stage of history as we learn from the Holy Quran. The
Prophet Noah (AS) refuted this before his people in the following words: “I do not say that I have
the treasures of God in my possession, or that I have knowledge of the unknown, neither do I say
that I am an angel.” (11:31)
Worthy of Obedience:
The Quran says that the complete obedience, allegiance and the example of the Prophets
is a condition of faith. Whatever the Prophet may say in regard to faith and creed it is compulsory
to follow and there is no room for a murmur here. Although the purport of such actions may not
be apparent, but belief in his utterance is virtue and righteousness and is an obligation for the
Muslims: The Holy Quran has explicitly stated this:
“We have sent Prophets so that according to the permission of Allah, he should be
obeyed.”
Exegete of the Book of God:
The Shariah of Allah is the Divine law; therefore the Book of Allah covers all principles.
Every book of law is like this. Now its explanation, interpretation and application have been
made the responsibility of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). The Holy Quran has said this in the
following verse: “We have revealed our words to you so that you may make clear to people the
guidance sent down to for them.”
Teacher and Guide:
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This responsibility has been in the following verse the Quran:
“Verily it is our favor to the faithful that we sent them a Prophet from amongst them; a Prophet
who recites His verses and purifies their soul, and teaches them the Book and its wisdom.”
Similarly, at other places in the Quran, verses with the same meaning have been revealed in
which the common theme is that Allah did not send the Prophet merely for the recital of verses
but with three other aims and objectives in minds:
a. To teach people the Book
b. To import the wisdom necessary for compliance with the dictates of the Book.
c. To purify individuals and societies so that their individual and collective failings are
removed, and that good qualities and healthy social system are inculcated among them.
Leadership and a Model:
Allah has ordained Prophets to be the Imams-Leaders and guides the purpose is to consecrate the
line of the Prophet for leadership and guidance embodies, so that they guide people, prevent them from
straying and guide them to their destination. When made a Prophet, he lighted two torches of teaching and
guidance, the Book and the Sunnah-which give off a common light. This is why it has been said in the
Quran: “O Prophet say that if you love God then obey me, Allah will love you and forgive your sins and
Allah is the Forgiving and Merciful. Say obeys Allah and His Messenger and if they turn their faces,
Allah does like infidels.”
Legislator and Interpreter:
This function has been mentioned by the Quran thus: “He will enjoin on them that which is right
and forbid them that is wrong. He will make lawful for them all good things and prohibit for them only
the foul and he will receive them of their burden and the fetters they used to wear.”
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After this clarification of the Holy Quran, we learn that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) was ordained with
legislative powers. It means that apart from those deeds explicitly forbidden or allowed by God those
injunctions which proceed from the Holy Prophet (PBUH) are equally binding and a part of the Divine
Law. This has been reiterated in a different verse. “And whatever the Messenger gives you take it and
whatever he forbids abstain (from it).”
Arbitrator and Judge
The Holy Quran has in many verses elucidated that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) is a judge and
arbitrator. One of such verses is this:
“We have sent this Book to you with the truth so that you may Judge between people in
accordance with right way which Allah has shown you.” (4:105)
(B) FINALITY OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD (PBUH):
The belief in the finality of Prophethood bears as much importance as other conviction of faith,
because without verbal acceptance and inner conviction of this, no one cans the fold of Islam. Apparently
this belief is concerned with the faith in Prophethood but in reality unless the Holy Prophet (PBUH) is not
believed to be the last of the Prophets the faith and belief in the Apostles of God remains incomplete. So
the acceptance of finality of Prophethood is a must for entering the folds of Islam. If we ponder over this
it becomes clear that the faith in the Prophethood is completed only when we believe in the Prophethood
of Mohammad (PBUH) as the culmination of the line of Apostles of God, and we also have conviction
that the religion and the code of conduct preached by him shall remain a living guide and precept both in
this world and in the Day of Resurrection.
Proofs of finality of Prophet of Hazrat Mohammad (PBUH) in Quran and Hadith:
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a. References from Quran: In the first instance, we present proofs from the original (supreme)
source i.e. Holy Quran is a categorical imperative for all the Muslims. The Holy Quran says:
“Mohammad is not the father of any man among you, but he is the Messenger of Allah and
the seal of the Prophets and Allah is aware of all things.” The meaning of the word “Khatm”
is to stamp a seal, to enclose, and to lead to the end, and on some occasion it also means to
finish of some assignments. For example if Khatm ul Amal is used it only means that one has
completed the job and the responsibility stands discharged. Similarly if Khatamul Ana is
used it conveys the meaning that he mouth of the vessel is closed and sealed, implying that
nothing” can go in or come out of it. It was announced by the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH)
that. “I am the last Prophet and there will be no Prophet after me.”
b. References from Hadith
Now explain some traditions of Hazrat Mohammad (PBUH) which will through light on the
subject. Holy Prophet said:
i. “The prophets led the Bani-Israil and when any prophet died another prophet succeeded
him, but after me there will be no prophet.”
ii. “The difference between me and the prophets preceding me is as a man built a house and
constructed it beautifully but left a gap in the comer of the wall for a brick, the spectators
moved about the house but questioned about gap left about the size of brick. Then know
it that “I am that brick, I am KhatamunNabiyyeen.”
iii. The Apostle of God had said, “The continual of Prophethood and Apostle has ended.
After me there is neither a Prophet nor an Apostle.”
iv. The prophet of Allah has said. “After me there is no other prophet and no other Ummah.”
Necessity of Prophethood and finality of Prophethood: Logical proves
If we refer to the Holy Quran to find out the prime purpose for sending an Apostle we
come across four prominent facts, under, which prophets were nominated by God:
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i. In the first instance, it was necessary to send a Prophet to community for which no
Prophet was sent previously or the message of other prophets was not communicated
to them.
ii. Secondly those people had forgotten the message of the previous prophets and had
altered or amended the teaching and message of earlier prophets, and no hope was
left for the obedience of the true message of the Apostles.
iii. Thirdly, that the teachings of the previous prophets did not suffice to give full
guidance and rule of conduct in the matter of faith and religion to the people, and a
scope existed for sending another Apostle.
iv. Fourthly, need for an extra prophet was felt to help and assist the existing prophet.
Characteristics and finality of the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH)
i. Universality
The Prophethood which started from Hazrat Adam (A.S) got completed on the
Prophethood of Hazrat Mohammad (PBUH). The Prophets (A.S) sent before
Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) were for an specific time and a specific nation or
tribe. But the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) was sent as Prophet for all times to
come till the Day of the Judgment, and for all nations and tribes. That is the
reason that the Prophethood of Mohammad (PBUH) has attained a distinct and
distinguished place among the Prophets (A.S).
The Prophethood of all the Prophets (A.S) before Mohammad (PBUH) was a
specific nation and a specific time. Other Prophets were sent to different areas
and different nations, but the Prophethood of Mohammad (PBUH) is for all times
and for all nations till the Day of Judgment. In other words the Prophethood
Mohammad (PBUH) is universal as mentioned in the Holy Quran: “Say (Oh!
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Muhammad (PBUH) people! I am a Prophet sent for all of you. (Sura-e-Al-
Araaf)
ii. Annulment of Previous Shariahs:
God almighty annulled all the Shariah of previous Prophets (A.S) through His
beloved Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) as the same were for specific time
and nations. Due to the universality of the Prophethood of Muhammad (PBUH)
now only the Shariah of the Prophet Muhammad would prevail till the Day of
Judgment. The Holy Quran says:
“And the one who select religion other than Islam, will never be accepted and he
will be among the losers in afterlife” (3:85)
iii. Perfection:
“This day I have perfected your religion for you, completed My Favor upon, and
have chosen for you7 Islam as your religion.” (5:3)
iv. Protection of The Book:
The books revealed on the earlier Prophets (A.S) are completely or partially
extinct as much has been added or omitted by the people to suite their interests
and personal motives. Now it is quite impossible to separate the original divine
injunctions from the corrupted books. But the Quran revealed on Hazrat
Mohammad (PBUH) is still preserved in original form. The reason is that Allah
Himself has taken the responsibility of protecting his book: “Certainly we have
revealed this book (Quran) and We will protect it” (15:9)
v. Protection of Sunnah:
Sunnah is the second source of Islamic Law. God Almighty has also made
Arrangement for the protection of the Sunnah-e-Rasool Mohammad (PBUH).
The people who collected sayings of the Prophet made great struggle and care in
the collection of Ahdith. We today are taking guidance in all matters, religion as
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well as worldly, from the sayings of the Prophet (PBUH). Thus all the actions of
the Prophet Mohammad are preserved word by word with the help of God. No
other Prophet or reformer has this quality that his whole life was recorded.
vi. The Holy Place of Mohammad (Maqani-e-Mehmood):
Another important characteristic of the Prophethood of Hazrat Mohammad
(PBUH) is that God will grant him the Holy place of Mehmood on the Day of
Judgment as Allah says in the Quran: “(Oh Prophet)! Say prayers of night
(Tahajjud) and this are a thing of reward (Natal) for you, hopefully, your Lord
will place you on the Holy place Mahmood.” (Sura-e- Bani Israel Verse no. 79)
Basis of our relation with Prophet Mohammad (PBUH):
The need to follow obediently the teaching and the model Hazrat Mohammad
(PBUH) arises from the following:
i. Faith: Kalma-e-Twahid is the embodiment of our faith that we affirm in it
that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad (PBUH) is His Prophet.
ii. Obedience: “And the one, who obeys the Messenger of Allah, obeys Allah.”
It is also made compulsory for the believer to accept all that is given to them
by the Prophet of God and refrains from what he forbids.
iii. Love for the Prophet (PBUH): The third basis of our relation with the
Prophet of God is love with him. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) says: “The faith
of a person cannot be dependable unless, his love for me surpasses his love
for his father, son and other near relative.”
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BELIEF IN AKHIRAT (HEREAFTER) AND ITS IMPACTS
Introduction:
Belief in the Last Day (Yawmul-Akhir or Yawmul-Qiyamah) the Day of Resurrection, the Day of
Reckoning (Yawmul-Dm), is one of the Fundamental dogmas of Islam. In line with the teaching of Islam,
the Muslim acknowledges that death is not the end of life; it only opens the door to another life which is
eternal. He is constantly aware that the Last Day means death of individuals, period in the grave,
resurrection, judgment and reward with either paradise or Hell Fire. He is not oblivious that it is Allah
Who causes Human being to die, buried and resurrected (Suratu ‘Abasa, Quran 80:21-22). In another
portion of the book of guidance where the state of the last Day is presented vividly and graphically, Allah
warns that: “Nay! When the earth is pounded to powder! And your Lord has come and the Angels rank
upon rank! And hell is brought that Day (face to face), on that Day, human being will remember (All his
past deeds); but how will the remembrance profit him? He will lament, Oh! I wish I had sent ahead (some
good) for my future life! So on that Day, his punishment will be severe as none has been inflicted so
much! And his binding (with heavy chains) will be (so painful) as none other has been so much! The
righteous soul will be told, Oh! The reassured soul! Return to your Lord well pleased with yourself and
pleasing (to Allah)! And enter among My Righteous servants! And enter My paradise! (Quran 89:21-30).
Meaning of the Judgment Day:
The Judgment Day is the appointed time, when the whole mankind and Jinn will be raised after
death, and Judged by Allah according to His Law, which has been contained in His Books. The fortunate
persons among mankind and jinn who succeed on that day will enter Allah’s Paradise, while the
unfortunate ones will be thrown into Hell.
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Life in the Hereafter:
Islam impress upon the mind of mankind that this world is Dar-al-Amal (i.e. world for
performing good deeds in accordance with the spirit of Islam0, and the next life is that of Dar-al-Jaza
(where the doers of good deeds will be rewarded or punished)”. The Quran refers to this fact more
elaborately that “This worldly life is nothing but merely a temporary pastime, whereas “it is the Hereafter
that is the Home better and lasting.” Again the Quran says: You will see (on the day of Judgment) the
wrong doers fearful on account of that which they have earned and it (the penalty thereof) is sure to befall
them. But those who believe and perform righteous deeds will be in the luxuriant meadows of Paradise. A
belief in the life after death is one of the main principles of Islam. In the light of clear teachings of the
Quran, death is not the end of life of tile mankind, but it opens the door to another form of eternal life.
The faith in the life after death is the bases which make life more serious and more useful. It is the pivot
on which this worldly life hinges. This faith is only second to that of acknowledgement of Oneness of
God. So Allah takes up this matter frequently in the Holy Quran. The faith in the Hereafter regulates both
thought and action of man, the upholder of this faith finds that he is not only answerable to Allah on the
Day of Judgment, but is face to face with Him all the time in this very would.
The Islamic Concept of Hereafter: Summary of the Belief:
i. One day God destroy the whole world along with its inhabitants.
ii. He will grant another life to mankind who will then be presented before Allah.
iii. All humanity will have to render an account of all his deeds, good or evil before
the Judgment of God.
iv. God Almighty will weigh the good and evil deeds of every man. If a person’s
good deeds out weight evil deeds he will be rewarded and where evil deed
overweigh the good he shall face chastisement. These are basic answers to basic
questions, which have been set forth by Allah through revelation to his
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Messengers (A.S) and through the Holy Quran which is the attester of all
previous revelations.
The Arguments of the Quran and Hadith:
i. The Quran says: “Have they not considered the dominions of the heavens and the
earth?” It is implied in this verse that we should keep our eyes open and ponder
over the system governing days and nights. The earth and the sky have been
created by God and can be destroyed by Him. Similarly when we reflect on the
benefits that we accrue from resources of universe, we are compelled to realize
and believe the Supreme Being who has created the universe and its Laws.
(Surah:Ha-Meem)
ii. And in the Surah Room it is revealed: “He it is who produceth creation then re-
produceth it, and it is easier for Him.” Here it is argued that it is difficult to create
a thing, but it is easier to repair a thing which has been disintegrated. Similarly it
is easy for Allah to create mankind out of particles, how can it be difficult for
Allah to resurrect man after death? A number of verses having the same theme
have been revealed for the guidance of mankind.
iii. Holy Prophet (PBUH) said: “You will have to die, like you sleep and you will
have to get up as awake.” This argument pertains to the life of man wherein he
has been granted free-will. But those people who are arrogant do not consider
such matters. Here it is argued that it is difficult to create a thing, but it is easier
to repair or re-integrate a thing which has been disintegrated. Similarly, if it is
easy for Allah to create mankind out of particles, how can it be difficult for Allah
to resurrect man after death?
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The Need of this Belief:
Belief in the life after death has always been a part and parcel of the teachings of
the Prophets. Every Prophet asked his followers to believe in it, in the same way as the last Prophet,
Mohammad (PBUH), has asked us to do. This has always been an essential condition of being Muslim.
All Prophets have categorically declared that one who disbelieves in it, or casts doubt on it is a Kafir. This
is so, because denial of life after death makes all other belief meaningless. This denial also the very
sanction for good life and man is driven to a life of ignorance and disbelief.
Impacts of Belief in Hereafter on individual and Society:
All injunctions of Holy Quran have tremendous effects on the human society. Similarly the faith in
Akhirat has also great many effects on the lives of the believers not only individually but also
collectively. Following is a discourse on impacts of belief in hereafter on lives of a Muslim and his
society.
a. Impacts of Individual Life:
i. Sense of responsibility and Accountability:
A person who believes in resurrection and hereafter is always imbued with a
sense of responsibility and accountability. He believes that he is accountable for
all his actions before God and becomes God fearing person. Thus belief in the
last Judgment makes him a responsible member of society.
ii. Optimistic about Reward in Hereafter:
A believer in afterlife adopts a selfless attitude as he expects rewards in the other
existence. Even if he receives reward of chastisement in the world, he believes
that ultimate rewards and punishments would be handed down in the hereafter.
iii. Humility:
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A person believing in the day of Judgment will be neither arrogant nor will be
rebellious and on the whole will be a server of mankind, drawing bliss form his
virtuous deeds.
iv. Virtue and Piety:
A person believing in the hereafter will regard virtue as necessary as water or
food is for this life, rather he will identify life with virtue. This is why Islam
attaches importance to belief in the hereafter. A moral code and legal system
have been wrought to support this belief. Fear Allah and know that you have to
go to Him.
v. Spirit of Sacrificing:
This belief safeguards mankind from tyranny, and lawlessness, and inspires him
to protect his society at the risk of his life for which recompense has been
promised in the coming life.
vi. Patience:
This faith enables us to bear trails and tribulation with patience and forbearance
so that Man emerges from such trails burnished like gold emerging from the
furnace.
vii. Courage:
Belief in the hereafter inculcates courage and fearlessness in men, so that they
fear none but Allah.
viii. Human Progress:
This faith has been a solace in the sorest miseries suffered by men, has taught
them to be upright and thus opened the path of human progress.
ix. Altruism:
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This belief has nurtured the spirit of sacrificing in man, and has drawn attention
to remove poverty from human society and has shown the futility of undue
parsimony.
x. Check on Animalistic Tendencies:
Belief in the hereafter has saved people from being careless of chastisement and
has also prevented the God fearing from envying the evil doers. In fact it is this
belief which prevents man from descending to the level of an animal.
b. Impacts on Society:
i. Ideal Society:
The faith in Akhirat makes the society ideal. It puts the whole society on the right
path. Society is the name of the collectivity of people and when everyone in the
society leads a virtuous and perfect life, the mischief will disappears and
automatically an ideal virtuous society will emerge.
ii. The Spirit of Generosity:
It also creates the spirit of generosity among the believers because a believer
knows that this world is temporary and so are the things of this universe,
therefore, he will not love wealth and the things of this world to the extent to bar
him from good deeds. He spends his life in this way of God in order to please
God. He knows that one-day he will die and his wealth will be left in this world.
He will have to travel to the next world with empty hands from wealth. Only
wealth of good deed will help him. Hence he becomes generous.
iii. The spirit of Worship:
The very purpose of the life of the Muslims is to worship God as mentioned in
the Holy Quran says: “And I have created Jins and human beings to worship
Me.” (Surah-e-al-Ziarat:56)
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The faith in Akhirat creates in him this sense of worship and the purpose of his
life in this world. The Holy Quran describes that the creation of man is not
purposeless but mankind are created with a specific purpose and that purpose is
to worship Allah. The Holy Quran says: “Any person who hopes to meet his God
should do good deeds and should not make anyone partner in his worship (Surah-
e-al-Kahaf:110)
iv. Co-operation and Brotherhood:
The believer in afterlife is imbued with the incentives to render meritorious
services for the welfare of his brethren-in-faith and humanity at large.
BELIEF IN THE REVEALED BOOKS
Introduction:
Belief in the Prophets and the Messengers of Allah is not only the fourth Article of faith it is one
of the fundamental doctrines in Islam. Belief in all Prophets (Anbiya) and Messengers of Allah (Rasul) is
ordained by Allah. The Muslim believes that the Glorious Quran is the final, the best and the uncorrupted
of all these Books. He believes in the unpolluted teachings in the Revealed Books by shunning what they
prohibit and doing what they recommend. He also believes in and follows the authentic Apostolic
Traditions of the Prophet (PBUH) which is complimentary to the glorious Quran. He attests to it that
Allah makes it a healing for spiritual, mental and social diseases such as hypocrisy, wickedness,
ignorance and doubt (Quran 6:155; 16:89). Moreover, the Muslim believes that Allah has sent down some
books upon His Messengers to clarify and complete His past messages in order to guide people alright.
Allah makes the purpose of sending Messengers to mankind, stating that the Mankind was one
community and Allah sent Prophets with glad tidings and warnings, and with them He sent the Scripture
in truth to judge between people in matters wherein they differed. And none differed over it (i.e. over the
scripture) except those who were given it-after clear proof came to them –out of Jealous animosity among
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themselves. And Allah guides those who believed to the truth concerning that over which they differed,
by His permission. And Allah guides whom he wills to the right path (Quran 2:213).
“Indeed We have sent Messengers with clear proofs, and revealed with them the Scripture and the
Balance (Justice) that mankind may test who it is that will help Him (His religion) and His Messengers in
the unseen. Verily, Allah is All strong, All-mighty (Quran 57: 25)
Four Revealed Books:
a. Taurat revealed on Prophet Musa (A.S)
b. Injil revealed on Prophet Isa (A.S)
c. Zabur revealed on Prophet Dawud (A.S)
d. Quran revealed on Prophet Mohammad (PBUH)
ISLAMIC CONCEPT OF WORSHIP
Introduction:
It is clear from the above verse that the purpose of birth of mankind is no other than the worship
of Allah. Worship, according to Islam, is a means for the purification of man’s soul and his practical
life. The basis of Ibadah (worship) is the fact that human beings are creatures and thus bond-servants
of God, their Creator and their Lord, to whom they are destined to return. Thus man’s turning towards
God, in intimate communion, reverence, and in the spirit of devotion and humble submission, is
termed Ibadat. Worship is an Indispensable part of all religions, including the idolatrous ones. It is
motivated, however, in each religion by different objectives, assumes different forms and is
performed under a different set of rules.
Meaning of Ibadat:
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The word Ibadat is derived from Abd. The meaning of Abd is servant and slave. Therefore the
meaning of Ibadat is servitude and slavery. If a person who is a slave of somebody remains in his
service as a slave and behaves with him as one should behave with a master, it is called servitude and
Ibadat. As against this, if a person who is slave of somebody and also gets full salary from him but
does not serve him just as a slave ought to serve his master, it will be called disobedience and
insubordination. In fact, more appropriately, it amounts to being untrue to one’s salt.
The Prerequisites of Worship in Islam:
The requisites which constitute together Ibadat are:
i. Fidelity to Allah;
ii. Obedience to Allah; and
iii. Respect and reverence for Allah
Islamic Concept of Worship:
As for Islam, its conception of worship is related to its fundamental view that the true
foundation of a good life is soundness of belief and thinking, purity of soul, and righteousness of action.
Through belief in the unity of God, Who is invested with all the attributes of perfection, Islam seeks to
purge human intellect of the fifth of idolatry and superstitious fancies. In fact polytheism and idolatry
which are opposed by Islam degrade man to a level which is incompatible with his dignity. Islam fights
against idolatry and polytheism in whichever forms and to whatever extent they might be found. In its
concern to eradicate idolatry Islam takes notice even of the imperceptible forms of Idolatry. It takes notice
even of those beliefs and practices which do not appear to their adherents as tainted with idolatry. One of
the manifestations of this concern is that Islam does not permit the performance of ritual prayer (Salat) in
front of a tomb, nor does it permit man to swear in the name of anyone except God. This is owing to the
uncompromising hostility of Islam to Idolatry when Caliph Umar saw that people had begun to sanctify
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the tree beneath which the Companions of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) had pledged to lay down their lives
in the way of God on the occasion of Hudaybiyah, he feared that its sanctification might corrupt the
beliefs of the people. He therefore, had it cut down. By destroying everything which might blur the
distinction between the creature and the creator, Islam brought man out of the darkness of Superstition
and ignorance to the full daylight of realities.
Distinguishing Features of Islamic Concept of Worship:
The characteristics features of worship as propounded by Islam may be stated as the following:
a. Freedom from Intermediaries:
First of all, Islam has liberated ‘Worship’ from the bondage of intermediaries between man and
his creator. Islam seeks to create a direct link between man and his Lord, thus rendering the
intercession of intermediaries unnecessary.
Religious scholars in Islam, it may be pointed out, are neither intermediaries between man and
God nor are they considered to be entitled to accept or reject acts of worship on behalf of God.
Instead, they are equal to ordinary human beings in the sight of God. Rather, they have been
burdened with the additional duty of imparting knowledge to those who lack knowledge. They
will be deemed guilty if they hold it back from the seekers after knowledge. In other words, the
Islamic Shariah does not impose the domination of religious scholars on the rest of the people.
The function of these scholars is merely to guide people in the right direction. This is amply
borne out by what Allah said to the Holy Prophet: “Remind them, for you are but a
remembrances; you are not at all warder over them.” (Al-Quran, 88:21-22)
The Prophet (PBUH) also addressed the following words to his own daughter Fatimah, which
shows that all human beings stand on a footing of complete equality before God:
“O Fatimah, daughter of Mohammad: I shall be of no help to you before Allah.”
b. Not Confined to Specific Places:
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Secondly, Islam has not only liberated man’s Ibadah from the bondage of intermediaries; it has
also liberated it from confinement to specific places. Islam regards every place-whether it is one’s
dwelling place, the back of an animal, the board of vessel on the surface of the Sea, or a Masjid
specifically built for worship as pure enough for the performance of worship. Wherever a man
might be, he can turn towards his lord and enter into communication with Him. The Holy Prophet
has expressed this idea beautifully: “The (whole of the) earth has been rendered for me a Masjid:
pure and clean.”
c. All Embracing View:
Thirdly, Islam has also considerably widened the scope of worship. In Islam, worship is not
confined to specified prayers and litanies which are to be performed on particular occasions.
Rather, Islam considers every virtuous action which has been sincerely performed and with the
view to carry us the commandments of God and in order to seek His Pleasure, an act of worship
for which man will be rewarded. The fact is that even eating, drinking, sleeping and and
enjoyment of innocent recreation, even those worldly actions which satisfy man’s physical needs
and even yield sensuous pleasures, become acts of worship provided they performed with true
religious motives.
d. Intentions and Motives:
It is because of this basis that Muslim Jurists and scholars have proclaimed that good intention
changes acts of habit into acts of worship. Good intention creates a world of difference in human
life. It is owing to the absence of purity of intention that there are people who eat and drink and
satisfies their animal desires and while so doing them simply live on the same plane as the
animals do. The reason for this is that their actions are actuated by no other motive than the
gratification of animal desires.
e. Positions of Specific Rituals:
The wide jurisdiction of worship-i.e. it incorporation of all acts which are performed with the
intention of complying with the Will of God, including fulfillment of legitimate pleasures, is
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sometimes utilized as a pretext to support the erroneous view that the obligatory rituals of
worship such as prayers, fasting, Zakat and pilgrimage can be dispensed with; or that they are not
very important. The truth, however, is quite contrary to this. In Islam, they are the chief means for
strengthening man’s attachment with God. Thus absolutely misconceived is the view of those
who are given to laxity in religious matters with regard to the obligatory acts of worship, and
imagine that true faith does not consist of Salat (Prayers) and Saum (fasting); that the basis of true
faith is merely purity of heart, goodness of intention and soundness of conduct. This constitutes
misrepresentation of Islamic teachings.
A practical Ideal: Impacts of worship:
a. Reformation of Human Life:
The real purpose of Islam in declaring that Ibadah embraces the total life of man is to make
religious faith play a practical and effective role in reforming human life, in developing in
man an attitude of dignified patience and fortitude in the face of hardships and difficulties and
in creating in him the urge to strive for the prevalence of good and extirpation of evil.
b. Channelization of Human powers in positive manner:
All this makes it amply evident that Islam, standard bearer of the above stated concepts
and ideals, is opposed to those defeatist and isolationist philosophies which scholars have
termed as asceticism. This is that erroneous kind of asceticism which is based on world-
renunciation, on resignation from the resources of life, on withdrawal from the life of action
and struggle, on sheer stagnation and decadence. These things have nothing to do with Islam.
Rather, they are the symbols of defeatism and escape from the struggle of life. For life
requires strength, material resources and active habits. The role of Islam in the struggle of life
is a positive one. It is through this attitude that Islam ensures the channelization of man’s
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powers and resources in such a manner as to lead eventually to general good. The Islamic
system of worship is a means to ensure this soundness of orientation.
c. Islamic Worship not Asceticism, Renunciation:
An event may be narrated here to illustrate the Islamic attitude to the question under
discussion, and to disabuse minds of wrong notions of spiritual life. It is reported that
“Aishah (R.A), the mother of the faithful, once saw a person walking with his body stooped
down and his back bent with weakness, appearing as if he were not fully alive, attracting
thereby the glance of those around him. She (R.A) inquired about him and was informed that
he was a saintly person. Hazrat Aishah (R.A) denounced this kind of saintliness and said:
Hazrat Umar (R.A) son of Khattab was the saintliest of people. But when he said something,
he made himself heard; when he walked, he walked fast and when he beat, his beating caused
pain.
SALAT (PRAYER) AND ITS IMPACTS
Introduction:
The Salat is obligatory on mankind. The Quran quotes the farziat (obligation) of Salat in
these words. “The Salat at its fixed (Five) times is enjoined on the believers. There are numerous
references of Salat and Zakat in the Quran. Salat inculcates Islamic values in man. The Salataims to
inculcate all the noble qualities of Islam in a Namazi: It aims at elevating him to the rank of Miraj. As he
has to take the message of Islam to all the corners of the whole world, for dispelling the darkness of
ignorance, the Namazi has to acquire and exercise his Godly attributes to the maximum degree. Having
submitting himself to the will of Allah, having shunned the Shirk, having sought to lead Sirat-al-
Mustaqeem (straight path of Islam), Salat develops in him the qualities of Jihad, maintaining cordial
relations with his close relatives, orphans, poor people, and others, by spending his wealth among them,
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giving out Zakat, and performing other Islamic rituals. He has to develop the quality of Sabar (firmness)
in times of war and adverse circumstances. The words of the Quran as contained in 2:177 will express
Allah’s Will to command the Namazi to rise to the maximum limits of times of war and adversity. The
Ayat says: “It is not righteousness that you turn your faces towards the East or West, but righteousness is
of him who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the Angels, the Books, and the Prophets; and spends of his
money for love of Him, on the relatives and the orphans and the needy, the way farer, the baggers, and for
ransoming of captives, and who establishes Salat and pays Zakat, and those who fulfill their promises
which they have made and the patient in affections and the steadfast in time of war, it is these people who
in poverty have proved truthfull and it is these who are the God fearing.” (2:177)
Importance of Prayer in Quran and Hadith:
a. Importance of Prayer in Quran:
The obligation of Salat is stressed in the Quran at various places.
i. The Quran says:
“Establish regular Salats at the declining of the sun to the paling of sun, on the
darkness of the night (which includes four Salats of Zuhr, Asr, Maghrib and Isha) and
the Salat of Fajar, verily the recitation of the Holy Quran at; the Salat of Fajr is borne
witness (by the angels).” The Salat of Fajr is singled out and emphasized because of
its special importance and because of the sanctity of the hour. Hadith relates that the
Guardian angels who are reveled dawn bear special testimony to the observer of the
morning Salat.
ii. According to the Holy Quran: “And be steadfast in prayer, pay regular charity, and
bow down your heads with those who bow down.”
iii. Again the Quran stresses the obligation of Salat on mankind. It commands mankind
to perform regularly all the Salats and especially the Salat of Asr. The Quran says:
“Apply perpetually to the performance of all the Salats at their proper times, and
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particularly the Salat of Asr, and Stand before Allah in a humble manner. And if you
are in a state of fear (within the approach of an enemy in war), then offer your Salat
on foot or riding (in whatever position and posture that may be possible for you), but
when you are safe, remember Allah as He has taught you, which you did not know.”
iv. According to the Holy Quran: “Seek assistance through patience and Prayer”
(Quran).
b. Importance of Prayer in Hadith:
The Hadith also lays great stress on regular Prayers.
i. It in an Expressed command the Prophet (PBUH) says: :He who deliberately
neglects an obligatory prayer, Allah is absolved of him.” (Ahmad)
ii. In another Hadith: “Verily, it is prayer which separates man and disbelief to
polytheism.”
iii. The Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) said: “Prayer is Miraj for the Believers.
iv. In other hadith it is said, that prayer is the key of heaven.
The real purpose of Islam in declaring that Ibadah embraces the total life of man is to make faith
playa practical and effective role in reforming human life and developing in man an attitude of dignified
patience and fortitude in the face of hardships and difficulties in creating in him the urge to strive for the
prevalence of good and extirpation of evil. In Prayer, man finds the surest and quickest way of obtaining
moral and spiritual perfection.
Rules for performance of Prayer
In view of great importance of prayer, it is absolutely necessary that it is performed properly in
the way it was performed and taught by Prophet. It must be performed earnestly and humbly. “Successful
indeed are the believers who are humble in their prayer”.
Some of the important rules of prayer are given below.
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1. Prayer must be performed with ease, comfort and calmness.
2. There must not be any movements of hands, head, ayes or legs other than necessary in the
performance of Ruku, Sujud, etc.
3. Every part of a prayer must be performed properly and quietly.
4. One part of a prayer must be completed before the next part is initiated.
5. Deliberate mediation on unrelated thoughts should be avoided.
6. One should constantly endeavor to understand the meaning of the words one is reciting Prayer.
7. Every prayer must be performed at its proper time as stated in the Holy Quran: “Prayer indeed
has been enjoined on believers at fixed times.”
Impacts of prayer on Human life and society:
Prayer teaches rules of cleanness and spiritual purification. It encourages punctuality,
self-discipline, self-control- and cleanliness. It develops high moral qualities of patience,
perseverance, honesty and truthfulness. It makes people God fearing and pious. It helps people to
build strong characters. It brings them closer to God. Socially, it teaches equality, fraternity,
tolerance, unity and co-operation.
a. Spiritual Impacts:
i. Physical cleanliness:
Prayer develops neat and clean habits in man. If person prays regularly, he has to
keep his body clean by ablution, for there can be no prayer without ablution. Thus a
believer must wash his hands, face, arms, and feet five times a day. He must also rinse his
mouth clean his nose and ears and eyes before every prayer. Wudu (ablution) is essential
before every prayer. “O you who believe, when you rise up for your prayer, wash your
faces, and your hands up to elbows, and wipe your heads, and (wash) your feet up to the
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ankles. And if you are polluted, then wash yourselves. God desires not to place you in a
difficulty, but He wishes to purify you.” (Quran 5:6)
The above verse also makes bathing obligatory for all Muslims who have had
sexual relation. “According to Abdullah bin Umar, the Holy Prophet (PBUH) said that no
Prayer was accepted without proper ablution”
ii. Taharat (Purification)
Taharat entails physical and spiritual purification. As far as physical purity is
concerned, Islam differs much from Western habits. When bathing, you must wash your
body with clean water and not the soapy water from the tub, which is full of body dirt.
When going to the toilet for bowl movement you must use clean water to wash your
body, and not just paper. One who is not physically clean will find it difficult to become
spiritually clean. “Surely Allah loves those turn much to him, and he loves those who
purify themselves.” (Quran 2:222) And again in Surah al-Nisa: “In it are men who love to
purify themselves.” (Quran 9:108)
iii. Closeness to God:
It means of bringing a person nearer to God. There is no better means of
achieving bliss about which it has been said: “Prayers is the zenith of a believer.”
iv. Purification of Soul:
Prayers are the means of purifying the heart and developing the soul. All these
seven blessings bring bliss and comfort to in this world and relieve him from anxiety for
the hereafter.
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v. Patience and perseverance:
Prayer develops in man such qualities as patients, endurance, contentment and
perseverance, which are needed in the service of justice and goodness and, above all, are
a source of strength in face of the hardships and suffering of life. The Holy Prophet
(PBUH) is told to be patient in face of hardships and evils forces. Therefore be patient
with what they say, and celebrate (constantly the praises of your Lord (through prayer)”
(Quran 20:130).
vi. Consciousness of being slave:
This is the great benefit of Salah as creates sense being slave of God. And on this
basis Salah is described as “Remembrance” in the Quran, that is to say, it is remembrance
of God, constant reminder of being slave of God.
vii. Sense of Duty:
Since at every step in life of Muslim, he has to cary out the commandments of
God, it is also necessary that he develops in himself the quality of identifying what is
Fard and along with it cultivate the habit of performing it with alacrity. One who does not
even know what duty implies, cannot become a dutiful person. Thus Salat creates sense
of duty in Muslims.
viii. Practice of Obedience
Salah is hard only on those who are not ready for leading a life of Obedience to
God, and that one on whom Salah is hard, he provides the proof of not being fit for the
servitude and obedience of God.
ix. Creating fear of God:
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Prayers inculcate the fear of God which is necessary to be kept alive in the heart
uninterruptedly. A Muslim can never practice Islam unless he believe that God is
watching him all the time at every place that God is aware of every action of his, that
God is watching even darkness and that God is with him even when he is alone. It is
possible to hide oneself from the whole world but it is impossible to be concealed from
God.
x. Awareness of Divine Law:
The Quran that is recited in the Salah is intended to keep you informed of the
commandments and law of God. The Friday sermon is also meant for acquainting you
with Islamic teaching. One of the advantages of congregational Salah and Friday Salah is
that scholars and common men keep on assembling at one place and thus an opportunity
is provided to the participants of prayers to know the commandments of God.
b. Moral Impacts
i. Punctuality:
Prayer teaches strict punctuality. A Muslim has to offer his prayer five times
daily at appointed times. He has to learn to be punctual at every prayer or he will be late
and lose the benefit of congregational prayer. This training is constant and consistent.
You cannot postpone it, partly because it must be repeated five time a day, and partly
because it must be performed in congregation, at stated times. “Establish regular prayer,
for the prayer is enjoined on believers at stated times.”
ii. Sense of duty and Responsibility:
Prayer develops a sense of duty and responsibility in an individual, first towards
his Creator and second towards his fellowmen. An individual cannot perform his duties
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properly and efficiently unless he is fully conscious of his obligations to other individuals
and society. And individual who does not know what his duty is and what he stands for
can hardly do any duty to other individuals or society. Prayer is prescribed five times a
day for this very purpose of supplementing and strengthening the spirit of duty of a
Muslim. God warns those who are not prepared to obey Him. “Seek Allah’s help with
patience and prayer; it is indeed hard except to those who bring a lowly spirit.” (Quran
2:45)
If ever they offer their prayer, they offer it very unwillingly:
“When they stand up to prayer, they stand without earnestness, to be seen of
men.”
iii. Training in Self-Discipline:
Great care is taken in the development of individual personality. Practice what
you preach is paramount. Prayer instills self-discipline into an individual. It becomes
obligatory on every individual, man or woman, at the age of twelve. And this duty is not
forgotten under any circumstances except when a woman is menstruating or in
confinement. Whether you are on a journey, or sick, or fighting against your enemy, you
have to fulfill your obligation of prayer. If you are so ill and weak that you cannot get up,
offer your prayer in a sitting position; if you cannot sit, offer it in a lying position; and if
you cannot even move your arms and legs, then offer it by signs. If water is not available,
does dry ablution instead of water ablution; if you cannot find the correct direction of the
Qibla offer your prayer in the probable direction of the Qibla. When the time for the
Prayer has come, a Muslim is duty bounded under all circumstances to offer his prayer.
iv. Character-Building :
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The practical success of an individual depends on his perseverance and hard
work. A man of character does his work persistently and constantly. This is called
strength of character. Daily prayer is a duty which is performed with strict regularity five
times a day and thus perseverance and persistence are its essential requisites. The Quran
praises this quality in the Companions of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) in these words:
“Those who remain steadfast to their prayer.” (Quran70:23)
And Mohammad (PBUH) is reported to have said: “The dearest act in the eyes of Allah is
that which is done constantly, even though it is small.”
v. Self-Control:
Along with character building, prayer also develops the power of self control in
an individual. Character-building by itself can make an individual disciplined and
cultured through the training of his human ego. But if the trained ego has no practical
control over the power of body and mind, which are its instruments, then the purpose of
its training, i.e. right conduct, cannot be achieved.
vi. Humility:
Humility is engraved in the hearts of believers through the establishment of
prayer. Their faces show in them the Grace and light of God; they are gentle, kind and
forbearing. Examples of extreme humility and gentleness are found amongst the believer
in the early period of Muslim history. This quality of the believers is again mentioned in
the Quran; “Soon will Allah produce people whom He will love as they will love Him,
lowly with the believer, mighty against the unbelievers.’ (5:54) Believers who have full
faith in their Lord seek His Help through patience and prayer, while the hypocrites refrain
from it because off their spiritual emptiness and apathy: “And prayer, indeed, is hard
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except to those who bring a lowly spirit, who bear in mind the certainty that they are to
meet their Lord, and that they are to return to Him.” (Quran 2:45-46)
c. Social Impacts
i. Social Organization and Social Discipline:
Prayer not only helps in building individual character but also in establishing
community structure and spirit. Daily prayers keep the flame of this spirit going. This is
why prayer in congregation is obligatory. The gathering of believers in the Masjid five
times daily is the basis of community organization of the Millat-e-Islamia. The Muslim
community is disciplined into one solid unity through daily prayer. A Muslim hears the
call for Prayer; he leaves all his engagements and goes to the Masjid to offer Prayer with
his brothers in Islam. It is a discipline more strict than that of the Army but without any
coercion. It is a voluntary discipline imposed from with to win the pleasure of God.
ii. Mosques as Community Centers:
When Muslims meet together in Msajid for Prayer; they feel and share one
another’s grief and suffering. They get the opportunity to know their brethren more
closely and acquaint them of their needs and problems. This fraternity promotes sincerity,
honesty, willingness to help and piety amongst them. Prayer is the cardinal institution of
Islam and reflects its religious, social, cultural, political and moral objectives. The
Mosque is the Centre of all Muslim gatherings. Prayer is the binding force between the
Muslims, whoever breaks this bond goes to Kufr (a state of disbelief).
iii. Mutual Help and Co-operation:
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This regular assembly for daily prayer also provides great opportunities for co-
operation. People of different social and economic status meet one another in the Mosque
and learn each other’s problems. In Islamic tradition, they will learn and cater for the
needs of those in difficulty and suffering. Thus new fields of co-operation and mutual
help between the sections of the community are found in these gathering for the benefit
of all its members. A believer provides whatever he can to meet the needs of his less
fortunate fellow-beings whom he meets in the Mosque. The institution of prayer cements
their personal, social and cultural relationship and gradually creates and strengthens their
co-operation in the economic as well as social fields of activities. They help each other in
very possible way merely to seek the pleasure of God and give preference to the needs
and requirements of other Muslim brothers over their own.
iv. Equality and Brotherhood:
Prayer in congregation is a trailing in brotherhood, equality and fraternity. All
Muslims stand in prayer before their Lord as equals. There is no distinction between the
rich and the poor, the white and the black, the Arab and non-Arab, they all stand together
in rows to offer their prayer to God. The pride of the rich and humbleness of the poor are
equalized and neutralized before God. All Muslims assemble in the Mosque, Devoid of
any nationalistic or tribal barriers. In spite of linguistic and differences, they stand
together as brothers for prayer. This daily practice in social democracy and human
brotherhood is unique. It builds up social unity and international brotherhood.
v. Training in Jihad (Holy War):
There seems to be a close relationship prayer and Jihad. Any Army must possess
discipline to achieve marked battle success. For without discipline the Army spirit will
disintegrate. Islam offers prayer as training for discipline even in Holy War.
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Congregational prayer, even in danger in face of enemy, is not ignored or neglected but
performed with the same strictness. For in Islam, war is fought not for bloodshed or
plunder, but to end the aggression and mischief which is raised but the unbelievers to stop
the servants of God from obeying His Commandments. Prayer is the real spirit of Jihad
and this makes it Ibadah (worship). Devoid of this spirit, it would also be mischief on
earth.
vi. Respect for the Rights of Others:
Prayer also teaches respect for other people and their rights. The believers go to
Mosque regularly five times daily and meet all types of people who gather there for
prayer. They stand together shoulder like a solid cemented structure and present a striking
example of discipline, cohesion and affection. This develops in them love and respect for
other people and their rights.
vii. Tolerance:
True believers also become tolerant through the daily routine of prayer. They
have to prepare for prayer, perform ablution and then join other believers in the Mosque
for prayer. It needs a lot of endurance to stick to this rigorous discipline every day all the
year round. It also enables an individual to endure and tolerate the hardships and
sufferings he has to undergo in his life.
viii. Unity:
Prayer is the strength behind unity. The establishment of unity is the greatest
social ideal of Islam. It unites men of different languages, ethnic groups, colors and
nationalities. When they hear the call of Muazzin, they all gather together as brothers for
prayer. It is infect, the most vital and effective way of uniting believers into one solid
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block. Prayer is a constant reminder to the believers that they are brothers in faith and so
“they must remain united as one single people, otherwise they will fall into dispute and
their power and unity will shatter into pieces.
“And obey Allah and his Messenger, and fall into no disputes, lest you lose heart
and your power depart, and be patient and preserving.” (Quran)
ZAKAT (POOR DUE) AND ITS IMPACTS
Introduction:
Among the fundamental tenets of Islam Zakat occupies a place next in importance only to belief
and Salat. As one would say, it is third pillar of Islam. At numerous places in the Quran, Zakat has been
associated with Salat. The Quran categorically states that whoever wants to enter the brotherhood of
Islam, shall have to establish regular Salat and pay Zakat regularly. Both are equally fundamental in
importance. Zakat is of little use if it does not spring from a prayerful mood, having no trace of
selfishness.
Zakat creates Islamic brotherhood of the whole of the world. By establishing the system of Zakat, Allah
desires to prepare a society among the Muslims themselves which surpasses in fellow-feeling and Islamic
brotherhood. The giving and taking of the Zakat develops the society on a sound footing of love.
Literal meaning of Zakat:
The Arabic word Zakat assumes vast meaning. It means “purification: growth: giving better part of
thing.”
Importance of Zakat in the light of Quran and Hadith:
Special Injunctions for ‘Zakat’ in Quran:
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At several places in the Quran Zakat has been enjoined on Muslims side by side with Namaz. While
reading the Quran come across number of times the commands:
“Be steadfast in prayer, practice regularly charity”
One several occasion it has been spoken of by the Quran as a characteristic feature of Muslim that, “They
establish prayer and practice regular charity” These two verses go to show emphatically that those who do
not offer Namaz and, fail to pay the Zakat are infect, not Muslims for the two basic attributes and
distinguishing features of qa genuine Muslim are not present in them.
a. In this regard Quran reads: “Establish regular prayer and be not yet among those who join gods
with God.”
b. And about the evasion of Zakat being the attribute of polytheists and infidels we have in Holy
Quran. “And woe to those who join gods with God, those who practice not regular charity, and
who even deny the Hereafter.”
c. Allah has sent forth in the Holy Quran three injunctions about Zakat separately at three places:
i. It is said in Al-Baqarah’
“Spend in the cause of Allah of the good things which you have earned and of that which
We bring forth from the earth for you.”
ii. In Surah Al-An’am’ it is said:
We have produced from the earth for you gardens and corps therefore:
“Eat ye of the fruit thereof when it fruiteth and pay the due of Allah thereupon the harvest
day.”
Importance of Zakat in Hadith:
a. The Holy Prophet said about Zakat that:
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“I have been commanded to fight against people till they testify that there is no God but Allah,
and they establish prayer and pay Zakat and if they do it, then blood and property are guaranteed
protection on my behalf and their affairs rest with Allah” (Muslim)
b. In one of his Traditions, the Prophet has said:
“He who possesses gold or silver but does not fulfill the obligations that are attached to
possession (i.e. does not pay Zakat), plates of fire will be prepared for him on the Day of
Judgment. These plates will be branded with them. The plates will be heated up again and again
to brand him and this will continue throughout the Day of Judgment which will be equal to fifty
thousand years in this world.”
c. The Prophet (PBUH) said:
“Allah has made Zakat obligatory on you for this very reason that the remaining wealth of yours
may become pure for you.”
The above mentioned verses of the Holy Quran and the traditions are sufficient to signify the
position of the Zakat in Islam. They make it very clear that the edifice of Islam cannot be raised
without full regards to the Zakat. It was actually for this reason that the Zakat was included in the
pillars of the Faith.
Objectives of the Zakat:
1. Purification of the Soul (Self purification)
Zakat relate to a person individual capacity. The alms giver clears his heart from greed, and
acquires fear of God.
“He shall be saved from Hell fire who is God fearing and who gives riches to other for the
purification of his soul.”
In this verse Zakat has been described as a means of purifying the soul. Holy Prophet has
proclaimed love of the world is the root of all evils. Love of the World may have many
aspects but in essence it is one. Another Hadith from the Holy Prophet (PBUH) tells us.
2. Help of the poor:
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Let us now turn to the secondary objectives of the poor-due. It provides basic necessities to
the poor Muslims. The Prophet (PBUH) said:
“Verily Allah has ordained the payment of Zakat on them (Muslims). It will be taken from
the rich and returned to their poor (Muslims).”
It is true that the primary objectives of the Zakat is the purification of the Soul but it is
equally true that unless it serves the needs of the poor, its real purpose will remain
unattained. This duty will be done when the Zakat will reach their hands. That is the reason
why Quran has regarded the Zakat as a right of the poor on the affluent class of the society.
“And in whose wealth there is a right acknowledge for the beggar and the destitute.”
3. Support of Islam:
In view of this objective the Muslims have been repeatedly exhorted in the Quran to this
effect:
“And strive with your wealth and your lives in the way of Allah.”
It is admitted on all hands that the protection and support of religion is not an ordinary matter.
As such expending of personal wealth for this purpose has great importance. While enjoining
Holy war the Quran says:
“Spend your wealth in the cause of Allah and be not cast by your own hands to ruin.”
Nisab of Zakat
In the verses quoted above there are injunctions about the Zakat of produce from earth
and gold and silver, but it is learnt from Ahdith tha Zakat is also due on merchandise, camels,
cows, money/wealth 2.5% and goats’
Nisab’ (Minimum Scale) of Zakat on some articles
Silver 200 Dirhams or 52.5 tolas
7.5 tlas (3ozs)

Gold
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5 Camels
Camel
40 goats
Goat
30 cows
Cow
Equal to the price of 52.5 toals of silver (21 Ozs.)

Merchanise
Masarif of Zakat (Those Deserving of Zakat):
There are eight categories of people who have been described in the Holy Quran as entitled to
receive Zakat. Their details are:
1. Fuqara (The destitute)
These are those people who do have some money but not sufficient to meet their needs. They live
in straitened circumstances and do not beg from anybody. This definition has been given by
Imam Zuhri, Imam Abu Hanifa, Ibne Abbas, Hassan Basri, other eminent scholars of the past.
2. Masakin (The poor)
These are the very miserable people who have nothing with them to fulfill the needs of their
body. Hazrat Umar (R.A) had also included those among the needy who are fit to earn but do not
get employment.
3. Amilinalaiha (Those who are deputed to collect Zakat)
These are the people who are appointed by an Islamic government to collect Zakat. They are to be
paid from Zakat fund.
4. Maullafat-ul-qulub (Those whose hearts are to be reconciled)
From this are meant those people whom it may be necessary to give money to seek support of
Islam or to prevent them from opposing Islam. With them are also included those Muslim
converts who need to be satisfied. If a person by leaving his community of unbelievers and then
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joining the ranks of the Muslims becomes unemployed of recorded destitute, it is, of course,
incumbent on Muslims to help him but if he is a wealthy person even then Zakat can be given to
him so that his heart firm in Islam. On the occasion of the war of Hunain, the Holy Prophet
(PBUH) gave from the booty a lot of material to Muslim converts so much so that for each person
the share amounted to hundred camels. The Ansars complained against it on which the Holy
Prophet said: “These people have just now entered in Islam after giving up Kufr. I want to please
their hearts.” On this vwery basis, Imam Zuhrihas thus defined in Maullafat ul Qulub: “Any
Christian or Jew or Non-Muslim who has entered in Islam. Through he may be a wealthy man.”
5. “Fir-riqab” (For the emancipation of slaves)
This means that a person who wants to free himself from the shackles of slavery should be given
Zakat so that he may release his neck from bondage by giving money to his master. In these days
the system slavery is non-existent. Therefore those people, who are undergoing imprisonment for
their inability to pay the fine imposed by courts, can be helped to secure release with the money
of Zakat. This also falls under the definition of Fir-riqab.
6. “Al-Gharimin” (For relieving one from the harden of debt)
This means those people who are not in debt. It does not mean that Zakat can be given to a person
who has a thousand rupees with him and has to pay a debt of one hundred rupees, but it means
that Zakat can be given to that person who is indebted so much that after paying off the loan what
remains with him falls below the figure on which Zakat is livable. The learned jurists have also
said that it is not advisable to give Zakat to a person who has fallen in debt due to extravagance
and illicit habits, because in such a case he will indulge in prodigality and illicit pursuits with
greater temerity, being confident of receiving Zakat to clear of his debt.
7. “Fi-Sabilillah” (In the cause of Allah)
This is a common word used in relation to all good deeds but, in particular, it means rendering
help to endeavors on to rise aloft the banner of God’s religion. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said
that it is not permissible for nay wealthy person to take Zakat but if a wealthy person requires
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help for the sake of Jiahd, he must be given Zakat because a man may be wealthy by himself he
is unable to defray from his own pocket all the extraordinary expenses entailed in Jihad. It is
necessary to help him in this work from Zakat.
8. Ibn-us-Sabil (Wayfarer)
A wayfarer may have any amount of money in his home but if he is needs of money while
traveling, he must be given Zakat.
Management of the Zakat: Need for collective system of Zakat:
It is this that in Islam all works are done on a party organization basis. Islam does not like
individualism. If Muslims are staying far from the Mosque and say their Salah alone, it will be formally
correct but Shariah demands that it should be offered with the congregation. Similarly, if there is no party
organization, it will be correct to take out Zakat and spend it on an individual basis. But efforts should in
any case be made to centralize the collection of Zakat in order that its distribution is conducted in a
systematic manner. A reference is made to this needs in the Holy Quran. For instance;
“Take alms of their wealth and make them pure and clean.” (9:103)
i.e. Allah ordered the Holy Prophet (PBUH) to collect Zakat from Muslims. It was not
commanded to Muslims to take out Zakat and distributes it individually. Similarly, the fixing of a share in
it for the collectors of Zakat clearly indicates that the right method for it is that the Imam of Muslims
should receive it regularly and distribute it systematically. Similarly, the Holy Prophet (PBUH) said:
I have been commanded to collect Zakat from the rich among you and distribute it to the poor among
you.”
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) and the caliphs (R.A) worked according to this very system. All Zakat
used to be collected by the officials of the Islamic government and it was a systematic manner, you can
individually take out your Zakat and spend it under the heads sanctioned by the Shariah. But it is
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incumbent on all Muslims to think out methods of establishing a collective system for receiving and
distributing Zakat because without it the benefits accruing from making Zakat obligatory remain
incomplete. During the reign of the caliph Abu Bakr (R.A) some pe3ople refused to pay Zakat to the
government and he fought against them. Declaring that:
“By Allah, if they withhold from me even the tether of a camel which they used to render to the Prophet
(PBUH), I would fight against them for it.”
Such a collective system is necessary because of the following.
1. It enjoins the Muslims to live as a well-organized and disciplined society and to form a social
ordered dominated by a maximum degree of discipline and collaboration.
2. It was necessitated by consideration such as the welfare of the poor, extensive needs of the
religion and the defense of Islam. One important thing that could not be overlooked was the
slackness of the rich in regard to their duty to the poor and the religion. In order to meet such a
situation and also to ensure that these rights were fully protected, the responsibility of its
collection was reposed in the government.
Impacts of Zakat on Human life and society:
a. Spiritual Impacts
i. Zakat removes greed
The first and the foremost purpose of Zakat is to remove the greed from the hearts of the
believers; It aims at creating the love of God in the hearts of the believers. It creates Taqwa (fear
of Allah) among the believers qas mentioned in the Holy Quran.
“And the person will be kept away from the Hell who is Mutaqi and gives money to make it
clean.” (Surah-e-al-Lail verse no. 17-18)
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ii. Zakat removes Love of Materialism:
The real enemy of the man which keeps away from religion is the love of this world. That
is the reason that Prophet (PBUH) said:
This world is accursed;
“The love of this world is the mother of all evils.”
“The greatest evil of my Ummah is wealth.”
The world is believer’s Jail and non-believer’s paradise.
iii. Zakat Brings man Closer to God:
It brings one closer to God as it is a source of great reward The Zakat is the best source
for the equal distribution of wealth.
iv. Self-Purification
v. Individual Strength
b. Moral Impacts:
i. Shield against crime:
The majority of the society is poor. They cannot meet their basic necessities of life. Some
are even lacking two times meal. To meet their basic necessities of life, they indulge in unfair
means to get what they need. Zakat helps in alleviation of poverty and privations.
ii. Zakat Creates Generosity:
Zakat creates the sense of generosity among the believers. They know that the wealth
they give the way of God is not wasted but it is real investment. They know that they will not
only be under the blessing of God in this world but also in hereafter as well where they will be
blessed and will be saved from the wrath of Allah.
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iii. Zakat purifies Heart and Property:
Zakat not only purifies the property but it also purifies the heart.
iv. Internal Security, Humanitarian Spirit:
Zakat is an effective weapon against selfish greed and sound illustration of humanitarian
spirit.
c. Social Impacts
i. Individual Welfare lies in Collective Welfare
Zakat infuses in man the spirit of social welfare and the man who keeps money to himself
due to selfishness and narrow-mindedness, and does not spend it on the good of the community
apparently preserve his wealth, increases it by taking usury, but in reality decreases his wealth by
his foolishness works up his destruction with his own hands. This is the secret which Allah has
described thus:
“Allah has blighted usury and made alms giving faithful.” (2:276)
“That which you give in usury in ordered that it may increase on (other) people’s property has no
increase with Allah; but that which you give in charity, seeking Allah’s countenance, has
increased manifold.”
ii. Co-operation:
Zakat is the real force that creates cooperation among the society, the success of the
society depends upon the3 economic condition of the people. But it is up to God to make
someone rich and other poor. God wants to test his people, firstly he wants to test the patience of
the poor and secondly to test the rich. The successful are those who are contented and those who
help their Muslims brothers. By giving Zakat an atmosphere of cooperation is created in the
society as a whole. Through this cooperation the need of the needy people is fulfilled.
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iii. Defense of Religion:
Another important purpose and benefit of Zakat is that it is utilized for defense of the
religion. The Holy Quran says:
“And do Jihad (Holy war) economically and physically” (9:41).
The above verse demands two things: one Jihad with body and second Jiahd with wealth. Jiahd
with body means to tight against the enemies of Islam with presence in the battle field. Jihad with
wealth means to provide financial help to those who are lighting. Jihad also needs weapons and
foodstuff for the soldiers. So the money of Zakat can be utilized to defend religion against the
enemies of Islam. The reason of the destruction of the Muslim in the present age is due to their
neglect of playing Zakat with its true essence.
iv. Distribution of Wealth
Òne of the important benefits of Zakat is that it helps in the free distribution of wealth. It
prevents the accumulation of the wealth in few hands. It aims at the equal distribution of wealth
in the society. The Holy Quran says:
“And it should not be that wealth is accumulated in few hands.”
Similarly the Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said to Hazrat Maadh Bin Jabal (R.A) when he
appointed him as the governor of Yemen.
“O Maadh! Collect Zakat from rich and distribute among the poor and needy people.”
v. Balanced Ideology
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There is tussle going on between the two manmade ideologies capitalism and
communism. Capitalism aims at the holding of the private property by the individual whereas
communism wants that the production should be held by the laborers themselves. It is against the
private property. Islam on the other hand has adopted the middle way and supports lawful private
property but at the same time has established the system of Zakat to prevent the accumulation of
wealth in few hands.
SAUM (FASTING) AND ITS IMPACTS
Introduction:
Fasting is one of the “Five Pillars of Islam” or discipline of the faith (Iman). Fasting is a
discipline that enables the Muslim to realize the pangs of hunger and thirst. It is, indeed, to create broader
understanding of the problems of the underfed, under-clothed and shelter less people, and arouse an
adequate amount of sympathy for their sufferings.
Saum (fasting) according to Islam is primarily a spiritual discipline. A new consciousness of
higher life, a life above that which is maintained by eating and drinking, has been awakened. Allah’s
presence, which may be a matter of faith to others, becomes a reality for a fasting one, and this is made
possible by the spiritual discipline underlying fasting.
There is also a moral discipline underlying fasting, for it is the training ground, where man is
taught the greatest moral of his life—the lesson that he should be prepared to suffer the greatest privation
and undergo the hardest trail rather than indulge in that which is not permitted to him.
In addition to its spiritual and moral values, fasting as prescribed in the Quran has also a social
value, more effective than that which is realized through Salat. The appearance of the moon of Ramadan
is a signal for a mass movement towards equality, which is not limited to one vicinity or even one
country, but affects the whole Muslim world. The rich and the poor may stand shoulder to shoulder in one
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row in the Mosque, but in their houses they live in different environments. Fasting is the best method
through which soul gets purification and all evils are suppressed.
According to Imam Ghazali, fast does not mean only to control on food and water but it means to control
oneself from evil thinking, evil listening and evil talking.
Literal Meaning and Concept of Fasting:
The Fourth pillar of Islam is “Fasting” the technical term for it is (Saum) which is literally means
to be at rest. It has been so named for the reason that while one is keeping fast he abstains from eating,
drinking and sexual intercourse from dawn to dusk.
Importance of Fasting in Quran and Hadith
a. Importance of Fasting in Quran:
Fasting in the month of Ramadan is obligatory on the whole mankind. It has been so since the
time of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH).
i. The first and foremost quality of the fast is that it creates piety and fear of Allah. The
Quran, the Tradition and the human reason provide ample evidence to this effect. This
fact has been explicitly stated in the Holy Quran where it makes fasting obligatory.
“O ye who believe, fasting is prescribed for you, even as it was prescribed before
you, that ye may ward off evil.”
ii. “The month of Ramadan is that in which the Quran was revealed, as guidance for the
whole mankind, with clear proofs of guidance and discrimination. Therefore, whoever of
you (O mankind) is present in this month, let him fast in it. But whoever is sick or on a
journey, shall fast the same number of other days. Allah desires to give you facility, and
He does not desire difficulty for you, and that you may complete the number and that you
may exalt Allah for His having guided you and that you may be grateful.”
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b. Importance of Fasting in Hadith:
i. A saying of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) signifies the same thing in the following words;
“Fasting is a shield for you as it saves you from sins in this world and would protect you
from Hell in the hereafter” (Muslim)
ii. “When anyone of you is observing the fast, he should neither use indecent language nor
speak a loud. “If someone kicks up a row and abuses him, he should tell him that he is
observing fast.” (Muslim) This saying of the Prophet (PBUH) is in fact a declaration that
fasting is an accepted means of attaining piety and fear of Allah. It is an accepted means
of piety and in one respect or the other has a singular significance.
iii. Ibn-e-Umar reported Allah’s Messenger (PBUH) as saying:
“Don’t fast till you see the new moon and do not break your fast till you see it; but if the
weather is cloudy, calculate when it should appear.” In a version, he said: “The month
consist of twenty nine days, wait till thirty days of previous month have passed.”
(Bukhari and Muslim)
iv. “Fasting is pure until a breach is made in it.” When asked how a breach may be made in
it, The Prophet (PBUH) said: “By lies and speaking evil of anyone.” (Shiekh Obiedah
and Shiekhain)
v. When the Prophet (PBUH) was asked about the fasting throughout one’s life, he said
“Your family also has rights on you; fast only during Ramadan and during ‘Shasheid’
(Six day of Shawal). Besides if you fast on Wednesdays and Thursdays, it will be like
fasting forever. (Muslim-al-Qashiri in Trimzi)
Philosophy of Fasting: Why Fasting was obligatory?
There is great importance attached with Fasting for Allah made it obligatory in each and every method.
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1. Aim of servitude of God:
The real aim of Islam is to make the whole life of man transformed into ‘Ibadat’ of Allah. Man is
born as slave, and slavery, i.e. servitude is ingrained in his very nature. Therefore, he must not be free for
a single moment from ‘Ibadat’ i.e. servitude to Allah, in thought and deed. He must check up at every
move in the affairs of his life as to which step ought to take so as to earn the pleasure of God and which
one will entails His displeasure and wrath. The principle, therefore, is that the path leading to Allah’s
pleasure must be followed and that leading His displeasure must be eschewed just as embers of fire are
avoided.
2. Ibadat—training of servitude:
The real purpose of the religious duties like Salah, Hajj, fasting and Zakat having been made
obligatory for Muslims, is to train us for a big ‘Ibadat. The fact of these acts being obligatory does not
mean that you have aquitted themselves of what Muslims owe to Allah if they have done Ruku and
Sajdah five times in a day, have suffered hunger and thirst from dawn to dusk for thirty day in Ramadan
and, in case they are wealthy, have given Zakat every year and have performed Hajj once in a life time,
and that having done all this, are now released from His servitude to be free to do what they like. In fact,
the underlying purpose of making these religious duties obligatory is to train a person in such a manner as
to enable him to transform his whole life into a regular ‘Ibadat’ of God.
3. Fasting is a Hidden Ibadat:
All religious duties except fasting are performed by some outward movement or the other. For
instance, in Salah a man stands sits, and does Ruku and Sajdah which is visible to everybody; in Hajj
he goes on a long journey and travels with hundreds of thousands of people. Zakat is also given by
one person and received by another person. All these religious works cannot be connected.
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4. Fasting—sign of strength of Iman:
One can ponder over the fact that how strong is the faith of the man, who keeps fast, in God being
the Knower of the unseen. He actually observes fast; he does not stealthily eat or drink anything; even
in the severest summer, when the throat dries due to extreme thirst, he does not drink a drop of water,
even in the worst condition of hunger, when life seems drooping, he is not inclined to eat anything!
How his heart is full of fear of God that he undergoes a severe agony but simply out of fear of Him
does not do anything which will result in breaking his fast! How profound is his belief in the reward
and punishment of the hereafter that for full one month he fasts for at least 360 hours and not for a
moment does an iota of doubt enter his mind about life after death! Had he the slightest doubt about
the future life, where reward and punishment will be meted out, he could have never completed his
fest. When doubt arises, it is not possible for a man to stick to his resolve of not eating and drinking
anything in obedience to God’s commandment.
5. One month’s Continuous Training
One month in a year and to the extent a man emerges successful from this trail, his faith becomes
firmer and firmer. This is, as it were, both a trail as well as training. When Muslim deposits anything
as a trust with somebody, he is as if testing his integrity. If he proves successful in his test and does
not commit breach of trust, he develops greater strength to bear the burden of trusts and becomes
more worthy of trust. Similarly, Allah puts his faith to severe test continuously for one month, twelve
to fourteen hours a day, and when he emerge triumphant from this test, further ability develops in you
to refrain from other sins due to fear of God. Therefore, realizing that Allah is the knower of unseen,
you should abstain from breaking His law even covertly, and on every occasion, he should duly
remember that day when everything will be exposed, and without any consideration, you will be
requited good for good and evil for evil. This is the purport of the following verse:
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“O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed for you, just as it was prescribed for those before you, that
ye may ward off evil.” (2:183)
6. Long Practice of Obedience:
There is another peculiarity of fasting. It makes one obey the injunction of Shariah without break
for a long period of time. The duration of Salah is not more than a few minutes at a time. The time for
paying Zakat occurs only once in a year. In Hajj however, the time spent is long but its opportunity
comes once during lifetime and that too not for all. As against these fasting is an exercise in following
Shariat-e-Muhammadi for full one month in a year, day and night. Muslim has to get up for Sehri
early before dawn, stop all eating and drinking precisely at the breaking dawn, do such and such work
and abstain from such and such work during the day, take Iftar in the evening exactly at the time of
sunset, then have dinner and relax, then hurry up Taravih. In this way, every year for full one month,
from dawn to dusk and from dusk to dawn, a Muslim is kept continuously tied up with rules and
regulations like soldier in an army, and then he is released for eleven months so that the training he
has received for one month may show its effects, and if any deficiency is found it may be made up in
the training of the next year.
7. Favorable Collective Environment for Training:
It is not expedient in any manner to impart training of this type of each and every person
separately. The month of Ramadan was earned marked for fasting and all Muslims were ordered that
all of them should fast together. This, order has turned individual ‘Ibadat’ into collective ‘Ibadat’ just
as number one when multiplied by a lakh becomes a formidable number of one lakh, in the same way
the moral and spiritual benefits accruing from fasting by one person are increased a million fold of
people together.
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Real Aims and Objectives/Requirements of Fasting:
1. Abstention from laying:
Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) has drawn attention in various ways towards the real aim of
fasting and has explained that to be hungry and thirsty without keeping in view the is in no way
useful, He said:
“Whoever did not give up laying and practicing falsehood, Allah is in no need of his giving up
food and water.”
2. Faith and self-scrutiny:
The Prophet (PBUH) has drawn attention to the real aim of fasting thus:
“Whoever observed fast imbued with faith and with the expectation of reward from Allah, all his
past sins are forgiven.”
The reference to faith implies that the belief in God with a Muslim should remain fully fresh
in the mind of a Muslim; Ihtisab denotes that man should be desirous of only Allah’s Pleasure
continuously keeping an eye on his thoughts and actions to check if he is doing anything against
the pleasure of Allah. If, in accordance with these two principles, a person were to observe all the
fast of Ramadan, he will have all his past sins forgiven because even if he was once an unruly and
disobedient slave he has now turned fully repentant to his master—and “A penitent is like one
who has, as it were, never committed a sin at all” this the Prophet said:
3. Shield for protection from sins:
In another Hadith it is said:
“Fasts are like a shield (just as a shield is meant for protection from the enemy’s assault,
so is fasting for protection from Satan’s attack). Therefore when a man observes fast he
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should (utilize this shield and abstain from disorderly behavior. If anybody abuse him or
quarreled with him, the person who keeps fast should tell him: “Brother, I am fasting (do not
expect from me that I shall take part in such activities of your”).
4. Temptation of Goodness:
The Prophet (PBUH) has directed in other Ahdith that man while fasting ought to do
more and more good works and should be eager to perform benevolent acts. Particularly
during fasting, he must develop with full intensity a sympathetic sentiment for his other
brothers because being in throes of hunger and thirst he can all the more realize what is
befalling other slaves of the God in their plight of destitution and misery. It is related by
Hazrat Ibn-e-Abbas (R.A) that the Prophet (PBUH) used to become especially kind and
benevolent during Ramadan. No beggar in that period went empty-handed from his door, and
the slaves secured emancipation.
5. Reward for Providing ‘Iftar’:
According to a Hadith the Prophet (PBUH) said:
“ Whoever in Ramadan provides a person who is keeping fast with Iftar, this act will
become a source of forgiveness for his sins and safety from hell fire and he will get as much
reward as will the keeper of fast get without any reduction in the recompense of the latter.”
Impacts of Fasting on Human Life and Society:
a. Spiritual Impacts:
i. Discipline and self-control:
Fasting has immense spiritual value for it is basically a spiritual exercise and discipline. It
brings man closer to God and removes all barriers between him and his Lord:
“O you who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you, So that you may fear Allah (and gain
your taqwa)” Al- Quran
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ii. Attainment of Piety:
The very purpose of fasting, in the verse of the Quran, is described as the attainment of
Taqwa. Believers are commanded to observe fasting in the month of Ramadan so that through
it they may be able to attain nearness to God. A fasting is observed for God and only He
knows whether a person is really fasting or not, it brings a man very close to his Creator.
iii. Obedience to God:
Fasting strengthens the spiritual powers of man and clarifies his mental and spiritual
vision for seeing and experiencing the multifarious manifestations of his Lord. The fact that it
is observed merely in obedience and for the pleasure of God makes it more significant. It lifts
man very high in the spiritual world.
iv. Closeness to God:
Fasting reminds one throughout the day that he is abstaining from food and drink and
other pleasures of life in obedience to the command of God. There is none to see and check
whether he is eating or drinking or enjoying other pleasures of life. He abstain from all these
things with the full knowledge that God is always with him and always sees and hears him
doing everything, and that nothing can be hidden from Him. Thus fasting develops a very
strong sense of nearness and closeness to God and of His presence everywhere.
v. Fasting Infuses Spirit of Jihad:
The training trial of the month of Ramadan is unique in respect that it inculcates the spirit
of Jihad in the believers. It prepares him for Jihad with hunger, thirst obedience patience and
perseverance.
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vi. Shield against sin:
Fasting protects man from all kinds of temptations of body and mind and keeps man on
the right path. It is a shield against all kinds of sins. According to Abu Hurairah (R.A) the
Holy Prophet (PBUH) said:
“Fasting is a shield or shelter against committing sins. If one of you is fasting should
avoid obscenity quarrelling and if somebody fights with you, he should say please. I am
fasting.”
It strengthens one’s faith. It strengthens faith in the sovereignty of Allah to be an
example of obedience to Him.
vii. Immunity from Hypocrisy:
There is also another factor which makes the fast a strong source of piety. The Prophet
(PBUH) has referred to it in the following words:
“Fast is free from hypocrisy.”
viii. Distinctive Position:
Allah will himself pay reward of Saum or he himself will be rewarded. The Hadith Qudsi
gives both the meanings.
ix. Internal Security, Humanitarian and Spiritual Spirit:
It is healthy form of internal security against selfish greed and vivid manifestation of
spiritual and humanitarian spirit.
b. Moral Impacts:
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i. Building Moral Character:
Fasting teaches a man moral discipline through practical raining during the
month of Ramadan. It is through fasting that he suffers and undergoes trails of hunger
and thirst. It helps in building up his moral character.
ii. Attainment of Moral Uplift:
It also teaches him self-control and self-restrain, in order to overpower his
sensual lusts and conquer his physical desires. He does not eat or drink when he wishes,
or when his appetite is strong. He eats and drinks at intervals when he is allowed to do;
this enables him to be the master and not the slave of his desires and appetites. He
become strong to control and rule his desires. His confidence in himself grows and his
will power is strengthened. He has subdued his wishes and has become master of his self.
A Muslim learns to suppress his passions and his desires every day during the month of
Fasting, for the sake of God. Thus, through fasting, a man attains moral greatness.
iii. Fasting Controls Passion:
It is best way to control on passion. For example if a man has rich food, He will
get a strong passion which is the cause of all evils.
iv. Fasting Destroy the Pride of Man:
The king or bagger landlord or layman becomes weak after fasting. All men
realize the severity of fasting also.
v. Fasting Increases Moral Resistance of Man:
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During fasting nobody drinks and eats. Morally everyone realize to control on
self suffering. Hence many moral virtues develop in man’s disposition. In short fasting
firms the faith of man on Allah, a man believes that God is present everywhere; hence he
tries to obey the order of Almighty.
c. Social Impacts
i. Brotherhood and Sympathy:
Hunger is, in fact a great revealing experience. It shows people what it is like to
be hungry. It helps them to feel and share other people’s suffering in hunger and thirst.
All Muslims, rich and poor, all over the world, go through this experience of hunger and
thirst. They all are bought closer to each to other through fasting: This is bound to renew
their brotherly ties and if awaken sympathy for the poor in the hearts of the rich.
ii. Social Congregation:
During the month of Ramadan, all Muslim, rich and poor, gather in the Mosque
at the time of Iftari and for additional, Taraveeh prayer at night. In fact, it is a time of
great festivities in the Mosques. The rich and the poor all come to the Mosque during this
month at least and meet each other. This greatly helps to strengthen the feeling and ties of
Muslim brotherhood among them. They feel experience and see brotherhood in practice
in the Mosque every day during this month. Thus fasting can immense social value.
iii. Social Unity:
Certainly it has greta social impact when all Muslims, from every walk of life,
fast together. They come together in large numbers for Iftari and for Taraweeh in the
Mosques and sit together. It helps to bring them closer to each other, thrilled and filled
with sentiments of love and brotherhood.
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iv. Economic Benefits:
Among other blessings, fasting brings enormous economic benefits for the
Muslim community. During the month of Ramadan, the rich people spend very
generously on the poor to win the pleasure of God. Their generosity and charity enable
the poor section of the community to receive sufficient funds during this month to meet
their needs for at least a part of the year. Muslims make every effort to do more good in
this month than during the rest of the year in the hope that their efforts will be rewarded
many times by God. The month of Ramadan is a month of blessing and the Muslims
spend more, following the tradition of their Messenger (PBUH), in order to attain more
goodness from their Lord.
v. Manifold Reward of Zakat, Sadaq, Fitrana:
The Muslims especially those who are rich, give a share of their wealth to the
poor in order to seek the blessings and pleasure of their God. Thus Ramadan helps all in
obtaining something in it the poor get some money to meet their economic needs from
the overflowing charity of the rich, while the latter hope to get their reward from their
Lord in many forms. Then people, who, owing to sickness or old age, cannot fast, are
asked to feed the poor in compensation. Many rich people who are sick or too old to fast
lavishly feed the poor in the month of Ramadan.
“For those who can do it but hardship, is a ransom, the feeding of one that is in need. But
he that will give more, of his own free will it is better of him.” (Quran)
HAJJ (PILGRIMAGE) AND ITS IMPACTS
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Introduction:
Hajj is the fifth last pillar of Islam: Hajj is the greatest of all acts of worship. It is in fact the
culmination of worship. It is an exhibition of brotherhood, equality, punctuality and discipline. It is the
greatest of all gatherings of the Muslims hailing from all parts of the globe clad only in two clothes. The
gathering of millions of people at Makkah, Arafat etc, is really Faith-increasing, exhilarating, astonishing
and the most wonderful display of unity, oneness, piety, submission and Islamic brotherhood. Besides
worship it affords an opportunity to Muslims from various countries of the world to become acquainted
with one-another and discuss common problems in the heavenly shadows of Kabah in order, to increase
their strength, strategy, powers with best use of their resources for common cause and shared goals.
Meaning and concepts:
The literal meaning of Hajj in Arabic is “to go out towards a definite objective”. In Islamic
jurisprudence, it means “to set out for the Ka’bah.” It also means “Pilgrimage.”
Hajj is performed once a year in the month of Zil-Hajj by the true believers in Allah to Ka’bah, which is
situated in the Masjid Al-Haram in the Holy City of Makkah. It is also called “Baitullah (House of Allah)
or the Sacred House.
Upon Whom Hajj is Compulsory
The Hajj to Makkah once in a lifetime is a religious duty and an act if Ibadat for a Muslim. It is
obligatory on all adults who can afford to undertake a journey to Makkah:
“Hajj there to is a duty man owe to Allah,--those who can afford the journey.” (Quran 3:97)
Importance of Hajj in Quran and Hadith:
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Every Muslim is duty-bound to perform the Hajj once in his life time, if he is an adult and has the
means to undertake a journey to Makkah. If anyone who despite having adequate means does not go for
the Pilgrimage he falters in his claim of being a true Muslim.
a. Importance of Hajj in the Holy Quran:
i. The obligation of Hajj upon mankind has been described by the Quran
“And for God, Hajj is compulsory on people who possess sources towards that way.
As for him who disbelieved (let him know that). Lo! Allah is independent of all
creatures.” (2:196)
ii. Allah brings to the mind of mankind the significance of Ka’bah in the Quran (5:97)
in these words: “Allah has made the Ka’bah the Baitul-Haram (the Sacred House),
the centre for permanent stability for mankind.
b. Importance of Hajj in Hadith:
i. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is reported to have said:
“One who is not held back by some genuine problem of by a tyrant ruler and still
does not go on the pilgrimage, it makes little difference whether he dies a Jew or
Christian.” (Muslim)
ii. As opposed to this, one who properly performs this sacred rite has been commanded
highly that nothing better can be wished for.
“Nothing but the Heaven is reward of an approved pilgrimage.” (Muslim)
iii. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) is further reported to have said:
iv. “One who goes on the pilgrimage of the House of Allah and in the course of the
pilgrimage neither commits any sensual act nor any other sin does he return as
innocent as a new born baby.” (Bukhari)
v. The Prophet of Islam said:
“O people! Hajj has been made incumbent on you, therefore perform Hajj.”
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Aims and Objectives of Hajj:
1. It teaches Complete Surrender to Allah:
The process of pilgrimage shows that a man has to say goodbye to his parents and property and
everything when he goes to see the House of Allah. During the ceremonies of Hajj a pilgrim has to
surrender himself before Allah by saying, “We are present to Thee, O Allah, we are present to Thee.”
It is highest type of training for spiritual development.
2. It Develops the Idea of Universal Brotherhood:
Hajj is source of Muslim unity and fraternity. The Muslims from different quarters of the world
assemble every year at this Muslim congress and get the chance of exchange of ideas and good will.
This feeling of love and affection also develops among Muslims due to uniform dress and uniformity
in worship. The demonstration of quality furnished on the occasion of Hajj is so complete that it is
impossible to distinguish a servant from a master.
3. It gives Opportunity for Mutual Help:
The people of Makkah get the opportunity to sell their goods and cattle’s at the time of Hajj. The
pilgrimage also gets facility because it is very hard to take material for food and an animal for
sacrifice. Another thing is that poor people get charity from rich pilgrims.
4. It prepare the Ground for Divinity:
There is a devil in man which misleads him. To obtain divinity, one has to fight with the evil
forces. During the days of Hajj, the pilgrims have to give up the habit of telling lies and abuses and
other forbidden/evil activities. A pilgrim has to seek truth which is the way to Divinity.
5. It teaches to do Good Things:
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All the rituals done by a pilgrim develop the virtue of sacrifice in man. Therefore a pilgrim starts
to do well for others, only to get nearness to Allah.
Moreover, it is international gathering in which problems of world level are solved. The problems are
always coming up and their solution is necessary. Hajj is the best source to solve the problems of
people. It is religious and political conference where the problems of whole Muslim world can be
solved through exchange of views of each other.
Procedures of Hajj or Munasik of Hajj:
A pilgrim who intends to perform Hajj must be adult, free, healthy and wealthy. He must clear his
debts and spare some amount for maintenance of his family during his absence. On the eve of his
departure, he has to perform two rakats of prayer of which in first rakat he may recite Sura kafrun and in
second rakat Sura Ikhlas.
Leaving home the pilgrim has to wear Ihram (a dress of two white pieces of cloth) at Meeqat, a
place near Makkah. Reaching Makkah, he will make the Tawaf seven times round the Ka’aba. A pilgrim
will enter first through gate of Baba-Salam. After Tawaf he will run seven times between Safa and
Marwah the two mountains at 200 yards distance.
On 9th Zul-Hajj, a pilgrim has to reach at mount Arafat before noon, where he has to listen
sermon of Hajj. In the evening to return to Muzdalifa and to spend the night, There a pilgrim has to pray
Maghrib and Isha prayer together. After Fjr prayer on 10th of Zul-Hajj, he has to start for Mina and reach
there before noon. From there after taking seven stones, he has to go and throw stones to Jamrah Aqabah,
the devil. In the afternoon of the same day, he has to return to mina where after shave of his head he has
to sacrifice animal. On 11th and 12th, he has to stay at Mina to throw stones seven times a day against the
devil. On the 12th evening or on 13th he must return to Makkah and make Tawaf first and run between
Safa and Marwah. Before leaving for home he must make final Tawaf.
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Impacts of Hajj on Human Life:
In the Holy Quran where almighty Allah has commanded Abraham to make a general
proclamation of Hajj, the first reason given for this commandment is:
“That they may come here and witness things that are of benefit to them.”
That is to say that they may undertake the journey and assemble here and witness with their own
eyes that it is intended for their benefit only and its advantages can be noticed only when a man
personally experiences it by performing the task himself.
It is narrated about Imam Abu Hanifa that until he had not performed the Hajj he was doubtful as to
which Ibadat’ was superior among the Ibadaat of Islam. But when on performing the Hajj he experienced
the numerous benefits latent in it, he unhesitatingly declared the Hajj is superior to all.
a. Spiritual Impacts
b. Moral Impacts
c. Social impacts
Spiritual Impacts:
Pilgrimage is the experience of coming closer to God until a Pilgrim feels that all the barriers
between him and his Lord are removed and nothing stands between them. He feels he is standing in the
presence of his Lord, and in excitement and ecstasy he cries, Labbaik Allah Huma Labbaik (Here am I, O
God! Here am I in your presence).
Their (pilgrims) appearance and their demeanor and their regular crying all give the impression
that they are in fact, standing in the presence of their Lord. They are so absorbed in their dialogue with the
Divine Being that they have lost all sense of time or space or even of their own being. This spiritual
experience in gathering is much time intensified and heightened in its effect on each individual pilgrim by
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the accumulated effect of the experience of hundreds and thousands of other pilgrims. Though God is not
confined to any one place, it is a reality that many of the people who are gathered at 1 Makkah in the
valley of Arafat on the 91h of the month of Zil-Hajj do see Him and feel His presence amongst
themselves.
Hajj Inculcates spirit of Jiahad:
The performance of Hajj inculcates enormous qualities both spiritual and physical in the
Muslims. It also provides them vast practical experience of Jiahd. It puts all their mental and physical
powers to action. The hardships of the journey make them steadfast in adversaries as true soldiers. They
receive training of camp-carrying, quick shifting from one camp to another, and of mutual co-operation
with fellow Muslims. There is a spirit to undergo difficulties in finding water and food. There is a spirit of
love for serving others. These Mujahids of Allah spend their all in the way of Allah.
Discipline:
Hajj creates in the believers the greatest discipline. Millions of people meet together in one place,
but it is never heard that someone quarreled with one another, or somebody killed another person during
the Hajj rather they provide every kind of help for the comfort of one another. All the Hujjaj remain in a
great discipline till the last day of Hajj.
Moral Impacts:
i. Above all these benefits lies the higher spiritual experience which is made possible by this
unparalleled gathering of men and women from all parts of the world. It is the experience of
coming closer and closer to God until a pilgrim feels that all the barriers between him and his
Lord are removed and nothing stands between them. He feels he is standing in the presence of
Lord, and in excitement and ecstasy he cries, “Labbaik Allah Huma Labbaik” (Here am I, O
God! Here am I in your presence).
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Social Impacts of Hajj:
1. Hajj—a collective Ibadat:
The advantages of offering Salah singly are by no means small but by making it conditional
with congregation and by enforcing the system if Imamat in Salah and by enlarging the
congregation of the Friday and “Idain prayers, its benefits have been increased to a limitless
extent. The observance of fasting separately by each person is also a very big source of
reformation and training but by appointing only one month of Ramadan for all Muslims, these
benefits have been increased so much that they cannot be counted. Zakat too has many
advantages even if dispensed individually, but with the establishment of Baitulmal (Public
Exchequer of the Islamic State) its usefulness has been increased to such a great extent that you
cannot estimate it till such time as an Islamic government is formed and you witness with your
eyes how much goodness and plentifulness results from collecting the Zakat of all Muslims at one
place and distributing it among the deserving persons in organized form. Similar is the case of
Hajj. If everyone were to perform Hajj singly, even then it will bring about a big revolution in his
life but by formulating the rules for all the Muslims of the world to perform it together at one
time; its benefits have been increased to a limitless degree.
2. Universal Assembly of Hajj: Animation in Muslim World
As soon as the season of Hajj arrives, how liveliness is aroused and how long it is maintained.
From about the month of Ramadan till Zilqadah different people from different parts of the world
start off after making the preparations for Hajj, while, on the other side, from the last part of
Dhulhijjah till safar, Rabi’ul-Awwal, and even to Rabi’ulththani, homeward journey continues.
During this period of six to seven months a sort of incessant religious activity goes on among the
Muslim populations of the netire worold. Those who go to perform Hajj and return home are no
doubt infatuated with religious fervor but those who do not go also share more or less this same
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ardour because of bidding farewell to intending Hajis, bypassing from one inhabited area to other,
and, on the return of Hajis, welcoming them back to their horpes and hearing from them the
accounts of their performance of Hajj.
3. Growth of piety and virtuousness:
When every intending Haji makes up his mind to perform Hajj and when immediately with
this intent the virtues of fear of God, piety, penance, Istighfaar (seeking forgiveness from God)
and good morals begin to cast their influence on him, and he starts taking farewell of his relatives,
friends, professional and other associates, and settles all his affairs as if he is no longer the same
man as before but that his mind is now pure and clean because of the newly-indled spark of love
of God, you can imagine the effect of the changed condition of the Haji on so many people
around.
4. Season of Awakening of Islamic World:
As the month of Ramadan is a season of piety throughout the Islamic world, in the same way
the season of Hajj is the period of liveliness and awakening of Islam in the entire world. By this
method the Sagacious and prudent Shariah maker has evolved such a matchless system that the
universal movement of Islam will never be effected till Doomsday. Whatever adverse turn world
conditions may take however bad the times may become, these will not affect Ka’ba which has
been placed in the body of the Islamic world just like a heart in a man’s body. As long as the
heart throbs, a man cannot die, though he may be unable to move due to illness. Exactly in the
same manner this heart of the Muslim world draws blood from its far-off veins and circulates the
blood back into each and every vien. As long as this throbbing of the heart continues and as long
as this process of drwing the blood and circulating it lasts, it will be impossible to end the life of
this body, however run down it may be due to diseases.
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5. Inspiring Spectacle of unity of Millat:
People belonging to countless communities and countries are flocking to one centre through a
thousand and one routes. Their features are different, their colours are different, their languages
are different but on reaching a demarcated borderline near the centre all remove their national
dresses and everybody without exception puts on a simple uniform of one single design. After
wearing this uniform of Irham it is clearly seen that this army of the Monarch of the World and
Sovereign of earth and Heaven, which is arriving after recruitment from thousands of
communities of the world, is the army of one single King. It bears the insignia of obedience and
servitude to one being; all are strung in one cord of loyalty and are marching toward one capital
to file past their King. When these uniformed soldiers move ahead of Meeqat, the same one
slogan loudly issues forth from their mouths:
(“Here I am before Thee My Lord, Here I am, Thou hast no partner, here I am).
6. One Aim, Assemblage at One Centre:
The assembling at one centre of people drawn from all the nationalities of the world, and
thqat too with a remarkable unity of heart and purpose, identity of thought and harmony of
feeling, pure sentiments, holy objective and chaste deeds, is in reality such a great boon as has not
been granted to the children of Adam by any agency other than Islam. The meeting of common
men of all nations, with a clear heart, with good manners and pure ideas, with affection and
sincerity, with mental and spiritual affinity, with unity in thoughts, deeds and aims, that too not
only once but always at the same centre every year …is this boon available to mankind anywhere
else except in Islam? Has anyone else devised a better system than this for establishing peace in
the world, for removing hostility among nations and for creating in the place3 of quarrels and
bickering and atmosphere og love, friendship and brotherhood?
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7. Greatest Movement for Establishment of Peace:
Islam does not do only this much. It accomplishes more than this. It has made it compulsory
that during the four month fixed for Hajj and “Umrah” every effort should be made to maintain
peace on all roads leading to Ka’ba. This is the greatest movement of a permanent nature to
establish peace in the world. And if the reins of world politics were in the hands of Islam then it
will be the outmost endeavor of Muslims to see that no such disturbance takes place in the world
as many cause the suspension of the system of Hajj and ‘Umrah’.
8. Only peace-centre in the world:
Islam has given to the world such an inviolable territory that it constitutes a city of peace till
Doomsday in which, not to speak of man, even the hunting and shooting of an animal is strictly
prohibited, where even the cutting of grass is not allowed, where not even a thron can be culled
nor can a fallen article be touched.
Islam has given to the world a city where arms are forbidden to be brought in, where it is
tantamount to iihad (unbelief) to hoard and sell at higher price cereals and other articles of
common use, and where that committing oppression are thus threatened by Allah:
“(We shall cause them to taste a painful doom.)
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said:
“Whosoever first comes to this city and settle at a place, that place is his.” It is not legal to charge
rent for these houses.
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Hazrat Umar (R.A) had issued an order to the people there not to fix doors on the compound
around their houses so that whoever desires may come and stay in the compound. Some jurists have gone
so far as to say that neither has anybody any proprietary right over houses in Makkah nor can these be
transferred through inheritance.
This is that Hajj about which it was said:
“Undertake it and see how many benefits it has in store for you”.
No words are adequate to recount all its advantages.
PROPHET (PBUH) AS ROLE MODEL FOR INDIVIDUAL
Introduction:
The Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) was extremely simple in his habits. His mode of life,
his dress and his belonging, retained to the very last a character of patriarchal simplicity. Many a
time, Abu Hurairah reports, had the Prophet (PBUH) to go without a meal. Dates and water
frequently formed his only nourishment. Often, for months together, no fire could be lighted in
his house from scantiness of means. God, say The Muslim historian, had indeed put before him
the key to the treasures of this world, but he refused it!
The mind of this remarkable Teacher was, in its intellectualism and progressive ideals
essentially modem. Eternal “striving” was in his teachings necessity of human existence. “Man
cannot exist without constant effort”, “The effort is form me, and its fulfillment comes from
God.” The world, he taught, was a well ordered Creation, regulated and guided by a Supreme
Intelligence overshadowing the Universe—“Everything is pledged to its own time,” he declared.
And yet Human will was free to work for its own salvation. His sympathy was universal; It was
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he who invoked the mercy of the Creator on all living beings. It was he who pronounced the
saving of one human life as tantamount to the saving of humanity.
His Noble Character and Features:
A comprehensive and graceful account of the noble qualities, merciful disposition and
distinctive traits of the Prophet’s character has been left by Hind bin Abi Hala, He says:
“Being care-laden with the anxiety of after life, the Prophet (PBUH) would remain engrossed in
the thought of Hereafter continually for long spells, and seemed to be endlessly perturbed by it.
Often he would remain long silent and never spoke needlessly. When he spoke, he enunciated
each syllable distinctly and thus he would also end his speech. Whatever he said, it was always
explicit and in plain terms. His speech was neither too long nor unnecessarily concise. He was
kind hearted and soft-spoken, never harsh or cool in his behavior. Neither he humiliated anyone
nor did he like to be treated with disrespect. The Prophet (PBUH) set much by every provision;
even if it was small in quantity he never deprecated it. As for the edibles he never disapproved
nor praised; nor did he show anger about anything of the world or what it stands for. However,
whenever one failed to meet one’s obligation to God, nothing could cool down his indignation
until he paid back in full measure. But, for the wrongs done to his own person, he would never
become angry.”
Love of God:
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) was the Messenger of God, the chosen and the exalted, whose all sins,
foregoing and coming, had been forgiven by the Lord, yet he was the most pain taking, eager and earnest
in paying homage to God. Al-Mughira bin Sh’uba reported that the Prophet (PBUH) once got up at night
and stood praying for such a long time that his feet became swollen. On being asked why he did this when
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all of his former and later sins had been forgiven, he replied, “Why should I not be a grateful servant (of
God)?”
Aisha (R.A) relates that the Apostle of God (PBUH) once kept awake throughout the night till
morning reciting only one verse. Reporting the same event Abu Dharr says that the Prophet (PBUH) kept
praying throughout the night reciting one verse until the dawn appeared. The verse he recited was:
“If thou punish them, lo! They are thy slaves, and if Thou forgive them, lo! Thou, only Thou art the
Mighty, the Wise.”
Indifference to the World:
Not the best word in their order in any language can adequately depict the way God’s Messenger
looked at Dirham and dinner, wealth and property and the world all that it stands for. Indeed, even the
disciples who had served their time at the feet of the Apostle’s companions or the disciples of such
disciples never regarded fortunes and treasures fit enough for the dust hole. Their pure and pious lives,
their indifference to wealth and worldly possessions, the way they showered bounty on one and all and
preferred others over their own selves, their contentedness with the barest minimum and their heroic
selflessness and self-denial take one’s breath away. One can only picture to oneself the nobleness of heart
and openhanded generosity as well as self-abnegation and unearthly disposition of the great teacher who
had enlarged the minds of all the later godly souls.
Natural Disposition:
The holy Prophet (PBUH) had an excessive zeal for devotions to God, his uninterrupted
communion with the Lord took the shape of extensive orisons and vigils, supplications and lamentations
and his indifference to the world surpassed the abstinence of hermits and ascetics but he was never
wanting in sympathy and compassion, courteous and mannerly behavior to one and all; nor was he ever
lacking in restoring justice to one whom it was denied or in bidding welcome to everyone according to his
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status and position. According to the wont of human nature, these were perhaps the strongest identical
traits blended together in the character of the Prophet (PBUH). Once he said to Anas, “If you had known
what I know, you would have laughed ever so little and wept a great deal.”
Moderation and Seemliness:
The cardinal virtues of the Prophet (PBUH), the niceness and seemliness of his character, which
would remain a shining example of decorous behavior for the coming generations, present as well as
future, consisted of his innate moderation, refined taste and gracefulness, restrain and temperateness and
excessiveness which always kept him on the middle path. Aisha relates that the God’s Messenger was
never given his choice between two things without taking the easier course provided it involved no sin;
for, if it did, no one kept farther away from it than he.
The Prophet (PBUH) disliked pretension and airiness no less than he detested asceticism, self
mortification and renouncement of what was the just claim of one’s body and soul.
Abu Hurairah reported the Apostle as saying,
“The religion is facility, but if anyone overdoes it, it wears him down; so take to moderation and steer an
even course; approximate yourselves to handiness and be cheering, and get strength through prayer in the
morning, the evening, and some of the part of darkly night.”
Mildness, Courtesy and Forbearance:
In his good manners, gentleness, cordiality, sympathy and forbearance the Messenger of God has
left a perpetual and living example of noble behavior for the entire humanity. To tell the truth, he stood on
such a exalted plane of graceful and polite deportment that God has paid him a glowing compliment in the
Quran.
“And verily thou the art of a high and noble disposition.”
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Modesty:
The Prophet (PBUH) was absolutely unassuming and modest; he hated to put on airs or to make
himself conspicuous on any occasion. He did not even like the people to stand up for showing him respect
nor did he allow anybody to extol him in the way the followers of other religions had praised their
Prophets. He was the Messenger and servant of God and he wanted himself to be known by others in a
like manner, neither more, nor less. Anas said that no man was dearer to the companions than God’s
Messenger, but they never stood up on seeing him for they knew his dislike for that.
Once the Prophet (PBUH) was addressed as the best of creations”, He Promptly replied, ‘That was the
position enjoyed by Ibrahim.’
“Umar (R.A) reported the Prophet (PBUH) as saying, “Do not exalt me as the Christians have exalted
Jesus son of Mary. I am just His servant, so call me God’s servant and Messenger”.
Courage and Shyness:
Courage and shyness are often regarded as conflicting traits but the two poised the Prophet’s
Character in a like manner. Being extremely modest, he blushed like a maiden, as stated by Abu Sa’eed
Khudri, if he came across anything shocking or outrageous. On such occasions his countenance changed
showing his displeasure. Such was his coyness that he was even different to express anything disagreeable
to one’s face and usually asked somebody else to do the job for him. Anas reported that the clothes of a
man present in one of his settings were hued in yellowish color. Since the Prophet (PBUH) did not like to
say anything displeasing to any one, he said to others, when the man had got up to leave, “It would have
been better if you had told him to give up using yellow color.”
Aisha (R.A) relates that if the Prophet (PBUH) came to know of a misdeed committed by anybody, he
never asked him why he had done it; what he said on such occasion was, “What has happened to the
people that say or do such a thing?” He deprecated the wrong but never named the wrongdoer”.
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Mercy and Compassion:
God’s Messenger was the kindliest of men just as he excelled all others in courage and valor.
Being extremely kindhearted, his eyes brimmed with tears at the slightest sign of inhumanity. Shaddad
bin Aus (R.A) reported the Apostle as saying, “God has commanded you to show kindness to everyone,
so if you have to kill, kill nicely, and if you slaughter an animal, slaughter it gently. If anyone of you has
to slay an animal, he should sharpen the blade first and treat the animal well.”
Ibn Abbas relates that a man threw a goat on its side and then started sharpening his knife. When
the Prophet (PBUH) saw him he said, “Do you want to kill it twice? Why did you not sharpen the knife
before throwing it on the ground?”
Fourteen centuries have passed since he delivered his message, but time has made no difference
in the devotion he inspired, and to-day as then the Faithful have in their hearts and on their lips those
memorable words.
“May my life be thy sacrifice, O Prophet of God?”
PROPHET (PBUH) AS ROLE MODEL FOR DIPLOMAT
Introduction:
The Prophet (PBUH) was a diplomat par excellence who was engaged in various diplomatic
activities during his propagation of Islam and over the growing Muslim Ummah. He established a method
of communication with other tribal or national leaders through letters, assigned envoys, or by visiting
them personally, such as Taif. The Prophet (PBUH) only initiated contact with other leaders within
Arabian Peninsula, but also sent beyond these boundaries of Arabian Peninsula. Instances of written
correspondence include letters to Heraclius, the Negus, and Khosrau etc.
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When the Prophet (PBUH) arrived in Medina in 622, local tribe mainly the Banu Aus and Banu
Khazraj, had been feuding for several decades. The Prophet addressed this by establishing the
Constitution of Medina: a document which regulated interactions between the different factions, to which
the respective parties agreed. This was a different role for him, as he had remained only a religious figure
during his time in Makkah The result was the eventual formation of a united community in Medina, as
well as the political supremacy of the Prophet (PBUH).
The Prophet (PBUH) also participated in agreements and pledges such as “Pledges of al-Aqaba”,
the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, and the "Pledge of the Tree". He reportedly used a silver seal on letters sent
to other notable leaders who were requested to convert to Islam.
Here we delve deep into the details as to how the Prophet (PBUH) engaged as diplomat with leaders of
various tribes, communities, nations on a number of occasions in his life time.
Hilf al-Fudu:
Hilf al-Fudu was an alliance created by various Makkans, which also include the Prophet (PBUH)
wherein the chiefs and numbers of tribes pledged to:
a. Respect the principles of justice
b. Collectively intervene in conflicts to establish justice; and
c. To make the pact imperative and sacred
Later on, after proclaiming Islam, Prophet (PBUH) still acknowledged the validity of pact, ignoring the
fact that most of the members were non Muslim as it was his habit to stand by his word.
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Muslim Migration to Abyssinia (615-617)
The Prophet (PBUH)'s commencement of public reaching brought him stiff opposition from the
leading tribe of Makkah, the Quresh. Although the Prophet (PBUH) himself was safe from persecution
due to from his uncle, Abu Talib some of his followers were not in such a position. A number of Muslims
were mistreated by the Quresh some were beaten, imprisoned, or starved. It was then in 615, that the
Pr4ophet (PBUH) resolved to send fifteen Muslims to migrate to Abyssinia to receive protection under
the Christian ruler, the Negus, Ashama bin Abjar. Emigration was a means through which some of the
Muslims could escape the difficulties and persecution faced at the hands of the Quresh, it also opened up
new trading prospects which was made possible through the diplomatic foresight of the Prophet (PBUH).
The Quraish, on hearing the attempted emigration, dispatched a group led Amr bn al-As and
Abdullah ibn -Abi-Rabia-ibn Mughira in order peruse the fleeing Muslims. They were unsuccessful in
their chase however as the Muslims had already reached safe territory, and so approached the Negus,
appealing to him to return the Muslim migrants. Summoned to an audience with the Negus and his
bishops as a representative of The Prophet (PBUH) and the Muslims, Ja far ibn Abi Talib spoke of the
Prophet (PBUH) s achievements and quoted Qur’anic verses related to Islam and Christianity, including
some from Surah Maryam wherein he praised the noble character of the Prophet (PBUH) explained the
main features of monotheistic religion of Islam and pleaded for the refuge in his kingdom.
The Negus, greatly impressed, consequently allowed the migrants to stay, sending back the
emissaries of Quraish. It is also thought that the Negus was converted to Islam. The Christian subjects of
the Negus were displeased with his actions, accusing him of leaving Christianity, although the Negus
managed to appease them in a way which, according to Ibn Ishaq, could be described as favorable
towards Islam. Having established friendly relations with the Negus, it became possible for the Prophet
(PBUH) to send another group of migrants, such that the number of Muslims in Abyssinia totaled around
one hundred.
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Journey to Ta'if (619):
In early June 619, the Prophet (PBUH) set out from Makkah to travel to the town order to convene with
its chieftains, and mainly those of Banu Thaqif (such as Abd Ya-Laylibn Amr).
The Prophet (PBUH) invited them to accept Islam. The reason for the Prophet (PBUH) directing his
efforts towards Ta’if was due to the lack of positive response from the people of Makkah to his message
until then. In rejection of his message, and fearing that there would be reprisals from Makkah for having
hosted the Prophet (PBUH), the groups involved in meeting with the Prophet (PBUH) began to incite
town folk to pelt him with stones. Having been beset and pursued out of Ta’if, the wounded Prophet
(PBUH) sought refuge in a nearby orchard. Resting under a grape vine, it is here that he invoked God,
seeking comfort and protection. However this was the Prophets diplomatic efforts in personal capacity to
convince the Taif chieftains which they refused.
A-Aqaba Pledges (620--621):
In the summer of 620 during the pilgrimage season, six men travelling from Medina came into
contact with the Prophet (PBUH). Having been impressed by his message and character, and thinking that
he could help bring resolution to the problems being faced in Madina, five of the six men returned
Makkah the following bringing seven others.
i. First pledge at al-Aqabah:
Following their conversion to Islam and attested belief in Prophet (PBUH) as the Messenger of God,
the twelve men pledged to obey him and to stay away from a number of sinful acts. This was known
as the “First Pledge of al-Aqaba”.
Following the pledge, the Prophet (PBUH) decided to send a Muslim ambassador, Mus'ab ibn Umair,
to Medina in order to teach people about Islam and invite them to it.
ii. Second pledge at al-Aqabah:
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Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes present in Medina, such that by June of 621 there
were seventy-five Muslims coming to Makkah for pilgrimage and to the Prophet (PBUH). Meeting
him secretly by night, the group made what was known as the “Second Pledge of al-Aqaba”, or the
“Pledge of War”. Conditions of the pledge, many of which similar to the first, included obedience to
the Prophet (PBUH), “enjoining good and forbidding evil” as well as responding to the call to arms
when required.
Reformation of Medina (622):
The demography of Medina before Muslim migration consisted mainly of two pagan Arab tribes; the
Banu Aus and the Banu Khazraj; and at least three Jewish tribes: Qaynuqa, Nadir, and Qurayza.
Medinan society, for perhaps decades, had been scarred by feuds between the two main Arab tribes
and their sub-clans. The Jewish tribes had at times formed their own alliances with either one of the
Arab tribes. The oppressive policy of the Khazraj who at the time had assumed control over Medina,
forced the Jewish tribes, Nadir and Qurayza into an alliance with the Aus who had been significantly
weakened. The culmination of this was the Battle of Bu'ath in 617, in which the Khazraj and their
allies, Qaynuqa has been soundly defeated by the coalition of Aus and its supporters.
Although formal combat between the two clans had ended, hostilities between them
continued even up until the Prophet (PBUH)'s arrival in Medina. The Prophet (PBUH) had
been invited by some Medinans, who had been impressed by his religious preaching and
manifest trustworthiness, as an arbitrator to help reduce the prevailing factional discord. The
Prophet (PBUH)'s task would thus be to form a united community out of these heterogeneous
elements, not only as a religious preacher, but as a political and diplomatic leader who could
help resolve the ongoing disputes.
Meethaq-e-Medinah and its impacts:
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By 622, the Prophet (PBUH) had migrated to Medina with a group of his followers, having escaped
the forces of Quresh. They were given shelter by member’s indigenous community known as the
Ansar. After having established the firs Mosque in Madina and obtaining residence with Abu Ayyub
al-Ansaari, he then set about the establishment of a pact known as the Constitution of Medina. This
document was a unilateral declaration by the Prophet (PBUH), and deals almost exclusively with the
civil and political relations of the citizens among themselves and with the outside.
The source of authority was transferred from public opinion to God. Bernard Lewis writes the
communities at Medina became a new kind of tribe with the Prophet (PBUH) as its sheikh, while at
the time having a religious character. Lewis opines that the Prophet (PBUH)’s assumption of the role
of statesman was a means through which the objectives of Prophethood could be achieved.
The signing of the constitution could be seen as indicating the of a united community, in to federation
of nomadic clans tribes, as the also together by The community, however, now community this the of
the kind o resembled that of tribe, that be incorrect to the community by Prophet (PBUH), signing of
the it would not a degree of diplomacy he itself displayed a religious eventually based upon
consideration was needed to be inclusive instead of social elements.
Both the Aus and progressively converted to Islam, although the latter had had been more enthusiastic
than the former: t the second pledge of al- Aqaba, the numbers of Khazraj to us present was 62:3; and
at the Battle of Badr, 175:63. Subsequently, the hostility between the Aus and Khazraj gradually
diminished and became unheard of after the Prophet death. According to al-Mubarakpuri, the 'spirit of
brotherhood' as insisted by the Prophet (PBUH) amongst Muslims was the means through which a
new society would be shaped.
The result was the Prophet (PBUH)'s increasing influence in Medina, although he was most
probably only considered a political force after the Battle of Badr, more so after the Battle of Uhud
where he was clearly in political ascendency. To attain complete control over Medina, the Prophet
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(PBUH) would have to exercise considerable political and military skills as well as religious skills
over the coming years.
Events at Hudaybiyya (628):
March 628, the Prophet (PBUH) with intention of performing the Umrah set out with a group of
around 1,400 pilgrims. On hearing of the Muslims travelling to Makkah fo ilgrimage, the Quraish sent
out a force of 200 fighters in order to halt the approaching party n no position to fight the Prophet
(PBUH) evaded the cavalry by taking a more difficult route thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just
outside of Makkah t was at ybiyya that a number of envoys went to and fro in order to negotia with the
naish. During the negotiations, Usman ibn Affan was chosen as an envoy to convene with the leaders
in Makkah, on account of his high regard amongst the Quraish his entry into Makkah, rumours ignited
that Usman had subsequently been the to flee Prophet (PBUH) responded by upon to a pledge
whatever decision he the situation descended into war with Makkah.
Diplomatic Activity at Treaty of Hudaybiyya:
Soon afterwards, with the rumor of Usman's slaying proven untrue, negotiations continued and a
treaty was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraish. Conditions treaty included the
Muslims' postponement of the lesser pilgrimage until the following year, a pact of mutual non-
aggression between the parties, and a promise by the Prophet (PBUH) to return any member of
Quraish (Presumably a minor or woman) fleeing from the Makkah without the permission of their
parent or guardian, even if they be Muslim. Some of the Prophet (PBUH)'s followers were upset by
this agreement, as they had insisted that they should complete the pilgrimage they had set out for.
Following the signing of the treaty, the Prophet (PBUH) and the pilgrims sacrificed the animals they
had brought for it, and proceeded to return to Medina. It was only later that the Prophet (PBUH)'s
realize the benefit behind this treaty. These benefits, according to an historian, included the of the
Makkans to recognize the Prophet (PBUH) an equal; a cessation of military activity, boding well for
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the future; and gaining the admiration of Makkans who were impressed by the incorporation of the
pilgrimage rituals. Thus the Prophet (PBUH) was able to win the hearts of the Makkans his peaceful
and diplomatic efforts which were manifested in 8 A.H when of Makkah embraced Islam during
conquest of Makkah.
Other diplomatic Acts/Norms of Prophet (PBUH):
First is the practice of sending and receiving diplomats. Diplomats were inviolable and immune,
which can be deduced from the fact that Prophet (PBUH) demanded reparation from the Roman
Empire for the murder of his diplomat who was killed on his way back Medina from the court of
Roman Emperor. This discovery of the on diplomatic relations and diplomatic inviolability in the 7th
century reinforces on diplomatic relations and diplomatic customary status of the rules.
Second is the law of treaty which governed the conclusion of treties, the binding effect of treaties
and the effects of breaches of treaties. For example, the negotiation between Prophet (PBUH) and the
Quraish plenipotentiary in concluding the Treaty of Hudayyibiah. Pacta sunt servanda was already a
principle then; otherwise the Quraish's conduct would have been unpredictable making it pointless for
the Prophet to agree terms with the tribe. The rule on termination of a treaty is evidenced from the
conduct of the Prophet in considering that the bilateral peace treaty had been terminated by a material
breach thereof by the Quraish and that consequently the suspended state of war resumed. When the
Prophet opened Makkah, the Quraish did not protest on the former's resort to war, which means that
the Quraish accepted that it was at fault in breaching the treaty.
Third is the law of State responsibility which had also existed then. This for the seen from Prophet
(PBUH)'s demand for reparation from the Roman Empire iolation of the person of his diplomat.
Another proof is the reparation that the Prophet made to the Quraish for wrongdoings committed by
his followers. Sent for a spying mission, the Muslims contravened his instruction and violated the law
of war then. Taking the form of restitution and compensation, the Prophet released two persons who
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had been wrongly captured and paid compensation to the family of a person wrongly killed by the
Muslim mission involved in espionage activity.
The Prophet’s Treatment of the Envoys from Other States:
The Prophet's meetings with delegates increased in 9 so much that the economic called "Am al-
Wfood" (year of delegates). The content of negotiations included economic aids, research about Islam,
signing peace treaty and treaty of neutrality. In all negotiations, the Prophet (PBUH) treated the envoys
from other tribes respectfully. Although some of the Prophet's envoys were tortured, abused and killed.
He never violated the impunity of foreign envoys as though the death or torture of the Prophet’s envoys
was their own fault, and the Prophet accepted the responsibility for the fault. In case the foreign envoys
insulted or disrespected the Prophet, he never abused them and treated them peacefully. An example of
the Prophet's treatment of foreign envoys, which was a development in diplomatic and consular law, was
the negotiation between Urwah ibn Mas'ud and the Prophet. As the delegate of the Quresh, Urwah
touched the Prophet's beard to disparage him during negotiations. Despite this threatening and humiliating
behavior, the Prophet started performing ablutions calmly, which is considered as an important clue in the
Prophet's treatment of delegates 1400 years ago when the envoy disparages the host but is not abused at
all. However, during the same negotiations, the Prophet's envoy was abused by the Quraish leaders.
Guesthouse for Envoys:
The Prophet's behavior consistent with Qur’anic teachings is highly appreciable as he
receives the envoys and representatives of foreign as his guests. During their mandate, the delegates
enjoyed full impunity and respect so that they could deliver their message without any limitations. The
Prophet (PBUH) observed certain formalities in welcoming the envoys. He dressed in formal attire and
formally welcomed them. The envoys received and stayed in Dar-ul. Zeyfan (guesthouse) that was
protected and safe, which is considered as an example of the impunity of diplomatic and consular
accommodation.
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Giving Present to Envoys:
The Prophet treated the envoys based on their personal status and the status of Senders. That is,
he changed the level of relations or negotiations but not respect and treatment. It was customary
to give presents to the envoys. History records examples of the Prophets presents to envoys. For
instance, the Prophet donated 500 Dirham to Cesar’s agent in Oman. He blessed the Kisra's
messenger in Yemen and offered him a waist belt ornamented with gold and silver.
Conclusion:
Now we can conclude that the Prophet (PBUH) was diplomat par excellence, He was engaged in
various diplomatic activities. He sent his diplomats to several kings, bringing letters in which he
called them to embrace Islam. This act friendly relations with a few namely: Abyssinia, Bahrain
and Oman. When one of his diplomats was killed by a governor the Prophet demanded reparation
from Rome. Prophet (PBUH)'s ability to conclude treaties, to send diplomats, to have rights and
duties under international law, and to claim for reparation are proofs that he was an international
legal person and a top most ambassador of Islam. Besides he preferred to iron out the solutions of
local, regional and international issues by means of conciliatory efforts and diplomatic channels.
He also approved of diplomatic immunity and respected the visiting envoys from various lands.
He accepted the international legal status of the foreign leaders and some leaders reciprocated the
same to him.
PROPHET AS MILITARY STRATEGIST
Introduction:
Considering the Prophet's battle missions and the battalions he formed and dispatched, will
certainly give us and everyone a true and clear impression that the Prophet PBUH) was the greatest
military leader in the whole world as well as the most righteous, the most insightful and the most alert
one. He was not only a man of superior genius for this concern but he was also the Master and the
greatest of all Messengers as far as Prophethood and Heavenly Message are concerned. Besides, all the
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battles that he fought were standard in their application to the requirements of strictness, bravery and
good arrangements that fit the terms and conditions of war. None of the battles he fought was lost as a
consequence of lack of wisdom or due to any other technical error in army mobilization or a location in
a wrong strategic position. The loss of any of his battles was not due to misjudgment about occupying
the best and the most appropriate sites of battles, nor was it due to a mischance of leaders of the fight,
for he had proved himself to be a peculiar sort of leader that differs from any of those leaders that our
world had known and experienced Regarding the events of Uhud and Hunain, there were consequences
of weakness in some military elements in Hunain and disobedience to orders in Uhud. His genius was
clearly shown in these two battles when the Muslims were defeated; for he stood fast facing the enemy
and managed, by his super wisdom to spoil the enemy's plan as was the case in Uhud. Similarly he
managed to change the Muslims' defeat in Hunain into a victory. In fact such grave changes in military
scenes usually leave the worst impression on the military leaders and persuade them to flee for their
lives.
The Prophet Alters the Goals of War in Islam:
The Prophet(PBUH) altered the standards and aims of pre-Islamic wars. Their war was no more
than more robbing, killing, plundering, tyranny and aggression- oriented wars. Those wars focused on
winning victory, oppressing the weak persons and demolishing their houses and constructions. For
them, war was the means which they can rape or unveil women, practice cruelty against the weak
leaders, children and the babies, and spoil tillage and animals and spread corruption on the earth.
Islamic wars are different from pre- Islamic wars. A war in Islam is a jihad. That is to say it is a noble
sacred fight in the way of Allah for the verification of a Muslim society that to free man from cruelty,
oppression and aggression. It is a society that everyone everywhere and at all times should be proud of
pre-Islamic thoughts and traditions of the jahiliyah period have been turned upside down by Islam.
These were so hard upon the weak persons that they had to invoke Allah to enable them to get away
from that pre-Islamic environment by saying:
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“Our Lord, rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors, and rise for us from You one who
will protect, and raise for us from You one who will help.”
A man of power, in Islam, is a weak person until the right of the poor is taken from War in Islam is a
Jihad for the purification of the land of Allah from deception, treachery him deeds and aggression. It is
a sacred war that aims at spreading security, safety, mercy and compassion as well as observation of
rights and fairness.
Principles of Warfare as Elaborated by the Prophet of Islam:
Allah's Messenger (PBUH) issued honorable and strict rules about war and ordered his soldiers
and leaders to obey them. They were forbidden from breaking those rules under any circumstances. In
reference to Sulaiman bin Buraidah's version, who said that his father had told him that whenever Allah's
Messenger (PBUH) appointed a leader on an army or on a battalion, he used to recommend him to fear
Allah the Great and All-Mighty; and to be good with all Muslims who were with him. Then the Prophet
(PBUH) would say to him:
“Let your invasion be in the Name of Allah and for His sake Fight those who disbelieve in Allah. Invade
do not nor conceal boot Never deform the corpse of a dead person kill an infant child.”
 Allah’s Messenger (PBUH) asked people to facilitate but he forbade them to bear down
hard on others or constrain. "Pacify," he said, "and do not punish.
 When it happened that he arrived at the battlefield by night, he would never invade the
enemy till it was morning.
 He utterly forbade burning (i.e., torturing people) in fire, killing children and women
even beating them.
 He also forbade theft and robbery and proceeded so far as to say gains acquired through
plundering are not less forbidden than the flesh of a corpse
 Corruption of tillage, killing of the animals and cutting down of trees was all forbidden
unless they were badly needed and there was no other substitute. He said:
"Do not kill a wounded person nor run after a fleeing one or kill a captive.”
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He decreed that envoys cannot be killed. He also strictly prohibited the killing of those
who made covenants. He even said.
"Whoever kills one, who is under pledge to a covenant, shall not smell Paradise, though its smell could be
experienced at a forty-year distance from it.”
There were some other noble rules also which purified wars from their Jahiliyah (pre-Islamic) filthiness
and turned them into sacred wars.
Necessity of War: Objective of Warfare Altered in Islam:
Allah has commanded in the Holy Quran that fighting for Islam (Jihad) is obligatory for Muslims
and this commandment was revealed when the people of Makkah were determined to destroy the
Muslim Community and their faith forever. Therefore, following objectives of fight against non-
believers can be deduced from the verses of the Holy Quran
i. Fighting Against Aggression
Fight against those who fight with Muslims, Allah says:
“(And fight in the way of Allah with those who fight against you).”
ii. Assistance of Oppressed
It is the duty to help those who are under the oppression or oppressors, Almighty Allah say: (Why
should ye not fight in the cause of Allah and of those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed,
men, women and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this own. Whose people are
oppressor?)
Eradication of Mischief:
The third major object of Jihad is to preserve peace.
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“(Fight them on until there is no more mischief and the religion become Allah's).”
iv. Elimination of Oppression
It is the best way to eliminate the chance of oppression if we unite our power at one place against
them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts
including of) the enemies)
v. To Eradicate Hindrance in the Way of Islam
Jihad is necessary when Muslims are not allowed to act upon their beliefs:
“(But graver is it in the sight of Allah to prevent access to the path of Allah to deny Him, to prevent
access to the sacred mosque, and drive out its members. Tumult and oppression are worse than
slaughter).”
Qualities of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) as a Military Commander/Strategist:
The personality of the Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) is complete in a respects. He was
conveying the message of Allah to all of humanity. All of his wars therefore were for the cause of Allah
and propagation of Islam. He was possessed of great military acumen and strategy of battlefield.
Strong Belief in Allah:
The Prophet (PBUH) had unstinted belief in Allah whose message he was carrying in one hand (Quran)
and the sword in the other.
Outstanding Achievements:
Due to his qualitative leadership, without great loss, Muslims conquered more than twelve lacs
sq. mile, in ten years time. Above all, he united a fractious society which has long history of unrest and
unabated war.
Minimum Human Losses:
The major leadership quality of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) was that He with minimum loss of
humans achieved big success. In almost hundred wars, two and of eight seven hundred and eighty
Muslims were killed. In such a short span of eight years, victory like years, He conquered Arab Peninsula
and established stable government this did not go to any commander a of the world.
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Braver:
The Prophet (PBUH) was the braves of the brave. As the dauntless courage and the Prophet of the
of Ali (R.A) of to illustrate the He says: "When the battle used to become fierce and the eyes seemed to
be coming out of the sockets, we were wont to look for the Prophet in order to find a refuge behind Then,
we found none closing up with the enemy as the Prophet. This was how it happened in we were taking
shelter behind the Prophet who was then going at the enemy more closely than anyone of us.
Loving and Affectionate:
Every soldier wanted to sacrifice his life upon the Holy Prophet. At the time of battle Uhad when
Kuffar surrounded him, the patriot companions faced arrows and swords on their own hands and while
coming back from the battle of Uhd a Sahabia was waiting the Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH).
One of his companions told her that her husband has been martyred. The other one told that he son has
been martyred but she continued to about the safety of the Holy Prophet. When she was told that He is all
right and safe he thanked God. The love of the Holy Prophet was an integral part of every companion
rather it was real belief. Military organization under the Prophet (PBUH). The Prophet was the
Commander-in-Chief of the Muslim forces. Every adult male Muslim was a soldier. Every military
expedition was commanded either by the Prophet himself or by someone expressly appointed by him. At
first the Muslim forces were small detachments, but in later years of the Prophet's life, they consisted of
large numbers. The expedition of Tabuk consisted of 30,000 soldiers. Strict discipline was maintained
among them and a very high ethical code of conduct was enjoined upon each soldier. Breaches of
discipline were strictly punished. There was no standing army. When a military expedition was to be sent,
summons were issued to the allied tribes and to the Muslims in general to assemble for this purpose.
Military Divisions:
Muslim armies consisted of infantry, cavalry and archers. As was the military tradition, the army
was divided into five military units or division, called the Khums" or the Five; they were the Centre, the
Right and Left flanks, the vanguard and the rearguard. A reserve, comprising the cavalry, was usually
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kept in the rear to be used at the critical juncture the battle. The rearguard consisted of archers, while the
two flanks were generally covered by the cavalry.
Army Formation:
Each military unit was a column of three or four lines", call Safuf. The first line consisted of lancers,
who awaited the enemy attack, to be repulsed by their lances; the lancers was a line of the archers, who
shot their arrows at the advancing enemy. After the lancers had hurled their javelins and spears, and the
archers had shot their arrows, a hand-to-hand fighting ensued. The moment the enemy showed signs of
defeat or retreat, the cavalry used to collect booty and spoils of war.
iii. Tribal Basis:
The Muslims armies under the Prophet were organized on the basis of tribes. Each unit consisted
of tribes usually fighting under its Chief. Each tribe has its own tribal banner, borne aloft by its bravest
member. The Prophet (PBUH) had always his own banner, black or green in color. When he ordered
and expedition, this banner was planted in the Mosque to rally the Muslims under it.
iv. The Weapon:
At first the Muslim soldiers were very deficient in the necessary weapons of war. But after the
Battle of the Ditch, as the fortunes of Islam improved, more and sophisticated weapons were available.
A Muslim foot- soldier was equipped with a sword, a bow and arrows a sling and javelin. The horse
man carried a lance, spear as well as long sword. The Muslims possessed little or no siege-weapons.
Military strategies of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
1. Changing Philosophy of War:
The first military principle of the Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) was that he totally
changed the philosophy of war. Previously, wars were waged on personal grudges racism, ravage, looting
or putting pressure or showing off their powers. The Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) gave the
concept of war as to fight in the way of Allah merely for the uprising of Allah's message. By using the
word of "Jihad instead of war", had broadened the meaning and objective of war.
2. Preparations of War:
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It is said in the Holy Qur'an that:
(Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike
terror into (the hearts of the enemies). The Holy Prophet (PBUH) always uses to make great preparations
for imminent war. The best army is that who make himself any ready against any attack with better
training and war strategy. Therefore, Holy Prophet (PBUH) trained and educated his companions to fine
tune their fighting abilities. He maintained very strict discipline and order in the rank and file of his
fighting men.
3. Espionage and Surveillance of Enemy:
Espionage is a crucial strategy. Keeping in mind the importance of espionage the Holy Prophet
(PBUH) took practical steps to find out the enemy’s plans, the strength of their forces and the nature of
their weaponry. Army patrolling was also a major war strategy. For this purpose the Holy Prophet Hazrat
(PBUH) deployed his companions all over the Arab Peninsula who him informed of the enemy's
activities.
4. Secrecy in War Planning/Strategy:
Spying to and from the enemy is an integral part of the war strategy. Therefore, the best strategy
is to hide your war plans and strategy and make you aware/informed of enemy’s preparation. The Holy
Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) was fully conscious of military strategy and of need for secrecy.
Therefore, he always prepared his conscious of and took every possible war carefully that they not known
to anyone except his close advisers with whom he use to counsel regarding the preparations for and
techniques of war.
5. Innovative War Strategies:
The Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) always adopted new war techniques and strategies
so that enemy could not give tough time. Therefore, this method was used in the battle of Ahzab, when he
dug out trenches. This was quite new and unexpected for the Arabs.
6. Effective Strategies in the Battlefield:
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The Holy Prophet (PBUH) always took advantage of his position and selected a better place for
fighting i.e. in the battle of Badr he selected higher place and sandy land so that in case of rain earth
would be leveled. He selected that direction where sun was in his back while sunlight was shadowed in
enemy's eyes. In the battle of Uhad, he appointed archers to guard it. In the battle of Ahzab (Trench) he
ordered his fighters to remain there under all circumstances so that enemy could not cross the trench.
7. Exemplary Conduct with Fighters
The moral character of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) was highest in its form. Allah says in the Holy
Quran that: “(Verily, you have been (formed) with tremendous character)”
Therefore, the Holy Prophet (PBUH) behaved with his companions in a noble manner. He informally met
and treated them equally. In the battle of Badr, there was a short of conveyance i.e. one riding for three
persons, upon which they rode one by one. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) also used his conveyance with
interval. He got dig out trench with other companions in the Battle of Ahzab. Justice was done while
distributing booty. Resultantly, all his companions showed great sacrifice and determination.
8. Inclination Compromise/Reconciliation:
Irrespective of his military superiority, the Holy Prophet (PBUH) always tried best to get benefit
through of his compromise strategy, although he could eliminate the enemy’s power. The Truce of
Hudabiyah was apparently humiliating to the Muslims, but the companions of the Prophet (PBUH)
remained quite although they were disturbed at the harsh condition of the treaty. However, later on, this
treaty proved to be a manifest victory over enemies. It was the best example of peace loving leader.
9. Good Treatment of War Prisoners of War:
Before the advent of Islam, captives were killed brutally. After fixing in earth, arrows were
thrown upon them. The Holy Prophet (PBuh0 treated well with prisoners and advised his companions to
treat them well. In the battle of Badr, seventy Kuffars were captured. The Holy Prophet (PBUH)
distributed prisoners among his companions with strict instructions that they must be well treated. They
offered them food while they remained hungry. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) forbade disrespecting them.
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He forbade killing the prisoners and gave the freedom on easy conditions. The important conditions for
freedom were: Become Muslim, give ransom, or teach ten Muslim children.
THE PROPHET (PBUH) AS PEACEMAKER
Introduction:
The Prophet (PBUH) was unequivocally the greatest peacemaker the world has ever seen. Islam
and stands for peace and harmony in this world, so did the prophet i.e the prophet of Islam was the
prophet of peace. He always preferred conciliatory efforts diplomatic channels and compromising tactics
over waging a war which wreaks havoc to human life and property. All of his wars were motivated by
self-defense and were limited in nature. Even during the wars, he issued such principles of warfare which
reduced the human losses in the battles. He asked Muslims not to kill the women, the children, aged, the
unarmed and non-combatants. According to Montgomery Watt the intensity of war waged by and under
the Prophet (PBUH) was the least in the history which can be estimated from the fact that only 1058
causalities happened in 82 wars led by or fought under the prophet from migration of Medina to his death.
His stay at Makkah was testimony to this fact that he never resorted to harm Makkans despite facing
harshest treatment. Before his Prophethood, the Makkans called him Al-Sadiq and "Al-Amin' owing to
his trustworthy and peaceful nature.
Islam Signifies Peace and its Apostle is Prophet of Peace:
Islam is a religion of peace to its very core. The word Islam itself is derived from the Arabic
world silm which means peace. According to a tradition of the Prophet, Peace is Islam'. This means that
peace is one of the prerequisites of Islam. According to a hadith of Sahih al-Bukhari, "Indeed, God is
Peace'. In the Quran divine guidance is likened to the paths of peace. According to Islam, Paradise, the
ideal human abode is called the 'Home of Peace The Quran states that, reconciliation is best', judging by
the consequences of violence and war, the way and of confrontation. God has that of peace is far better
than that success will be met with only on a reconciliatory path, and not on a confrontational or a violent
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course of action. According to the Quran, God does not like the disturbance of the peace. According to a
hadith of Al Bukhari, whenever the Prophet had a choice between two courses of action, the easier
(nonconfrontational) and the harder (confrontational), he always opted for the easier one. Based on this
Islam gives the principle that violent activism should not be indulged in if the option of peaceful activism
is available. The limited wars indulged in by the Prophet (PBUH) and his companions, out of compulsion,
were defensive in nature and subject to many conditions, setting further limits to the just war theory.
Peacemaking Efforts of the Prophet at Makkah:
Islam, the religion of peace, had to wage war to protect and establish itself. This has led to the
vilification of Islam as a religion based on force and propagated by the sword. Whoever has studied the
rise of Islam with the seer's insight, as Carlyle did, or without a sectarian bias Gibbon many others after
him have done, can easily repudiate this charge. Islam was presented by a prophet who was socially,
economically and politically a man without worldly might. He and his followers were persecuted by all
means for more than a decade before he began to use force against force to defend himself and the
handful of his followers against ancient tribal savagery. He and his followers showed unparalleled
patience and perseverance against heavy odds. They were deprived of all worldly goods, deprived of the
means of securing their daily bread, exiled and made to flee from their homeland. No movement in
history can show greater spirit of sacrifice and martyrdom. Even for a long time when they thought they
were strong enough to hit back, they were restrained by the Prophet who was waiting for a time when
they could succeed in their mission with the least possible bloodshed. They were striving to establish not
only their own reed but general religious liberty, where everyone could follow his own convictions,
provided that he did not directly disrupt the minimum bonds of a peaceful social order lf the Prophet had
started preaching his doctrines with big battalions at his back and offering people the alternative of
conversion or the sword, one could rightfully say that Islam is a creed which spread at the point of the
bayonet. But how could a creed, whose fundamental principle was that ‘there ought to be no compulsion
in religion', as the Qur'an has put explicitly, compel people by force to accept it? The simple question is:
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Where did these wielders of the sword come from? If the sword converted people to lslam, who converted
the people who wielded the sword? Terrible force was used against the Prophet when he had no force
except the force of truth and the force of his convictions. One by one his persecutors succumbed to his
spiritual power. After accepting Islam, these erstwhile persecutors and new converts were persecuted by
others. It is need to paint a horrible picture of the atrocities that they suffered. For more than a decade
Islam was extremely non-violent. Slowly and steadily, the number of the faithful increased, but the
persecution continued and they were exiled. Then there came a time when they were left with only two
alternatives: either to fight for their religious liberty or to perish. Who can blame Islam if it fought for its
very existence? The Prophet at Makkah:
 Did Peaceful preaching
 Atrocities against Allah's messenger
 Migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
 Quraish repeated efforts to kill the Prophet (PBUH)
 Shib-e-Abi Talib, a general social boycott, a pact of injustice and aggression
 The mistreatment during the Taif journey
The Prophet (PBUH) never resorted to armed or militant rebuttal of the Quraish who not only refused his
message but become his enemy bent upon taking his very life.
Peacemaking efforts of the Prophet at Madinah:
The Prophet (PBUH) continued his peaceful efforts in Madinah for establishment of a peaceful
community wherein there was no discrimination on the bases of color, creed, race etc. while in Madinah
he adopted following peaceful method of resolution of various issues with which the nascent Muslim
community and state was faced:
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Prophet (PBUH) Establishes peace at Medina:
Prophet (PBUH) Establishes Peace at Medina: At the time of the Prophet's advent into Medina,
the two tribes of Aus and Kbazfaj, who had been engaged in deadly conflict for years, had just ended
their strafe by 8 hollow peace. There was every prospect of the war breaking out again with fiercer
animosity. The Jews, who after the onslaught of Jabala had accepted the clientage of the Medina Arabs,
were fast recovering their strength and were openly threatening their pagan compatriots the vengeance of
the Messiah, whose appearance was hourly expected. The surrounding tribes, among whom the influence
of the Quraish was supreme, were arrayed in all their desert ferocity against Medina The moment the
Prophet (PBUH) appeared among the Medina the elements of danger which threatened the new religion
became apparent. The Makkan disciples who had braved death, and now faced destitution and exile for
their Master and the light which he had brought to their hearts, were few and weak. His Medina followers
were not many; they were divided amongst themselves, actuated by tribal jealousies. An important
faction, headed by an influential chieftain, an aspirant to the throne of Medina, worked in the city on the
side of the heathens. The Jews, compact and united, jealously and relentlessly, with poison and with
treachery opposed him in every direction. But the heart, which did not fail when the Quraish threatened
him with death, was not daunted when the existence of others depended on him. He at once set himself to
the task of organizing into a social entity the varied elements which had gathered round him as the
minister of God. He substituted referees for the old tribal vendetta; he abolished the distinction of Aus and
Khazraj; he comprehended the Jews and Christians in his little commonwealth, and planted germs of
cordial relations among all believers: he proclaimed that a Jew, Sabian or Christian, whoever believed in
God and future life and acted righteously, on him shall come no fear." To a people wedded to the worst
type of heathenism, to a race with whom the shedding of blood was a second nature, he taught purity and
truth, self-restraint, charity, and love of one's kind.
Unification of Warring Tribes of Aws and Khazraj: into the Ansars of Madinah.
Establishment of Brotherhood: between Ansars of Madinah and Muhajirins of Makkah.
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He courted the ever conspiring Jews of Madinah by means of the celebrated Meetaq-e-Madina wherein
he not only effected peaceful settlement but also set an example for the successive Muslim rulers who
followed his example treatment toward religious minorities.
Treaty of Hudiabiya: famously known as Peace of Hudiabiya (A da) in which he accepted the harsh
terms and condition of the Quraish but averted the war.
Prophet Diplomatic Efforts: he sent his ambassadors carrying his letters for the foreign leaders to
convince them to come into the fold of Islam.
Conquest of Makkah: during the conquest as he declared amnesty for all including those who put him in
harsh treatment when he was at Makkah.
Wufud Delegations: after the conquest of Makkah he received a number of delegations and convinced
them to accept Islam through his diplomatic activities.
Hajjatul-wada: in his last he abolished all the previous bloodshed and vendetta. The Prophet (PBUH)
said
“Behold! All practices of paganism and ignorance are now under my feet. The blood revenge of the Days
of ignorance pre-Islamic time) are remitted. The first claim on blood abolish is that of lbn Rabi'ah bin
Harith who was being nursed tribe of Sa'd and whom Hudhail killed.”
A Look at the Battles of Prophet (PBUH)
According to Montgomery Watt the intensity of war waged by the Prophet (PBUH) was the least in the
history which can be estimated from the fact that only 1058 happened in 82 wars led by or fought under
the prophet from migration of Medina to his death.
Law of War and Peace in Islam:
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The rules which have been framed by Islam to make war civilized and humane, are if the nature
of law, because they are the injunctions of God and His which are followed by Muslims in all
circumstances, irrespective of the behaviour of the enemy. It is now for the scholars to find out how far
the West has availed of the laws of war given by Islam thirteen hundred years ago, and even after the
adaptation of some of the laws of Islam how far the West attained those heights of civilized and humane
methods of warfare which Muslims reached through the blessings of Islam. Let us now find out what
rights and obligations Islam recognize for an enemy.
a. The Rights of the Non-Combatants:
Islam has first drawn a clear line of distinction between the combatants and the non combatants of
the enemy country. As far as the non-combatant population is concerned such as women, children, the old
and the infirm, etc., the instructions of the Prophet are asfollows:
“Do not kill any old person, any child or any woman" (Abu Dawud). "Do not kill the monks in
monasteries" or "Do not kill the people who are sitting in places of worship" (Musnad of IbnHanbal).”
During a war, the Prophet saw the corpse of a woman lying on the ground and observed: "She was not
fighting. How then she came to be killed?" From this statement of the Prophet the exegetics and jurists
have drawn the principle that those who are non combatants should not be killed during or after the war.
b. The Rights of the Combatants:
Now let us see what rights Islam has conferred on the combatants.
i. Torture with Fire:
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In the Hadith there is a saying of the Prophet that: "Punishment by fire does not behoove anyone
except the Master of the Fire" Abu Dawud), the injunction deduced from this saying is that the adversary
should not be burnt alive.
ii. Protection of the Wounded:
"Do not attack a wounded person"--thus said the Prophet, This means that the wounded soldiers
who are not fit to fight, nor actually fighting, should not be attacked.
iii. The Prisoner of War Should not be Slain:
No prisoner should be put to the sword"--a very dear and unequivocal instruction given by the Prophet
iv. No one should be Tied to be Killed:
"The Prophet has prohibited the killing of one who is tied or is in captivity.
v. No Looting and Destruction in the Enemy's Country:
Muslims have also been instructed by the Prophet that if they should enter the enemy's territory,
they should not indulge in pillage or plunder nor destroy the residential areas, nor touch the property of
anyone except those who are fighting with them. It has been narrated in the Hadith: "The Prophet has
prohibited the Believers from loot and plunder" (Bukhari; His injunction is: "The loot is no more lawful
than the carrion" (Abu Dawud). Abu Bakr Siddiq, used to instruct the soldiers while sending them to war,
"Do not destroy the villages and towns, do not spoil the cultivated fields and gardens, and do not
slaughter the cattle." The booty of war which is acquired from the battleground is altogether different
from this it consists of the wealth, provisions and equipment captured only from the camps. and military
headquarters of the combatant armies."
vi. Sanctity of Property:
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The Muslims have also been prohibited from taking anything from the general public of a
conquered country without paying for If in a war the Muslim army occupies an area of the enemy
country, and is encamped there it does not have the right to use the things belonging to the people without
their consent If they need anything, they should purchase it from the local population or should obtain
permission from the owners. Abu Bakr Siddiq, while instructing to Muslim armies being dispatched to the
battlefront would go to the extent of saying that Muslim soldiers should not even use the milk of the
mulch cattle without the permission of their owners.
vii. Sanctity of a Dead Body:
Islam has categorically prohibited its followers from disgracing or mutilating the corpses of their
enemies as was practiced in Arabia before the advent of Islam. It has been said in the Hadith: "The
Prophet has prohibited us from mutilating the corpses of the enemies" (Bukhari; Abo Dawud). The-
occasion on which this order was given is highly instructive. In the battle of Uhud the disbelievers
mutilated the bodies of the Muslims who had fallen on the battlefield and sacrificed their lives for the
sake of Islam, by cutting off their ears and noses, and threading them together to put round their necks as
trophies of war. The abdomen of Hamza, the uncle of the Prophet, was ripped open by Quraish; his liver
was taken out and chewed by Hinda, the wife of Abu Sufyan, the leader of the Makkan army. The
Muslims were naturally engaged by this horrible sight But the Prophet (PBUH) asked his followers not to
mete out similar treatment to the dead bodies of the enemies. This great •- example of forbearance and
restraint is sufficient to convince any reasonable man who is not blinded by prejudice or bias, in at Islam
is really the religion sent down by the Creator of the' universe, and that if human emotions had any
admission in Islam, then this horrible sight on the battlefield of Uhud would have provoked the Prophet to
order his followers to mutilate the bodies of their enemy In the same manner.
viii. Return of Corpses of the Enemy:
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In the battle of Ahzab very renowned and redoubtable warrior of the enemy was killed and his
body fell down in the trench which the Muslims had dug for the defense of Medina. The unbelievers
presented ten thousand dinars to the Prophet and requested that the dead body of their fallen warrior may
be handed over to them. The Prophet replied "I do not sell dead bodies. You can take away the corpse of
your fallen comrade.
ix. Prohibition of Breach of Treaties:
Islam has strictly prohibited treachery One of the instructions that the Prophet used to give to the
Muslim warriors while sending them to the battlefront was "Do not be guilty of breach of faith. This order
has been repeated in the Holy Qur'an and the again and again, that the enemy acts treacherously let him
do so, you should never go back on your promise. There is a famous incident in the peace treaty of
Hudaybiyyah, when after the settlement of the terms of the treaty, Abu Jandal, the son of the emissary of
the unbelievers who had negotiated this treaty with the Muslims, came, fettered and blood stained,
rushing to the Muslim camp and crying for help. The Prophet told him "since the terms of the treaty have
been settled, we are not in a position to help you out you should go back with your father. God will
provide you with some other opportunity to escape this persecution." The entire Muslim army was deeply
touched and grieved at the sad plight of Abu Jandal and many of them were moved to tears. But when the
Prophet declared that "we cannot break the agreement," not even a single person came forward to help the
unfortunate prisoner so the unbelievers forcibly dragged him back to Makka, This is an unparalleled
example of the observance of the terms of agreement by the Muslims, and Islamic History can show many
examples of a similar nature.
x. Rules about Declaration of War:
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It has been laid down in the Holy Qur'an: "If you apprehend breach of treaty from a people, then
openly throw the treaty at their faces" .(8:5)In this verse, Muslims have been prohibited from opening
hostilities against their enemies without properly declaring war against them, unless of course, the
adversary has already started aggression against them. Otherwise the Qur'an has clearly given the
injunction to Muslims that they should intimate to their enemies that no treaty exists between them, and
they are at war with them. The present day 'International law' has also laid down that hostilities should not
be started without declaration of war, but since it Is a man-made rule, they are free to violate It whenever
it is convenient. On the other hand, the laws for Muslims have been framed by God, hence they cannot be
violated.
Critical assessment:
Prophet (PBUH) is considered a pacifist. Dr. Michael Hart (b. 1932) in his book, The 100: A Ranking of
the Most Influential Persons in History places him as the number one personality and states, he was
supremely successful in both the secular and religious fields."
Maulana Wahiduddin Khan (b. 1925) confirms that the Prophet (PBUH) was supremely successful as he
always followed the principles peace, and refers The Prophet of Peace.
THE PROPHET (PBUH) AS EDUCATOR
Introduction:
The Prophet (PBUH) was the greatest and noblest educator the world has ever seen: The Qur'an
proclaims that he was chosen by Allah as a mercy to all creation, an excellent exemplar who possessed an
exalted character. He successfully taught and conveyed the Message of Allah to the people of Arabia and
thereby transformed the pagans of the entire Arabian Peninsula into staunch believers in the unity of
Allah within twenty three years of his lifetime. The after-effects of his Prophetic vision and teachings
contributed to the emergence of a new world order and civilization that changed the entire course of
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history. This discussion mainly deals with a study of Prophet (PBUH) as an educator. Allah says in the
Qur'an:
"It is He who has sent among the unlettered a Messenger from themselves reciting to them His
verses and purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom although they were before in clear
error". (Surat-ul-Jumu'ah, verse 2)
Allah sent Prophet (PBUH) for following four purposes:
I. Recite the verses of the Qur'an
II. Educate the Qur'an
III. Teach the Wisdom (Sunnah)
IV. Purify his followers
Importance of Knowledge in the Quran and Hadith:
Importance of Knowledge in the Quran:
The Holy Qur'an describes the importance of knowledge that very first revelation was:
Education System under the Prophet (PBUH) Practical steps Taken by the Prophet (PBUH) for
Promotion:
Though the Prophet (PBUH) did not attend any educational institution or had never been a pupil of any
teacher the Holy Prophet was an ardent advocate of the pursuit of knowledge and education. The search
for knowledge was enjoined both by the Quran and '1"e prophet. He always commanded the Muslims to
acquire knowledge. 'Seek knowledge, the though you have to travel to China." The ink of the scholar is
more sacred than the blood of the martyrs; "He who leaves his home in search of knowledge walks in the
path of God” are some of his famous sayings. In fact, his first care after his victory over the Quraish at
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Badr was to grant freedom to those literate captives who would teach the art of reading and writing to the
Muslims.
i. Education in Pre-Islamic Arabia:
Certain educational institutions existed in Pre-Islamic Arabia. But they were
mostly for poetical and rhetorical contests. The Ukaz fair might well be regarded as the
'Pan-Arabian literary congress as Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah puts it. Certain
elementary schools existed among many Arab tribes, like Hudhayl near Makkah, the
Thaqif of Taif, while the Quraish of Makkah had a large number of men who knew the
art of reading and writing.
ii. Schools under the Prophet:
Educational institutions in the real sense were established by the Holy Prophet
after his migration to Madinah. In the battle of Badr, the Muslims captured several
Quraish who knew the art of reading and writing. They were set free on the condition
of each teaching script and grammar to ten Muslim children. Since then literacy and
education spread rapidly among the people of Madinah. Schools were founded in the
Mosques of Madinah which became both the places of worship and instruction. Thus
nine mosque-schools came into being in Madinah. Among them the mosque school of
Quba, a suburb of Madinah, was the most important, which the Prophet himself visited
to hold discussions and discourses with the pupils. The women were also instructed
side by side with men. The Prophet used to say that even the salve-girls must be
educated and then set free. Every 'mohalla' had its elementary school for little children
and girls. When Islam spread over the whole Peninsula, the Prophet (PBUH) sent
teachers or muallim to teach the Quran to the Bedouin tribes.
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iii. Mosques:
The Centre of Educational Activities Islam has given central importance to
Mosques. At one hand it is a worship place and on the other hand, it is a seat of
learning. In the days of the Prophet (PBUH), a number of mosques were built where
education was delivered to children who resulted in increased literacy rate during the
reign of Prophet (PBUH). Women were also educated. In history the use of mosques as
the centers of education was and is continued in all parts of the world to date.
iv. Higher Centers of Learning: Suffa: The First Islamic University
There was a terrace alongside the Masjid-e-Nabvi. In Arabic, the terrace is called
Suffa. There were more than eighty Followers (Sahabas), who dedicated their lives in
search of the knowledge of the Holy Qur'an and Hadith. They acquire knowledge and
live there. They are called Ashab-e-Suffa. This was the first Islamic University and the
practical example for disseminating the knowledge by the Prophet (PBUH). Ashab-e-
Suffa lived their lives in poverty but they continued to seek knowledge. The Holy
Prophet (PBUH) used to teach them daily. They were held in high esteem by the
general body of the Muslims. Often the Huffaz were sent as teachers of the Quran and
Islam in various parts and sProvinces of Ara Among these learned ones the names of
Muadh bin Jabal, UbaYda bin amit, Abu Darla worthy of notice.
v. Courses and Methods of Study:
The basic aims of education in early Islam were, firstly, to habits knowledge of
the Quran and instruction in the Faith, and, secondly to mould the habits it’s and
character of the pupils in the morality of Islam. Hence, unlike the pre-Islamic system of
education, the mosque-schools of early Islam did not teach rhetoric's and poetry, but
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prescribed of the Quran, Arabic grammar and the art of writing. The Quran formed the
general basing study and the pupils were required to memorize it by heart. After this,
they practiced calligraphy. The students of the higher educational institutions were
further instructed ed Arithmetic, Genealogy, Physics, Medicine, and the principles of
Islamic Law. Apart from intellectual instruction, the Holy Prophet laid particular stress
upon physical education. The pupils were taught archery, wrestling, etc. The Governors
and other officials in the Provinces set up and supervised educational institutions within
their areas. In brief, the Holy Prophet taught knowledge, not for the sake of knowledge,
but for the sake of Islam.
vi. Huffaz and Quran:
As education and training consisted mainly of learning by heart, memory work
was the most important duty of the pupils and students. Many of them learnt the Holy
Book by heart and became the 'Huffaz" and 'Qurrah".
vii. Study of Foreign Languages:
One of the most remarkable features of the educational system under the Holy
Prophet was the study of foreign languages. It was necessary for correspondence with
foreign rulers and princes and to conclude treaties with them. It was also necessary for
the work of the intelligence officers whom the Prophet posted in other cities and
foreign lands, Several of the secretaries of the Prophet knew foreign languages. Zayd
bin Thabit had learnt Persian, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. Abdullah bin Zubayr was
equally proficient in several foreign languages.
viii. Respect for Teachers:
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The teachers were held in very great respect by the Prophet and the early
Muslims Often the Governors of the provinces were chosen from among them. The
Prophet once said that the teachers are 'the perfection of mankind". He further
remarked: "Verily, the teachers are the successors of the Prophets."
ix. Learning Knowledge from the Prisoners of Badr:
The battle of Badr was fought in the second year of migration in which 70
infidels were arrested. The Prophet (PBUH) set before them the condition that those
who could read and write were required to teach ten children. This was considered as
an ample ransom to secure them their liberty. To forego the big sum of 4,000 dirham’s
as was fixed in those days as ransom money per head and accept, instead, teaching of
reading and writing furnishes an ample testimony to the value and importance which
learning had in the eyes of the Prophet (PBUH). This practice started the dissemination
of knowledge in Medina.
1. Educating Methods/Teaching Techniques of the Prophet (PBUH):
He had amazing qualities of teaching "Mu'awiyahibn Al-Hakam said, "I have never seen a
teacher before him (PBUH) or after him better in teaching than he."
I. Mastery over Arabic and use of Various Dialects:
The Prophet (PBUH) was noted for superb eloquence and fluency in Arabic. He was
remarkable in position and rank. He was an accurate, unpretending straightforward speaker. He
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was well- versed in Arabic and quite familiar with the dialects and accents of every tribe. He
spoke with his guests using their own accents and dialects. He mastered and was quite eloquent at
both Bedouin and town speech. So, he had the strength and eloquence of Bedouin language as
well as the clarity and the decorated splendid speech of the town's people. Above all, there was
the help of Allah embodied in the revealed Verses of the Qur'an. He used to educate people is
their local dialects.
II. Easiness:
'Aishah (R.A) said: “Whenever Allah's Messenger (PBUH) was given the opportunity to
choose between two affairs, he would always choose the easiest and the most convenient. But if it
be sinful, he would be as far as he could from it. He never took revenge for himself; but when the
sanctity of Allah was violated, he would avenge it. That would be for Allah's sake not for
himself.”
III. Pondering:
He used to polish the investigative faculties of his followers by engaging them in
metaphysical. He says: “(Pondering for a moment is better than divine service for whole night)”.
IV. Conversation According to Situation:
Another salient feature of the Prophet (PBUH) conversation was that he always converse
according to the situation. His conversation was fascinating. His companions (Sahabas) used to
listen carefully. He always spoke of reality and pragmatism shorn of artificialities of language
and style. His message was couched in sonorous words that pleased the ears of the.
V. Seeking Useful Knowledge:
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Seeking knowledge is obligatory upon every Muslim. He commanded to seek useful knowledge.
He used to pray:
“(O God I seek shelter from useless knowledge).”
“(O God! I pray for useful knowledge).”
VI. Being Concerned about the Goodness for Students:
In surah At-Tawbah, Allah says, in the translation of ayah 128, there has certain come to
you a messenger from among yourselves. Grievous to him is what you suffer; (he is) concerned
over you and to the believers is kind and merciful." He used to empathy problem of his
followers/students.
VII. Kindness:
Prophet (PBUH) said, "Allah is Kind (Rafeeq) and He loves kindness, and confers upon
kindness which He does not confer upon severity, and does not confer upon anything besides it
(kindness)." (Muslim) We see his kindness throughout his life (PBUH), when he would pass by
children in the street he would play with them—unlike nowadays, where people think it is
righteousness to never smile. Anas ibn Malik (R.A) narrated that whenever the Prophet (PBUH)
would pass by children he would smile fondly and greets them (Bukhari and Muslim). Anas also
narrated, "I served him for ten years, and he never said "uff' (an expression of disgust) to me. He
never said, 'why did you do that? For something I had not done nor did he ever say 'why did you
not do such and such for something I had not done (Bukhari and Muslim).
VIII. Hikmah (wisdom):
Hikmah is defined as saying the right thing at the right time to the right people in the
right manner. The Prophet (PBUH) said, "Help your brother, whether he is an oppressor or is
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oppressed." A man inquired: "O Messenger of Allah! I help him when he is oppressed, but how
can I help him when he is an oppressor?" He (PBUH) said, "You can keep him from committing
oppression. That will be your help to him." (Bukhari). Another example is the story of the
Bedouin who urinated in the masjid while all of the companions ran to admonition him and beat
him, the Prophet (PBUH) simply said, "Leave him alone and pour a bucket of water over it. You
have been sent to make things easy and not to make them difficult." (Bukhari)
IX. Humility and humbleness:
Abu Rifa'a (R.A) narrated that, "I came towards the Prophet (PBUH) while he was giving
the Khutba. I said “O Messenger of Allah, stronger has come asking about his religion, he does
not know what his religion is.' The Messenger of Allah came towards me and left his Khutba until
he reached me, and was brought a chair, I thought the legs were made of iron. The Prophet
(PBUH) sat on it and started teaching me from what Allah had taught him. They he returned to
his Khutba and completed it." (Bukhari)
X. Openness Saying "I don't know" if you don't know the answer:
Prophet (PBUH) would only answer a question if Qur'an had been revealed answering it,
or he would wait for revelation. Once, Jabir ibn Abdullah(R.A) came and asked the Prophet
(PBUH) about inheritance, and Prophet (PBUH) stayed quiet until Allah) revealed the ayah in
Surah an-Nisaa.
XI. Use of Gesture:
That he (PBUH) employed was the use of gesture to explain how Allah held heaven and
earth in His grip. The Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) closed his fist and then opened it
while his whole body swayed from one side to the other and the pulpit shook under him. In fact, it
was when the Holy Prophet (PBUH) wanted to demonstrate the dreadful sight of the doomsday.
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XII. No Student Left Behind:
In classrooms all over the world, it is a common practice for teachers to separate the
strong students from the weak. The latter of which are delegated to less challenging classes that
do nothing to nurture the mind while the "smarter" students are given every opportunity to excel.
Prophet (PBUH) made no distinction between students based on intelligence level, social
standing or any other classification that separates us in society. He also never sought to exclude
or expel anyone from the religion of Islam, but rather delivered a message that was all-inclusive
to the whole of mankind. The Prophet (PBUH) said:
"By Allah! If He may guide through you a single man to Islam, it would be better for you than red
camels." (Al-Bukhari, 192)
By setting this example of inclusion, Muslims have a tangible example of how to attract others to
the Islamic faith.
XIII. The Perfect Speaker:
Most of us, at some point or another, have come across at least one teacher that was
inaudible or spoke so fast that it was next to impossible to understand what was being said let
alone taught. Even today, the rapid pace in which most educators speak is overlooked so as to
cram as much information into each lesson as possible. Prophet (PBUH) was methodical in his
teaching methods and never rushed his lessons. According to his beloved wife Aisha, he:
"...spoke in such a way that if one were to count his words, they could be counted." (AI-Bukhari,
768)
The Prophet also, according to his companions, would repeat his words thrice. The words
that he spoke and the lessons he delivered were unambiguous, which helped students of Islam
excel at perfecting their faith and committing the Quran to their hearts. The perfection of Prophet
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(PBUH)'s speech was intentional as a means to really drive the message home to each one of his
students through repetition, which is an excellent learning tool.
XIV. Living by Example:
Perhaps one of the greatest qualities that made Prophet (PBUH) such a phenomenal
teacher is that he led by example. He often lectured to his companions about the Oneness of God
Almighty, living a life in accordance with Islam and being mindful of the Hereafter. This aspect
of his life, Prophet (PBUH) was an exemplar and practiced what he preached. This made it easy
for his companions to see, up close and personal, how to live their lives in accordance with the
Quran and Sunnah. If Prophet (PBUH) had not lived every aspect of the Quran in minute detail, it
would have had a derogatory effect on the level of trust that he had developed with his
companions.
XV. Patience through Adversity:
The Prophet (PBUH) was met with an enormous amount of disdain and hatred as he
began teaching the message of Islam at the onset of his Prophethood. in Makkah, he spent thirteen
years in an attempt to teach his misguided people about In message of the Quran and was met
with violent resistance every step of the way with only a minority of his people embracing Islam.
Prophet (PBUH) met similar, albeit less, conflict after settling in Madinah and not once did he
even consider quitting. Some of the finest personal attributes that helped to strengthen his resolve
and reinforce his dedication to his mission included wisdom, patience and a willingness to make
sacrifices for the sake of Allah Almighty. The method in which Prophet (PBUH) taught the
message of Islam to his companions had a ripple effect that has transcended centuries to make
Islam the world's fastest growing religion today.
XVI. The Last Address:
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In his address of Hajja-tul-wada the followers noticed how by degrees his speech
gradually rose to climax. The pauses, rise and fall of his forceful voice, made his speech effective.
He demonstrated the concept of closeness by lifting his middle finger and showing its closeness
to the index finger. He (SAW) remained relevant and brief in his speech to save the listeners from
any inconvenience. He (PBUH) had literary taste and had perfect command on the language. His
talk with people was persuasive. Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) was a great educationist and his
followers realized this. These are only a few of the qualities of Prophet (PBUH) as a teacher;
indeed in him we have an excellent pattern—as Allah Himself says:
"There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern for anyone
whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and (who) remembers Allah often." (Surah Ahzab, verse
21).
Conclusion:
The Prophet (PBUH) explained the foundations of our faith, from the simplest
fundamentals to the most complex questions of how faith applies to our everyday lives. In Islam
there is only one teacher who has laid out the groundwork for the spiritual education of mankind,
by the Grace of God. The Prophet (PBUH) though lacking s formal education was chosen by God
Almighty to be the Final Messenger and perfect teacher for all mankind. Known as the "Living
Quran", Prophet (PBUH) was entrusted with reciting and conveying the message of the Quran to
all of mankind. In fact, he set the ideal standard of education over 1400 years ago and in effect he
was, and still Muslims the example of Prophet (PBUH) as a and gifted educator is, the greatest
teacher to have ever lived. For divining is a unifying force in the Islamic world.
HUMAN RIGHTS & STATUS OF WOMAN IN ISLAM
HUMAN RIGHTS IN ISLAM
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Introduction:
Islam is a complete code of life: it covers all aspects of human life and society, politics and state.
It provides a perfect charter of fundamental human rights. They may be divided into two categories, as
under
a. Fundamental Human Right, and
b. Rights of Non-Muslims in the Islamic State.
The two types of rights in Islam are derived from the Holy Quran, the traditions or Ahadith of the
Holy Prophet (PBUH) and the examples of the four Pious Caliphs, who strictly followed the teachings of
the Quran and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). These are the only sources of rights in Islam.
Besides rights of man (Haquq al-Abad) are in some respects more important than the rights of God
(Haquq Allah), which is a clear proof that in Islam fundamental human rights are of immense importance.
Hajjatul Wada (Farewell Sermon):
First Charter of Human Rights in History of Mankind: On his last pilgrimage to the House of
Allah at Makkah, Holy Prophet (PBUH) delivered his Farewell Sermon, which is called the foremost
charter of Human Right in the history of mankind.
"O people! Listen to what I say. I do not know whether I will ever meet you at this place after this year."
Right to Sanctity of Life and Property:
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"Your blood and your property are as sacred as are this Day and this Month (9th Zil Hajj). You will surely
meet your Lord and He will ask you of your works. I have told you. He who is entrusted with property
belonging to another should' his trust to whom it belongs."
Right to Inheritance:
"God has ordained to every man the share of his inheritance: a testament is not lawful to the
prejudice of hefts. The child belongs to his parents: and the violator of wedlock shall be stoned."
Riba/usury abolished:
"Usury is forbidden, and I make a beginning by remitting the amounts of interest which 'Abbas
bin 'Abdul-Muttalib had to receive, Verily, it is remitted entirely."
Right to Life safeguarded:
"Behold! All practices of paganism and ignorance are now under my feet. The blood revenge of
the Days of ignorance (pre-Islamic time) are remitted. The first claim on blood I abolish is that of Ibn
Rabi'ah bin Harith who was being nursed in the tribe of Sa'd and whom Hudhail killed.
Rights of Wives protected:
"O people! Fear Allah concerning women. Verily you have taken them on the security of Allah
and have made their persons lawful unto you by Words of Allah! It is incumbent upon them to honor their
conjugal rights and, not to commit acts of impropriety which, if they do, you have authority to chastise
them, yet not severely. If your wives refrain from impropriety and are faithful to you, clothe and feed
them suitably."
Four Months declared sacred:
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"Time has grown the same as it was when Allah created the heavens and the earth A year is of
twelve months. Four of which are Sacred Months. Three of the four months are successive; they are Dhul-
Qa'dah, Dhul-Hijjah, and Al-Muharram. The fourth month is Raja') Mudar, which comes between Jumada
and Shab’an."
Do not kill each other:
"You will go back to be resurrected (after death) to your Lord. There you will be accounted for
your deeds. So, do not turn into people who go astray and kill one another."
Right to Equality and Brotherhood of Muslims:
"O People! Listen to what I say and take it to heart. You must know that every Muslim is the
brother of another Muslim and that all Muslims are brethren. All of you are as equal as the fingers of a
hand. It is not lawful for any man to take anything of his brother's, except what is given with one's own
free will. Therefore do not do injustice to one another."
Equality of All Races proclaimed:
"The Arabs are not superior to the Ajamis (non-Arabs), or the Ajamis to the Arabs."
Right of the Slaves to kind treatment:
"And your slaves! See that you feed them with such food as you eat yourselves, and clothe them
with the stuff you wear; and if they commit a fault which you are not inclined to forgive, then part from
them, for they. are the servants of the Lord, and are not to be harshly treated."
Responsibility of Criminal lies on his own shoulders not on his relatives:
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"Any wrongdoer does not wrong another except himself. So, let no one of you be blamed for the
acts of his father or his son. Verily, Satan has utterly been despaired of being worshipped in this city of
yours; but he will be obeyed by you in things you will be considering of no value. Satan will be content
even by such things."
Observance of Religious Duties:
"O people, I am not succeeded by a Prophet and you are not succeeded by any nation. So, I
recommend you to worship your Lord, to pray the five prayers, to fast Ramadan and to offer the Zakat
(poor-due) of your provision willingly. I recommend you to perform the pilgrimage to the Sacred House
of your Lord and to obey those who are in charge of you, and then you will be awarded to enter the
Paradise of your Lord."
The Western Philosophy of Human Rights:
The evolution of human rights in the West is often traced back to the Manga Carta (1215)
which was primarily a contract between the Barons and the King of Great Britain that allowed the
protection of some rights to the Barons. The British passed a law in 1355 under which no one could be
deprived of his life, liberty or land without following a prescribed procedure. The concept of natural
rights took several countries until 1762, sheds ample light on the process and evolution. The
American Declaration of I 12, 1776, reflects another significant effort in this direction. In 1946 after
another two centuries, Europe came up with the idea of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights under
the aegis of the United Nations. This was perhaps a natural consequence of the horrors the West
originated and experienced in 1941-42. On December 16, 1966, certain provisions of the Declaration
were incorporated in the international Convention adopted by the UN General Assembly.
The first and foremost aspect to consider, in our view, is the conceptual problem. In the West, the
evolution of human rights has taken place in the context of rights of the individual as reflected in general
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doctrines of individualism and Narcism. The political liberty of the individual was the focus. With all the
philosophical and doctrinal contributions made towards political liberty in European thought, however,
European nations did not see any wrong in violating the same rights of nations in Asia and Africa when
they colonized them, subjugated them and denied them of their political, cultural and economic rights for
centuries. To regain their human rights, these nations had to struggle for prolonged periods. This
dichotomy between the rights of the individual and the rights of a people continued to be a major problem
in many countries even after their political independence from their colonial masters.
The rise of individualism and focus on rights of the individual also tacitly helped in building the
capitalistic system. Emphasis on individual liberty also reduced religion to a "personal matter" and ethics
and morality to cultural relativism. One victim of this relativism was the institution of the family.
Individuals were allowed to observe conventional ways of married life or become single parents or even
conduct same-gender marriages.
The concept of individual rights and liberty was regarded as a symbol of enlightenment and a
major achievement of the post-Christianity secular European mind. A holistic view of human rights, to a
great extent, was yet to be comprehended.
The Islamic Philosophy of Human Rights:
Islam and Human Rights:
The first major contribution of Islam is a paradigm shift towards human rights. Overcoming the tension
between the Barons and the King on the "rights" of the former, it offers a holistic view in which the
rights and obligations of human beings over one another help in forging a social reality reflective of
commitment to a The individual, without being marginalized, becomes part and a whole. The key terms
used by a sense of social responsibility. The key term used by the Qur'an and the Sunnah in this regard are
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Huquq Allah and Huquq al-abad, the rights due towards the Creator and the Sustainer and the rights of
Allah’s servants, human beings.
Rights, in their conventional Western sense, are sometimes conferred by the Crown and at others
acquired through some other source of Political force. In the Islamic world view, rights are not subject to
any class struggle or a favor by authorities, but a matter of one s own fulfillment. These rights are not
determined in view of the social status or the politics of majority and minority; nor are they linked to any
racial or gender considerations. The Qur'an and the Sunnah declare all human beings as the progeny of
Adam. Therefore, all humans, irrespective of their gender and color, are declared essentially equal.
These rights are founded on seven universal ethics that are not exclusive to Muslims. The Prophet,
according to the Qur'an, is sent to the whole of humanity. The universal Islamic call for the unity of
mankind is also based on these non-variables. The rights and obligations of an individual help in the
social construction of reality on the principles of justice and equity. Man's social interaction and the
evolution of society and culture are directly linked, in a gestation manner, with these principles. These
principle-based values are meant to be translated in the socio-political, economic, cultural and
international behavior and rights of man.
Essential Human Rights in Islam:
The specific human rights identified by Islam translate the philosophy of these seven values in tangible
human conduct and behavior ('amal and taqwa). Very briefly, the basic universal human rights given by
the Qur'an and the Sunnah include the following:
1. Equality of all humans: "And of His signs is this: He created you of dust and you are now human
beings dispersed everywhere..." (ar-Rum 30:20); "O mankind Be careful of your duty to your Lord (Rabb)
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Who created you from a single soup and from it created its mate and from them both has spread abroad a
multitude of men and women. Be careful of your duty (taqwa) toward Allah in whom you claim (your
rights) of one another..." (M Nisa 4:1).
2. Right to Life: "And that you slay not the life which Allah has made sacred, save in the course of
justice. Thus He has commanded of you in order that you may discern..." (al An'am 6:151). "...Whosoever
kills a human being for another than manslaughter or corruption (fasad) in the earth it shall be as if he had
killed all mankind, and whoso saves life of one it shall be if he had saved the life of all mankind..." (al-
Masidah 5:32). According to a hadith of the Prophet (PBUH): "The greatest sins are to associate someone
with Allah and to kill human beings."
3. Right to "Religious" freedom: "There is no compulsion in religion..? (a!-Baqarah 2:256); "Revile not
(walatasubhu) those unto whom they call (pray) beside Allah..." (al-Ansam 6:109). Also: "For you your
religion, for me my way of life..." (a/- Kat/run 109:6).
4. Right to Basic needs: "And in their wealth the seeker and the deprived has due share..." (al-Dhriyat
51:19); "Give the Kinsman his due, and the needy and the wayfarer, and do not dissipate your wealth
extravagantly..." (Banilsrail 17:26).
5. Right to chastity, dignity and lineage: "And come not near unto adultery. Lo it is an abomination an
evil way..." (Banilsrail 17:32).
6. Right to sanity and intellectual freedom: "O you who believe, liquor and gambling and idols and
divining arrows are only infamy of satan's handwork, so keep away from them in order that you may
succeed... ‘(al-Ma'idah 5:90).
7. Right to justice: "And if you judge between mankind, that you judge justly.. Nisa 4:58).
8. Right to property: "And eat not up your property among yourselves in vanity. Baciarah 2:188).
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9. Right to protection of reputation: "O you who believe, shun much suspicion, for some guesswork is
a sin, and spy not, neither backbite one another..." (al-Hujrat 49:12).
10. Right to privacy: "O you who believe enter not houses other than you own without first announcing
your presence and invoking peace (salam) upon the folk thereof. That is better for you that you may be
heedful..." (an-Nisa 24:27).
11. Right to enjoin virtue and eradicate evil: "Those who if we give them power in the land establish
worship (religious freedom) and pay their due (Zakah) and enjoin good (ma'ruf) and forbid indecency
(munkar)..." (al-Hail 22:41).
12. Right to protest: "Allah likes not the utterance of harsh speech save by one who has been wronged,
Allah is ever Hearer, Knower..." (an-Nisa4:148).
13. Right to peace making: "And if two parties of believers fall to fighting then make peace between
them and if one party of them does wrong to the other, fight you that which does wrong till it returns unto
the ordinance of Allah; then, if it return, make peace between them justly, and act equitably for Allah
loves the equitable..." (al-Hujrat 49:9).
14. Right to conscientious abstention: "It is not permissible to disobey Allah in obedience to the order
of any human being..." (Prophet's Hadith, Musnad of Imam Ahmad).
15. Right to participate in public affairs: "Allah has promised such of you as believe and do good deeds
that He will surely make them succeed (liyastakwlifannakum) in the earth even as He caused those who
were before them to succeed over others ..." (an-Nisa 24:55).
16. Right to social and legal equality: "There is no superiority for an Arab over a non-Arab and for a
non-Arab over an Arab, nor for a white over a black nor for a black over the white, except in piety. All
mankind is the progeny of Adam, and Adam was fashioned out of clay..." (The last Sermon of the Prophet
(PBUH).
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17. Right to association: "And there may spring from you a comm. unity e to who invite goodness (al-
khayl) and enjoin right conduct (ma'ruf) and forbid indecency (munkar Such are they who are
successful..." (A1-1-Irnran 3:104).
18. Right to struggle for just social order: "And the believers,. men and "women, are protecting friends
one of another, they enjoin the right and forbid wrong... (AI-Tawbah 9:71)
19. Right to personal responsibility: "He who finds the right path does so for himself; and he whogoes
astray does so to his own loss; and no one who carries a burden bears another's load..." (Banilsrall 17:15).
20. Right to life for the unborn child: "And that you slay not your children because of penury. We
provide for you and for them..." (AI-An'am 6:151); "Slay not your children, due to fear of poverty, We
shall provide for them and for you, killing them is certainly a great wrong..." (Banilsrail 30-31).
21. Right to identity for child: "The child belongs to the marriage-bed and the violator of the wedlock
shall be stoned. And reckoning of their deeds rests with Allah.. He, who attributes his ancestry to other
than his father or claims his client ship to other than his master, the curse of Allah is upon him ..." (The
Last Sermon of the Prophet, peace be upon him).
22. Right to rejection of racism and ethnic discrimination: "Allah says: '0 people' We created you
from one male and female and made you into tribes and nations, that you are known to one another.
Verily in the sight of Allah, the most honored amongst you is the one who is the most God-conscious.' "
(The Last Sermon of the Prophet, peace be upon him).
23. Right to political power: "Allah has promised such of you as believe and do good works that He will
surely make them succeed (over the present rulers) in the earth even as He caused those who were before
them to succeed (over others); and that He will surely establish for them their din which He hath approved
for them, and will give them in exchange safety after their fear. They serve Me, and do not associate
anyone with Me. Those who disbelieve henceforth, they are the miscreants..." (Al-Nur 24:55).
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24. Right to inheritance for both women and men: "Unto the men (of a family) belongs a share of that
which parents and near kindred leave, and unto the women a share of that which parents and near kindred
leave, whether it be little or much — a legal share. And when kinsfolk and orphans and the needy are
present at the division (of the property), bestow on them therefrom and speak kindly unto them..." (an-
Visa 4:7-8).
25. Right to brotherly treatment: "The believers are but a single brotherhood: So make peace and
reconciliation between your two (contending) brothers; And fear Allah, that you may receive mercy..."
(Al-Hujurat 49:10).
26. Right to protection of trusts: "Beware that you go not astray after me and strike one another's necks.
He who (amongst you) has any trust with him, he must return it to its owner..." ( The Last Sermon of the
Prophet, peace be upon him).
27. Right to refuse obedience to oppressive rulers: "But fear Allah and obey me; Do not follow those
who are extravagant; who make mischief in the land, and mend not (their way)..." (Al-Shu'ara 26:150-
153).
Rights of the Non-Muslims in an Islamic State:
Islam is a religion of tolerance. It has granted equal rights to the non-Muslims in an Islamic state
without imposing equal duties on them. The reason is that Islamic State, unlike the modern national state,
classifies citizens into two categories according to their religion/ faith: Muslims and non-Muslims.
Muslims have different kinds of rights and duties than those of the non-Muslims. The non-Muslims are
known in Islamic Sharjah as Dhimmis (Zimmis), whose protection is the responsibility or obligation of
the Islamic State. As the Islamic State is an ideological state, its defense (jihad) is the duty' of the
Muslims only, while the non-Muslims are exempted from this duty. Hence their rights are also different
from those of the Muslims. Under Islamic law (Shariah) there are three kinds of Zimmis:
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i. Contractees:
Those who have entered into a treaty or agreement with the Muslims at the time of their
submission, which determine their rights and responsibilities they are known as "contractees". A
hadith of the Holy prophet (PBUH) has enjoined. 'If you fight a non-believing people and overpower
them and they enter into a treaty with you, agreeing to pay annual tribute (kharaj) in order to save
their lives and properties, and of their progeny, then do not take a penny more than fixed amount,
because it is not permissible." Again, "Whosoever is hard or cruel towards such people (i.e.
"contractees") or curtail their rights or burdens them with more than they can endure or demands
something from them against their free will, I shall myself be a complainant against him on the Day
of Judgment."
ii. Conquered:
Those non-Muslims who submit to the Muslims after a defeat in the war, they are known as
"Conquered". When they pay jizya or poll tax to the Islamic state, they too become 'Zimmis" and
their lives and properties come under the protection of Islamic state.
iii. "Zimmis:
Zimmis are those non-Muslims who have submitted to the Islamic State, neither through any
defeat in a war, nor by an agreement or treaty. But their submission is a proof that they have accepted
its supremacy. They too have to pay jizya or poll tax.
1. Right to life and Property:
Islamic State recognizes the right of its non-Muslim citizens to life and property. This can be
illustrated by the charters which the Holy Prophet (PBUH) granted to the Jews of Medina and to the
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Christians of Najran. The first charter says: "The Jews of Bani Auf shall be considered as a
community along with the Muslims, The Muslims shall defend them against all aggressors. Their
relations shall be based ongood-will and mutual benefit. The allies of the Jews shall be treated as the,
allies of the Muslims and anyone oppressed irrespective of his creed shall be helped." The charter
granted to the Christians of Najran by the Holy Prophet (PBUH ) declared: "The Christian tribe of
Najran shall be under the protection of God and His Prophet. Their life, property, their territory, is
guaranteed to be respected and protected, and this protection shall extend to those persons present and
to those not present, including their property and also to those under the protection of this tribe,
whether they belong to the tribe or not." Similarly, the second Caliph, Hazrat Umar, also granted a
charter of protection of life and property to the Christians of Elia (Old Jerusalem) after the conquest
of Palestine by the Arabs:
 "This is the charter of security granted by Umar, the servant of God and Amir ul Momineen, to
the citizens of Elia. Protection is guaranteed to their life, property, churches and crosses, to every
citizen, healthy or sick. Their churches shall not be made places of residence for others, nor shall
they be demolished or damaged No injury shall be inflicted on their property, or their crosses. No
religious pressure shall be put on them and no one shall be harassed."
 The blood of the zimmis is regarded as sacred as that of the Muslims. In case a zimmi is killed or
injured by a Muslim, the deceased relative has the right to treat the Muslim in the same manner.
2. Freedom of Religion and Worship:
The non-Muslims in an Islamic State have the same freedom of religion and worship in their own
way, as have the Muslims. Use of force or pressure for the propagation of Islam is strongly prohibited
by the Quran. Muslims are to present Islam to the non-Muslims in a human and rational manner and
by their good behaviour and manners. Says the Quran:
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"O Prophet, invite people to the way of the Lord with wisdom, with beautiful sermons and with
decent, rational controversy" (16: 125)
In religious controversies, Muslims are forbidden to call names and pour invectives on their
opponent's modes of worship or their objects of reverence. The Quran warns that by such abusive
denunciation the Muslims will invite retaliation with similar weapons. It declares, "You have not been
appointed as their supervisors and controller. (Surah: verse 66) Again, "O Prophet! We know what
these people say; you are not appointed to force them to believe." (50:45) Moreover, the Quran
declares that basic truth of human existence is belief in One Supreme Being, and therefore, whoever
believes in this fundamental truth and leads a virtuous life is a saved soul. "Surely those who believe
(that is Muslims) and those who are Jews and the Christians and the Sabians, whoever believes in
God and Last Day and does good, they shall have their reward from their Lord, and there is no fear
for them, nor shall they griever." (Surah 2: 62) In short, Islam accepts the facts that people will differ
in their religions and modes of worship and there will be no coercion to make them conform to the
Islamic faith. Tolerance is of the essence of Islam. Man is respected in Islam as man and religion is
respected as religion without any discrimination of caste, creed, colour or race. Even false goods
cannot be abused, "And abuse not those whom they call upon besides Allah, lest exceeding the limits
they abuse Allah through ignorance. Thus to every people we have made their deeds fair-seeming;
then to their Lord is their return, so He will inform them of what they did." (The Quran 6:109)
3. Exemption from Military Service:
Islamic State is an ideological state, whose defense is the religious duty of the Muslims. But the
non-Muslims are exempted from military service, for they have no obligation to wage jihad for its
defense. But if a non-Muslim voluntarily fights for the defense of the Islamic State, he is entitled to
the same privileges and rights as have the Muslims.
4. Payment of Jizya:
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The non-Muslims are to pay jizya or poll-tax to the Islamic State in lieu of military service and
also due to their exemption from the payment of zakat, which Muslims are obliged to pay. But the
jizya is a much lower tax than zakat. Moreover, many classes of the zimmis are exempted from this
tax altogether, such as the poor, the priests, monks, widows sick and old, etc. Once Hazrat Umar saw
an old anima begging in the streets; on inquiry, he was informed that he was doing so in order to
collect enough money to pay jizya. The Caliph at once ordered that no jizya was to be collected from
him: "By God, it is not just that a man who has paid jizya in his youth should be required to pay it
when he has grown old and sick."
5. Protection of Non-Muslim Places of Worship:
Islamic State has the responsibility to guarantee protection of the places of worship of its non-
Muslim citizens Muslims are duty-bound to protect their places of worship, whether they are
synagogues, churches, temples, etc. The Holy Quran says: "And had there not been Allah's repelling
some people by others, cloisters, and churches, and synagogues, and mosques in which Allah's name
is much remembered, would have been pulled down." (22:40) In this verse, it may be noted; Allah has
enjoined the protection of mosque after that of the churches of the Christians, synagogues of the Jews
and the temples of the pagans. Islamic States throughout history have always complied with this
Quranic commandment. This was, indeed, the reason why in some Muslim countries the places of
worship of the non-Muslims outnumbered the mosques, as for example, in the Mughal Empire in
medieval India.
STATUS OF WOMEN IN ISLAM
Introduction:
Islam has granted unprecedented spiritual, social, political, economic and cultural status to
woman. It has not only acknowledged complete personhood of woman but also safeguarded her rights
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keeping in view her vulnerabilities. In the divine scheme of regulation of the relationship between men
and women, Islam has assigned a position of dignity and honour to woman. Such beneficent regulation is
essential for peace, comfort, happiness, continuation of the species and progress. The Holy Quran
emphasizes that God in His perfect wisdom has created all species in pairs, and so men and women have
been created of the same species; as is said:
"He created you from a single being; then of the same kind made its mate." (39:7) "He has made for you
mates of your own kind." (42:12)
The teachings of Islam are based essentially on the Qur'an (God's revelation) and Hadith (elaboration by
Prophet Muhammad). The Qur'an and the Hadith, properly and un-biasedly understood, provide the basic
source of authentication for any position or view which is attributed to Islam.
Woman in Islam/Spiritual Equality: In the midst of the darkness that engulfed the world, the divine
revelation echoed in the wide desert of Arabia with a fresh, noble, and universal message to humanity:
"O Mankind, keep your duty to your Lord who created you from a single soul and from it created its mate
(of same kind) and from them twain has spread a multitude of men and women" (Qur'an 4: 1).
A scholar who pondered about this verse states: 'It is believed that there is no text, old or new,
that deals with the humanity of the woman from all aspects with such amazing brevity, eloquence, depth,
and originality as this divine decree.' Stressing this noble and natural conception, them Qur'an states: He
(God) it is who did create you from a single soul and there from did create his mate, that he might dwell
with her (in love)... (Qur'an 7:189) And Allah has given you mates of your own nature, and has given you
from your mates, children and grandchildren, and has made provision of good things for you. Is it then in
vanity that they believe and in the grace of God that they disbelieve? Qur'an (16:72) Now we outlines the
position of Islam regarding the status of woman in society from its, various aspects - spiritually, socially,
economically and politically. Spiritual Equality:
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Woman's spiritual equality with man is repeatedly stressed in the Holy Quran. For instance it is said:
"For men who submit themselves wholly to Allah, and women who submit themselves wholly to
Him and men who believe and women who believe, and men who obey Allah and women who obey Him,
and men who are truthful and women who are truthful, and men who are steadfast and women who are
steadfast, and men who are humble and women who are humble, and men who give alms and women who
give alms, and men who fast and women who fast, and men who guard their chastity and women who
guard their chastity, and men who remember Allah much and women who remember Him, Allah has
prepared forgiveness and a great reward." (33:36)
"Allah will turn in mercy to believing men and believing women; Allah is Most Forgiving, Ever
Merciful." (33:74)
Women, being more vulnerable than men, are accorded special protection: Men and women will be
equally rewarded in the hereafter: "Whoso does well whether male or female, and is a believer, shall enter
Paradise and they shall not be wronged a whit." (4:125)
"Of the believers whoso acts righteously, whether male or female, We will surely grant such a one a pure
life; and We will certainly reward them according to the measure of the best of their works." (16:98)
"Their Lord would answer their supplication. I will not suffer the work of any worker from among you,
male or female, to perish. You are spiritually akin one to another." (3:196)
The Holy Prop' let was urged to seek forgiveness for believing women as well as believing men. (47:20)
a. As a child and an adolescent:
Despite the social acceptance of female infanticide among some Arabian tribes, the Qur'an
forbade this custom, and considered it a crime like any other murder. "And when the female (infant)
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buried alive is questioned, for what crime she was killed." (Qur'an 81:8-9). Criticizing the attitudes of
such parents who reject their female children, the Qur'an states:
When news is brought to one of them, of (the Birth of) a female (child), his face darkens and he is
filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people because of the bad news he
has had shall he retain her on (sufferance) and contempt, or bury her in the dust? Ah! What an evil
(choice) they decide on? (Qur'an 16: 58-59).
Far from saving the girl's life so that she may later suffer injustice and inequality, et Islam
requires kind and just treatment for her. Among the sayings of Prophet Muhammad (P.) in this regard
are the following:
Whosoever has a daughter and he does not bury her alive, does not insult her, and does not favor
his son over her; God will enter him into Paradise. (lbn Hanbal, No. 1957)
b. As a wife:
The Qur'an clearly indicates that marriage is sharing between the two halves of the society, and
that its objectives, besides perpetuating human life, are emotional well-being and spiritual harmony.
Its bases are love and mercy. Among the most impressive verses in the Qur'an about marriage is the
following: "And among His signs is this: That He created mates foryou from yourselves that you may
find rest, peace of mind in them, and He ordained between you love and mercy. Lo, herein indeed are
signs for people who reflect." (Qur'an 30:2 1)
According to Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.
Ibn Abbas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (P.), and she reported
that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God gave her the
choice ... (between accepting the marriage or invalidating it). (Ibn Hanbal No. 2469). In another
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version, the girl said "Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted to let women know that parents
have no right (to force a husband on them)" (Ibn Maja, No. 1873).
c. As a mother:
Islam considered kindness to parents next to the worship of God. "And we have enjoined upon
man (to be good) to his parents: His mother bears him in weakness upon weakness..." (Qur'an 31:14)
(See also Qur'an 46:15, 29:8). Moreover, the Qur'an has a special recommendation for the good
treatment of mothers:
"Your Lord has decreed that you worship none save Him, and that you be kind to your parents. . ."
(Qur'an 17:23). A man came to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) asking: “O Messenger of God, who
among the people is the most worthy of my good company'? The Prophet (PBUH) said, 'Your
mother.' The man said, 'Then Who else?' The Prophet (P) said, 'Your mother.' The man asked, Then
who else? Only then did the Prophet (PBUH) say, 'Your father.' (Al-Bukhari and Muslim)
A famous saying of The Prophet (PBUH) is 'Paradise is at the feet' of mothers.' (In Al-Nisa'i, lbn Majah,
Ibn-Hanbal). "It is the generous (in character) who is good to women, and it is the wicked who insults
them.' ---
The Economic Aspects:
Islam decreed a right of which woman was deprived both before Islam and after it (even as late as
this century), the right of independent ownership. According to Islamic Law, woman's right to her money,
real estate, or other properties is fully acknowledged. This right undergoes no change whether she is
single or married. She retains her full rights to buy, sell, mortgage or lease any or all her properties. It is
nowhere suggested in the Law that a woman is a minor simply because she is a female. It is also
noteworthy that such right applies to her properties before marriage as well as to whatever she acquires
thereafter.
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However, there is no decree in Islam which forbids woman from seeking employment whenever
there is a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature and in which society needs her most.
Examples of these professions are nursing, teaching (especially for children), and medicine. Moreover,
there is no restriction on benefiting from woman's exceptional talent in any field. Even for the position of
a judge, where there may be a tendency to doubt the woman's fitness for the post due to her more
emotional nature, we find early Muslim scholars such as Abu- Hanifa and Al-Tabri holding there is
nothing wrong with it In addition, Islam restored to woman the right of inheritance, after she herself was
an object of inheritance in some cultures. Her share is completely hers and no one can make any claim on
it, including her father and her husband.
"Unto men (of the family) belongs a share of that which Parents and near kindred leave, and unto
women a share of that which parents and near kindred leave, whether it be a little or much - a determinate
share." (Qur'an 4:7).
Her share in most cases is one-half the man's share, with no implication that she is worth half a
man! It would seem grossly inconsistent after the overwhelming evidence of woman's equitable treatment
in Islam, which was discussed in the preceding pages, to make such an inference. This variation in
inheritance rights is only consistent with the variations in financial responsibilities of man and woman
according to the Islamic Law. Man in Islam is fully responsible for the maintenance of his wife, his
children, and in some cases of his needy relatives, especially the females. This responsibility is neither
waived nor reduced because of his wife's wealth or because of her access to any personal income gained
from work, rent, profit, or any other legal means.
The Political Aspect: Any fair investigation of the teachings of Islam into the history of the
Islamic civilization will surely find a clear evidence of woman's equality with man in what we call today
"political rights". This includes the right of election as well as the nomination to political offices. It also
includes woman's right to participate in public affairs. Both in the Quran and in Islamic history we find
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examples of women who participated in serious discussions and argued even with the Prophet (PBUH)
himself, (see Qur'an 58: 1; and 60: 10-12). During the Caliphate of Omar Ibn al-Khattab, a woman argued
with him in the mosque, proved her point, and caused him to declare in the presence of people: "A woman
is right and Omar is wrong." Although not mentioned in the Qur'an, one Hadith of the Prophet is
interpreted to make woman ineligible for the position of head of state. The Hadith referred to is roughly
translated: "A people will not prosper if they let a woman be their leader." This limitation, however, has
nothing to do with the dignity of woman or with her rights. It is rather, related to the natural difference in
the biological and psychological makeup of men and women.
DIGNITY OF MEN AND WOMEN
Introduction:
Human dignity and status lays a firm basis for the building of society on an equal basis, wherein
all could claim dignity and honor as human beings. Dignity lies in the right conduct of a person and to
keep oneself within the characteristics of control. The morality of Islam is based on the concept of .human
dignity to inculcate the quality of control towards evil inclinations. Dignity is a social factor. It involves
one's ability to participate in a social arrangement of some sort and to hold some kind of rank therein.
Society confers dignity on the individual. Social dignity refers to one's reputation or good name. Human
dignity is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The Quran states the Law of Nature
that so long as people maintain their life systems on the basis of justice, freedom and goodness and allow
all people to enjoy their rights in a normal way and practice their lives freely without interference or
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interruption, they prosper and make progress in life. But when they start spreading corruption in the land
and usurping other people's rights, their civilization begins to disintegrate and finally fade away from the
pages of history. The Quran condemns in very strong words those people who spread corruption and
injustice in the land and deny other people's rights.
Islamic Concept of Dignity of Men and Women:
Human beings are a special creation of God has created man as His 4 representative (Khalifah). God
has made everything else in the universe subservient to man, and if he utilizes them positively, he
participates in God's continuous process of creation. This participation is neither by chance nor optional,
but a responsibility - the purpose of one's very life and existence. God has not left man empty-handed to
fulfill his responsibilities in this life. He has endowed man with reason, physical and intellectual
capabilities, knowledge and other resources. These potentialities and resources - including one's very own
life - are given to man as a trust (amanah). Hence he is not the absolute owner of any one of them. Even
his own body and life has been given to him on trust; hence, he is not allowed to abuse them or harm
himself. That is why drug abuse and suicide are forbidden (haram) in Islam. Potentially there is an
enormous prospect for innovative creativity and growth in this process of creation But this cannot occur
without a direct involvement of man. Since human beings have been endowed with the ability to think,
rationalize and understand, they must strive to cultivate their potentials in order to qualify to be
contributors to this process of creation and growth initiated and spearheaded by God. Thus the underlying
principle guiding man's life and relationships with all the other creatures is that everything in the universe
is a trust (amanah) from God to man, and as representative of God on earth, man has been assigned the
duty of establishing civilization and a peaceful society.
I. Mankind as Crown of Creatures:
Though there are several verses in the Qur'an signifying human dignity, the most famous of all is the
70th verse of Al-Isra chapter saying
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"Verily we have honored the children of Adam. We carry them on the land and the sea, and
have made provision of good things for them, and have preferred them above many of those
whom We created with a marked preferment."
Undoubtedly, honor in this noble verse refers to the children of Adam meaning mankind. Rohol
Ma'ani (The Spirit of Meanings) attributes dignity to all humans whether the righteous or evildoers
and do not give any group an advantage over others in having dignity.
II. Man Created in Best Form: Islam presented its concept of honor and dignity on the basis of
man's creation by Allah:
III. The endowment of knowledge: as a special Divine Favor;
IV. The prostrating of angels: (in submission) before him (for his service);
V. Human Beings are God's Vicegerents on Earth
The Qur'an clearly underlines the role of the individual and of the community in establishing a
government. The Qur'an explains its worldview by telling the story of the origin of man. It introduces
the story of creation through a conversation between God and the angels (2: 30-39; 15: 28-44; 38: 69-
74). One will find similarities between the stories of creation in the Qur'an and in the Old Testament.
According to the Qur'an, God expressed His will to the angels about creating on earth a new being
who would be the best of all His creations and would be assigned the status of His vicegerent
(khalifah). The angels expressed their reservations, fearing that the new being would create chaos and
disorder in society and shed blood and would bring suffering to his species. This cautious response by
the angels indicates the potential aptitude of human beings. In response God did not rule out the
possibility of corruption and bloodshed by human beings completely; He only said to the angels that
they did not know what He (God) knew. God then created Adam from clay and breathed into him His
Own Spirit (15: 29; 32: 9; 38: 72). Thus Adam was gifted not only with such faculties of hearing,
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seeing, and understanding; he also received the potential to develop God-like qualities such as being
caring, responsible, kind, just' wise, forgiving and so on. Human beings, therefore, are unique and
privileged as opposed to everything else in creation. The Qur'an also speaks of a covenant between
man and God (7: 172) in which man recognized God's position as his Creator. In other words, the
ability to perceive the existence of the Supreme Being is inborn in human nature. The Quran elevates
humanity to a rank higher than the angels and honors it by the trust of being appointed vicegerent
(khalifah) of God on earth. The angels are told to prostrate before Adam, the archetypal human being.
This moral latitude of humanity is then complemented with a reference to the physical nobility of its
origin:
VI. Whole Universe is at Disposal of Mankind:
It also affirms humanity's competence and trust worthiness in the eyes of God. Furthermore,
Allah has subjected whatever is in the heavens and whatever in the earth to humanity and making him
the central figure in the creation.
VII. Prophet as Best Model of Being Vicegerent of God:
The contribution of the Prophet (PBUH) of Islam to the enhancement of human dignity is
diversified. He was himself a perfect example of graceful, pleasing and beautiful conduct and he
encouraged others to adopt the same conduct in their social life. It was his habit to bring out and
demonstrate in practice what was most delightful, refined, polite and natural in human behavior.
VIII. The testing of him in these Favors;
IX. Equality:
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All men and women are equal in the eyes of God. Islam upholds inherent equality of mankind in
general and of both gender in particular. The very fact that every human child at his birth is equally
endowed with a Self or Personality, entitles every individual as a human entity to equal esteem and
respect ; and no distinction whatsoever should, therefore, be allowed to the incidence of birth, family,
tribe, race or community, nationality, religion or sex, for, says the Qur'an:
Verily we have honored all children of Adam (equally) (17: 70)
No distinctions in dignity and fundamental rights between one man and another as race, sex, blood
relations or wealth, in accordance with the saying of the Prophet of Islam,
X. The criterion of a high position in society:
The intrinsic value of every individual human being is uniformly equal, but the criterion for
determining the relative position and status of every individual rests on his own personal merits and
character: And for all there are ranks according to what they do (46: 19) and the principle underlying
is this The noblest of you in the sight of Allah is the best in conduct (49: 13).
XI. Dignity of Man is Conditioned with His Being Slave of God:
Thus the very purpose of man's creation is to worship his Lord. Map has been made as the vicegerent
of God on earth. Man has been ordered to avoid harming others killing others, be away from evils and
from polytheism and to pray to Allah alone and i bow only to Allah alone. Man should keep the
purpose he is created for otherwise he is worse than animals as the Holy Quran says: "Certainly We
have created Jinns and Human beings for Hell, because they possess hearts but do not ponder with
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them, they have ears but do not hear with them, they have eyes but do not see what is fact, They are
like animals rather worse than that."
Responsibilities of Man as the Vicegerent of Allah:
The vicegerent of Allah puts great many responsibilities on man. These responsibilities are mentioned
below in detail.
I. Obedience to God:
Being the vicegerent of God man is only subordinate to Allah alone. His rank is higher than all
other creature. All other things are made subordinate to man, in order to utilize them according to
Quran. To bow before these subordinate things is against the dignity of man and will be unbecoming
of his position as of vicegerent of God.
II. Purposes of Man’s Life on Earth are Worship of God:
Man's creation is not useless and absurd. He is created with a definite objective. The Holy
Quran says:
"Do you think that We have created you purposeless?"
Allah has created man with a special purpose which is well explained by the Holy Quran.
"And I have created Jins and Human beings they should worship Me."
III. To use his Authority as Trust of God:
The second important function of the man as the Naib (vicegerent) is to use all things as the
trust of God at his disposal He must obey God alone and must not make other men his
servants. The vicegerent means that he is the represented and not as a master He will be a true
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vicegerent only that time when he will use his power as a trust of Allah. It includes not only
things at his disposal but his soul, impulses, and desires should also be used in accordance
with the divine injunction. Allah has sent His will and injunctions through revelation in the
Holy Quran. Thus it is the duty of man to understand it abides by its teachings.
IV. Man has an Amanah or Trust to Fulfill:
The Qur'an mentions the trust (Amanah) given to mankind a trust which the heavens, the earth,
and mountains refused to accept because they were afraid of its heavy burden (33: 72) — which
requires the establishment of justice in society (4. 58). Amanah basically is a contract between God
and man on man's role in history. It defines man's rights and responsibilities in relation to all other
humans and his environment and the rest of God's creation.
V. Administration of Justice of Earth:
And in the administration of justice between people in multifarious worldly affairs; The
Messenger of Allah advised people to honor and respect other people's dignity and rights and refrain
from acts of injustice and excesses against other people. One of his greatest contributions is to add
grace, elegance and dignity to human character and conduct and thus raised human being higher in
esteem.
VI. Individual Responsibility as Vicegerent:
According to the Islamic teachings, each person in his individual capacity is the vicegerent of
Allah Each person in his individual capacity has certain rights and obligations. He must take rights in
the best possible way. For example he must take care of the rights of his neighbors. He should respect
his parents and elders, he must do his job honestly and earn fairly. Thus he must perform all his
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individual duties perfectly. The Prophet's said: The Prophet has urged that every man and women are
responsible and accountable for their duties and obligations and also of the people under them.
VII. Collective Responsibility:
When people are politically organized in a state the set embodying the collectivity of the people is
also a vicegerent of Allah As the vicegerent of Allah the state has certain authority and obligations. It
is the duty of the Islamic state to enforce Islamic laws in the state. It is also the duty of the state to
provide all kind of facilities to citizens and to take care of the basic necessities and establish social
justice.
Equality of Men and Women in Islam:
In the divine scheme of regulation of the relationship between men and women, Islam has
assigned a position of dignity and honor to woman. Such beneficent regulations are essential for
peace, comfort, happiness, continuation of the species and progress. The Holy Quran emphasizes that
God in His perfect wisdom has created all species in pairs, and so men and women have been created
of the same species; as is said: "He created you from a single being; then of the same kind made its
mate." (397)
"He has made for you mates of your own kind." (42:12)
"O mankind, be mindful of your duty to your Lord, Who created you from a single soul and from it
created its mate and from the two created and spread many men and women.”(4:2)
 Men and women are afforded equal protection.
For instance: "Those who malign believing men and believe concerning the situation that developed
at Hudaybiyyah, it is said:
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"Had it not been for believing men and believing women of whom you had no knowledge, who
were then in Mecca, whom you might have trampled down unknowingly and thus incurred blame on
their account, Allah might have let you fight your way into Mecca; but He held you back that He
might admit into His mercy whom He will. Had those believing men and believing women drawn
apart from the rest, We would surely have chastised the disbelievers with grievous
chastisement."(48G26)
 Women, being more vulnerable than men, are accorded special protection:
"Those who calumniate chaste, unwary, believing women are cursed in this World and the
hereafter; and for them is grievous chastisement, on the day when their tongues and their hands
and their feet shall bear witness against them as to that which they used to don.' (24:24-5)
 Men and women will be equally rewarded in the hereafter:
"Who so does well whether male or female, and is a believer, shall enter Paradise and they shall
not be wronged a whit." (4:125).
"Of the believers whoso acts righteously, whether male or female, We will surely grant such a
one a pure life; and We will certainly reward them according to the measure of the best of their
works.” (16:98)
"Who so does well, whether male or female, and is a bee ever, these will enter the Garden; they
will be provided therein without measure." (40:41)
Impacts of Socio-Religious Doctrine Universality of Mankind in Islam:
Islam makes it abundantly clear that all human beings are created from the same origin (Adam
and Hawa'). Allah drums it into the hearts and minds of the Muslims and the society in general that
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mutual love, understanding, tolerance, assistance and respect are germane to progress and stability of the
world. Moreover, all artificial barriers are denounced and discouraged by Islam. Hence, in the Islamic
perspectives, the males and females, young and old, males and females, rich and poor are to be given their
due rights in the scheme of things. Invariably, socialization of humankind is a socialization scheme that
has been strongly entrenched in Islam. Allah states that:
“O humankind! Give reverence your Guardian-Lord Who created you from a single person
created of like nature his mate and from them twain scattered (like seeds) countless men and women.
Give reverence to Allah through whom you demand your mutual (rights) and (reverence) the wombs that
bore you): for Allah ever watches over you. (Qur'an 4:1)
ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION AND CULTURE
1. Political organization/ administrative system.
2. Legal system
3. Establishment of peace and harmony
4. Protection from hunger, shelter etc.
5. Technological innovation
6. Education and scientific advancement
7. For survival of mankind
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8. People are not independent, so that everyone works, forming an economy, making the group
self-department.
9. People can work together to solve problems and create new things.
10. Urban centers/ cities
11. For the survival of humankind
12. For exploiting natural resources in a better way.
13. For gratification of aesthetic sense/ instinct
14. Language and writing
15. Public works
SALIENT FEATURES OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
Outline:
1. Tawhid:
The bedrock of Islamic Civilization It is based on the Islamic faith. It is monotheistic, based on
the belief in the oneness of the Almighty Allah, the Creator of this universe. It is characterized by
submission to the will God and service to humankind. It is a socio-moral and metaphysical view of
the world, which has indeed contributed immensely to the rise and richness of this civilization.
2. Universal dimension:
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It is a civilization with a universal dimension. It is not associated with a particular geographic
region, race or historical era. It is predicated on the idea that man has precedence over the rest of the
creatures of Allah. All human activities should lead to the happiness and welfare of man. Any action
intended to serve this goal is a God-blessed action indeed.
3. Open and Pluralist:
It is an open civilization and is not shy of deriving and drawing niceties of other civilizations in
the past, provided they do not run counter to the spirit of Islam. Islam is the most pluralist religion; it
coexists with other religions, allowing full religious autonomy.
4. Balanced civilization:
It is a well-balanced civilization. It insists on equilibrium between the material and the spiritual
dimensions of life. In fact, this moderation is the essence of Islamic thought and civilization. It
permits of no excess, no neglect, no extremism and no recklessness that moderation is based on a
"golden mean".
5. Eternal civilization:
It is a perennial civilization and will last as long as Islam exists. So long as, it embodies the very
principles of Islam, the Almighty Allah will preserve. This unique civilization will never wither
away: since, it is not a national or a racial civilization, nor does it run counter to human nature. In any
case, Islam should not be identified with Muslims. Muslims may become weak or strong but Islam
would remain an everlasting guidance to humankind.
THE MOTIVES AND FACTORS OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
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All intended activities and willful actions of men usually stem from their conception of reality
and basic ideology which may be called motives and factors. The motives and factors of Islamic
civilization are as under:
1. Belief System:
The most important feature of Islamic civilization is the belief in some basics realities. This
dogmatic belief frees man from fear, doubt, superstition, ideological vacuum and gives meaning and
purpose to life. This belief system inculcates in man a sense of responsibility and accountability
which compels him to do good and refrain from committing bad deeds. The belief system of Islam is
comprised of following five realities:
I. Tawhid
II. Belief in Hereafter
III. Belief in Angels
IV. Belied in Prophets
V. Belief in Revealed Books
2. Man and Universe:
The second important factor of Islam civilization is that: This universe has been made for humankind.
I. Allah has designated man in the best of all creatures"
II. Man has been made vicegerent of God on Earth.
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Allah has blessed man with knowledge and thinking faculty by which he can excels in creativity
and can cause scientific and literary advancement. In sum, whole universe is made for man and in
turn man has been made for the worship of God.
3. Freedom of Thought and Action:
According to Islamic teachings, Allah has granted man the freedom of thought and action. But he
is responsible to Him for all his actions in the hereafter.
4. Equality-Brotherhood of Mankind:
tribe, race or community, nationality, religion or sex, for, says the Qur'an :
"Verily We have honored all children of Adam (equally)" (17: 70)
ELEMENTS OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
Elements refer to those practices which have been mad obligatory on Muslims and they are required to
offer them without fail. These are;
1. Pillars of Islam:
For the purification of their soul and establishing of relation with Allah Almighty, Islam has made
obligatory upon all Muslims five pillars which are:
I. To testify Tawhid& Risalat
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II. Prayers
III. Zakat
IV. Fasting in Ramadan
V. Hajj
2. Political Organization of Society:
It is incumbent upon all Muslims to live a politically organized life. For the purpose, they may
elect /select a leader (Caliph or Imam) to end anarchy. The basis of Islamic political system is
consultative democracy and it rejects "Divine right to Rule "dictatorship, etc. A Muslim leader is
entrusted to implement Sharia, maintain law and order, carry out public welfare, and defend the
frontiers of Islamic state etc. Islamic political system is distinguished by rule of law, public welfare,
accountability, equal rights, social justice and protection of minorities.
3. Family System:
The establishment of family system through the agency of nikah is a prerequisite of Islamic
civilization. Islam has defined the regulation concerning nikah, divorce and for the gratification of
sensual needs which have been operational since advent of Islam. Islam does not allow unchecked
license and permissiveness.
4. The Concept of Lawful &Unlawful:
Islamic civilization refrains from particular things which have been declared unlawful. All other
things are lawful. Islam has declared for instance, usury, adultery pork etc. unlawful.
5. Development of Science:
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In Islamic civilization, the procurement of knowledge has been made obligatory every Muslim,
man, woman. The knowledge of all kind, scientific, technological, worldly and theological, has been
sanctioned by Islam. This is the reason that Muslims produced unmatched excellence during the
Abbasid reign, called "Golden age of Islam" wherein the Muslims attained highest literary scientific,
philosophic and legal accomplishments which subsequently led to European Renaissance.
6. Fulfillment of Aesthetic Sense:
Islamic civilization caters for aesthetic requirements. Muslim has been taught about lawful
&unlawful, about cleanliness and purification. Marriage is a lawful way to gratify sexual needs.
A hadith says: "Allah is sublime and lovers sublimenses".
DISTINCTIONS OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION:
1. Tawhid:
The starting point of Islam is the belief in the oneness of God (Tawhid). Tawhid is a
revolutionary concept and constitutes the essence of the teachings of Islam. It means that there is only one
supreme Lord of the universe. He is omnipotent, omnipresent and the sustainer of the world and of
mankind. Truly, God said:
“O, Mankind: worship your Lord, Who created you and those before you, so that you may ward
off evil; Who has made the earth a resting place for you, the sky a canopy and Who causes water to pour
down from the heavens, thereby producing fruits as food for you. So do not set up rivals to God, when
you know better.” (Qur'an 2:21-22)
Cling firmly together by means of God's rope, and do not be divided. Remember God's favor
towards you when you were enemies; He united your hearts so that you became brothers because of His
favor. (Qur'an 3:103)
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This concept also defines the true position of man in the universe. It says that God is the Creator
and the sovereign, while man is His vicegerent on the earth. This exalts man to the noble and dignified
position of being God's deputy on earth and endows his life with a lofty purpose: to fulfill the will of God
on earth. This will solve all the perplexing problems of human society and establish a new order wherein
equity and justice, as well as peace and prosperity, will reign supreme. 2. Self-Purification Significance of
Self-Purification In the Qur'an, God emphasizes the purification and purity of the human soul as follows:
“I swear by the sun and its brilliance and the moon when it follows the sun and the day when it
makes manifest the sun (and her beauty) and the night when it covers the sun and the heaven and Him
who made it and the earth and Him who extended it and the soul and Him who made it perfect, then He
inspired it to understand what is right and wrong for it. He will indeed be successful who purifies it and
he will indeed fail whoever pollutes and corrupts it.” (91:1-10)
So, after swearing eleven times, after so much emphasis, God declares that the person who
purifies his soul will be successful and whoever pollutes and corrupts his soul will fail. On the Day of
Judgment there will be two groups of people: those who are prosperous and happy because they purified
their soul and those who are in an unfortunate position because they were careless and negligent of their
soul.
Purification of the soul is a prerequisite for closeness to God. Indeed, the whole point of morality
and spirituality is to purify one's soul. It is only then that the soul starts shining, receiving and reflecting
utmost radiation and light from God. If we want to meet God, Who is the Most Pure, then we need to
achieve purity. It is impossible to be polluted and then try to go towards God.
If we want to go somewhere where the people are smart, well-dressed and beautiful, then we too
need to make ourselves clean and tidy, we should put on good clothes and thus make ourselves somehow
compatible with, them. Otherwise they will say that we will spoil their gathering and damage their
reputation
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2. Self-Purification was Aim of all Prophets:
One of the main tasks of all the Prophets and a major aim behind all their endeavors in teaching
the divine message was to help people to purify their souls. Referring to the mission of the Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH), the Qur'an says:
“He is the one who has sent amongst illiterate people an apostle from among themselves who recites to
them His verses and purifies them and teaches them the Book and the wisdom.” (62:2)
“Certainly God conferred a great favor upon the believers when He raised among them a Messenger from
among themselves, reciting to them His verses and purifying them, and teaching them the Book and the
wisdom, although before that they were surely in manifest error.” (3:164)
“As we sent to you an Apostle from among yourselves, who recites to you our signs, and purifies you,
and teaches you the Book and wisdom, and teaches you what you did not know.” (2:151)
Causes of Self-Impurity:
There are a number of sources of impurity. A major or the major source of impurity is the
attachment to the materialistic life and worldly affairs to the extent that the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)
is quoted as saying:
The attachment to this world is the source for every wrong. Beware how the one who is attached
to this world has loved what God dislikes. What wrong can be a greater crime than this?
The materialistic world (dunya) is the least important and valuable thing in the sight of God. To be
attached to it and make it one's ultimate end in one's life is a grave mistake and impurity Therefore, one of
the major treatments of this problem and a crucial means of purification of the soul is to ask people to
give alms. In some twenty verses of the Qur'an, giving alms (al-zakat) is mentioned right after
establishing prayer (iqamat a-salat). For example, Allah (swt) says in the Qur'an:
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“And they were not commanded except to worship God, dedicating their faith to Him as men of pure
faith, and to maintain the prayer, and pay the zakat. That is the upright religion. (98:5)
Sources/Methods of Self-Purification
Self-control is Source of Purification:
On the necessity of self-control, the Qur'an says:
“And as for him who fears to stand in the presence of his Lord and forbids his own soul from its whims
and caprices then surely Paradise is the abode.” (79:40 & 41)
“O David! ...do not follow the whims of your own soul will lead you astray from God's path.” (38:26)
Doing Justice is Source of Self-Purification:
“O you who have faith! Be maintainers of justice and witnesses for the sake of God, even if it
should be against yourselves or [your] parents and near relatives, and whether it be [someone] rich or
poor, for God has a greater right over them. So do not follow [your] desires, lest you should be unfair, and
if you distort [the testimony] or disregard [it], God is indeed well aware of what you do.” (4:135)
Of course, Islam tells us that self-control is just a beginning; it is for those people who are at the start of
the journey. What we need to do is to transform our soul from one which has an interest in lower desires
into a soul which instead has a yearning for good things. Then our soul itself becomes a helper and an
assistant to us. But this is a matter of training and purifying the soul.
Zakat is Source of Self-Purification:
Zakat is derived from the same root as tazkiyah (purification) i.e. za-ka-wa which means growth
and purity. It has been suggested that the reason for calling alms "zakat" lies in the fact that paying zakat
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purifies one's money and possessions. It is also true that paying alms causes growth (nama) and blessing
(barakah) in one's money and sustenance.
It seems more reasonable to suggest that the main reason for calling alms "zakat" is that it helps
in purifying the soul by getting rid of the love for this world. This is why God says to the Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH):
“Take charity from their possessions to cleanse them and purify them thereby, and bless them. Indeed
your blessing is a comfort to them, and God is all-hearing, all-knowing.” (9:103)
Piety and Salat are source of Self-Purification:
“You can only warn those who fear their Lord in secret, and maintain the prayer. Whoever seeks
purification for himself, seeks purification only for his own sake, and to God is the return.” (35:18)
It is a common idea amongst all religious and spiritual traditions that human beings should have some
kind of self-control. Although we enjoy free will, we need to exercise our free will in a responsible way.
In the same way that we expect others to respect our dignity and interests, we should respect dignity and
interests of others. We should also safeguard our own dignity and long term interests.
Thus, we cannot simply go after our whims and desires and do whatever we want. We need to have self-
control and self-discipline which leads to self-purification. If we purify our hearts we will no longer need
to resist our temptations and control ourselves against lower desires and lusts, since a purified person
desires nothing except what is good and moral for himself and others. In what follows, we will study the
necessity of self-control and self-purification.
Dignity of man:
The concepts of the dignity of man and human rights have always been considered the most
critical dimension of the organized society. Human dignity and status lays a firm basis for the building of
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society on an equal basis, wherein all could claim dignity and honor as. human beings, Human dignity is
the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. Dignity lies in the right conduct of a person and
to keep oneself within the characteristics of control. The morality of Islam is based on the concept of
human dignity to inculcate the quality of control towards evil inclinations. Dignity is a social factor. It
involves one's ability to participate in a social arrangement of some sort and to hold some kind of rank
therein Society confers dignity on the individual. Social dignity refers to one's reputation or good name.
One of the greatest contributions of Islam is the concept of the individual and his dignity, status
and potential. The entire philosophy of Islam is based on human creation. Before the advent of Islam,
honor, status and dignity were reserved for certain classes on the basis of birth, power or wealth.
i. Islam presented its concept of honor and dignity on the basis of man's creation
by Allah:
ii. The dignity of man is in conformity with the Quranic verse which states:
iii. No distinctions in dignity and fundamental rights between one man and another
as. race, sex, blood relations or wealth, in accordance with the saying of the
Prophet of Islam,
The Quran elevates humanity to a rank higher than the angels and honors it by the trust of being
appointed vicegerent (khalifah) of God on earth. The angels are told to prostrate before Adam, the
archetypal human being. This moral latitude of humanity is then complemented with a reference to the
physical nobility of its origin:
Equality:
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tribe, race or community, nationality, religion or sex, for, says the Qur'an : Verily We have honored all
children of Adam (equally) (17: 70) The principle of equality is one of the most important constitutional
principles upon which the contemporary system rests. This means that the principle of equality contained
in the individual communities are equal in rights, responsibilities and public duties that will be enjoyed by
all without discrimination of race, origin, or belief. The principle of equality has been initiated by the
Qur'an and Sunnah and the expansion of Islam as a precedent in Islamic law and its own time and place.
Social Justice:
As Islam is torch-bearer of human equality and brotherhood, therefore social justice has a special
place in the structure of Islam. Social justice refers to equity and fair play for every individual of Islamic
society with respect to equal economic, social, political and other rights and opportunities. It is based on
legal justice, social equality, economic equity, organized family life and better opportunities for literary
development. The establishment of social justice on the earth is one of the important functions of Islam.
Islam embodies the holistic view of life. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was ordained by God to erect
a just social system to be followed and passed on the succeeding generations of Islam. Muhammad
(PBUH) was the last of the line of Messengers:
We surely sent Our Messengers with clear Signs and revealed with them the Book and Balance
(of Right and Wrong) that man may stand forth in justice; and We sent down iron, in which is (material
for ) mighty was and many uses for men"
Moral Values:
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The rapid spread of Islam was due to various factors. The important factor was the Holy Qur'an;
it contains teachings which promise to save the mankind. It is also based on justice, equality, and moral
virtues. These very lofty principles attracted people who were suffering oppression by the emperors and
considered Islam to be the call of freedom. About the impact of the Glorious Qur'an on the individuals
and society, and the fact that Muslims could achieve outstanding progress under the Holy Qur'an, the
European historian, Will Durant, wrote as follows:
"Thanks to the Qur'an, the Muslims' conduct and culture developed. The Qur'an saved them from
illusions, superstitions, oppression, and violence. It granted the people of the lower classes honor and
esteem. Likewise, it made society replete with such justice and piety that no parallel can be found for it.
At the same time, the Qur'an urged them to make progress which led to making such a progress that was
unique in history.”
Tolerance:
Islam not only tolerates followers of other religions but also bestows upon them all the rights of
humanity, and solemnly undertakes to protect and guard their places of worship. Says the Qur'an:
"And if Allah did not repel some people by others, cloisters and churches and synagogues and mosques,
in which Allah's name is oft remembered, would have been pulled down; and surely Allah will help him
who helps Him (in this regard) (22 40)."
In Su rah al-Baqarah Allah says that:
"There is no coercion in Islam"(2 256)"
Islam preaches tolerance and coexistence by recognizing cultural and religious diversity. Within
Islam, coexistence can be understood through the guiding principle of cultural diversity, illustrated in the
oft-cited Quranic verse: "O mankind! We created you from a single [pair] of a male and female, and made
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you into nations and tribes, that you may come to know one another. Verily the most honored among you
in the sight of God is the most righteous of you. (4a:13).
"According to this verse, in Islam differences among peoples are not only accepted but deliberate. The
Quran also says:
"And had your Lord so willed, He could have surely made all human beings into one single community.
But (He willed it otherwise, and so) they continue to hold divergent views” (11:118)."
Rule of Law:
Islam established, for the first time on earth, the rule of one Law for all, irrespective of race,
colour, creed or nationality. All citizens of the state were subject to the same law and no one was regarded
as being above the Law. Citizens with wealth, status or privilege were treated the same as the humblest of
the citizens of the state in subordination to the law. All stand equal in the eyes of the law, with no
privileges or reservations for anyone. The Caliph and the beggar stand together for judgment before the
law:
"No believing man nor any believing woman should exercise any choice in their affairs once God
and His Messenger have decided upon some matter. Anyone who disobeys God and His Messenger has
clearly wandered into error" (33:36).
And in Surah AI-Nur we read: "The only statement believers should make when they are invited to God
and His Messenger, so that He may judge between them, is: 'We have heard, and we are at your orders.'
Those persons will be successful." (24: 51).
Enforcement of Law of God:
No one in the Islamic State has any power or authority to stop the enforcement or operation of
any Law expressly stated in the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet. In the enforcement of Law,
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the ruler and the ruled are alike, both being subject to it. Umar punished his son who committed adultery
with a hundred stripes and he died during the punishment and a few remaining stripes were lashed on to
his dead body. The law does not discriminate between the high and the low or between friend and foe but
treats them all alike.
"He is God Who has sent His Messenger with Guidance and the Right Way so that He may make it
prevail over other ways, even though the unbelievers may not like it" (9: 33).
This verse establishes the inviolability of the Law for all time and no one can oppose this
Supreme Authority of the Divine Law in an Islamic society. Caliph Umar and Caliph Ali appeared in the
courts of Qadi as ordinary citizens and did not like special treatment. The letter written by Caliph Umar to
Abu Musa Ashari contains the cardinal principles or rule of law. Nepotism, bribery, partiality etc. have
been condemned in this letter.
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ISLAM AND THE WORLD
Introduction:
Despite backward situation of Arab Peninsula in the pre-Islamic era, Muslim researchers and
intellectuals endeavored to enter the realm of science by displaying their talents and introducing their
innovations. The Muslims due to their thirst for learning and knowledge turned their focus on science,
literature, and the arts. Muslims significantly contributed to human knowledge in various fields through
their innovations. This contribution was so great that Islamic civilization has been the pioneer of the
scientific, intellectual and cultural genius for a long period of time, with the West benefiting from its great
achievement
Islam Gives birth to a Global and Enlightened Civilization:
Global civilization Created by Islam succeeded in activating the mind and thought of the people
who entered its fold. As a result, the nomadic, pagan Arabs became torchbearers of science and learning.
The Persian civilization gained a new momentum after embracing Islam, contributing further to the
advancement of science and arts. The same can be said of Turks and other nations. In brief, Islam was
largely responsible not only for the creation of a world civilization in which people of many different
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ethnic backgrounds participated and played a central role in developing intellectual and cultural lives of
theirs on a scale not witness before.
Islam, Epistemology and Knowledge:
Scientific and Religious Learning: The search for rational foundations in Islam may be regarded
to have begun with the Prophet (P.B.U.H.) himself. His constant prayer was: "God! Grant me knowledge
of ultimate nature of things."
Islam lays equal stress on acquisitional and revelational knowledge. Acquisitional or scientific
knowledge is required for the best of the world. Whilst, revelational knowledge, that is the knowledge of
the ends and ideals of life, required for the best of the world Muslims are advised not to sacrifice one for
the other. So long as Muslims were able to maintain this balance. The moment we lost this balance, we
lost our leadership role in this world. Islam is a religion based upon knowledge for it is ultimately
knowledge of the Oneness of God, combined with faith and total commitment to Him. The Quran is
calling on man to use its intellect, to ponder, to think, to know and to investigate to discover the truth,
Truth according to Quran is none other than worshipping God. The Sunnah too is full of references to the
importance of and insistence on knowledge. Accordingly:
"Seek knowledge even if you have to go to China:" "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave," and;
"Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets."
He had urged on Muslims to seek knowledge. That is why every traditional Muslim city
possessed public and private libraries and some cities like Cordoba and Baghdad boasted of library s with
over 400,000 books. Scholars were held in the highest esteem in Islamic society
Integration, Conservation of the Pre-Islamic Sciences:
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As Islam spread northward into Syria, Egypt and the Persian Empire, it came face to face with the
sciences of antiquity whose philosophies and sciences were assimilated in worldview of Islam, cultivating
the Islamic sciences.
Muslims' Contributions:
The Immensity of the Muslims' contributions can best be realized by recapitulating the most
significant of theirs activities, considering its positive impact on Europe's struggle to break the cult of
barbarism the Dark Ages.
Medical Science:
Since, the science of medicine is important to human welfare its advancement has been
continuous from ancient times to the present day. The contribution of Muslims to this area is immense
indeed. Drawing on the medical lore of the Greeks, Persians and Egyptians, the Muslim world eagerly
adapted all the available knowledge in this field. Recognizing importance of the medical science, the
Arabs raised physicians to a high social tank, rewarding them with genci ous emoluments.
• The science of medicine is allied, in the Muslim as in the Hellenistic world, to the study of
philosophy, flourished in every caliphate and court of Islamic Empire.
• The Arab scientists made significant advances in the art of healing, especially in the use of
curative drugs. The world's pharmacopoeia is rich with these discoveries.
Astronomy, Geography and Navigation:
The Arabs absorbed all the astronomical, geographical and navigational science and skill of the
ancient world and set about formulating it into a practicable body of knowledge. • Accepting the
contention of Eratosthenes and other Greek geographers that the earth is round, the Arabs established
correctly its circumference and measured quite accurately length of terrestrial degrees. • They devised the
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world's tables of latitude and longitude and worked out means of determining positions. • Navigation in
the Mediterranean required only starlore. Something more was needed for navigation in the Atlantic
Ocean. Muslims borrowed this something more, 'the compass', from Chinese and 'the astrolabe' from
Greeks. (Astrolabe is an instrument used for mapping position of stars for navigational purposes).
"Major Works in Astronomy:
Muhammad Ibn Ibrahim ibn Fazari, Yaqubibn Tariq, Abu Mash'ar Balkhi(al-Madkha/- ul-Kabir),
Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Batani(al-ZO), Abu Reihan Biruni (Mas'udi Canon, a-Tafhim Ii Awa'llSana at-I-
Tanjim), Khajeh Nasir Tusi, etc.
Mathematics:
Arithmetic and the Decimal System:
The introduction of Arabic-Hindu symbols for numerals and of positional notation (the decimal
system), enabling today's elementary school children to perform operations beyond the capacities of
learned mathematicians of Greek, Roman and medieval times. To the Arabs belongs the credit for
preserving the useful 'zero' from the heart of India, putting it to work In elaboration of the decimal
system, without which the achievements of modern science would have been impossible. It was the Hindu
philosophic genius that first conceived the idea that 'nothing', represented by 'zero , could have any
mathematical value. Further, the value of less than nothing could be indicated algebraically as negative
quantities. Working on Hindu foundations, the Arabs elaborated which has become the present-day
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decimal system. They also introduced the Arab numerals, that is, an adaptation of the ten Hindu digits,
which gradually displaced the clumsy Greek symbols and the impossible Roman numerals.
Algebra:
The Science of algebra owes much to the gifted mathematicians of the Islamic era of political
ascendancy. Its very name proves the magnitude of this debt. For the name Algebra is derived from an
Arabic 'al-geb? (a binding together) Though of Greek origin, algebra was greatly expanded by Muslim
mathematicians From about 800 to 1200 A.D., the Arabs evolved a more critical study of equations
giving them for the first time some element of scientific treatment. Algebra was then further handed on to
Europe via Spain and Sicily.
Philosophy:
Philip K Hitti describes Muslim contributions in Philosophy as: • 'The crowning achievement of
the intellectual class of Arabs in Spain was in the realm of philosophic thought. Here they 'formed the last
and strongest link in the chain which transmitted Greek philosophy as transmuted by them and their
Eastern co-religionists, to the Latin West, adding their own contribution, especially in reconciling faith
and reason, religion and science.'
• "To the Moslem thinkers Aristotle was truth, Plato was truth, the Koran was truth; but truth
must be one. Hence arose the necessity of harmonizing the three, and to this task they addressed
themselves. The Christian scholastics were faced by the same problem, but their task was rendered more
difficult by the accumulation of dogmas and mysteries in their theology. Philosophy as developed by the
Greeks and monotheistic religion as evolved by the Hebrew prophets were, as noted above, the richest
legacies of the ancient West and of the ancient East. It is to the eternal glory of medieval Moslem thinkers
of Baghdad and Andalusia that they reconciled these two currents of thought and passed them on
harmonized into Europe." Art and Architecture:
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• The universal vision of Muslims was reflected in an art which was similarly the product of the
Muslim mind for wholeness and synthesis; they knew how to assimilate the technical advances of the
now politically dominated Civilization such as the Roman-Byzantine and the Persian, and at the same
time how to imprint the stamp their own genius, which in many cases surpassed that of their teachers. All
benefited Europe.
• One example of this inspired capacity for synthesis is the famous Great Mosque of Cordovan
which Roman columns and arch systems are used together with Visigolac and Corinthian capitols and
Byzantine mosaics.
Muslim artists also knew how to impart perfect organization to all these elements supplying the
magnificent solution to the fragmentation of space based on a system of double arches over a forest of
columns, together with the lovely couple with their cosmic significance all contrived in such a way that
little work of art cab be likened to this building.
The Seminaries: The Culture of Universities:
• The Muslims, as we have seen, began to found universities in the 9thcentury: first in Baghdad,
followed in Cairo, Fez, Cordova and other cities.
• The el-Azhar University in Cairo boasts of being the oldest existing university in the world.
Founded in the 969 A.D., it remained the world's leading Islamic theological center. Of late, it is updated
with social and natural sciences. • The Universities of Cordova and Toledo were well known to
Europeans and their hospitals were frequented by Christian princes in need of medical care, the Christian
Europe could not furnish.
Paper:
The introduction of paper into the Muslim and European world was made possible when Arab
conquerors overran Asia and Africa in the eighth century. In 751 A.D., Chinese attacked the Arabs in
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Samarkand. The attack was repulsed and the governor came across 'paper'. The governor, eagerly
questioning captives taken in the battle, learned that among them were men skilled in papermaking. These
artisans were sent to Persia and to Egypt to give instruction in the art of manufacturing paper from flax,
rags and vegetable fibers.
 The unusual interest of the Arab world in papermaking was perhaps due to the fact that
they were already acquainted with Egyptian 'papyrus' that displaced the use of costly
parchments for manuscripts and books. The methods used in manufacturing paper and
papyrus were somewhat similar, except the superiority of paper for printing. Thereafter,
paper found its way westward from China where it had been invented before the time of
the Christ.
 Papermaking was introduced into Spain in the 12thcentury. From Toledo, hub of paper
manufacturing, it spread under the tutelage of the Moors to the Christian kingdoms of
Spain. Similarly, the Muslims in Sicily taught the art of paper-making to the Italians. The
earliest recorded European document on paper was order of King Roger of Sicily, 1102
A.D. Paper mills were first set up at Fabriano, Italy, in 1276 A.D.
 Bestowed with paper, Europe thus was prepared for the producing voluminous books and
literature in large quantities with the invention of printing press around 1440 A.D.
Gunpowder:
 The Arabs also learned from the Chinese the manufacturing of gunpowder. However,
they put it to a use the Chinese had never conceived of. They utilized the explosive power
of gunpowder for projecting a missile from an enclosed chamber. (260-26)
Similarly, in terms of civilization, Muslims inherited the ancient civilizations and their heritage
has dated back to the time of the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Iranians, and
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the Egyptians. Being fascinated with sciences, they acquired assimilated, and modified the rational and
artistic heritage in cooperation with the scholastic' figures of the very conquered lands. They also
developed their specific culture and civilization. Haskins wrote:
"The first and most forceful scientific and philosophical activities of the middle age from medicine and
mathematics to astronomy and alchemy were found in the territory of the Prophet."
As a result of creating the really stunning sand brilliant culture and civilization, the Muslim world
could penetrate into the Christian world and influence it. As for the various manifestations of the
penetration of the Islamic culture into Europe, Will Durant wrote:
"The Islamic civilization penetrated into Europe through trade, Crusades, translation of hundreds of
Arabic books into Latin and the journey of such scholars as Gerbert, Michael Scott, Adelard of Bath, etc.
to the Islamic Andalucia as well as by young Christians who were sent by their fathers to the Muslim
countries in order to acquire knowledge and etiquette and become civilized."
During many years of contact between Muslims and Christians, the impact of the Christian world
was almost limited to some religious rites and war customs. As for religious rites, it is most likely that
Sufism entered Islam through Christian instances of monasticism and acts of worship by Saints. The
biography of Prophet Jesus Christ and his personality remained in the Muslims' minds; Islamic poetry and
arts received attention as well. In return, the Muslim world also had various influences on the Christian
world. Europe learned the following from Islamic lands: various dishes, syrups, medications, weapons,
coats of arms, artistic flair, industrial and commercial tools and customs of seafaring. Likewise, they
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borrowed many of their terms from Muslims. Having acquired, developed, and boosted various sciences,
Muslims transmitted them to Europe and prepared the ground for scientific development in the West
Three Different Contacts between Islam and West:
The cultural and scientific influence of Islam on Europe began after the contacts between the worlds of
Islam and Christianity and it increased gradually. These contacts were mostly of three types:
a. The contacts established during the Crusades between Muslims and Westerners;
b. Those which were established in Sicily;
c. The contacts in Iberia (Andalucia and the present-day Spain) between Muslims and
westerners. The very recent contacts which Muslims established after the conquest of Spain
and Sicily were most productive.
Crusades and Europe's interaction with Muslims and their Impacts on both sides:
In order to maintain their unstable dominance over the Syrian and Palestinian coasts' crusaders
proceeded towards the East in order to conquer Jerusalem. Greatly surprised, they faced a civilization s
superior to theirs in these lands. Despite the roughly permanent wars either with non-Christians or
between Christian princes , which led to horrendous massacres by Christians, some enterprising crusaders
tried to acquire parts of this civilization. Some other real scientists who stayed in the lands conquered by
Christians got the chance to know a part of Arabic (Islamic) literature. They Included a renowned figure,
Adelard of Bath, who after a journey to the East and his stay there in 510-37A.H - 1116-42 A.D) was so
deeply influenced by Islamic sciences that this influence can be seen in both his own works and his
translations of Islamic writings into Latin.
Role of Sicily in transmitting Muslim sciences to Europe:
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Although the role assumed by Sicily and southern Italy in transmitting the Islamic sciences to the
West was geographically limited, it was deeply influential. African Muslims disembarked in Sicily in 827
A.D / 213 A.H. In 831 A.D / 216 A.H and they conquered Palermo and then Messina in 842 A.D 1228
A.H. Finally, they conquered the entire island in 878 AD. 1265 A.H. Muslims inhabited this island
without facing any serious foreign invasion —until- 1060 A. D / 452 A. H • Thanks to the Muslims'
control and creation of favorable conditions aimed at the spread of civilization, a unique culture was
created in Sicily which existed for many years; three world scientific languages existing then were
simultaneously used there. These three languages were Latin, Greek, and Arabic. At this point, the highly
active trend of translation of various works started due to which many works of Muslim scientists on
different fields were translated from Arabic to Latin by Sicilian translators.
Role of Muslim Spain in transmitting Muslim sciences to Europe:
Transmission of Islamic sciences to the Christian world was deeper and more intense in Iberia,
and longer compared to other places. It was in Iberia that the definite transformation to which the revival
of the European sciences had to be linked was realized. The Muslim rulers' spirit of forgiveness and
lenience when treating believers in other religions, particularly the Christian and Jewish scientists, caused
diverse students to flock to this land. New sciences thrived during this time as a result of the penetration
of Islamic sciences into the Christian world through the numerous works of translators. Muslim scientists
and European historians agree that the flourishing of the Islamic civilization in Spain awakened the
western nations and Christian Europe. It was also the origin of the present scientific and industrial
development.
As for Islamic civilization in Andalucia (Spain), Gustav Le Bon said:
"In the era of Visigoth, Andalucia enjoyed limited development and their culture was similar to
that of the barbarians Particularly in the last phase of their conquest, Muslims began to progress, within
one hundred years, they completely cultivated and developed the waste lands, built magnificent structures
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and mansions, and established commercial relations with other nations, then they endeavored to
disseminate sciences and crafts and translated Greek and Latin books. They had set up some schools and
colleges which the Europeans made use of and benefited from for a long time."
CLASH OF CIVILIZATION: MYTH AND REALITY
Introduction:
The theory of Clash of Civilizations is the brainchild of Samuel P. Huntington (1927-2008), the
renowned western political scientist. The theory argues that people's cultural and religious identities will
be the primary source of conflict in the post-Cold War world. It continues with a clarion-call that the age
of ideological conflict is over and has been replaced by civilization-based conflict. He says, "All the
civilizations are human tribes and the future conflicts will be tribal conflicts." He identifies seven distinct
current civilizations: Western, Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox and Latin
American. In Huntington’s view inter-civilizations conflicts manifest themselves into two forms: Fault
Line Conflicts and Core States Conflicts. He provides a variety of reasons substantiating as to why future
conflicts will occur among civilizations. The conflict may arise due to: cultural differences; globalization;
economic modernity; hegemonic and imposing role of the West and rejection of western values as the
universal ones. These factors will ignite the inferno of conflicts among civilizations. The conflict will be
in West-versus-non-West framework as the Kin Country syndrome assumption will work. The countries
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having same civilization will co-operate one another. He even predicts that, "a central focus of conflict for
the immediate future will be between the West and several Islamic Confucian states." Many pundits and
demagogues accepted the theory as a reality including western radicals such as Bernard Lewis, Patrick
and Muslim radicals such as Maulana Maududi, Sayyid Qutb of Egypt, Khurshid Ahmad and Osama bin
Laden. This clique considers that Clash of Civilizations is inevitable On the other hand the theory
received a barrage of bitter criticism. Paul Bermanan, Fouad Nan, Bartley and Stephen Walt fall in this
category. This group of giant intellectuals calls it a myth; a preposterous interpretation of human nature
and a self-fulfilling prophecy. According to them it fuels Islamophobia in the West and xenophobia in the
Islamic World. The Communists call it the bases for the perpetuation of the imperialistic hegemony of the
West across the globe. The refuters of the theory call it a myth that is bent on to mould the world to
conform a theory. Some oppositional concepts such as the "Dialogue among Civilizations", the "Interfaith
Dialogue" and the "Alliance of Civilization" have also been put forward in response to the Clash of
Civilizations theory. Now, we delve deep into the nature of the theory, analyze its central concepts and
observe the views of its supporters and opponents in depth to reach a conclusion.
Origin of Term Calash and Civilization:
The academic who shaped the term the "Clash of Civilizations", was Bernard Lewis, a prominent
scholar on the Middle East and Islam. Lewis wrote the 1993 article "The Roots of Muslim Rage" in which
he actually coined the term. Lewis believed that the Muslim world has tried the western political and
economic systems. But the result was tyranny and poverty. The Muslims held the US and Europe
responsible for the "twin" evils and the both would be the legitimate targets of Islamic extremist
movements and that the conflict will culminate into Clash of Islamic and Western Civilizations. Samuel
P. Huntington accepted the idea as taken for granted and even he went a step ahead He wrote an article
"the Clash of Civilizations?' in the journal Foreign Affairs in 1993 in response to Francis Fukuyama' 1992
book "The End of History and The Last Man." The article unleashed a debate on the topic that continued
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in an unabated manner some refuted the idea; some gave the nod of approval. In 1996 he developed the
thesis into a book.
Huntington Thesis Elaborated:
Huntington's work has become more and more accepted in the wake of terrorist attack of 9/11 on
the US, 7/7 attacks on London and internationalization of terrorism and insurgency of Islamic extremism
some thought that these attacks had validated the theory. Enuer4took to describing the ongoing battle
between religious extremist and the US and the, - e as a Clash of Civilizations. But after tracing out the
alpha and omega of the clash theory it would seem a grotesque and distorted picture of facts and realities.
War central concepts of Huntington's Clash of Civilizations thesis is that post-Cold velsocir world has
entered a new era of conflict and this new era will be different from the past "" hundreds years of conflict.
The conflict will be between civilizations and world is divided into specific group of civilizations that will
replace the identification with the nation state. The bipolar world of the Cold War has been replace by
new international sera that can best be understood as a division of the world into seven or eight groups of
civilizations and in Which conflict will be defined by a conflict of values among them. Before analyzing
this scheme of ideas, we must define the very concept of civilization. To Huntington, civilization is, "the
highest cultural grouping or people in broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which
distinguished human from other species." Each civilization is defined by certain distinct characteristics
including religion language, customs and institutions. He identifies seven distinct current civilizations
Western' Confucian, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox and Latin Americans. He argues the
future conflict will be among these civilizations. Huntington substantiates the theory with variety reasons
as to why future conflicts will occur between the civilizations. He says, "The differences among
civilizations are not only real, but they are basic.' The causes of conflicts are summarized as below.
Causes of Clash of Civilization as Espoused by Huntington:
I. Cultural Differences:
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"The cultural differences" is the paramount factor in the inevitability of clash, because
these are "less easily compromised and resolved." For instance one cannot be half-Catholic and
half-Muslim at the same time.
II. Globalization:
A second factor is the rapidly developing process of globalization. While argue that the
globalization will bring people closer and brake down the barrier — through communication and
transportation - Huntington unconvincingly argues the opposite that interactions will "intensify
civilizations consciousness and awareness of differences between civilizations and commonalities
within civilization."
III. Economic Modernity:
A third factor is the economic modernity. People want to be grounded. They want
stability and continuity. But the economic modernity cannot fulfill its promise to everyone, so the
resulting gap would be filled by religion that will sow the seeds of fundamentalism which may
lead to the Clash of Civilizations.
IV. Rejection of Western Values:
A fourth factor is the rejection of western values as the universal ones. He argues that the
culture of western and non-western civilization will continue to clash especially in the areas of
"individualism, liberalism, constitutionalism, human rights, equality, liberty, the rule of law,
democracy, free markets and the separation of church and state." He also argues that Muslims
have offensive attitude towards western secularism and modernism.
V. Increased Contacts Among Civilization: Intensify the Difference:
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Finally he argues that increase contacts between two civilizations helps develop a. new
sense of identity within each and highlights difference between them. "The Clash of
Civilizations" concludes by observing that "so long as Islam remains Islam OAF will) and the
West remains the West (which is more dubious) this fundamental conflict between two great
civilizations and ways of life will continue to define their relations in the future as it has defined
them for the past fourteen centuries." He argues that many of the future conflict in west-versus-
non-west framework as the Kin Country_ Syndrome assumptions will work. That is to say the
countries of same civilizations will support to one another in a conflict. He even further predicts
that "a central focus Confucian states." of conflicts for the immediate future will be between the
West and several Islamic He prescribed certain policy measures for the West so as to hold control
over Islamic and Confucian worlds: simply by depriving them of technology and modernity;
limiting their military expansions; and preventing any localized conflict from escalating into a
global war, that might lead to the Clash of Civilizations. Now, we analyzed the theory on the
grounds of its acceptance or rejection vis-a-vis its central theme.
Supporters of the Theory:
As for as its acceptance is concerned, the radicals both westerns and Islamists ratify it and think that
the Clash of Civilizations is inevitable. They take it as a reality. And they are inclined to fuel the already
existing conflagration between Islam and the West, transforming it la hell inferno.
i. Western Radicals:
Barnard Lewis who actually coined the term is the staunch supporter of the clash theory. He
argues in his essay "The Roots of Muslim Rage" that tyranny and poverty coupled with Islamic
fundamentalism will lead the Islamists to clash with the West And the clash will be a fait accompli.
Patrice Buchanan, a well-known American conservative believes that the Clash of Civilizations is
coming and it is imperative for the West to win the battle.
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ii. Muslim Radicals:
In Islamic world, Maulana Maududi (1903-1979), Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966), and Osama Bin
Laden are of the view that Islam and the West are in a state of perpetual conflict and everything in the
way of Islamic rule should be eliminated through violent jihad. Professor Khurshid Ahmad is of the
view that the backlash against the imposition of western values in the Islamic world will lead to the
Clash of Civilizations.
Opponents of the Theory: There are conspicuous flaws in the theory; many academics rejected it on
the bases of these flaws. The intellectuals jettisoned the thesis in to or in pad, denouncing it as a self-
fulfilling prophecy, a preposterous streak of thought and a nebulous hypothesis.
i. Fouad Ajam:.
The main flaw that is clear from the very outset of the theory is the notion of shifting of identities
from national to civilization level. Nations always pursue their national interest. Professor Fouad
Ajami refuted the theory on this ground.
ii. Robert Bartley:
Huntington argues that globalization will derive people a part. But indeed the case is vice versa.
This is a preposterous assumption. According to the late "wall street journal" editor Robert Bartley,
the globalization will bring people closer and it will promote pluralism and understanding rather
xenophobia and paranoia.
iii. Paul Berman:
Islamic world has intimate relations with the West. Paul Bermanan in his opus "Terror and
Liberalism" argues that the distinct cultural boundaries do not exist today. He argues that, "we are
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disillusioned with the clash theory when we see relations between Saudi Arabia and the US." The
clash theory is based not on harmony but on the clash between the civilizations.
iv. Edward Said:
Edward Said holds the same view. He writes in his essay entitled.”The Clash of Ignorance" that
the interactions and interdependence between the civilizations will bring them closer rather apart, as
oppose to Huntington’s view. As for as the rejection of western values is concerned, democracy,
tolerance, human rights, liberty the rule of law, respect for others and moderation ar not only the
universal values but also the basic building blocks of Islamic faith are once Tony Blair said, 'tolerance
is the defining characteristic of Islam." These values are the source of reconciliation among
civilizations as oppose to the Clash of Civilizations.
v. Alan Woods:
The communist especially Alan Woods, in his condemnation of the clash theory call it the bases for
the continuation of the imperialistic designs of the West across the globe.
Alternatives to avert the Clash of Civilization:
The theory also received a number of alternative concepts such as the Dialogue among
Civilizations by President Khatami of Iran, the Interfaith "Dialogue by King Abdullah of Saudi
Arabia and the "Alliance of Civilizations by the President of Spanish Government Zapareeto along
with the Turkish Prime minister Erdogan. The latter initiative intended to galvanize collective action
across diverse societies to combat extremism, to overcome cultural and social barriers, mainly,
between Islam and the West.
Conclusion:
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After scrutinizing the ins and outs of the clash theory in length, analyzing its central concept and
the views of its supporters and opponents we can conclude that this theory has actually helped
provoke the confrontation it predicts. It is a self-fulfilling prophecy of fear that disregards history and
human nature, molding the world, to conform a theory. The assertions about Islam are widely
misinformed. The notion that culture of Islam is antithetical to democratic values not only is
unsubstantiated by Quranic reference and Islamic clerical interpretation, but also plays into Islamic
extremist views that the West is disrespectful and antagonistic to Islam's belief and history. The
assertion those social, political and economic interactions between Islam and the West precipitate
conflict as oppose to promoting understanding is a preposterous and antithetical to what we know
about human nature and international relations. Such a thesis could pre dispose the West to accepting
the inevitability of armed conflict with Islamic societies. It shamelessly prescribes methods of the
West, hold Islamic nations in check by denying them the tools of modernity and technology. Since,
Clash of Civilization theory is not just intellectually provocative: it fuels xenophobia and paranoia
both in the West and the Islamic world. Its methodology is flawed and its conclusions are historically
unsupported. Its morbid conclusions are certainly not inevitable f Stephen Walt concludes his
refutation of the clash theory with a warning. The Clash °re Civilizations, if accepted, can lead to
future conflicts because "if we treat all states that ail part of some other "civilization" as intrinsically
hostile, we are likely to create enemies that might otherwise be neutral or friendly." Thus Walt warns
us that in this sense "The Clash °f it Civilizations offers a dangerous self-fulfilling prophecy: the
more we believe it and man bases for action, the more likely it is to come true. Thus there will be
clash of civilizations on'' if we allow it by believing that it is inevitable and unavoidable. In myth, we
cannot believe.
MUSLIM WORLD AND THE CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES
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Introduction:
Muslim Ummah is currently facing a number of challenges which can be categorized Into
external and internal ones the external ones include challenges caused by Western Colonialism
globalization, and ongoing international geopolitics of the Western power of which the Muslim states
have become hostage. The internal challenges are more lethal and more devastating which are caused by
own faults of the Muslims. The internal challenges are: political disunity among the Muslims rise of rabid
extremism, lacking in scientific and technological advancement, lack of Ijtihad to cater the needs of the
changing times, moral decline and identity crises etc. To address these mammoth challenges effectively,
Muslims In capacity of individuals, state and civilization need to take the task and arrest the stagnant and
humiliating plight of the Muslims as a whole.
Internal Challenges:
I. Political Disunity of the Muslim world
The first and foremost internal challenge that Muslim world is plagued with is disunity. The
mission of the prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was to bring peace and unity to the feuding tribes of the
pre-Islamic days. However, after his demise the. Arabs returned to their warning tilting wars. Blindly
tribal loyalties returned. Disputes over which tribe had the right to succeed the' path of the prophet
eventually led to the leadership of the Muslims ummah after the most serious and dangerous schism
among Muslims the most lethal is sectarian divide among the Sunnis and Shias. Certainly, the quarrel
between Muslim sects and nations are obviously contrary to the teachings of Islam. Islam and the
Muslim world today are divided and in disarray. They are unable to cope with the changes that are
happening in this world and are reversing further and further backwards. Disappointingly, personal
quarrels and ambitions for power struggle prevalent in Muslim world, which eventually disrupt
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government administration, leaving it incapable of addressing the needs of the people. As a result,
Muslim nations remain largely underdeveloped, poor, unskilled, uneducated and incapable of
contributing positively towards the well-being of the Muslims, their faiths and nations.
II. Rich in Resources but Poor in Management:
Though many Muslims countries are blessed with rich resources, yet they are unable to put such
resources to the optimal use, to serve and defend Islam and Muslims against those who conspicuously
conspire against the Muslims.
III. Fundamentalism and rise of Extremism:
Another internal challenge faced by Muslim in this contemporary world is fundamentalism.
Realizing or not, fundamentalism is one of the most abused word. Most of the time, it is associated
with extremism. Yet, if the teachings of Islam are revised, it would be obvious that in the past best
Muslims were fundamentalists. On the contrary nowadays, the people who are usually described as
fundamentalists are far away from following of the Islamic teachings. Most of them have seemingly
reverted to the pre-Islamic Jahiliyyah ways of extreme loyalty to their groups, to fanaticism or
ta'asub. If Islam appears rigid and doctrinaire, it is because the learned interpreters make it so. They
tended to be harsh and intolerant when interpreting during the golden day of the Muslim empires.
And so, long after the Muslims have lost their predominant era, and the world has changed, the
Muslim were exhorted to adhere to interpretation which are no longer adequate or relevant.
IV. Middle Eastern crises:
After the sudden outburst of the Arab spring and its subsequent failure to establish stable and
democratic government in various, the Middle East has now teetering on the verge _ of collapse: Arab
Spring has turned into Arab autumn, the tide of democracy has br, reversed, Libya is this Integrated,
Syria is bleeding, Iraq is under the barbarous hegerr In af of the ISIS, Egypt's secularists are pitted
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against the Islamists, Saudi Arabia Attack fellow brethren in Yemen, Israel committing genocide of
the Palestinians and so the story co gory bloodshed in the region goes on. Furthermore, the rise of
ISIS has not only endanger10 the lives of people of the region but also tarnished the Image of the
Islam and the Muslims worldwide. Thus Muslim Ummah has now become a farce in the world direly
in need of a savior.
V. Prevalence of Unbridled Materialism and Moral Decline:
Islam stresses a balance between materialism and spiritualism, between life in this world and
hereafter. The loss of the spiritual values in the Modern Muslim societies has resulted in unbridled
materialism. Money is considered as the most important thing in life. As a result, money is literally
worshipped as an enri in itself, not as a mean to an end. Nothing must get in the way in the acquisition
of more money. And in the process of doing so, economies has to be devastated, people killed,
children starved. All these are perfectly all rights as long as the objective is to make more money.
This is the condition of Muslim world right form Karachi to Cairo, from Damascus to Djibouti, and
form Bagdad to Riadh. Once Jamal-ud-Din al-Afghani (1839-97) the founder of Pan-Islamism, once
said of moral degeneration among Muslims:
"The Muslims have lost their courage, their ambitions asleep, their heart dying, but the only thing that
is prevalent among them is the lust and indulgence.”
VI. Lagging Behind in Scientific Advancement:
Lack of a culture of research and enquiry and indifference to modern education are the key
challenges facing Muslim world today despite the fact that faith ordained in the Quran was meant to
establish a culture of learning and education. It is fact that the Muslim world had largely disengaged
from study of science and the process of creating new knowledge. Neither were there any efforts to
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revive the science of developing independent opinions (Pad) to develop a renewed understanding of
how to apply Islamic precepts in ever changing affairs of world.
VII. Lack of Education, Science and Technology:
It is unfortunate that Muslim world is badly lacking in scientific and technological advancement.
For technological, military and IT requirements the Muslim world is dependent on the US, China,
Germany, Japan etc. Only Turkey is showing some sort of progress in this regards
External Challenges:
I. Globalization:
The Modern Form of Colonization Globalization as defined by the West is "the generalized
expansion of international Economist activity which includes increased international trade, growth of
international tech (foreign investment) and international migration, and increased creation of goods
among countries, Globalization is increasing world-wide integration of markets for 12vsi services,
labor, and capital." Some Muslim 'scholars' are exalted and believed that globalization will benefit
and give positive impacts on Muslims, while others take a more Skeptical and critical view of this
process.
Realizing or not, globalization in its current manifestation is benefiting the West as The h idea of
a borderless would simply means the unbridled flow of capital across borders. Kati huge amount of
wealth some of us have accumulated through the extraction of our national resources has not been
invested in our own countries. We have instead taking advantages of the free flow of capital to invest
in the developed countries. Effectively we have them.
IT, Media Warfare and Cultural Onslaught of the West:
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Nowadays, it is obvious that information, rather the mastery over it, will determine the course of
future struggles between nations. Recent breakthrough in the field of communication and computer
technologies has made it the most valuable currency of the age. If natural resources were what
represented wealth and p near future, the most basic now claims an equal place, and is poised to
become, in the source of strength.
Muslim countries have struggled so hard to catch up with advanced nations. This new technology
may affect this struggle in two opposite ways. Firstly, it is possible that it may take the battle still
harder. The technology might make the gap between Muslims and industrial world more difficult to
bridge, increase the westernization of our culture, and further tighten the grip of those already in
control of the world. However, if we take it positively, the same technology may provide wider
opportunities to Muslims nations to free themselves from cultural and economic influence of the
West, loosen their control over the means of knowledge, and reduce its influence over oppressed
nations. Of course, these opportunities will come for us only if we know how to exploit this
technology to gain our objectives. It would need vision, strategy, cooperation and solidarity. That is
the only way the challenges of the next century can be met.
Pragmatic Measures:
I. Unified Response of Ummah:
The divide between the Muslim and non-Muslim world was increasing due to these concept of
clash of civilization The Muslim world need to address the current challenge faced by the Muslims,
particularly the sectarian divide among Muslims, which is a major hurdle in evolving a united
response to these challenges and to come up with some solution to the issues such as extremism,
sectarianism and terrorism.
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There is need to respond intellectually to emerging challenges instead of through use of force.
In this regard collaboration among all segments of Muslim societies was imperative to generate
effective responses to the challenges facing Muslim world.
II. Rectifying Themselves:
It is crucial for Muslims to stop finding faults in others for their failures and start focusing on
their inner selves. It is high time that Muslims should engage in self-introspection and diagnose their
problems and iron out their pragmatic solutions.
III. Focusing on Scientific education, and IT:
Muslims lag far behind the other nations in almost every field of modern education and thus it
must be an area of concern for all the Muslims in the world. Muslims should develop a system of
education that could cater their religious and spiritual needs as well as the contemporary
requirements.
IV. Need for ljtihad:
Muslim ummah can improve its status among the nations by strengthening its Islamic identity or
affiliation with Islam. There is growing need for ljtihad and renewal of understanding of new methods
of progressing according to Islam in modern times. Islam should be embodied in every field of
knowledge ethics and actions; it should not be only the claims and sayings Religious scholars should
play their role in promoting sectarian harmony In Muslim world. Muslim countries should focus on
their economies to compete the world.
V. Reinterpreting the Whole Edifice of Islamic Theology:
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The answer lies in correcting or abandoning the incorrect interpretations of Islam by some of the
earlier Jurists. These interpreters, no matter how learned they may be in teachings of the religion, or
how large may be their followers, or how established their teachings, are not prophets. Prophets
cannot be wrong, but these interpreters of Islam can be. What Muslims must do is to go back to the
teaching of Holy Qur'an and genuine Hadiths, study and interpret them in the context of the present
day. It is Allah's will that the world has changed. It is not for man to reverse what has been willed by
Him. Islam is not only meant for seventh century Arabs. The faithful must look for guidance from the
teachings of Qur'an and Hadiths in the present context. If we Muslims understand this, then there will
be fewer misunderstandings among us, and the world will be a better place if all misunderstandings
are removed. Therefore, we should resolve our own quarrels to present a united ummah. Most
importantly, we should never be our own enemy.
VI. Media to Counter Cultural Onslaught of the West:
Appeal to Islamic government to cooperate with the private sector for the establishment of joint
information, advertising projects, and supporting and encouraging information industries can be one
of the valuable suggestion. To ensure the successful implementation of such projects, there must be
unified policies and plans to facilitate and m attract investments Plus a joint Islamic fund to provide
loans to finance these projects information the infrastructure of Muslim countries should be linked
together, commercial and and advertising representation unified, communication mechanism
consolidated and an Islamic information bloc set up. All these promises brought about by the
information revolution should make us view with optimism and make the right investment in a way
that would ensure the advancement of our societies and enable us to face the challenges facing
coordinated effort that would free us from Western information domination.
VII. Muslims Should Do away with Militant Terrorism and Portray Peaceful image of Islam:
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Islam emphasizes good deeds as part of the faith. The Quran does promise victory for the
believers but only for those whose faith in God leads to peace among people. Muslim need to
effectively propagate that violence had no place in Islam. No religion taught violence, nor has any
prophet propagated it.
VIII. OIC Need to Play and Effective Role:
OIC has an important role to play in the current scenario, which can be achieved by bringing the
Muslim countries together on a common platform. OIC is facing severe constraints in bringing about
its vision, and there is the problem of implementation of different decisions taken by the 010; in order
to overcome these constraints, a collective will is required on part of the whole ummah. Although the
organization lacks effective public relations mechanisms, and is therefore unable to get its ideology
across, however it can play an effective role in bringing about genuine solutions to the
problems/challenges faced by Muslim Ummah at present.
RISE OF EXTREMISM AND MODERN MUSLIM
FUNDAMENTALISM: THE ROOTS AND THE CAUSES
Introduction:
Once Albert Camus warned, "We cannot 'Escape History', as we are up to our necks in it.”
History helps us judge the present day situation. In the same fashion Ted Grant (1911-2006), the veteran
Marxist said, "Neither pessimism nor stupendous optimism can play a role conjecture determining the
analysis of events. The first necessity is to understand the meaning of the deliberately of historical forces
leading to the present world situation". When the past deliberately or otherwise is winked at on the part of
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scholars, then the conclusion may be "a Fundamentalism wrapped inside an enigma". Same is the case
with the study of Modern Muslim Fundamentalism that is now morphed into a "conundrum". But a
dispassionate and historical may lead to unmorbid and healthy conclusion.
Fundamentalism is basically the attachment with the fundamentals and basic building en nu of a
certain ideology or a subject. Then it should be bliss not a malaise as it is commonly conceived. To
scrutinize as why the Modern Muslim Fundamentalism is perdition as it harms more Muslims and Islam
than its enemies. Abiding by the pieces of advice rendered by Camus and Grant, we delve deep into the
history of the Muslim Fundamentalism which has led to rise of rabid extremism and militant terrorism.
Causes of Rise of Muslim extremism:
I. Colonization of Islamic World by West and Emergence of Muslim religious Parties:
During the first half of the twentieth century the Muslim world was under the tutelage of western
imperialism. Most of the anti-imperialistic resistance came from the religious groups and parties. So,
by this ensconced fact these parties were successful in ingraining their following in the masses. In
Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood was founded in 1928 under the aegis of Hassan Al-Banna. It
augmented itself with a secret wing that was to carry out violent targets even against Muslims
collaborating with the west. Hassan Al-Banna was murdered in 1949, succeeded by Hodeibi and then
by Sayyid Qutab (1906 1966).
II. Political use of Religion:
Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918 1970), the greatest of the Arab nationalists, brokered the July
Revolution in 1952.The Brotherhood demanded the imposition of Sharia, Nasser refused, escaped an
attempt on his life in 1954, the Brotherhood was blamed for the abortive attempt, and was banned
subsequently. But the Brotherhood had a member in Karachi, Maulana Maududi (1903-1979)."The
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only reason for the existence of Pakistan as a nation, as a state was the religion of its inhabitance". So
Maududi was in a position to manipulate the religion in Pakistan
III. Absolutist teachings Propagated by Maududi and Syed Qutb:
According to Karen Armstrong, the decades of 1950s and 1960s were secular across the globe. So
the religious zealotry was in an impervious situation. But the theoretical ferment beneath the surface
was being warmed. Maududi and Qutb contributed the most in this realm of scholarly erudition.
Maududi was a prolific writer, jotted down absolutist teachings and s. flowed uncompromising
rejection of the western system. He wrote books on each and every topic: Jehad, economics, Politics,
modernity, socialism, capitalism, exegesis of the Quran and Hadith and founded a party Jamaat e
Islami. He gave blatant place to Jihad in the religion as an obligatory. He made an important
contribution to fundamentalist Islamic thought: He distinguished between two stages of development
in contemporaries Islamic countries: 1) I stage of weakening (Istidhat) during which Muslims would
have to withdraw and prepare themselves and 2) stage of action (Jihad)._ when they would be strong
enough to accomplish their aims. The prototype of Is was the Makki period, and of Jihad Was Marini
period of the Prophet's life. Maududi wrote a small book called four expressions in which ehe
discussed the Hakmiya, ujullyal Rabbania and Wahadasnia. These were to have great impacts on
Muslims everywhere subsequently. Qutb was influenced very much by Maucludits writings. He
further wrote: In the shadow of Quran, Marks on the road, Mlles; Lone, Social Justice in Islam and
Islam; the religion of the future.
IV. Demise of Arab nationalism and rise of religiosity:
During 1950s and 60s the Arab world was haunted by the scepter of Nasserisrm an admixture
of socialism, secularism, anti-imperialism and Arab nationalism. Gamal Abdul Nasser was" as Nixon
said in his magnum opus Leaders, "a pyrotechnic personality. He shot like a meteor across the sky of
the Arab world". But two events changed the tide of the time.1967, the Naksa, the disastrous defeat of
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the Arabs at the hands of Israel, "Though Nasser's popularity", according to Heikal, "went
undiminished as he was popularly obliged withdraw from his resignation that he rendered on the eve
of the Naksa .But Karen Armstrong states that this was the beginning of religiosity in the Arab world.
People turned eye from Nasserism towards Islam propounded by Maududi and Qutb. On 28
September 1970, Nasser died, extraordinary scenes at his funeral ceremony vindicated the position he
held among the masses, 7 million people poured onto the streets to pay homage to "the Last Arab". A
vacuum was created; something was bound to fill that gap. Saadat lacked the charisma and "the Free
Officers" did not back him. He freed the Brotherhood members to gather support and legitimacy. The
books of Maududi and Qutb became the Bible for the Brotherhood members. They accepted their
absolutist teachings. In their views, everybody had to choose between Islam and Jahilyah, between
good and evil, between belief and infidelity and between God and renegade (Taghuti).
V. Political use of Jihad as Proxy of West against USSR and socialists:
Heikal pointed out, "Religion can take many forms and face demand and challenges
according to the climate of the time". Then came the Soviet - Afghan war. The teachings of Maududi
and Qutb were in practice under the umbrella of the west. During 1980s Afghans were lionized as
Mujhideen but after the war was over, they were demonized as terrorists Previously the Arabs of Al
Qaida were freedom fighters now they are "Frankenstein Monsters". Due to the dual standard of the
West "Modern Muslim Fundamentalism", according to Lal Khan, "is the brainchild of John Foster
Dulles". He used the Brotherhood against Nasser. During 1970s and 80s the regimes in Egypt, Saudi
Arabia and Pakistan used the religious groups under the auspices of the U.S especially against the
defunct Soviet Union. Now all are withdrawn and launching a purging campaign against them.
VI. Political use of Muslim by certain Muslim Regimes:
During 1970s and 80s consciously or unconsciously the regimes in Pakistan, Egypt and Saudi
Arabia seemed determined to put to the test Marx' dictum that religion is the opium of the people. The
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trouble was that they did not know the sort of religion with which they were dealing. In fact the new
strain of Modern Fundamentalism which was being so recklessly encouraged was largely superficial,
concentrating on the visible attributes of religion and the letter of the law but ignoring the real lessons
of history. This was not an attempt to understand and recover the high ideals of the early days of
Islam as lbne Hanbal and Ibne Taimyah had done, but a rough and ready attempt to mask political and
social problems beneath the Chador. Other strains of fundamentalism were at worked elsewhere
unseen and uncontrolled by the authorities. The regimes and their backer were creating a monster and
one day sooner than they had expected it was going to turn and rend them. Heikal also categorically
elaborated this scheme of ideas.
Intellectual debate on Rise of Extremism in Muslim Societies:
Now we come to intellectual and analytical discourse that would divulge the underlying causes of
Modern Muslim Fundamentalism and extremism.
i. Extremism: Shadow side of Modernity:
Karen Armstrong, the foremost authority, on the comparative religions, wrote with erudition in
her seminal work; The Battle for God and her latest The Case for God that fundamentalism is the
reaction to modernity. "Modernity cannot fulfill its promises to everyone". The People marginalized
by the forces of modernity, tend to fall back upon religion. She is of the view that every major
religious tradition suffered from fundamentalism and interestingly Islam was last to be influenced by
this wave after Judaism and Christianity. Hinduism, though a non-Semitic religion, is not exception to
this wave and recently Buddhism also resorted to extremist/Militant acts in ongoing persecution of
Rohingya Muslim in Burma.
ii. Rise of Extremism:
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Malaise of 20th Century "Fundamentalism is malaise of the twentieth century" A.G Noorani said.
He went on to say in his book Islam and Jihad." It has afflicted every major religious tradition
including Hindu, Jewish, Christian and Muslim". This fundamentalism banishes reason from religion
and compassion from faith. Its main traits are "revivalism, hostility towards other minorities, anti-
intellectualism, intolerance and moral blindness". And on the prima facie, it is blatantly obvious that
these anachronistic and obscure vices are antithesis to altruistic and pragmatic Islam virtues. Islam
promotes tolerance, pluralism and freedom of expression.
iii. Economic impoverishment:
Human nature is the delicate and sublime balance of materialism and spiritualism. Whenever
people are barred from materialistic prosperity, they tend more towards spirituality. And whenever
you fail to achieve something, though due to your own deficiencies, you start to hate that thing to the
point of contempt. So the fundamentalists hate worldly success in toto. Muhammad Heikal in his
book, The Return of the Ayatullah, said, 'Whenever a forward step in the historical process becomes
impossible, people are obliged to look to the past and religion is at hand". Economic impoverishment
is a cause of unbridled and rabid religious zealotry.
iv. Psychological vagaries:
There is a paramount role of psychology in the justification of terrorist attacks. Sigmund Freud
(1856 - 1939) in his grand book Civilization and its Discontents said_ that _human nature had two
basic instinct: The instinct of life and the instinct of death. When life seems to be a burden then death
may relieve it from unavoidable suffering and when people are denied of basic necessities and rights,
the death is available. It is pertinent to discuss here the oft quoted blanket statement, "Every Muslim
is not a terrorist but every terrorist is a Muslim". This is totally fallacious as Karen Armstrong in her
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essay The Pattern of Global Terrorism said that more anti-American terrorist attacks were carried out
in the Latin America man that in the Middle East.
VII. Dictatorship causes extremism:
When people are politically under-represented as it happens in the authoritarian rule that is the
defining characteristic of Muslim political systems, people are compelled to have' recourse to
violence. Benazir Bhutto (1953 - 2007) in her posthumous book Reconciliation Islam, Democracy
and the West declared dictatorship and poverty the causes of extremism a trait attach to
fundamentalism. "Dictatorship breeds extremism, hunger breeds extremism and poverty breeds
extremism". She wrote.
VIII. Foreign invasion/occupation of Muslim countries:
The final question is whether fundamentalism is the wholly-solely cause of terrorism. A plausible
study came on behalf of Robert A Pape. He studied every act of terrorism since 1980 in his book The
Dying to Win. He said, "There may be several causes of terrorism (personal, social, religious,
political, etc.). But the most common is the threat of the foreign occupation". Muslims in Palestine,
Iraq, Kashmir and Afghanistan feel besieged by the foreign occupation. They daily suffered
unmitigated atrocities and feel homelessness in their homes An international community is always
silent. The U N has totally been failed in protecting the rights of Muslims As a reaction the Muslims
tend to violent means. Roughly the US vetoed 39 resolutions that were against Israeli When you are
not doing justice with people then how do you expect that they would behave with you properly. As
Persian proverb runs, "Tang Aamad Bajang Aamad" (When you are teased you resort to war).
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNANCE IN ISLAM
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Concept of Public Administration in Islam:
The general philosophy of Islamic administration centers on the concepts of probity piety, justice,
equality, accountability, trustworthiness, and social quality. In Islam, not only the government but also
administration is related with religion, values, and ethics as there s no separation of religion and politics
in Islamic ideology. The administration in an Islamic State is an effective and efficient because its
responsibilities are more than the mere maintenance of law and order The Islamic ideal is a service-
oriented, wherein functionaries are expected to dedicate themselves to the cause of general welfare; more
than that to establish ethical and spiritual atmosphere, in which the people can lead good life without any
hindrance. Administration, according to the Shariah, must operate through consultation, which is on
democratic principles. Holy Quran describes the Muslims as those who carry out their governmental and
administrative affairs by counseling among themselves. Only those, who are pious, God-fearing, just,
kind and capable of performing their task, are given Power rule and undertake administrative charges,
Administration in Islam has to be supremely effective and efficient because his responsibilities are more
than mere maintenance of law and order. The Qura’nic Ideal is Islamic Welfare State, wherein
government functionaries are expected not only to dedicate themselves for the general welfare, but to
maintain a moral and religious climate, in which people can practice goodness without any hindrance the
organized administrative the matters relating to inheritance, machinery distribution of wealth,
maintenance of Zakat and organization of Bait-Mal, In other word the good administration can
implement the Islamic Sharjah, a comprehensive code of life.
In an Islamic State, the real purpose of the executive/administrator is to enforce the directives of
God, conveyed through the Quran and Sunnah and to bring about these directives and practical
application in its life. The administrator or ruler in an Islamic state should observe the following rules:-
 To establish worship
 To pay dues to poor
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 To order for good
 To reduce inequity
 To serve public
 To redress the public grievances
 To dispense justice impartially
 To observe the religious duties
 To choose pious, truthful and sincere men aids
 To have a strict eye and comprehensive control over governmental affairs.
 To frame rules for speedy and prompt public service delivery
 To look after religious minorities
 To govern the people according to the laws of the Quran, Sunnah and general rules of
equity and justice.
 To ensure good governance
In sum Public administration in Islam is synonymous with welfare state concept and good
governance.
Evolution of Islamic Administration:
Public administration in the Islamic state was exemplary Famous for the efficiency of
administrators, it was characterized by the ease, with which the Muslims assimilated of the systems of
administration with their own notion of government. Moreover, the officials of the Islamic State were
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men of integrity, who set an example par excellence to the Substance of effective administration. Early
Islamic administration had many characteristics the brief description of which is asunder:
1. The most important characteristic was the simplicity and ease with which administrative
affairs were conducted. There were no formal offices or officials, who served as career
government or paid employees. Mosque was the centre of all religious, social, political
and administrative activities. In the mosque Prophet (PBUH) ph led prayers, gave
sermons, met visitors and foreign diplomats, discussed or Cali with his companions the
affairs of the community, and wrote letters to contemporary kings, emperors and heads of
states.
2. The Islamic system easily assimilated foreign institution with its own nations of
government and administration. Most of the institutions o under Muslim control were
kept intact and Islamic spirit was infused into them, In Syria and Egypt, the Muslims
adopted the Roman System and in Persia the Persian system of administration. On the
other hand, glaring evils were dispensed with, and human beings who had been degraded
serfdom and slavery, regained their legitimate human status.
3. Another feature of early Islamic administration was the religious and moral spirit which
dominated the entire field of government and administration under the Holy Prophet
(PBUH) and Pious Caliphs Fear of God pervaded the whole political atmosphere and
every Muslim, as the follower of Holy Prophet (PBUH) felt his responsibility. Later on
the degeneration and world illness did creep in them, but were checked by just rulers-like
Umar II and Al Mamun.
4. The Islamic administration allowed the legal "ljtihad", which did not deny any human
experience that would benefit the goals of the Shariah and interest of the people, provided
that it did not contradict the principle of Shariah. This was especially true in the case of
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political and administrative systems, for which the Quranic verses and reference of
Sunnah are mostly salient. Thus an Islamic administration can and should borrow from
other systems in global exchange of ideas and thoughts, as well as of tools and
techniques.
QURANIC GUIDANCE ON GOOD GOVERNANCE
&
PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION/GOVERNANCE IN ISLAM
&
CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN THE LIGHT OF
QURAN, SUNNAH AND FIQH
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Introduction:
Islamic principles in administration provide a more comprehensive system as they incorporate
both moral and spiritual dimensions. These principles are universally applicable and important for the
success of Muslims' organization. Since Islam is a comprehensive of life, it treats the most minor and
simple to detailed and major issues in various aspects of human life and activities including the
administration of organization or institution. It addresses all mankind without distinction race, region,
language or time. The principles of Islamic administration are derived from the Quran, which is the most
fundamental source in Islamic Shariah, and the Sunnah, which is the second important source in Islam.
The most crucial principles are knowledge, commanding good and forbidding bar d, amanah (trust)
justice, Shura (consultation), brotherhood, moral and ethical behaviors, responsibility' (trustworthiness),
Hisbah (accountability), and, motivation. Those are the values embody the administration in Islamic
approach which should be implemented by those who have been entrusted with the authority i-e. who are
at the helm of administration.
What is Governance?
Governance refers to the conducting of public affairs and management of public resources.
Governance is "the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or
not implemented)".The concept centers on the responsibility of governments and governing bodies to
meet the needs of the masses as opposed to select groups in society.
Definition of Good Governance:
As per the criterion laid down by the United Nations (UN), good governance should have eight
characteristics:
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 Consensus Oriented
 Participatory
 Following the Rule of Law
 Effective and Efficient
 Accountable
 Transparent
 Responsive
 Equitable and Inclusive
Islamically Good Governance: Meaning and Concepts:
The Holy Quran describes good governance as the law of justice, a just and e order and compliance rights
and responsibilities in a society. Islamically good governance is that which:
 strives to achieve justice in society;
 aspires to maintain the dignity of individuals (both male and female) and protect group
freedom, regardless of religious or national affiliation;
 steers individuals toward achieving a means of sustainable livelihood before aspiring for
other luxuries;
 encourages virtue, limits vice, and rejects compulsion in matters of religion; and,
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 Achieves its aims through consultation, participation, representation, accountability
mechanisms, and through legal conventional regulations in all social formations, low or
high.
Quranic Injunctions Regarding Good Governance:
• The Qur'an declares:
"Those when given authority in land, establish (system of) Salah, give zakat and enjoin
what is good (ma'ruf) and forbid what is wrong.” (munkar) (Quran, al-Hajj, 22:41)
 • It further says:
"O you who believe stand up as a witness for Allah in all fairness, and do not let the
hatred of people deviate you from Justice Cad!). Be just, this is closest to piety.” (Quran,
Al-Maidah, 5:8)
 Principles of Good Governance in Islam:
Islamic view of good governance is qualitative and not mechanical. Major features of
good governance can be précised under eight fundamentals:
1. Amanah: Authority is Trust of God on Man to Fulfill
2. Khilafat Role of Leadership in Good Governance:
3. Shura: A Cornerstone of the Islamic System of Good Governance
4. Adalah: Justice
5. Equity and Fairness Social Justice
6. Hisbah: Accountability
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7. Transparency
8. AI-amr bil maruf wa nahi an al-munkar
9. Rule of Law
10. Quality Assurance
11. Striving for Excellence
12. Maslah: Public Welfare
13. Effective and Efficient Administration
14. Islamic Humanism in the Understanding of Divine Guidance on Good Governance
Authority is Trust of God on Man to Fulfill:
The Qur'an mentions the trust (amanah) given to mankind a trust which the heavens the earth, and
mountains refused to accept because they were afraid of its heavy burden (33: 72) — which requires the
establishment of justice in society (4: 58). Amanah basically is a contract between God and man on man's
role in history. It defines man's rights and responsibilities in relation to all other humans and his
environment and the rest of God's creation.
The word amanah originates from three letter root-verb a, m and n (amn), which means to be in
the state of peace, safety and security. In the noun form, the word becomes aman, meaning peace,
security, safety, shelter and protection. Amanah literally means trust, reliability, trustworthiness, loyalty,
faithfulness, integrity, honesty and confidence. From this root-verb also originates iman or faith. In other
words the Qur'an seems to highlight the point that peace in society is achieved through individual's faith.
The concept of amanah binds individuals with society.
Khilafat: Role of Leadership in Good Governance:
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Khilafat is Arabic word which means successor ship. The word caliph is simply an Anglicized
version of khalifa. The terms khilafat and caliphate, though derived from khallfa and caliph individually
have different meanings. Khilafat refers to the Islamic institution of spiritual successor ship, whereas
caliphate indicates a politico-religious Muslim state governed by a caliph. When the Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) passed way, Hazrat Abu Baki, (R.A) succeeded to his spiritual, administrative purposes as
successor of the messenger oi God (khalifa Rasul Allah) Bernard Lewis, the prominent historian of Islam,
observes:
"Abu Bakr was given the title of Khalifa or 'Deputy' (of the prophet) ... and his election marks the
appointment of the great historic institution of the Caliphate. His voters can have no idea of later purposes
and growth of the office. At the time, they made no effort to define his duties or powers. The only state of
his selection was the maintenance of the inheritance of the Prophet (PBUI-1)."
Shura: A Cornerstone of the Islamic System of Good Governance:
The Qur'an emphasizes Shura—or consultation among members of the community—in issues of
governance (3: 159; and 42: 38). The commandment involves both private and public domains, including
business and government affairs. Women are equal partners with men in consultation. Non-Muslims
living under Islamic jurisdiction also are partners in the decision-making process as long as they, like
everybody else, fulfill the trust as members of the society. The concept of Shura underlines the
participation of all members of the community in its affairs. Many contemporary Muslim scholars have
compared this Quranic directive with modern day democracy But the Qur'an seems to go beyond current
democratic practices; it emphasizes fairness and justice, and if democratic institutions fail to provide
justice (e.g. recognition of the tyranny of the majority) for not only for human beings, but also for plants,
animals and the whole environment, the Qur'an says that God will take mankind to task. Here one is
reminded of the Socratic disapproval of Athenian democracy, From the Quranic perspective the Socratic
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concern for moral and universal values would be extremely relevant. A good government must be guided
by these values.
Adalah:
Justice means In the Islamic world view, justice means placing things in their rightful place. It
also means giving others equal treatment. In Islam, justice is also an honest quality and a feature human
personality, as it is in the Western tradition. Justice is close to equality in the wisdom that it creates a state
of equilibrium in the distribution of rights and duties.
Justice in the Islamic governmental system, including social justice, which means that e
government should arrange to meet needs of all the people as they are equal of the country. This contains
the facility of job, means of existence and financial justice. This in turn suggests that it is the duty of the
government to provide food, housing and clothing for all the people in the country. Economic justice is
aimed at equitable supply of lifestyle and checks the accumulation of wealth in a few hands.
The Importance of Justice:
The Quran considers justice to be a highest virtue. God declares in the Quran:
"God commands justice and fair dealing.” (Quran, Al-Nahal, 16:90)."
And in another passage: "O you who believe, be upright for God, and (be) bearers of witness with justice.
(Quran, AI-Mayeeda, 5 8).
Therefore, one may understand that justice is a responsibility of Islam and injustice forbidden. The
importance of justice to the Quranic value system is showed by the following g verse:
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"We sent Our Messengers with clear signs and sent down with them the Book and the Measure in order to
establish justice among the people... (Quran, Al-Hadeed, 57:25)."
The phrase Òur Messengers' shows that justice has been the goal of all admission and scriptures
sent to humanity. The verse also shows that justice must be measured and applied by the values and rules
set by admission. Islam's approach to justice is complete and complete. Any path that leads to justice is
believed to be in accord with Islamic Law.
Equality in Justice:
The Quranic standards of justice exceed thoughts of race, religion, color, and faith, as Muslims
are ordered to be just to their friends and enemies similar, and to be just at all levels, as the Quran puts it:
"O you who believe! Stand out firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even if it be against yourselves,
your parents, and your relatives, or whether it is against the rich or the poor... (Quran, Al-Nisa, 4:135)"
According to another Quranic passage:
"Let not the hatred of a people swerve you away from justice. Be just, for this is closest to
righteousness... (Al-Mayeeda, Quran (AI-Mayeeda), 5:8)"
The scholars of the Quran have decided that these decisions apply to all nations, followers of all faiths, as
a matter of fact to all humanity, (Kama11). In the view of the Quran, justice is a responsibility. That is
why the Prophet (PBUH) was told:
"... If you judge, judge between them with justice... (Al-Mayeeda, Quran (Al-Mayeeda), 5:42)"
Furthermore, the Prophet (PBUH) was sent as a judge between peoples, and told:
"...Say: I believe in the Scripture, which God has sent down, and I am commanded to judge justly
between you... (Al-Shura, 42:15)"
Equity and Fairness: Social Justice:
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The principle of equality is one of the most important constitutional principles upon which the
contemporary system rests. This means that the principle of equality con the individual communities are
equal in rights, responsibilities and public duties that enjoyed by all without discrimination of race, origin,
or belief. The principle of equality has been initiated by the Qur'an and Sunnah and the expansion of
Islam as a precedent in Islamic law and its own time and place.
Islam teaches that in the view of Allah, all people are equal although. There are variances of capabilities,
abilities, determinations, wealth and so on.
Yet, none of these differences can by themselves found the status of lead of one man or race over
another. The standard of man, his skin color, the amount of capital he has and the degree of respect he
enjoys has no attitude on the personality of the individual as far as Allah is concerned. The only
difference, which Allah identifies, is the difference in religiousness the only standard which Allah applies,
is the standard of goodness and spiritual excellence. In the Quran, Allah Almighty Says (what means):
“O mankind indeed we have created you from male and female, and have made you into nations and
tribes, that you may know one another. Indeed the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is the most
righteous. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted.” (Quran, Al-Hujrat, 49:13)
Amanah and Adalah Demand Accountability and Transparency:
The Qur'an recommends the establishment of an effective government for carrying out the
Amanah, which requires commitment to honesty and justice. The sincere administration of Amanah has
honesty and justice as its prerequisites. Honesty becomes the touchtone of universal justice because an
authority conducting justice without commitment to honesty may conduct justice selectively as and when
en it serves its interests. The implementation of Amanah with honesty and justice would deliver a number
of crucial ingredients of good governance such as the participation of the people in public affairs, general
consensus on major issues, rule of law, transparency, accountability, equity, efficiency, etc. The Prophet
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(PBUH) founded one such community and government in Madinah in 7th century Arabia. The polity
established by the Prophet (PBUH) was multi-tribal, multi-religious and multi-racial. His administration
and the administration of his first four successors are generally considered as the model for good
governance by Muslim scholars. However even this early community was not perfect Errors were
committed and conflicts did take place among the members of the community. On occasion the Qur'an
corrected, even scolded the Prophet (PBUH) (80: 1-10) for his errors. But from Quranic teachings, it
clearly emerges that human effort to establish good governance may not be perfect. However, a perfect
harmony between human nature and attempts to truly follow Quranic guidance would allow humanity to
attain, if not perfection, at least the next best thing—peace with justice and happiness in life.
The inaugural speech of the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, describes the fundamental characteristics of
good governance. Immediately after being elected by the community to succeed the Prophet (PBUH), he
said: I have been given authority over you although I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me; and if I
do wrong, set me right. Loyalty is to tell the truth to a leader; treason is to hide it. The weak among you
will be powerful in my eyes until I secure his rights, if Allah so wills. The strong among you shall be
weak in my eyes until I get the right from him. If people do not follow in the way of Allah, He will
disgrace them. Obey me as long as I obey Allah and his Prophet (PBUH), and if I disobey them, you owe
me no obedience.
Hisbah: Accountability:
In the Holy Qur'an, the word Hisab is repeated more than eight times in different verses Hisab or
'account' is the root of accounting, and the references in the Holy Qur'an are to 'account' in its generic
sense, relating to one's responsibility to 'account' to God on " matters relating to human effort for which
every Muslim is 'accountable'.
The Muslims believe in the terms of accountability that they will be judged for whatever they do
in this world in the hereafter (life after death). In Islam, It's the duty of 620 Muslim to fulfill the wills of
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Allah in order to seek his pleasure and the promised reward in the life after death. Thus, it requires every
action and word in this world must be in line with the Islamic teachings. It does not matter what action the
Muslims do either ibadah (Salat) or purchasing shares in the stock market, eating sleeping like daily jobs
they Islamic teaching framework carefully. The importance of accountability to the man's life also has
been mentioned by Holy Quran:
"...Lo the hearing and the sight and the heart — of each of these will be asked.”(Quran, Bani Israell)
Abdullah reported that Allah's Messenger Muhammad (PBUH) said:
"Every one of you is a guardian and accountable (mas'ul) for his charge. Thus the Khalifa is a
custodian of the people and He is responsible for them. And a man is a guardian of his household and he
is accountable for them; and a woman is in charge of the household arid her children and she is
accountable for them; and a servant is guardian of his master's property, every one of you is accountable
for his subjects (Bukhari)"
In the view of corporate governance practices, as far as Islam is concerned, the country directors,
management as well as the auditor should perform their professional duties with the objective of
satisfying the needs of the Public and to Allah as well.
Transparency:
The concept of transparency has been divulged by Allah in the following Ayat:
"O you who believe, When you deal with each other, in transactions involving future obligations in a
fixed period of time, reduce them to writing. Let a scribe write-down faithfully as between the parties..."
(Quran, Al-Baciarah, Beginning of the Ayat, 2:282)."
This verse states that every transaction must be written to avoid injustice.
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Applying the concept of transparency, government should disclose information; its strategy, actions,
contribution to the community and the use of resources and of environment. Transparency Is the necessity
for openness in all public affairs.
Transparent entails that: Citizens have a right to available information pertaining to example, award of
contracts, privatization of state enterprises, rules against corruption or the funding of political parties. A
transparent government is that which offers chance to find out the true proofs at first hand, without the
material being changed or d through a misrepresenting mirror. "
Al-Amr Bil Maruf Wa Nahi An Al-Munkar:
Amongst the greatest responsibilities are amr-bil-Ma roof (ordering for acknowledged virtues) and nahi
anil munkar (forbidding from sin). Allah says:
“Ye are the best of Peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and
believing in Allah. If only the People of the Book had faith, it was best for them: among them are some
who have faith, but most of them are perverted transgressors.”
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said:
“He who from among you observes something evil, should change it with his hand; if he is unable to do
that he should condemn it with his tongue; if he is unable to do that he should at least resent it in his heart;
this is the lowest degree of faith” (Muslim).
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said: "How will it be for you when your women will commit sins and your
youth will transgress and you will not order for acknowledged virtues nor forbid from sin? It was said to
him "Will that happen 0 messenger of Allah?" Then he (PBUH) said: Yes. Then he said: "How will it be
for you when you order for sins and forbid from acknowledged virtues?" Then it was said to him: "0
messenger of Allah (PBUH)' Will that happen?" Then he said: "Yes and worse than that how will it be for
your when you perceive acknowledged virtue as sin and perceive sin as acknowledged virtue?"
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Rule of Law:
Islam established, for the first time on earth, the rule of one Law for all, irrespective of race,
colour, creed or nationality. All citizens of the state were subject to the same law and one was regarded as
being above the Law. Citizens with wealth, status or privilege treated the same as the humblest of the
citizens of the state in subordination to the law. All stand equal in the eyes of the law, with no privileges
or reservations for anyone. The C and the beggar stand together for judgment before the law:
“No believing man and believing woman should exercise any choice in their affairs once God and His
Messenger have decided upon some matter, anyone who disobeys God and His Messenger has clearly
wandered into error" (33: 36). And in Surah Al-Nur we read: "The only statement believers should make
when they are invited to God and His Messenger, so that He may judge between them, is: 'We have heard,
and we are at your orders, Those persons will be successful." (24: 51).
The Law of God is Supreme in the land and all are subordinate to it without exception:
"O you who believe, obey God and obey His Messenger and those from among yourselves who hold
authority: then if there is any dispute between you concerning any matter, refer it to God and His
Messenger if you really believe in God and the Last Day. This is the best course and better as regards the
final end." (4: 59)
Quality Assurance:
Public transactions and dealings when done with honesty and fairness lead to confidence building in
society. The Qur'an enjoins use of one and same standards for quality control in delivering systems.
"Fill the measure when you measure and weigh with a right balance; this is better, and excellent its
consequences" (Bani Israll 17:35)
Striving for Excellence:
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A ruler and Public servant has been urged to strive utmost to dispense his duties diligently. This
concept stems from authority being as trust of God on man to fulfill and his accountability before God as
well as public. The Prophet (PBUH) said: "An amir (ruler) who accepts an office but does not make his
utmost effort with sincerity (ikhlas), he will never ever enter jannah with other Muslims" (Muslim, Sahih,
Kitabal-lmarah)
Maslaha:
Public Welfare Public welfare is perhaps the most important function of good governance. The
Qur'an introduces the zakah (sometimes written as Zakat) system as one of the fundamental pillars for the
re-distribution of wealth in society. It is the government's responsibility to ensure a fair and just
administration of the system. In short, it must ensure public welfare as a part of the amanah or trust
discussed earlier."
Effective and Efficient Administration:
Islam enjoins public administration to make and implement decisions on time and effectively in
order to ensure the good governance. Red-tapism, bureaucratic and lengthy process lead to inefficiency
and making governance in-effective and have been discouraged.
CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE AND ITS APPLICATION IN THE LIGHT
OF SUNNAH
Introduction:
"He performed, the functions of prophet (PBUH), law giver, religious leader, chief judge,
commander of the army and civil head of state ---- all in one."Philip K Hitti
At the time of the rise of Islam, Arabia was not a political entity, but only a geographical expression. It
was inhabited by innumerable tribes, each one of which was a self-contained, autonomous and
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independent political unit, under its own tribal chief, laws and customs. All the Arab tribes were
constantly at war with each other, recognizing no superior Over them. Pre-Islamic Arabia stood, as the
Holy Quran describes the Jahiliya conditions, 'on the brink of a pit of fire."The Holy Prophet (PBUH)
saved the Arabs and their land from these disastrous conditions by building an Islamic State and society
in place of the pre Islamic tribalism. The basis of administration in a Muslim state is spiritual and ethical
as illustrated by the Quran. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) himself organized the State of Medinah, in which
broad Principles of administrative organization were laid down which were avidly followed by the
successive rulers.
Salient Features of Prophetic Administration:
The prophet (PBUH) as final messenger and leader of humanity provides a comprehensive universal and
authentic role model for administration and management of personal and public matters.
1. Appointment of Capable Persons:
The administration demands not only appointment of honest, experienced persons but also men of
high administrative insight and managerial skills. The qualities of head and heart are both necessary
for an able civil servant/ administrator The Holy Prophet (PBUH) observed great care and caution in
the administration of public matter as he always used to appoint capable and honest person. To aide
him in religious, political and administrative affairs, he had ministers, secretaries and official writers
of his letters to foreign rulers. Public servants under the administration of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
were of three kinds; al-wali (governor) al-amil (tax-collector) and al-Qazi (Judge).
“Lo Allah commands you to restore trusts to their owners, and, if you judge between people, you
judge just between people, you judge justly." (An-Nisa 4:58).
Besides, the Prophet (PBUH) considered the public office as a trust of God (Amanah) which required
that efficient persons may be appointed at the helm of affairs.
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"O Abu Dhar, you are weak (in administration), a public office is a trust and will be the cause of
humiliation and regret for a person who was not efficient in his responsibilities.
2. Participatory Decision Making: Consultative Administration
Administration, according to the Quran, must operate through consultation, which is based on
democratic principles. The Holy Quran describes the Muslims as those who carry out their
governmental and administrative affairs by counseling among themselves. Therefore dictatorial
leaders or authoritarian have no place in administrative system of Islam. Only those, who are pious,
God-fearing, just, kind and capable of performing their task, are given power to rule and undertake
administrative charges .Though the Holy Prophet (PBUH) was the head of the Muslim Community
and his orders were always obeyed by his followers, yet he consulted his companions. The Prophet
(PBUH) was not an autocrat in the administration management of matters concerning vital public
issues: His was a consultative ana participatory mode of governance which involved taking advice
from all and sundry. As Quran says:
The Quranic command "and take counsel from them in matters" al-i-"Imran 3:159 was translated by
the Prophet (PBUH) in all critical matters such as Badr, Uhad, Ahzab ana Hudaybiyah.
Hazrat Abu Hurairah (R.A) says that 'I have never seen a person more prone to consulting his
people than the prophet of Allah". Hence from these Quranic injunctions and practices of the Prophet
(PBUH), this emerged the concept of shura in Islam.
3. Discipline and Order:
Another salient feature of the prophetic administration was his observance of strict discipline and
order. Discipline is a major factor for an efficient administration and management, formation of
straight lines (sufuf), punctuality in five time daily Salat and emphasis on Jamaat creates discipline
and order in the employed incentive methods to convinced people to f Muslim community. He often
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employed incentive methods to convinced people to follow his commands. He was a leader of
unmatched and unchallenged following. He had infused strict discipline among his companions who
were always ready to do or die for him. This can best be seen in the wars of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
where the companions never faltered and hesitated to die in the cause of Allah on the orders of his
Prophet (PBUH). He often advised his followers to live a collective and organized life led by an able
leader. "You should select a leader from amongst you, even if you are only three persons, he used to
say. As a leaderless community is always prone to fall victim to anarchy and disorder which was
despised by the Prophet (PBUH).
4. Public Accountability:
Another cardinal feat of Prophetic administration was observance of strict and faire public
accountability. He used the authority as trust (amanah) of God whose sanctity cannot be violated, the
same he taught to and demanded from the Muslims. His truthfulness and trustworthiness was
exemplary even before the advent of Islam. The Prophetic administration 'was characterized by dual
accountability: that a public office holder was accountable before the public whom he rules/governs
and before God whom he shall be accountable in the Day of Judgement. He refrained people from
committing excessive on the poor/weak people of God hears their curse/supplication readily. He said:
"Be afraid, from the curse of the oppressed as there is no screen between his invocation and Allah."
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) introduced the concept of Hisba (Accountability). In this system public
administration, even the head of an Islamic state is not above law and is accountable.
I. The Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said:
Abu Said Khudre (R.A) relates that he heard the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) say: 'He
who from among you observes something evil, should change it with his hand; if he is unable to
do that he should condemn it with his tongue; if he is unable to do that he should at least resent it
in his heart, this is the lowest degree of faith' (Muslim).
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II. The concept of accountability has been enunciated in the following Hadith of the Holy
Prophet (PBUH
"The Prophet (PBUH) said, "All of you are guardians and are responsible for your
wards". "The ruler is a guardian and the man is a guardian of his family the lady is a guardian and
is responsible for her husband's house and his offspring; and so all of you are guardians and are
responsible for your wards."
5. Human Synergy:
The Prophet (PBUH) was greatest preceptor of human minds and inclinations. He used to develop
human synergy by establishing brotherhood among the warning tribes, conflicting individuals and
fractious relations between different communities. He had clubbed the warring tribes, fractions Arabs,
unruly Bedouins and religious minorities into one single community the head of which was Prophet
(PBUH) himself, and its constitution was Quran and God the Lord.
6. Conflict Resolution:
The Prophet (PBUH) of Islam was the prophet of peace. He used to resolve conflicts through
peaceful efforts throughout his life. The Prophet (PBUH) when reached Medina there were a number
of demographic communities having marked differences and he had unified them:
 Use of hikmah in management of crisis at the time of re-construction of Ka'ba wall, when
the Prophet (PBUH) was only 35 years old.
 Aws and Khazraz, clubbed into Ansars.
 Brotherhood was established between the Ansars and the Muhajirins to infuse a lofty and
unmitigated spirit of unity among the Muslims.
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 The Jews were courted by means of ensuring their security through the celebrated
Meethaq-e-Medina.
 The Prophet (PBUH) not only resolved conflicts but also urged Muslims to forgive and
go ahead which ended the ill-fearing among the otherwise rivals.
7. Revenue/ Financial Administration:
As revenue administration is considered the backbone of public administration, the Prophet
(PBUH) paid great attention towards organisation of a centralized financial administration. He, with
divine guidance, fixed sources of revenue collection which were.
i. Zakat (poor tax)
ii. Jaya (protection tax)
iii. Usher (with on agriculture)
iv. Fai (state property)
v. Khums (booty)
vi. Khirai (Land Tax)
The expenditures were of numerous types ranging from building dams and improving land to
distribution of funds among the total population, to specific allowances for the poor, Simplseedy, sick
aged, handicapped and or All of these activities were administered by simple methods with the help of
companions of the Holy Prophet (PBUH), The mosque was e the centre of all these activities. Besides he
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spent the public revenue in most appropriate manner and on most needy subjects/persons, but he never
took a single penny for his own expenses. Such were his unassuming administrative policies.
Rule of Law:
In Islamic judicial system, even the Head of State is not above law, this system envisages
complete rule of law. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said: "Had Fatima daughter of Muhammad committed
theft, (Bukhari) ould have cut her hands." The Prophet (PBUH) used to say that previous nations were
ruined because their ruling elit/upper class was exempted from law while the ruled and the poor were
subjected to harsh treatment. Islam requires equality of people before law irrespective of their status, race,
gender, etc. Caliph Umar and Caliph Ali appeared in the courts of Oath as ordinary citizens and did not
like special treatment. The letter written by Caliph Umar to Abu Musa Ashari contains the cardinal
principles or rule of law. Nepotism, bribery, partiality etc. have been condemned in this letter. This was
the impact of prophetic model.
Military Organization:
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) had formed a simple but spirited military organization. All the matters
relating to recruitment, arming, provisioning and command of the Muslim army, were vested in the Holy
Prophet (PBUH) himself. He was the Commander-in-Chief of the Muslims Army and usually led the
army against the enemies, although he selected leaders for this task on some occasions.
Conclusion:
In sum, the administration under the Holy Prophet (PBUH) was mainly based on religious us and
human consciousness which, according to an Arab Scholar, In the field of ,Public administration represent
the most recent trends in modern administrative thought. This humanitarian attitude was a characteristic
of the administrative theory and practice in the Practice prophet’s time.” The Holy Prophet (PBUH) has
left a great legacy in the general theory and his practice of government and administration as shown in six
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authentic books of Hadith. Many of attributes and sayings contain the elements of trust and efficiency as
fundamental attributes of the administrator. The element of love is the main pillar of the Holy Prophet
under) administrative leadership. A widely quoted hadith reflects the Holy Prophet's understanding and
practice of the concepts of authority and responsibility and their relationship. This relationship is reflected
in the general rule that authority must be commensurate with responsibility.
GOVERNANCE STRUCTURE IN ISLAM
(SHURA, LEGISLATION, SOURCES OF ISLAMIC LAW)
SHURA IN ISLAM
Introduction:
According to Islamic law, Islamic government must be based on popular consent and consultation
(shore's principal) However, the Shariah does not prescribe a detailed political system applicable under all
historical circumstances. Indeed, the Shariah provides only a broad constitutional framework which
consists of divine precepts that are meant to be adapted with changing times. This orientation of the
Shariah requires that any demand to re-establish Islamic Constitutional ideals commensurate to the needs
of time. The Prophet (PBUH) Muhammad (PBUH) and his rightly guided Caliphs practiced shura in the
state of Madinah. The leaders of communities participated as representatives of their communities in
discussing their affairs and common problems through the Shura process of decision making The
institution of shura played a vital role in the political development of the early Madinah state, as it was
practiced in full operation during the period Abu Bakr al- Siddiq (d.634 A.D) and Ùmar Ibn al-Khattab
(d.644 A.D.).
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Shura in the Quran: The first divine order to the Prophet (PBUH) to practice Shura was revealed in
chapter Al-Shura " Wa Amruhum Shura Baynahum".
Which means; their affairs should be decided through consultation .The verse described that the
Muslims and the believers (al-Muminun) as having conducted their affairs through the process of mutual
consultation. This divine order regarded as evidence that the shura is one of the traits of Islam which
should be practiced by all Muslims, whether they are only a group without an established state, as was the
stateless situation of Muslims in Makkah, or from a fully established state as was the situation of the
Muslim in Madinah. The second order given by God on the practice of shura to the Prophet (PBUH) is
contained in following verse "washawirhum Fi al- amri”
"Which means; and consult them in affairs"
Legal and Religious Status of Shura:
The predominant opinion among Muslim jurists is that the ruler is obliged to consult the Muslim
community on public matters, and if the ruler neglects this, the community is entitled to demand that he
abides by the obligation. To support this view, an Quranic commentator al-Qurtubi (d.671 A.H) quoted
Ibn Atiyyah's (d.518 A.H.) opinion by saying: `shura is the basis of Shariah and any ruler who does not
seek the counsel of the learned and religious people should be replaced'. This means that the practice of
shura is not only as a legal obligation for the Muslims, but also as a religious one. An authority claims
that consultation methods in politics, or in any other field for that matter, are not only a democratic
formula of government, but a religious injunction.
Scope of Shura:
The question now is according to what standard should such public matters be defined? There are two
conditions to be observed in the subjects matters of shura:
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 The first condition is that shura is not applicable to questions on which an injunction
exists in the Holy Qur'an or in the tradition (sunnah) of the Prophet (PBUH), both of
which constitute binding legislation; matters falling in this category are necessarily
outside the domain of shura, except when its purpose is only to interpret the
injunction, or to enforce it.
 The second condition is that when a question is referred to shura, the advisors are
precluded from reaching a decision contradicting a legislative injunction in the
Qur'an or sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH). In the event of such contradiction,
adherence to the opinion reached by the Shura is prohibited, thus rendering the
opinion valueless.
Shura under the Prophet (PBUH) and Pious Caliphs:
At the beginning of his Prophethood, the general practice of popular consultation (shura) by the
Prophet (PBUH) was mainly with the leading Companions, a selected number of tribal leaders and men of
supreme talents in the society. These prominent men were the personalities who had been associated with
the Prophet (PBUH) from the very beginning, and those who subsequently became prominent by virtue of
their sacrifice, insight and ability. The members of this group enjoyed the confidence of the Prophet
(PBUH) himself.
In a later period, especially after migration to Madinah, certain influential personalities of
Madinah embraced Islam. Through their labor, Islam established a secure foothold in that city among the
tribes of Aus and Khajraj tribes. It was at the request of these people of Madinah that the Islamic
government naturally grew into a political organization and become a state in its full meaning. It was,
therefore, only natural that these people, with whose services Islam had prospered and progressed in
Madinah, should be the leaders of the newly formed society and its political organization. Naturally again,
it was most befitting that these people should be included in the Majlis al-Shura (Member of Parliament)
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of the Prophet (PBUH) along with his first associates from Makkah. These people thus became the
representatives of the people through a natural process of selection. They enjoyed tne confidence of the
Muslim masses to such a degree that if elections of the modern days would have been held, these people
alone would have been chosen.
After the death of the Prophet (PBUH), the Muslim community (ummah) naturally, treated them
as being the most reliable authorities in the country. By the same process of natural selection, this group
of people was automatically included in the Majlis al-shura (parliament) of the Prophet's successors.
However, it is undeniable fact that the precedents of the Prophet (PBUH) and of the rightful Caliphs in
the matter concerning the appointment of the majlis al-shura (Member of Parliament) may not be of much
help to the present situation, regarding qualifications of the members of that institution and the way they
were required to discharge their functions.
Shura and Jurists:
Ibn Taimiyyah and Muhammad Abduh encouraged Muslim political leaders to rely on
consultation in conducting public affairs. This includes all matters which are related to general policy as
well as other field of worldly interest. Probably, Ibn Taimiyyah and Abduh based their opinions on the
principle that authority belongs to the community (Sultah Li al-Ummah) and upon this principle the
system of government in Islam was built. As shura is prescribed to the Muslims as a constitutional
principle only while the details of its application are left open. Consequently, every generation has been
given considerable legal attitude to determine, according to existing circumstances, and which they
should share with the head of state, or delegate to him or to any other representative body. Muslim jurists
generally agree that there are certain major decisions which should be made through consultation among
the Muslims at all times. Chief among such decisions in the manner in which the government of a modern
Muslim state is to be established, that is the elective principle underlying governmental authority.
Shura Today its Need and Mode (Elections):
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The way of popular consultation (shura) of the Prophet (PBUH) and the four Caliphs were carried
out indirectly, undertaken by representatives of the people. That was the practice ctice of early Islamic
civilization and recognized by jurist in their reference to ahl al-hal wa a or ahl al-shura. The election of
the Caliphs was carried out according to circumstances prevailing at the time. It is impossible to expect
people living around the id le of seventh century A.D to hold the consultation of equal standard to
parliamentary discussion held today.
The main aim of representation in the political system is that the government should al remain in
touch with public opinions This principle must always be observed very strictly, no matter what form of
representation of the people is put in place. Every effort must is made to find a proper and effective
method of selection or election so that the community to able to play its proper role as the consultative
body of the government. Today, with advanced technology and world-wide communications, Muslims
must not imitate examples of fourteen centuries ego; that precedent and to were used due to unavailable
modern communication rather than that God has so ordered it. The Islamic law does not restrict Muslims
to certain methods, but gives them full freedom to select the technique will fulfill their ultimate desire to
invoke justice and equality through the use of consultation process (shura) in electing their representatives
as their leaders. Although this is a Western view but it is useful for us as Muslims to understand that
general elections facilitates political education, on the one hand, and the accountability of the leadership,
on the other. General elections provide the masses with an opportunity to remove leadership if it has lost
the people's confidence. Regular elections would keep the spirit of accountability alive in the nation and
would act as a safety valve against violence. If the door to a peaceful change of government were closed,
the masses would be compelled to adopt methods to bring about political change. We believed that any
attempt to obstruct the general election process in any Muslim country, would be tantamount to a virtual
defect of the Islamic political system.
SOURCES OF ISLAMIC LAW
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Introduction:
The Divine Law of Islam is called Shariah. Islam is a complete code of life: it covers all aspects
of human life and society. Hence Shariah is a comprehensive and complete scheme of life. As an author
puts it, “Islam is a religion of laws so comprehensive that it has rules for nearly every human activity,
personal and interpersonal, private and public. It sets rules for government, for fighting wars, and settling
disputes. It decrees who are not to marry and what foods not to eat. In other words, there is no area of life
which is not covered by the Divine Law or Sharjah.
Literal meaning of Shariah:
The word Shariah is derived from (Shara) which literally means "road to the word clear path to be
followed". It has been Sunnah of God to reveal a Sharjah for every individual and community as Allah
says in the Quran.
"For each one of you we have determined a Shariah --a way of life, a course of action"
"And for every community / nation, we have sent a guide (a Shana holder) "
Terminological meaning of Shariah:
i. An authority defined Sharriah as Islam Legal code as:
"Sharjah is a divine code revealed to humanity through the Prophet (PBUH) for determination of
articles of faith, deeds ordained by religion, cultivation of morality, establishment of family and
social life and for politics of the country."
ii. P.K.Hitti in his magnum opus "History of the Arabs" defines Sharjah as "the totality of Allah's
commandments as revealed in the Quran and elaborated in the Hadith. These commandments
embrace regulations relative to ritual and worship, civil and legal obligations and punishments,
revealed teaching and commandments are called Sharjah."
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Characteristics of the Shariah:
The Islamic Law or Sharjah possesses a number of special features/characteristics which are as under:
1. Perfection and Comprehensiveness:
The first characteristic of the Sharjah is its perfection and comprehensiveness, which
distinguishes it from the Western concept of .law. It applies itself to all human activities. As
Allah says in the Quran:
"He is Allah in the heavens and in the earth. He knoweth both your secrets and your utterance,
and He knoweth what ye earn". (6:3) The Shariah is an all-inclusive legislation. It is capable of
meeting all changes and all challenges of the Muslim, at individual and collective, level. It is a
perfect code of life, which makes it superior to all man-made codes of law.
2. Spiritual Loftiness:
The Shariah embodies spiritual loftiness. This characteristic is not and cannot be found in the
secular law of the West. Spiritual loftiness means that the injunctions of the Shariah always aim
at the good of the whole Muslim community and for the moral good and salvation of the
individual, for they are ordained by the Divine Supreme Being. The Sharjah always keeps the
door open for the eternal betterment of the Muslims and their community, keeping in view the
requirements of modern changing times.
3. Stability and Development:
Islamic Law combines the dual features of stability, on the one hand, and development or
change, on the other. This feature makes it at once a stable system of human relations and at the
same time capable of developing under the varied and changing conditions of Muslim life and
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society. In other words it is both rigid and elastic system of law. Its stability is derived from the
Commandments of the Quran and Sunnah, from which it originated and its elastic features come
from its interpretative principles of the Ijma, Ijtihad, Qiyas and Istihsqan, which will be explained
shortly. These dynamic features of Islamic Shariah make it responsive to the group requirements
at various places and in different ages. In short, the Shariah provides a permanent sacred
framework beyond which no Muslim can go. But at the same time it provides considerable
variation within these limits. The late Dr. I H. Qureshi, the well-known Pakistani political thinker,
has expressed the immutable and the dynamic features of the Shariah as thus
"The Shariah included within its fold three main principles: two immutable and one mutable.
The immutable principles are the Quran and the authentic Hadith of the Prophet (PBUH); the
latter according to the Muslims is not so much an enlargement as an interpretation of these
principles which has been arrived at by the application of human reason to apply them to the
changing needs of humanity in different conditions. It is wrong, therefore, to say that the Shariah
entirely immutable,"
Allama lqbal has termed ljtihad as the "the principle of movement in the structure of Islam"
since it ensures for changing in the Islamic code vis-a-vis requirements of modern times.
Basic Principles of the Shariah:
The following are the basic principles of the Shariah:
1. Submission and Obedience to will of Allah:
Islam, as its name shows us, is the religion of submission to the Will of Allah and obedience
of His commandments. The Quran expressly declares: "O ye believers! Obey Allah and obey
the Apostle and those in authority from among you; the if you quarrel about anything, refer it
to Allah and the Apostle, if you believe in Allah and the Day of Judgment; this is the better
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part and very good in the end." 14:59) It means that in respect of obedience, the first priority
goes to the commandments of Allah and next to the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Only in the third
instance are the rulers to be obeyed, provided their commands remain within the limits and
commandments of Allah and the Apostle as it has been said by the Prophet (PBUH): "The
obedience to the creature is prohibited if it leads towards disobedience of the creator."
2. Social Ethics:
Islam is the religion of morality. It enjoins upon the Muslims, amr' b'iI maruf wa’l nahi I
anil munkar', i.e. command to do what is good (maruf) and punish the wrong- doing. This s
essence of Islamic social ethics. The Islamic rulers are bound to enforce this divine
commandment.
3. AdI w'al Ehsan:
The Shariah is based on the principles of adl wal ehsan i-e. Justice and public good.
These principles have been repeatedly emphasized in the Quran and in the Hadith of the Holy
Prophet (PBUH). In the Quran, the principle of adl or justice is represented by the Mizan or
balance, whose two scales are held equal. Thus justice in Islam means to render the rights of
all persons equally and equitably. But Islam also enjoins that justice should be rendered with
Ehsan or in keeping with the good and welfare of all people. This principle is the basis of the
juristic principle of istihsan or juristic preference. It is the Islamic principle of equity. It
means that justice should be done in the manner as not to cause or injustice to others.
Sources of the Islamic Law or Shariah:
Fiqah or Islamic Jurisprudence has declared several sources of the Shariah. Dr. Mustafa Ahmed
Zarqa, an Egyptian authority on Islamic Law, has classified them into two kinds, namely fundamental and
Implicative. The fundamental sources are the original sources of Islamic Law, which can further be
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categorised into primary and secondary sources, while the implicative sources are implied, in or derived
from the fundamental sources. The fundamental sources are:
d. Primary sources of Islamic Shariah:
 The Quran;
 The Sunah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) e. Secondary sources of Islamic
Sharjah:
 ljma (consensus ) • Ittihad (independent reasoning /effort )
 Qiyas (analogy) f. The implicative sources of Islamic Shariah:
 Istislah (public good)
 Istihsan (public welfare)
 Masalih Marsalah (public weal)
 Urf (local culture/ indigenous practices )
a. Primary Sources of Shariah
i. The Quran :
The Quran is one of the primary sources of the Islamic Law. It contains many
commandments, injunctions, prescriptions and rules for the behaviour of relations between
individuals and groups. Addressing the Holy Prophet (PBUH) Allah Himself says in the Quran:
"And we have revealed the Scripture unto the only that thou may explain unto them that wherein
they differ, and (as) a guidance and a mercy for a people who believe. (16:64)
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Muhammad Hamidullah, the well-known Muslim scholar, writes 'The Quran seeks to guide man
in all walks of life, spiritual, temporal individual and collective. It contains directions for the
conduct of the head of state, as well as a simple commoner, of the nail as well as of the poor, for
peace as well as for war, for spiritual culture as fool commerce and material well-being."
Thus we find in the Quran such injunctions:
"These are the limits of Allah (Hadud Allah), so do not go near them"(2; 187) (These are the limits which
no one should transgress if he is not to be punished.
"And the recompense of evil is punishment like it, but whoever forgives and amends he should have his
reward from Allah, surely He does not love the unjust", (42:40)
"And not alike are the good and the evil, Repel evil with what is best.
"O you who believe! retaliation is prescribed for you in the matter of the slain: the free for the free, and
the slave for the slave, and the female for the female; but if remission is made to anyone by (aggrieved)
brother, then prosecution (for the blood money) should be made according to the usage, the payment
should be made to him in a good manner, this is an allowance from your Lord and a mercy; so whoever
exceeds the limits after this, he shall have painful chastisement."(33:96)
And there is life for you in (the law of) retaliation, 0 men of understanding, this you may guard
yourselves.”
ii. Sunnah
The second and equally important source of the Islamic Law is the Sunnah of the Holy
Prophet (PBUH). Literally, Sunnah means the path or the way of life. But in the technical
language of the fiqah, it means the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) only, and it is in this
sense it is used in the Shariah. The Sunnah is the lifestyle of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as
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recorded authentically in his sayings, actions, silent approvals, and his physical and moral
attributes before and after the revelation of the Quran. The Sunnah has legislative authority for
Muslims as do his sayings, actions, and silent approval after he was commissioned by Allah with
prophet hood.
The Sunnah consists of the sayings, deeds, and such words of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) which
were not the revelations of the Quran. The Sunnah is divided into three kinds:
 AI-Sunnah aI-Qawliyah or the sayings, statements and utterances of the Holy
Prophet (PBUH). They commonly offered to as traditions or Ahadith.
 AI-Sunnah al-Filiyah or the deeds and actions of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) they
consist of his actual performances, which are, therefore, examples for the
Muslims to follow.
 AI-Sunnah al-Taqririyah: they are those traditions of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
which he neither uttered in words, nor shown by his actions or deeds, but have
received his tacit approval. In other words, they are the deeds which were
performed in his lifetime and with his full knowledge and have therefore become
acceptable due to his silence/ tacit approval.
The Sunnah deals with such matters as revelation, knowledge, pilgrimage/ambulation and
cleanliness, prayers, funerals, taxes, trade and commerce, inheritance values and character and
conduct, administration of justice, marriage and divorce, distribution of a wealth, alms and
Sadaqat, responsibilities of the administrators, duties, and responsibilities of children towards
their parents, of the orphans, widows, etc
Compilation of Hadith:
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We may describe here a brief history of the Sunnah. The sayings and deeds of the Holy Prophet
(PBUH) were not recorded during his lifetime. The reason was that he had forbidden his Companions to
write or record them, so that they might not be mixed up with the Quranic revelations. He said, "Do not
write down my sayings. He who has quoted me in writing in other than Quran should delete what he had
written. But you are free to quote me orally.' It was only in the third century Hijra that the work of
compiling the. Hadiths of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) began. Many books of Hadiths were compiled,
including the two Sahihs or authentic compilations. The first was compiled by Abu Abdullah Muhammad
bin Ismail al-Bukhari (809-869) known as Sahih Bukhara and other by Abdul Husayn Muslim 'al-
Nishapuri (821-874) popularly known as Sahih Muslim. The work of compilation was undertaken with
great care and effort. S. Mahmassani writes, "The two compilers travelled to many provinces in their
search for traditions (hadiths) and were meticulous in their investigation of the correctness of the narrators
and the chain of authority. This earned their compilations the reputation of authenticity and reliance on
their correctness." The reason why the compilers took such great care and concern to collect accurate
hadiths was the fact that many false and spurious Ahadith had also got currency during the first two
hundred years when they were related orally from one generation to the other, Various rules were evolved
to test the accuracy and authenticity of the traditions so that to sift them from the false or fabricated
hadiths, As Mahmassani writes, "They (the compilers or muhadassin) established rules for the sifting and
scurting of the traditions and arranged them according to the degree of their authenticity into sahih
(authentic) hasan (good), gharib (strange), etc.
4. Sunan al-Sughra, collected by al-Nasa'i (d. 303 AH, 915 CE)
5. Sunan ibn Majah, collected by Ibn Majah (d. 273 AH, 887 CE)
The first two, commonly referred to as the Two Sahihs as an indication of their authenticity, contain
approximately seven thousand ahadith altogether if repetitions are not counted, according to Ibn Hajar.
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b. Secondary Sources:
Up to now we have considered the immutable and unchangeable sources of the Islamic Law. We
shall now consider the more flexible sources. They are ijma, ijtihad. and qiyas. Infact, they are not
sources of the Sharjah, rather methods of interpreting the two primary sources, Quran and Sunnah.
i. Ijma:
Ijma means the general agreement or consensus among the Muslim community about any matter
affecting the Muslims in the light of the Quran and Sunnah. It is one of the methods of the filth or
Islamic jurisprudence For instance, the institution of the khilafat (caliphate) was the result of the
consensus or ijma of the early Muslims soon after the death of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) Ijma is
supported by a saying of the Holy Prophet (PBUH): "My ummat will never be united on error", Some
of the Islamic jurists or fuqaha are of the opinion that the ijmah is the voice of the ummah through the
ulema,
ii. Qiyas:
Qiyas is another important source of law, the word `Qiyas' literally means "comparing with" or
"judging by comparing with a thing." Qiyas is "a process of deduction by which the law of a text is
applied to cases which, though not concerned by the language, are governed by the reason of the
text." It is generally described as analogical deductions. It is an analogical deduction from the three
sources of law, namely, the Quran, the Sunnah and Ijma. Abu Hanifa, one of the four great Imams
used to make great use of Qiyas.
Qiyas is used in those cases which are not discussed in the Quran or in the Sunnah 01 in the Ijma.
For instance, when the Prophet (PBUH) was sending Muaz bin Jabal as a Governor, lie asked him as
to what he would do if a new problem arose He said that he would follow the Quran; if it is not clear
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in the Quran he would follow the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH) and if the Sunnah of the Prophet
(PBUH) failed to satisfy him, he would use his own judgment. The Prophet (PBUH) appreciated his
reply and encouraged him to exercise his individual ju dgment.
iii. Ijtihad:
Literally ijtihad means striving or searching But in the technical language of the fiqah and
Sharjah, it means the striving to interprets the nusus of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet
(PBUH) in order to adopt them to the new conditions of the Muslim life and society, but within the
precedents laid down by the earlier Mujtahids, and fuqaha, especially of the four schools or mazhabs
of the fiqh. Ijtihad is of two kinds: utihad mutlaq and Ijtihad muqaiyyid. ljtihad mutlaq is one in
which interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah is dependent of the opinions and judgments of the
earlier jurists and their precedents. In ljtihad muqaiyyid, the scope of interpretation is within the
decisions of opinions of the founding fuqaha. When Ijtihad is a personal opinion of the mujtihid, it is
known as raj'.
C. Implicative Sources of Shariah:
I. Istihsan:(Juristic Preference upheld By Hanfi Fiqah)
lstihsan means juristic preference: it means the application of discretion in juristic opinion,
preferring one of the two possibilities which make for greater public good.
II. Istislah: (Public Good upheld By Hunbli Fiqah) Istislah means decision which will serve the
public good even though such a decision is not mentioned in the Quran or Sunnah.
III. Masaleh Marsalah: (Public Welfare upheld By Malik' Fiqah) Masaleh Marsalah refers to
giving preference to those legal decisions which lead to public good and social welfare.
IV. Urf(local culty:ei indigenous practices )
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Urf is the common practice among the Muslim community (Ummah) as their common habit
or 'aada. The ulema of the Arab countries have applied this method In the evolution of Islamic
Law in their countries like Egypt, Syria, Libya, Morocco, Algeria etc,
Importance of Ijtihad:
In our brief survey of the evolution of the Shariah above, we have said it was perfected by the
great fuqaha from about the ninth to twelfth centuries A.D it then ceased to develop further owing to the
doctrine of to lid. Taiglid means to follow the precedents of the great jurists of the past as the
unchallengeable legal authority. It was then declared that the "doors of the ijtihad are closed" and
therefore further interpretation of the Quran and Sunnah Was not permissible. The result was that the
Sharjah remained static for about eight hundred years. But from the middle of the eighteenth century the
doctrine of taqlid began to be questioned first by Shah Wali Ullah in the post-Mughal India and more so
in Ottoman Turkey from the end of the nineteenth century and lastly in Egypt in the beginning of the
twentieth century, and in other Arab lands by Muhammad Abduh, Rashid Riza and others and by Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan in British India during the second half of the nineteenth century. Now it is increasingly felt
that the doors of ijtihad should be reopened. But the question is: how?
Two Schools of Mujtahideen:
There are two schools of mujtahideen or interpretations: one of them favors ijtihad muqaiyyid or
limited ijtihad and the other favours ijtihad mutlaq or independent interpretation, not bound by the
opinions of the earlier mujtahideen, especially of the Middle Ages. It is the second school of ijtihad
mutlaq which asserts that the doors of ijtihad are open and innovations in the Islamic law are possible.
Provided one remains with the injunctions and ahkam of the Quran and Sunnah. This school asserts that
ijtihad has become important in the modern times due to the needs of the present time such' as economic,
social and political, changes in order that the Muslim community may become a powerful force in the
modern times.
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Shah Wali Ullah (1703-1762) was the first Muslim thinker to propound a theory of cautious
exercise of ijtihad. He was deeply perturbed by the decline of the Mughal Rule and by the threat to the
Indian Muslims by the rise of the Marhatta power and was deeply touched by the social, economic,
political and military plight of the Muslims of his times. Though he remained within the limits of Muslim
fiqh or jurisprudence, he yet asserted the need to apply the principle of maslaha or public good to the
problems confronting the Muslim community. Accordingly he favored individual judgment or Rai' but
within narrowly circumscribed kitihad. Consequently, he appealed to the prophetic tradition (hadith)
instead of to following the opinions of the earlier jurists on basis of the doctrine of taqlid. He thus
advocated for reopening of doors of ijtihad.
Allama lqbal, the greatest thinkers of modern Islam, asserts that utihad can be undertaken not only by an
individual jurist but also by an assembly Emphasizing the dynamism and flexibility of Islam he defended
the assumption of the Caliphate (khilafat) by the Grand National Assembly of modern Turkey as utihad.
He said:
"Let us now see how the Grand National Assembly (GNA) has exercised this power of ijtihad in regard to
the institution of the Caliphate. According to Sunni Law the appointment of an Imam or Khalifa is
absolutely indispensable. The question that arises in this connection is that the Caliphate or Imamate be
vested in a single person? Turkey's ijtihad is that according to the spirit of Islam the Caliphate or Imamate
can be vested in a body of persons, an elected Assembly. Personally, I believe the Turkish view is
perfectly sound. It is hardly necessary to argue this point. The republican form of government is not only
thoroughly consistent with the spirit of Islam, but has also become a necessity in view of the new forces
that are set free in the world of Islam."
He further said that:
ljma (consensus) can take the form of ijtihadi legislation. He writes, 'The transfer of the power of ijtihad
(independent judgment) from the individual representation of the scholars (Ulema) to a Muslim
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Legislative Assembly is the only possible form ijma can take in modern time. “Thus according to him the
Sharjah will be as defined by a legislature in the Islamic State."
ADMINISTRATION UNDER PIOUS CALIPHATE
Introduction:
The period of pious caliphs began with the succession of Hazrat Abdu Bakr (R.A) in 632 and
ended with the assassination of Hazrat Ali (R.A) in 661. Administration under Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A)
lasted two years and it followed the pattern of Holy Prophet (PBUH). Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) was strict
follower and imitator of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). He practiced accountability to the fullest extent. It is
narrated that when Muadh ibn Jabal, Governor of Yemen, came from the region, Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A)
made him accountable for every item as income and expense. Hazrat Umar (R.A) succeeded Hazrat Abu
Bakr (R.A) and built up a great Islamic administrative system. He introduced administrative and reforms
and incorporated concepts which have been incorporated as new to present day administrative theory and
practice. He developed and modernized the whole realm of Islam. He made the public administrators as
the servants of the people, when he said: "Listen, verily I am not sending you as rulers and potentates;
rather I am sending you as the leaders of guidance so that men may follow you. Render unto the Muslims
you as the leaders of guidance so that men may follow you. Render unto the Muslims their rights; beat
them not lest you humiliate them, praise them not lest you make them undisciplined. Do not shut yours
doors against them, lest the strong among them devour the weak ones. "
The third caliph, Usman followed in Umar's footsteps in the conduct of government and administration,
until he became too old and too weak to supervise his aids and governors. Consequently state officials
became independent and the administration became loose in the last years of his region. However he
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retained the policy of accountability of the state of officials on the occasion of Hajj every year, and
redressed the grievances of the people on the spot.
Ali was the fourth Caliph. The unfortunate civil war among the Muslims took more of his time than he
did government and administration. His letter to the Governor of Egypt reflected his philosophy of
administration, politics, justice, public service and so on. The letter deals with the duties and obligations
of ruler and administration: their chief authorities and responsibilities; their relations with secretaries and
subordinate staff; the distribution of work and duties among various branches of administration; their
coordination of each other and cooperation with central government. The letter also advises against
corruption, calls for administrative probity, urges effectiveness and efficiency and asks the Chief
Governor to fight oppression among the officers, to curb the evils of profiteering, hoarding, and black
marketing. It discusses the principle of equitable distribution of wealth and opportunities, the upbringing
of orphans; the maintenance of the deformed, crippled, and persons unfit for work; and rights and
obligations of the rulers and the ruled.
The organization of the Central Government under the Pious Caliphs was simple. It had no Government
departments or agencies. It consisted of the Caliph, who was the Head of the State, a Shura or a
consultative council, and a few secretaries, to help the Caliph in certain specified duties of the State.
The Caliph:
The Caliph was the supreme Head of the State, elected by the people or designated by the dying
caliph. Hazrat Abu Bakr was elected by the people and Hazrat Umar was nominated Hazrat Abu Bakr
(R.A) and people gave nod of approval to his nomination There were no constitutional or political
restrictions on his authority. But it was not unlimited, or autocratic, for the Caliph had to exercise it
within the laws and injunctions of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH). Later, it also
became binding on the Caliph to follow the traditions of the first two Caliphs, Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A),
and Hazrat Umar (R.A).
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His powers and authority:
The pious Caliph was not an autocratic Ruler. His powers were determined by his religious and
temporal functions. Though he succeeded to the place, occupied by the Prophet (PBUH) before, he did
not exercise all of his powers. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) was simultaneously the Prophet or a messenger
of God, the head of the State, the chief judge, the supreme commander and the lawgiver. Thus he
combined in him prophetic and political, spiritual and secular powers. The Khalifa, as his successor, did
not succeed to the whole Plenum of his powers. Being the Last of the Prophets, he could not be succeeded
by anyone ! n his prophetic and spiritual functions, but only in his political, religious and secular ones.
Succession to Muhammad (PBUH) meant succession to the sovereignty of the State." Caliph's functions
may be summarized as religious, political, legislative, administrative, judicial and military.
Other Powers:
The Caliph was the Head of State. He was the supreme commander of the Islamic armies. He sent
armies against foreign States, appointed commanders, and even instructed them in the conduct of
hostilities, as Umar did. The Caliph usually consulted the Companions and advisers in the choice of his
military commanders as well as in undertaking new military operations and in the dispatch of Muslim
armies. Though diplomatic relations between various States and empires did not exist in a permanent
manner in those days, the Caliph sent emissaries to foreign countries and received foreign emissaries, if
need arose. The Caliph also acted as the chief justice. All judicial functions of settling disputes were
performed by the Caliph, or by his Governors and commanders in the Provinces. Lastly, the Caliph
supervised the collection of revenues, looked after the construction of canals, and other public works, and
even issued new coins. In fact, Friday Sermon and currency were two privileges and symbols of the
authority of the Caliph. However, the Pious Caliphs consulted their Shura, especially the first two
Caliphs, in the performance of their functions and powers.
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The Shura:
Another democratic feature of the Pious Caliphate was its consultative body, called the Shura or
Majlis-e-Shura The Caliphs consulted it in all matters of State. The Holy Quran enjoined the Muslims to
discuss, sift and conduct consultation with others. The Prophet (PBUH) consulted his Companions in
matters not within Quranic revelations. In this respect he followed the Arab tribal customs, according to
which the tribal chief consulted the leading figures in his tribe or clan in matters of war or peace. For this
purpose, a Majlis existed in Arab tribes, which consisted of the heads of the families and representatives
of clans within the tribe.
Its Composition:
No definite rule or law regulated the composition and membership of the Shura. Usually Shura
comprised the Chief Companions among the Muhajireen. But sometimes the leading figures among the
Ansar were also co-opted. On ordinary occasions, even ordina citizens of Medina or the visiting
dignitaries of the tribes or Provinces, were also summoned to a meeting of the Shura. Thus the Shura was
at once an executive council, a secretariat of the Caliphs, a consultative council and a general assembly of
the citizens and visitors of Medina. In this sense, it combined executive and legislative functions of the
Caliphal State.
Its Functions:
As its composition shows, the Shura was a multi-purpose organization. It advised the Caliph in
the performance of his various duties, such as the dispatch of armies, choice of commanders, Governors
and other officials, fixing the salary of the soldiers, establishment of new offices, etc. It was, however, not
a sovereign legislative body. Like the Caliph, it too had no power to change Islamic law or contravene the
injunctions of the Quran and Sunnah. Indeed, a sovereign legislative organ of the State was foreign to the
spirit of early Islam. Law was already revealed in the Quran and exemplified in the Sunnah of the Prophet
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(PBUH). The function of the Shura, as also of the Caliph or of any other Muslim, was to discover or
derive it by interpreting the verse of the Quran and the hadiths of the Prophet (PBUH).
Its procedure of work was simple. If the advice of the leading Companions was sought by the
Caliph, he consulted them in the Mosque, where they were always present But if public consultation was
felt necessary, a man was sent through the streets of Medina calling people to the prayers. When
assembled, a brief prayer was observed and then the business of the general Shura began. The Caliph put
the question before the assembly and sought its advice. Every member had the right to speak. A free
exchange of opinion took place. But decision was not made by counting votes or by shouting "yes or no"
as in present-day legislatures. They usually accepted the opinion of the Caliph or the general consensus of
opinion among its members.
Its ad hoc nature:
The Shura was really ad hoc in its nature, as indicated by the lack of definite rules regarding its
composition, functions and procedure. Its meetings were not held regularly under set rules, but depended
upon the wishes of the Caliph. That is why the Shura worked well under a Caliph like Umar, who
summoned it whenever he was confronted with an Important task But it ceased to meet regularly under
his successors, Usman (R.A) and Ali (R.A) Usman (RA) dispensed with it during the last years of his
Caliphate, when he began to rely more on his relatives than on the advice of the Companions and citizens
of Medina Hazrat All (R.A) also did not summon it regularly, for he relied more on his own decision than
on the advice and consultation of the Companions and citizens of Medina. In short, the Caliphate of Umar
was the hey-day of the democratic institutions, like the Shura. They gradually declined under his two
successors and then vanished altogether under Muawiya am his Umayyad successors.
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4. Central Government:
The central government was very strong during under pious caliphate. There were many
departments:
I. Diwan-ul-Kharaj: All the functions of treasury were carried out, taxes were collected,
expenditure were Incurred and payment of salaries of public servants were issued, by
the Diwan-al-Khara
II. Diwan-ul-Jund: It was established by the Caliph Umar became more concerned with
the affairs of military — for example, listing the troops, distributing payments and so
forth
III. Diwan-al-Khatm: It was established in order to keep copies of each letter and
document after the original were checked, sealed and dispatched.
IV. Diwan-al-Mustaghallast: It was established to administer state land in government
properties and their rent.
V. Diwan-al-Barid: It was responsible for delivering official letters and messages
throughout the empire It also worked as an intelligence service for the Chief
Executive.
VI. Diwan-alaRasail: It was charged with writing letters to governors, officials of state
and foreign kings and emperors.
VII. Diwan-al-Hisbah: It was designed to promote good and prevent evils, as outlined in
the Islamic ethical code. The Muhtasib was entrusted with the maintenance of public
morals and standards in the country. His functions were to detect and punish
immorality, the use of false weights and measures, the adulteration of wares and
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similar offences, and generally to enforce the Islamic rules pertaining to honesty,
propriety and hygiene. The primary responsibility of Muhtasib was to see that the life
of the people was not contaminated with un-Islamic beliefs and practices.
5. Secretaries:
There were no departments of the State under the Pious Caliphs. The administration was
conducted under the direct personal supervision of the Caliph. But as the duties and functions of
the Caliph increased, he secured the help and co-operation of a Companion ora citizen in various
works of the Government. Thus Umar acted as the Chief Judge under Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A).
AM was entrusted with the work of correspondence. Another Companion presided over the
equipment of the troops. As in the days of the Holy Prophet (PBUH), the secretaries and
assistants of the Caliph worked in the courtyard of the Mosque of Medina.
6. Provincial Administration:
Hazrat Umar (R.A) divided the whole Islamic Khilafat (i.e., Islamic State) into various
provinces each with a capital. The title of the provincial Governor was "Wall”, who was the chief
administrator and florally the supreme Commander of the armed forces of that province. In each
province there were usually following officers besides the Governor:
 The Treasury Officer (Sahib-i-Baitul-Mal)."
 The Revenue Collector (Sahib-i-Kharan)
 The chief police officer (Sahib-i-Ahdath) Ave
 The Judge (al-Qazi)
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In those provinces where the governor was not holding the office of the commander of armed
forces, a separate commander was appointed. For example, in the beginning in of Hazrat Amar ibn Yasir
(R.A) was the "Wali" (the Governor) Usman ibn Hanif (R.A) was the revenue collector, Abdullah ibn
Masud was the treasury officer, Shuraih was the Judge and Khazai was Secretary of D fence (Le.,
Diwan). Usually the officers were appointed after consultation with the "Shura".
District Administration:
The provinces were divided into districts Each district was administered by an officer called
'Amir'. All the governors and the high officers of the province were called to Makkah every year on the
occasion of Hajj when Muslims from the entire area gathered there. Complaints against them were
recorded by the Khalifah Enquires were made and grievances were removed. All the officers were paid
high salaries so that they may not indulge in bribery and corruption.
Judiciary:
The judicial functions were entrusted to Qazis (judges). A Qazi was completely free of executive
administration. On a number of occasions the Khalifah (Hazrat Umar (R.A)) himself appeared before a
Qazi to defend himself in some cases. The provincial Qazis were completely independent of the
provincial governors. The Qazis were paid good salaries so that there might not be even a slightest chance
of bribery. The monthly salary of Qazis like Hazrat Salman (R.A), Rabi'ah and Shuraih (R.A) were 500
Dirhams. The monthly salary of Hazrat Amir Mu'awiya (R_A) was 1000 Dirhams. "Umar (R.A) was the
first ruler in Islam' "say Ameer Ali, "to fix salaries for judges and to make their offices distinct from the
executive officers."
The Qazis appointed by Hazrat Umar (R.A) among the most pious, truthful and trustworthy
Muslims of his period. Besides being pious, they were also great jurists and scholars. The Qazi of Medina
was Hazrat Zaid bin Thabet (the scribe of Wahy' Revelation). There were two Qazis at Kufa, Hazrat
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Abdullah bin Masud and Hazrat Shuriah (R.A) other Qazis during the Caliphate of Hazrat Umar (R.A)
were: Salman bin Rabe; Abdur Rahman bin R Imran bin hiasin, Abu Maryam, and Jamil bin al-Umar etc.
(R.A).
Police:
In general, the security of life and property was the responsibility of the tribal chiefs. cities. like
Medina, Flazarat Umar had introduced night-watches and patrols. But in the founded cities and towns,
where a growing population lived amidst conditions of rapids change, the tribal authority was sometimes
weak or partisan to be effective, and night.- watchmen too few to restrain trouble-makers and evil-doers.
Hence a police force was set up to maintain law and order in these settlements It was called ash-Shurta It
was a sort of Paramilitary force, It was first instituted In Kufa by Ali and in Damascus by Muawiya. In
Kufa, for instance, the Shurta consisted of several thou mm command of an officer, called Sahib-ash-
Shurta or commandant of Police. Caliph Umar was also the first to set up prisons, which were unknown
to Arabs before. He established a prison in Medina and in each of the provincial headquarters.
Revenue Administration:
Islam sanctioned five sources of revenue to the State. They were: Zakat, Jizya, Kharaj, Khums,
and Usher. In the days of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and organized into a regular a more of the system of
administration. These were promptly distributed among the people as soon as these were received. But
with the great conquests under Umar and the vast expansion Islamic empire, they rapidly increased in
volume and regularity, which necessitated systematic organization. Consequently Hazrat Umar undertook
the task of organizing revenue administration on the principles of Islam and the precedents of the Prophet
(PBUH) and Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A). He also introduced new taxes like merchandise on Non-Muslims.
These were the sources of revenue under pious caliphate:
Following were the main sources of revenue.
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a. Jaya (Indemnity or Defence Tax);
b. Zakat (Poor tax);
c. Khiraj (Land tax);
d. Ushr (Special land tax on Non-Muslims);
e. Booty (Income from the conquered places);
f. Tax on non-Muslim merchants or traders (because they did not pay Zakat).
Bayt al-Mal:
Hazrat Umar (R.A) established the first Public Treasury in Medina (15 A.H. /636 A.D.); under
the supervision of Abdullah bin al-Arqam, as Sahib-al-Bayt-al-Mal, Chief Treasury Officer, and his two
assistants. Later, public treasuries were set up in all the provincial headquarters. Out of the receipt of a
provincial treasury, the expenses and salaries of provincial administration and public works were first
disbursed, and the surplus was forwarded to the Central Treasury at Medina. The provincial treasury
officers were at first responsible for their work to the provincial Governor. But when a Governor
misappropriated public funds, Usman made the treasury officers directly responsible to the Caliph.
Military Organization under Pious Caliphs:
In the beginning of the Pious Caliphate, the Arabs possessed nothing in the art of warfare except
their martial spirit and discipline infused by the Prophet (PBUH) and Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) One of the
biggest achievements of HazratUmar (R.A) was to keep regular armies of the State. He encouraged
Muslims to join the regular forces whenever the need arose. For the first time in the history of Islam all
irregular armies or mercenaries were divided into clear-cut classes of regular and irregular armies. The
army personnel were well paid and their families also got allowances. Separate registers for regular and
irregular armies were maintained. In order to keep military tradition of the Muslims, Hazrat Umar
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(RA) did not allow) the army personnel to held land in the conquered territories, which might have
military powers of Muslim soldiers.
Cantonments were built for soldiers where they lived in accordance with Islamic practices.
Central cantonments were built in the following places Medina, Kufa, Basrah, Mousal, Fustat,
Damascus, Hims (Horns), Jordan, Palestine and Ramla. Besides the commanding officer, the army had
translators, Doctors, Surgeon's and Detectives. Each corps of soldiers was headed by an officer known as
"Arief' where his duty was to distribute the dress and other necessities. The non-commissioned officers of
every ten soldiers were known as "Amirul A'shar". Minimum salary of soldier was 200 to 300 Dirhams
annually besides his personal necessities and allowances given to his family absence. Some officers got
salaries ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 Dirhams annually. No regular military personnel were allowed to
do business or agriculture. It was compulsory for every soldier to be trained in swimming, riding, and
walking barefooted besides other military training. The army was generally divided into cavalry and
infantry.
Each central cantonment had at least four thousand horses for the cavalry. Stables were provided
with big pastures. Special care was taken of the horses. There were big canaries in cantonments to supply
food to the military personnel. Special arrangements were made to protect the frontiers. Hazrat Abdullah
bin Qaish was the officer incharge of this branch. He built a number of fortresses in the frontier region.
Once the number of soldiers in all the Islamic armies was counted and it was found that about one
million equipped soldiers were present in all the regular and irregular armies. This was done after the
Muslims had conquered the Persian Empire and a major part of Byzantium, otherwise in the beginning a
number was for less as mentioned in connection with the various battles that took place during the time of
Hazrat Umar (R.A). As a matter of fact Umar (R.A) made every Muslim a soldier and everyone was
anxious to fight in the path of Allah Non-Muslims were also included in the army. It is wrong to say that
only Arabs were in the army because among Muslims they there were a number of non-Arab races
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commonly known as "Ajamis" who accepted Islam during the time of Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) and Hazrat
Umar (R.A) and took part in Jihad (Holy War).
The Mail System was very efficient. Suitable persons were appointed to carry mail from the army
to Medina and vice versa. The Caliph (Hazrat Umar (R.A)) used to direct the army from Medina. The
Khalifah, was the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He delegated his powers to a nominated
commander-in-chief of each army or province. These commanders were always in touch with Khalifah
and took instruction from him. The most important thing which could be noted during the time of Hazrat
Umar (R.A) was a regular military code. No soldier, whose family was not residing in the cantonment,
was allowed to be away from his family for more than four months After four months they could visit
their homes on holidays. The same code was also applied to those civil servants whose families were
away from them.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF CIVIL SERVANTS IN ISLAM
Introduction:
In public administration all the key public functionaries ought to be people of high caliber, just
and energetic and must possess qualities of head and heart. In the words of fourth rightly guided Caliph
Hazrat Ali (RA) they should have the qualities of refinement, experience, alertness, power of
comprehending problems, serenity, freedom from greed and lust A civil servant in Islam is a publically
responsible person. He has been entrusted with great responsibilities amongst them the more important
are to implement law and order, to dispense justice, to collect zakat and other taxes etc. Hazrat Abu Bakar
(R.A) when assumed the caliphate is repeated to have said:
"The chief of a nation is its servant"
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"In my sight, the powerful and the weak are alike and to both I wish to render justice".
This shows the democratic, responsible, responsive, justice-centered, based-on-rule-(ir law nature of
public administration and its functionaries in Islam:
Perhaps the most exhaustive work on Islamic ethics of administration and qualities of administrator is by
a Pakistani specialist on public administration Shaukat Ali. His book “Administrative Ethics in a Muslim
State" offers a comprehensive survey of instructions in the Qur'an and "Traditions" on the subject. The
other monumental work on Islamic system of administration is by Dr, Mohammad Al Burray of Medina
University. The book is titled "Administrative Development: An Islamic perspective.
A careful analysis of principles of administration and qualities/responsibilities of a administrator from
Islamic point of view would show that man's personal character is the key to good governance. The
responsibilities of servant are given below:
I. To uphold the Islamic religion and Shariah:
His first duty is to uphold the Islamic religion or Shariah, as understood a propounded on the
basis of the concept of the ancient authorities. If anyone makes innovation or become skeptic in
religious matters, the imam should try to correct him and make him to every
II. To dispense justice:
He must dispense justice and settle the cases in accordance with the Sharjah. He should thus curb
the strong and encourage the weak to seek his due right.
III. To maintain law & order:
He must maintain law and order in the country, so as to encourage economic activities and enable
people to travel freely in the land without fear.
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IV. To enforce criminal code of Islamic law:
He should enforce the criminal code of the Quran, so that people might live within the Hudud of
Allah.
V. To aid the state and its leader in defending its frontiers
He must defend the frontiers of the Islamic State, so that people, Muslims and non-Muslims, might
live in peace and harmony.
VI. To collect Zakat and other taxes:
A civil servant must collect/aide to collect Zakat and other tans without any fail as this is essential for
financial aspect of good governance.
VII. To protect weak against the strong:
It is the duty of the social servant collects Zakat and Kharaj, as required by the injunctions of the
Sharjah, but without resorting to pressure or extortion.
VIII. To ensure rule of law
any Law expressly stated in the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). In the
enforcement of Law, the ruler and the ruled are alike, both being subject to it. Umar punished his son
who committed adultery with a hundred stripes and he died during the punishment and a few
remaining stripes were lashed on to his dead body. The law does not discriminate between the high
and the low or between friend and foe but treats them all alike. "He is God Who has sent His
Messenger with Guidance and the Right Way so that He may make it prevail over other ways, even
though the unbelievers may not like it" Siipreme Authority of .. Divine Law m an Islamic society. (9:
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33). This verse establishes the inviolability of the Law for all time and no one can oppose this
Supreme Authority of the Divine Law in an Islamic society.
IX. To initiate works of public welfare:
He should appoint honest and sincere men to the principle offices of the state and to the treasury
(Bayt ul Mal) in order to ensure good and effective administration and to safeguard the finance of the
stated inflate public welfare society.
X. To establish and maintain educational institution:
The Imam should keep himself informed of the affairs of his State and he should himself direct
the national policy and protect the interests of the people. However, he could delegate his
responsibilities to others and engross himself in luxury or religious devotion.
XI. To ensure price control and curb monopolistic practices
XII. To enforce public morality
XIII. To do Amr Bil Maruf Wa Nahi and Munkar
XIV. To carry out whatever the functions state and its rule assign to him provided that it is not
repugnant to Islam
Responsibilities of Civil Servants as advocated by Caliph Umar:
A civil servant is to entertain the complaints of people and his doors should be open to all and
sundry. Since Islamic system is democratic in nature and is based on Sharjah and the Sunnah, there is
no place in this system for dictatorial leadership, authoritarian attitude and one man decision-making.
This is the principle which forms a constant current in Islamic system of administration. The system
is human in nature, content and application. When Hazrat Umar (R.A) would appoint a governor, he
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would invariably advise the incumbent Not to make reception halls so that you are accessible to
everyone not to eat refined flour as it is not available to all citizens of the Ummah, not to wear thin
cloth because this would make you easy going and not to ride a Turkish horse because this would
make you haughty".
Responsibilities of Civil Servants as enshrined by Caliph Ali:
The following advice to the Governor (Wall) Mali Alk-Ashtar contained in a letter of Hazrat All
(R.A) gives in a nutshell the qualities and responsibilities of an administrator.
1. He should be an ideal for his staff and fellow citizens and choose the most qualified yet pious,
honest, truthful and God-fearing men for his administrative structure.
2. He should be impartial and dispense justice with equity and should be very careful about the back
biters, sycophants, corrupt and scandal mongers. He should constantly remain in contact with his
staff consult them and should not issue authoritative and arbitrary orders.
3. He should strike against corruption, injustice and evil usages of authority against citizens and take
responsibility for any defect in his subordinates and staff. He should not reserve for himself or his
relatives any common property in which others have share and stake.
4. If studied carefully, this letter of Hazrat Ali (R.A) (text available in Nahjul Balagha) is a blueprint
for efficient administration. It is based on the golden principles of Islam. The emphasis is on the
character of the administrators.
5. They should continuously watch that justice, social equity and honesty prevail in the society and
conduct themselves as servants of the people and trustees of state and of those be them in
command as well as the public in general. They should love their fellow citizen as they love
themselves and their families and not behave like rulers.
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Conclusion:
We conclude our subject discussion on the sermon of Hazrat Umar (RA) which he delivered at
the time of assumption of caliphate: "By God, he that is weakest among you, should be in my sight
the strongest until I have vindicated for him his right: but him that is strongest which I treat as the
weakest, until he complies with the law".
Encyclopedia Britannica remarked on it as:
"It would be impossible to give a better general definition of the function of the state and its
functionaries’ civil servants, caliph/head of state being the prime civil servant.
SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTABILITY (HISBAH) IN ISLAM
"Be afraid, from the curse of the oppressed as there is no screen between his invocation and Allah."
Introduction:
Accountability is the backbone of Islamic public administration. The concept of accountability in
Islam is of dual nature: that public servants are accountable for the conduct of their affairs before public
as well as Allah. The concept acts as a great moral and psychological binding on the civil servant in order
that they may dispense their duties with diligence and justice.The Holy Prophet (PBUH) introduced the
concept of Hisbah (Accountability). In this system of public administration, even the head of an Islamic
state is not above law and is accountable.
Accountability (Hisbah) in Quran:
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In the Holy Qur'an, the word Hisab is repeated more than eight times in different verses Hisab or
'account' is the root of accounting, and the references in the Holy Qur'an are to 'account' in its generic
sense, relating to one s responsibility to 'account' to God on all matters relating to human effort for which
every Muslim is 'accountable'. The Muslims believe in the terms of accountability that they will be judged
for whatever they do in this world in the hereafter (life after death). In Islam, It's the duty of each Muslim
to fulfill the wills of Allah in order to seek his pleasure and the promised rewards in the life after death.
Thus, it requires every action and word in this world must be in line with the Islamic teachings. It does
not matter what action the Muslims do either ibadah (Salat) or purchasing shares in the stock market,
eating , sleeping like daily jobs they must follow the Islamic teaching framework carefully. The
importance of accountability to the man's life also has been mentioned by Holy Quran:
"Lo the hearing and the sight and the heart — of each of these will be asked" (Quran, Bani Israill, 17:36)
Accountability (Hisbah) in Hadith:
The Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said:
Abu Sa'id Khudre (R.A) relates that he heard the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) say: 'He who from
among you observes something evil, should change it with his hand; if he is unable to do that he should
condemn it with his tongue; if he is unable to do that he should at least resent it in his heart, this is the
lowest degree of faith' (Muslim).
The concept of accountability has been enunciated in the following Hadith of the Holy Prophet (PBUH):
"The Prophet (PBUH) said, "All of you are guardians and are responsible for your wards".”The ruler is a
guardian and the man is a guardian of his family; the lady is a guardian and is responsible for her
husband's house and his offspring, and so all of you are guardians and are responsible for your wards."
Ibn Al-Ukhuwwa, a famous Muslim scholar, remarked on the concept of accountability:
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"Accountability is one of the fundamentals of the religion and that has a general welfare and great virtue
as ordained and inhibited by Allah for the reformation of the general masses."
Hisba and Muhtasib:
I. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, function of Hisba (i.e. accountability) is the
supervision of moral behavior of the public and other segments of society. The person
entrusted with the Hisba is called the Muhtasib (i.e. Ombudsman). Muhtasib is an institution
of great importance in Islamic Administrative System. This institution invigilates excesses
and unlawful activities of government officers towards off public. Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) was the first Ombudsman of the world who introduced the institution of the
Muhtasib and provided justice to the down-trodden people. He (PBUH) kindled the light of
justice throughout the world. The institution of Muhtasib is one of the most distinctive
features of socio-administrative history of Islam. This institution ceased to exist by the end of
the 19th century as an office of public conscience and morality. Nevertheless, it left behind a
trial of golden traditions. The institution of Hsba was a Muslim contribution to the human
civilization.
II. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) established the Mazalim Courts to handle the grievances of the
people. Famous orientalist G.E. Grunebaum termed these courts as Courts of Tort. In Islamic
system of administration no one is above law. Even the head of state id accountable if his acts
are beyond his jurisdiction. Similarly, the judiciary, the armed the faces and other segments
of society are accountable if they act ultra vires.
Muhtasib (ombudsman) Today: Cornerstone of Accountability:
The office of Ombudsman was instituted in Denmark, Norway, Finland, New Zealand, Philippines,
Great Britain and New York State. The Swedish and Finnish officers have a more comprehensive
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jurisdiction, including the supervision of the courts, than the Danish and Norwegian officials. Sweden
and Norway have special Military Ombudsmen with jurisdiction over armed forces.
The concept of the office of Muhtsib is deep rooted in Islamic history A King of Sweden is said to
have taken this concept from Turkey during his tour there. Thus was born the office of Ombudsman
in modern times Now most of the countries of the world have this office. In Pakistan both the
Constitution of 1962 and 1973 provided for the appointment of Ombudsman. However, it was by a
Presidential Order in January, 1983, that the office of the Macy Muhtasib was established.
Administrative Accountability:
I. The success of government depends not only on the efficiency of its officials but also on their
accountability. A public official should not only be responsible in the sense of being
technically competent but also in the sense of being accountable to the people.
II. Dr. S.M. Haider says: "Modern interest in administrative accountability developed as a
protest to corruption and as a response to the expansion of public functions. With a switch
over from a military to people's regime, a new type of service is needed that could provide
integrity, political accountability and efficiency. The idea of the civil service with "negative
approach" of punishment and sanctions is being replaced by the "positive civil service", a
concept fully in keeping with the requirements of the people's government. The government
is expected to protect its citizen against exploitation."
III. Administrative accountability may mean that the official is responsible to the will of someone
else. The will of the State is in fact the will of government as that will is accepted by the
citizens over whom it rules. The will of the State cannot be an irresponsible will. Every
government must submit itself to the judgment of those who feel the consequences of its acts.
He reason for such submission is the fact that uncontrolled power has always proved
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disastrous to those over whom it is exercised. The actions of every government are right to
the extent that human rights are not infringed and people's demands are not ignored.
IV. Caliph 'Ali beautifully summed up the concept of accountability in his book Nahjul Balagha.
In c letter addressed to the Governor of Egypt, Malik e Ashtar, Caliph 'Ali enunciated the
doctrine of Ihtisab:
"Let me remind you once again that you are made responsible to guard the rights of poor
people and to look after their welfare."
SOCIAL SYSTEM OF ISLAM
Introduction:
The social order of Islam is based on the universal principle of human brotherhood and it
endeavors to secure happiness, prosperity and goodness for both the individual and society. There is
absolutely no place for class-war of any kind between individuals or between individuals and society in
this system. Both individuals and society are responsible to God, Who created man from a single pair and
will take account of their actions in this world. This philosophy of a common parentage and a common
goal governs people's relationships and therefore calls for social solidarity and mutual responsibility.
Thus the role of the individual is not contradictory but complementary to social welfare. He tries his
utmost to work for the maximum good of society because he is responsible not only to society but also to
God. Society looks after his interests and welfare, for which it is answerable to God.
Fundamental Principles of Islamic Social System:
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I. Collaborations of Individual, Society and State:
It is because of this sense of responsibility on the part of individuals and society that both
works in great harmony, the former trying his best to enrich the latter while the latter provides
security and care to the former. There is neither domination of the state over individuals to usurp
their rights or of individuals over the state to exploit and corrupt it. Mutual responsibility leads to
a harmonious balance between rights and duties and results in constructive interaction between
the individual and society.
II. Mutual Cooperation and Brotherhood of Mankind:
Another feature of this social order is co-operation of individuals in goodness and piety:
"Co-operate with all in what is good and pious but do not co-operate in what is sinful and
wicked" (5: 2). This enhances the importance of the role of the individual in society. The
individual does not remain neutral or indifferent to society but plays a very effective role in
spreading and establishing sound and high morals by inviting people to good and advising them
to refrain from sin and evil "Who enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and remain
earnestly engaged in good deeds; these are the righteous people" (3: 114). People fully realize
their responsibilities and therefore work harder to fulfill them by all the available and lawful
means at their disposal. Their efforts towards the maximum good of society are encouraged by
the knowledge that their reward is based on their own efforts in this world as well as in the
Hereafter: 'That man has only that for which he makes effort" (53: 39). And in Surah al-Baqarah
says: every soul is credited with whatever it has earned, while it is debited with whatever it has
brought upon itself' (2: 286). And to further encourage positive behavior of the individual, he is
promised: "Anyone who comes with a good deed shall have ten times as much to his credit, while
he that does evil shall be rewarded but the like thereof; and they shall not be wronged" (6: 160).
III. Value Based Society:
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Another distinguishing feature of this social order is the value pattern set for the
individual and society. At the top of the list comes the worship and obedience of One God; other
values come after it and follow from it. All good and evil spring from this doctrine. Whatever
God like us to do is good for us and for society and whatever He dislikes is bad for us and for
society. Therefore the individual will endeavor to direct his efforts in accordance with the Divine
Guidance; encouraging good and piety and discouraging evil and obscenity' in society.
Thus the religious and social areas of the individual's life are very closely and
inextricably bound together and it is impossible to separate the one from the other without
destroying both. Islam offers a comprehensive social system, containing a complete code of life
for man's conduct in every field of activity. It not only lays down rules governing his relation
with God but also gives instructions regarding his relations with his fellow-beings. In fact, the
worship of One God provides an opportunity to the individual to develop higher and finer moral
qualities in him, such as justice, kindness, forgiveness, generosity, and love of truth, etc What a
miraculous change this philosophy of life brings into people's ideas and behavior is shown by the
speech of Jaafar, a leader of Abyssinian emigrants and a cousin of the Prophet (PBUH), before
the Negus:
"O King, we lived in ignorance, idolatry and unchastely; the strong oppressed the weak;
we spoke untruth; we violated the duties of hospitality. Then a Prophet (PBUH) arose, one whom
we knew from our youth, with whose descent and conduct and good faith we were all acquainted.
He told us to worship the One True God to speak the truth, to keep good faith, to assist our
relatives, to fulfill the duties of hospitality and to abstain from all impure, ungodly and
unrighteous things. And he ordered us to say prayers, give charity and too fast. We believed in
him, we followed him; but our countrymen persecuted us, tortured us and tried to cause us to
forsake our religion."
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In the words of Sir William Muir: "What a change those thirteen years (in Makkah) has
now produced They now lived under the constant sense of the omnipotent Power of God and of
His providential care over minutest of their concerns. In all the gifts of nature, in every relation of
life at each turn of their affairs, individual or public, they saw His Hand. Muhammad (PBUH)
was the minister of life to them, the source, under God, of their new-borne hopes, and to him they
yielded an implicit submission.
IV. Training and Education of Individual of Society:
This type of education and training of individuals helps to organize human relationships
on the basis of co-operation, justice, mercy, love and goodness for the benefit of all people. The
life-style of the people is built on moderation, while ostentatious luxuries and extravagance are
condemned. They are also advised to abstain from futile and vain actions as the Prophet (PBUH)
said, "One of the hallmarks of a Muslim is that he abstains from useless things' (Tirmizi). This
will keep them away from obscene and shameful acts Which tend to impair- their morals. And all
sources of obscenity and licentiousness which are likely to encourage and spread sexual
immorality are prohibited. In other words, this social order accepts and encourages everything
that is good, right, useful and serves humanity but condemns and fights against all such cultures
and civilizations whip) "consist of alcholic liquor-drinking, gambling, prostitution and oppression
of the weak.
Main characteristics of Social system of Islam:
The main characteristics of the social system of Islam are as follows:
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1. Equality of Mankind All mankind has the same parents. Adam and Eve the first human pair on
the earth-and all human beings have sprung from this first father and mother. They originally had
one religion and spoke one language. There were no differences of any sort between them and
they all equally enjoyed life and its benefits. There were no social prejudices or social injustices
or special privileges for any person or group of persons or families in the beginning, for they were
fully conscious of their common parentage and that they were the creation of One Supreme God:
"O Mankind, fear your Lord, Who created you of a single soul, and of the same created his mate,
and from that pair spread countless man and women over the earth, fear that God in Whose Name
you demand your rights from one another, and abstain from violating relations between people."
(4: 1).
But as time passed, their number increased and they gradually spread to different lands and
different geographical areas. They became divided into different tribes and nations and adopted
different customs and different ways of life. Geographical factors and climatic differences slowly
changed their colors, physical features and languages. As a natural consequence of their
diversification, they grew into different peoples and different nationalities, with almost different
features and different manners and cultures, speaking different languages.
2. The Structure of Social Life:
Islam has built the structure of social life on very high/sound, rational and comprehensive
principles. The structural edifice of social life is pervaded by very deep and sincere feelings of
love, goodness and brotherhood. The whole social life is a true picture of co-operation and mutual
help. The Islamic ideology presented by the Holy Prophet (PBUH) through his unique personal
example inspired his companions to great heights in social conduct and behavior. The Holy
Prophet (PBUH) said: "Whoever relieves a human being from grief in this world, God will
relieve him from a grief on the Day of Judgment" He also said. "Anyone who has no mercy on
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the juniors or respect for the seniors is not one of us Muslims." And: "None of you is a firm
believer in Islam until and unless he loves for his fellow men what he loves for himself." And his
address at the Last Pilgrimage gives eternal guidance for social scientists in matters of social
behavior.
I. The Family:
In the Islamic social order, the family is the first and real unit of humanity and the real
cohesive force which makes civilization possible. A family is established through marriage and
then it grows through ties of kinship into groups of tribes, clans and nations. It is the family which
prepares and trains, with love and affection, the members of the young generation to discharge
their social obligations with devotion, sincerity and enthusiasm and to maintain and develop
human civilization. It earnestly desires the future members of society to be better educated and
trained than themselves and to be better equipped to maintain, develop and guard the cultural
heritage of mankind.
II. Institution of Marriage:
Thus family is truly fountainhead of the progress, richness and strength of human
civilization. And all this owes its existence to marriage; without marriage, there would be no
family and no ties of kinship to unite the different members of humanity, and, therefore, no
civilization. It is the family which holds humanity together and thereby makes human civilization
possible. It is because of the family's importance that Islam pays special attention to the social
problems relating to the family and makes every effort to establish this primary social unit on
firm, strong and healthy foundations.
In Islam, marriage is the only right form of relationship between man and woman, for it
establishes a family and enables them to undertake and fulfill their social responsibilities conscientiously,
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with devotion and sincerity. The purity, goodness and richness of human civilization depend on the
goodness, piety and purity of the members of the primary unit of the social order, which is the family.
Therefore Islam lays great stress on it and takes various practical legal and other measures to build the
family on a sound and proper footing.
Celibacy is Unnatural and Forbidden: In view of its importance, Islam does not merely regard
family life as desirable but considers it virtuous and an act of worship (ibadah) and dislikes celibacy and
urges young person’s to shoulder the social responsibilities of married life. Likewise it does not merely
regard asceticism as no virtue but condemns it as unnatural and a deviation from the natural course of
man and an act of rebellion against the Divine Way of life. At the same time, it makes marriage easy and
simple and strongly disapproves of those ceremonies, rites and restrictions which tend to make marriage a
long and difficult affair. In this respect, it has destroyed all myths of noble birth, caste, family and wealth
and allowed marriage between any Muslim man and Muslim woman provided they both agree and give
their consent. In a simple, ceremony in front of two witnesses, they can become husband and wife, but
they must publicize this news so that people know that they are now living matrimonial life.
III. Husband and Wife: Roles and Responsibilities
In order to further strengthen the bonds of family and develop love and affection between
husband and wife and cement relations between them, Islam has given various instructions and
directions. These are also meant to preserve their morals and enable them to be in comfort, peace
and happiness so that they are able to fulfill to the maximum the aims and object is of human
culture and civilization by their joint actions (30. 21, T 187). In cases of mutual disputes and
differences, they are advised to resolve them with affection and understanding and not to take any
hasty action (4: 129- 130). In all such circumstances kindness and equity is recommended,
especially to the husbands (2: 229 and 4: 19). They must try their best to live with love and
affection and show kindness towards each other, even in disputes, but if they cannot continue to
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live amicably, they are advised to separate on equitable terms (2. ?31 and 65: 2). Husbands are
especially advised to be generous and liberal in their dealings with their wives (2: 237).
IV. Parents and Relatives:
The limited family circle widens into kinship through the blood relationship with
common parents, to include brothers, sisters, uncles and aunts and relations by marriage. Islam
enjoins fair and friendly treatment of all relatives within the limits of justice and considers this an
act of great virtue and goodness. Again and again the Qur'an emphasizes kind and liberal
treatment of one's near relatives. First in importance in the line of relatives come the parents.
V. Parents:
The Qur'an enjoins good treatment of parents: "We have enjoined every man to look after
his parents; his mother bears him in travail upon travail' (31: 14), And in Surah al-Ahqaf "And
We have commanded man to be kind to both his parents. His mother bears him painfully, and
give birth to him painfully “(46. 15). and again in Surah Banilsrall: “Your Lord has decreed that
you should worship none except Him, and show kindness to your, parents...Serve them with
tenderness and humility." (17: 23-24).
VI. Relatives:
Islam has also given detailed instructions to Muslims to be kind and friendly to their
relatives: "God commands justice, kindness and giving their due to near relatives. ' (16: 90). And
in Surah al-Bagarah we read:tit is righteousness....to give one's wealth away in charity, no matter
how one loves it, to near relatives...." (2: 177). The Prophet (PBUH) was once asked, "Who is the
best person?" He replied, "One who fears God and keeps the best connections with his relatives."
Abu Zar reported that the Prophet (PBUH) said, "Keep good relations with relatives, even though
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they treat (you) badly." The Prophet (PBUH) also said "Charity to a poor man counts as one merit
and charity to a poor relative counts as two merits."
VII. Neighbors
After obligations to relatives, come obligations to one's neighbors. Islam has also
enjoined fair treatment, affection and courtesy to one's neighbors: 'And worship God and ascribe
no partners to Him. And show kindness to parents and to neighbors." (4: 36). Abu Hurairah
reported that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) said, "Let him who believes in God and the Last Day be
generous to his neighbor.' The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said that the rights of neighbors were so
strongly emphasized to him by the Angel Gabriel that he feared that they might have a right to
share in one's inheritance. He also said, "Treat your neighbor well, be a (good) Muslims" He also
said:
"Do you know your duties to your neighbors? Help him if he seeks your help; give him a
loan if he wants it; remove his need, if he is in need; follow his funeral if he dies; give him joy if
he gets good news; show him sympathy and express sorrow if he is in danger; don't erect your
building without his permission so high as to obstruct his air, don't give him trouble. If you
purchase some fruits, give him something. Don't give him trouble by the smoke of your cooking."
These shows how close and loving a relationship Islam their joys and sorrows and their wealth
and poverty. This deep, loving relationship can go far in building a society on a healthy and
strong foundation.
3. The General Community:
After family and neighbors the circle of relationships widens to cover the entire
community. Islam lays great stress on its members fulfilling the duties they owe to the
community and caring for the rights of its members. They must co-operate with all in acts of
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virtue and goodness, and not co-operate in acts of vice and injustice (5:2). And they must act as
friends to one another (9:71) and say kind things to other people (2: 83). They are required to
greet others with peace and blessings (6: 54) and return other's greeting with something even
more courteous, or at least equally courtesy (4: 86) They are also advised to set things right
between their brother Muslims (49: 10) and to remain a united family by means of the rope God
holds out and not to be divided (3: 103).
Responsibilities to Fellow Muslims in Society:
Many similar traditions are reported which describe the duties of a Muslim to other Muslims and their
mutual love and brotherhood. "Don't give trouble to a Muslim by your words and actions and treat him
with kindness; be modest to one another and don't be proud to one another; give up disputes and quarrels;
do good to everyone, deserving or undeserving; speak nicely with everyone; live with people with a
smiling face and a kind heart; fulfill your promises to people and do justice to them and help them at a
time of distress and calamity. Such teaching helps to build a society to very high standards of goodness,
benevolence and justice and guarantees peace and happiness to its members, who work with great
devotion and love for the enrichment of its culture and civilization.
4. The International Community:
At the top of the ladder comes human relationship on an international level. As someone has
rightly said, if the first brick is wrongly placed the whole building right up to the sky will be crooked.
When the first unit of human civilization (the family) is established, developed and brought up on
sound, healthy and right foundations, the whole civilization prospers and develops on healthy lines.
Islam, which cares so much for the goodness and richness of the first and primary unit of human
civilization, cannot be expected to ignore or undermine the value and importance of the whole of
humanity It has put great emphasis on right and proper conduct to purify international relationships of
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all injustice and other evil, in order to establish peace and security in the world, so that mankind may
live in peace, goodness and happiness.
5. The Position of Women:
At the time of the dawn of Islam, women all over the world were degraded, subjected and without
any rights and were considered as non-entities. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, they
have been asserting their rights in the Western countries and hate now been given certain political and
economic rights. But Islam recognized women's position fourteen hundred years ago and granted
them their due rights privileges, which are n enjoyed by women in other faiths and societies g and
even in this modern industrialized age.
I. Women and Spiritual Life:
Islam regards both men and women as equal and promises equal rewards to them for their efforts:
"So their Lord accepted their prayers, (saying): You proceed form one another.' “(3:195). And in
Surah Al-lmran we read: "Whoever works righteousness, man or woman, and has faith, surely to him
We give a new life that is good and pure, and We will bestow on such their reward according to the
best of their actions."(16:97 and 4:124). And again in Surah Al-Ahzab: "Lo! Men who surrender to
God, and women who surrender, and men who believe, and women who believe, and men obey, and
women who obey, and men who are truthful, and women who are truthful, and men who persevere in
righteousness, and women who persevere in righteousness, and men who are humble, and women
who are humble, and men who give charity, and women who give charity, and men who fast, and
women who fast, and men who guard their modesty, and women who guard their modesty, and men
who remember God, and women who remember God - God has prepared for them forgiveness and a
great reward. ‘(33:35)
iii. Women and Education:
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Women have the same rights as men in the acquisition of knowledge as education. The
Holy Prophet (PBUH) said: "The search for Knowledge is a duty for every Muslim, male or
female. Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave."
And knowledge in Islam is not divided into religious and secular knowledge. It is the
duty of every Muslim man and Muslim women to acquire any knowledge which is useful and not
futile in order to benefit them and to enrich human culture and civilization with its applications to
life. The acquisition of knowledge is essential for both men and women, not only to know God
with all His Attributes, but also to learn His Teaching so that they may find out what is the right
and proper way of life for them. And this duty falls as much upon women i as it does upon men,
because they are equally responsible on the Day of Judgment. Unless they acquire this knowledge
how can they possibly follow the Way of God? Thus both men and women are equal as far the
learning of knowledge in general is concerned. However, in the actual selection of professional or
technical subjects women may have to learn different subjects from those of men, to suit their
own physiological, biological and practical needs( and functions. This is only reasonable in view
of their functional differences.
iv. Social Status of Woman:
Islam recognizes women as an equal and full partner to man in their matrimonial
relationship. Man is the father and woman is the mother in the household and the role of both is
equally essential for this life Both enjoy equal rights and undertake equal responsibilities: “O
mankind! Be careful of your duty to your Lord Who created you from a single soul and from it
created it mate and from them twain has spread a multitude of men and women." (4 1) They are
equal in nature and in origin: "And God has given you mates of your own nature, and has given
you, from them, children and grandchildren, and has provided good things for you: (16:72; 42:11)
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v. Woman's Rights as a Wife:
She enjoys absolute equality as an equal member of the family unit. In certain ways her
position as wife and as mother is unique and of great honor and distinction. As a wife she is the
queen and mistress of the household and the status of the husband is determined by the way he
treats her The Holy Prophet (PBUH) said, 'The best among you is the one who is best to his wife,
and I am the best among you to my family" (Mishkat). He also said: "Among the believers who
show most perfect faith are those who have the best disposition to, and are kindest to their
families" (Mishkat).
In the Farewell Message on the occasion of the last Pilgrimage, the holy Prophet (PBUH)
spoke of the rights of women at great length and said: "O people! Surely there are rights in favour
of your women which are incumbent upon you, and there are rights in favour of you which are
incumbent upon them." And he ended the message with the words: "Have therefore fear of God
with regard to women, and I enjoin you to treat them well. The Qur'an clearly states "And they
(women) have rights similar to those of men over them according to what is equitable (2: 228).
vi. Woman's Rights as a Mother:
Woman's position as mother is unique in a Muslim society. She is the focus for all
members of family. She enjoys great esteem and respect from all and all come to her to pay their
respects on all important occasions, and her opinions and suggestions carry great weight in all
family matters. According to one tradition: "Even Paradise lies beneath the feet of your mothers"
According to a report of AI-Bukhara: "Someone asked the Prophet (PBUH) which work pleased
God most. He replied, “The offering of prayer at the appointed time." When the question was
asked and what after that pleased God most?' the Prophet (PBUH) replied: 'Your parents.' "
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It is reported by Abu Hurairah that a man asked the Prophet (PBUH) of God: "Who is the
most deserving of friendly care from me?" He replied: "Your mother." Again he asked who came
next and the Holy Prophet (PBUH) replied "Your Mother." The man again asked who came next
and the Holy Prophet (PBUH) replied, "Your father."(Mishkat)
The Qur'an regards kindness to parents as next to the worship of God (17:23). But has
laid special emphasis on the treatment of mothers: "And We enjoined upon man (to be good) to
his parents: his mother bears him in travail upon travail."(31:14 and 46:15)
vii. Right of the Female Child:
Female children used to be buried by some Arabian tribes but this is condemned by
Islam. "When news is brought to one of them of the birth of a female child, his face darkens and
he is filled with inward grief. With grief shame does he hide himself from people because of the
bad news he has had? Shall he retain her on difference and in contempt or bury her in the dust?
Ah! What a choice they decide on" (16 58-59) such parents will suffer their fate on the Day of
Judgment. "And when the female (infant) buried alive is questioned, for what crime she was
killed". (81:8-9)
Islam stopped this practice and instead enjoined kind and fail- treatment to girls. The
Prophet (PBUH) said "Whoever has a daughter and does not bury her alive' does not insult her
and does not favour his son over her will be received by God into Paradise," And he also said:
"Whoever supports two daughter till they mature, he and I will be on the Day of Judgment like
this (and he put two fingers close together)" (lbnHanbal).
viii. Economic Status of Woman:
Islam recognizes women's right to inherit, to have money and own property, whether
single or married. She can buy, sell, mortgage or lease any or all of her property. She inherits
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property, including land and real estate, from her parents, brothers and husbands: "To men (of the
family) belongs a share of that which parents and near kindred leave, and to women a share of
that which parents and near leave, whether it be little or much - a determinate share."(4:7). She
keeps her property acquired before marriage and has no legal obligation to spend on her family
out of her personal wealth She is also entitled to a dowry (mehr) from her husband. She may
invest her property in any way she likes of thinks best. She is quite independent and even keeps
her maiden name and does not merge it after marriage with her husband's, as happens in Western,
African and Asian countries.
ix. Legal and Civil Rights:
In the eyes of law, both sexes are equal and are treated alike, the same legal Penalties
being imposed on both men and women for breaking any moral or legal laws. Both enjoy equal
rights and privileges as members of the Islam society. In civil life, women lead exactly the same
the same right and obligations as men. However, women enjoy certain privileges and exemptions
because of their physiological and biological functions. They are exempt from some religious
duties, such as prayer and fasting during menstrual periods and during confinement and are
permanently exempt from obligatory congregational prayer on Friday. They are also exempt from
all financial liabilities.
POLITICAL SYSTEM OF ISLAM
Introduction:
Islam is a complete code of life and covers all its aspects and phases. Nothing in human life and
behaviour is outside or beyond Islam. Unlike Christianity which declares: 'Render unto Caesar what is
Caesar's and unto Christ what is Christ's", and thus separates religion from politics and Church from the
State. Islam does not believe in the separation of religious from political life. Hence there is no secularism
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in Islam or rather the secular worldly is made a part of the sacred or spiritual. In other words, Islam takes
an integrative view of human life, which it declares to be preparation for the life hereafter: the life in this
world is meant for preparing for the eternal life of the Next World which is everlasting.
Basis of Islamic Political System:
The political system of Islam should therefore be understood on the basis of this integrative principle of
Islam.
I. Sovereignty of Allah:
Sovereignty of Allah is the fundamental principle of the Islamic concept of state. The Holy Quran
says: 'To Him belongs the dominion of the heavens and of the earth. It is He who gives life and death,
and He has full knowledge of all things." Again: "He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the
Immanent (Zahir wa Batin), and he has fall knowledge of all things." Again: "The command is for
none but Allah (Innil hukmu ilia lillah),"And again: "Allah has power over all things (Kull' sh’ai-in
Qadir)", In short, sovereignty in Islam belongs only to Allah and one can claim to be sovereign. Allah
is sovereign, because He is Omnipotent, Omniscient and Omnipresent, The principle of Allah's
sovereignty does not recognise the possibility of dictatorship, absolute monarchy or autocracy in an
Islamic polity. It is because the basic allegiance of the Muslims is to God and His Law, to whom
everyone including the head of the state is subservient and accountable.
II. Khilafat:
The Holy Quran proclaims the vicegerency of Man. It says "And when thy Lord said unto the
angels: Lo' I am about to place a vicegerent (khalifa) in the earth." It says further "Say, O Allah'
Owner of Sovereignty! Thou givest sovereignty unto whom Thou wilt, and Thou with drawest
sovereignty from whom Thou wilt. Thou exaltest whom Thou wilt and Thou abasest whom Thou
wilt. In Thy hand is the good. Lo' Thou art able to do all things." The institution of Khilafat or
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Caliphate came into being after the demise of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). The khalifah was also
known as imam, for he combined both political and religious duties of leadership of the Muslim
community both in matters of the state as well as of religion. "Under the sovereignty of God and the
authority of His law, the Shariah of Islam, the caliph is the temporal ruler of the state and the defender
of the faith": writes E. J. Rosentahl. "Constitutional law in Islam", he writes further "is based on the
theory of the khilafa". Muslim jurists have always recognised the institution of caliphate as a legally
valid constitution of the Muslim community or ummah, in practice also, the institution of caliphate
had a very long history. It had existed from 632, when Hazrat Abu Bakr became the first Caliph in the
history of Islam, down to 1924, when the Caliphate was formally abolished by modern Turkey under
Kemal Ataturk.
Fundamentals of Islamic Political System:
Dr. Khalifa Abdul Hakim in his book Islamic Ideology has illustrated following fundamentals
principles of Islamic political system/thought. "The Muslim state was founded on certain definite
principles. As the Islamic state was founded on the basis of religion, it may rightly be termed theocracy,
but the mere term would be of no use unless we define it more closely. The Muslim state, as founded by
the Prophet (PBUH) and developed further by his immediate successors, gives us certain basic concepts.
1. Muslims, like the followers of every other religion have a right to enjoy religious
freedom. If they are persecuted and have not strength enough to defend their life and
honour, they should stick to their faith and suffer patiently.
2. If they reach the limit of patience and endurance and are still unable to defend
themselves, they should migrate from tile abode of tyranny. God's earth is wide enough
to offer them shelter somewhere. According to this injunction, the early Muslims were
asked to migrate to Abyssinia and later on to Medina and other places.
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3. They should try to enter into treaties with non- Muslims for creating conditions of peace
for themselves and for others.
4. They should abide by those treaties even if they are not satisfactory to them on all counts.
One-sided violation of a treaty is sinful. If they are convinced of perfidy on the part of the
other contracting party, they should give a notice and fix a term for the termination of the
treaty
5. When they have gained enough power to protect themselves by force, they are allowed to
use force against the aggressors without transgressing proper limits. They are allowed to
fight only till essential liberties are secured or their opponents are completely subdued.
6. The non-Muslims, if they become peaceful and loyal subjects of the state, are to be
granted complete liberty of religious belief and practice. In lieu of a small and reasonable
tax for protection, which they shall pay to the state, their equality before the law is to be
guaranteed. A non-Muslim can sue even the president of the republic in the court, as it
actually happened during the reign of the early Khalifas. The life, honour and property of
the non-Muslim subjects of an Islamic state shall receive full protection and no Muslim
shall be allowed to plead a privilege against him.
7. The Muslim state shall be a socialist republic. Monarchy has no place in Islam, nor does
hereditary succession receive any sanction. It shall be a theocratic democracy with no
priesthood and no church. It shall be a theocracy only in the sense that it derives its
authority from God. God shall be a symbol for universal social justice.
8. The fundamentals of the constitution shall guarantee equal civil liberties to all subjects.
All non-Muslim religious communities shall have the right to get their cases decided
according to their own personal laws, if they do not violate elementary human rights.
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9. Under the law, men and women shall enjoy the same fundamental rights. Women will be
allowed to hold property in their own names. Marriage will be a contract in which any
conditions could be inserted provided they are not immoral or illegal.
10. The economics of society shall be so regulated that capitalism and living on unearned
income is discouraged.
11. The law of primogeniture, according to which only the eldest son inherits the entire
estate, shall be abolished.
12. It shall be compulsory to levy a tax on capital so that it may not cease to circulate or may
not go on accumulating. The main purpose of this tax shall be the relief of suffering and
gradual economic leveling of society; it shall be taken from those who have and shall be
spent on those who have not.
13. The well-being of all citizens is the chief purpose of the state; it shall not be merely a
police state whose functions end with the securing of law and order. An Islamic state is a
- welfare state.
14. No citizen, Muslim or non-Muslim, shall be taxed beyond his capacity; those who are
incapable of earning shall pay no taxes; on the other hand, they shall be helped by the
state exchequer.
15. There shall be freedom of trade but speculation in trade shall be prohibited and cornering
of commodities for profiteering shall be considered unlawful.
Feature of Islamic Political System:
I. Government by Consultation:
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Mutual consultation among the Muslims is a commandment of the Holy Quran and an injunction
of the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). The Quran says in the Surah 42. "When they are said to
put their trust in God, when they are regarded as shunners of evil, when they are said to be brave
defenders of their rights, they are praised for taking each other's counsel in time of need." It further
says that "Not only that but the Apostle, while he is enjoined to trust only in God when the has made
up his mind is also advised to consult even those who are his enemies at heart"(Quran 3. 159) It was
also the practice of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) who consulted his Companions in all matters of state.
The institution of Majlis-e-Shoora was developed by the Khulfa-e-Rashideen after words; This
Institution is the foundation of democratic government in Islam.
Importance of Shura (Consultation):
It has been laid down in Surah Al-i-Imran:
"And consult them in affairs of moment,"
The importance and utility of consultation cannot be too greatly emphasized. The Qur'an (3:159,
27:32 42:38, 4721) commands the Muslims again and again to take their decisions after consultation,
whether in a public matter or a private one. The practice of the Prophet (PBUH) has reinforced this
disposition. For, in spite of the exceptional quality of his being guided by the Divine revelations, the
Prophet (PBUH) always consulted his companions and the representatives of the tribes of his adherents,
before taking decision. The first caliphs were not less ardent defenders of the consultative institutions. In
this respect also, the Quran does not prescribe hard and fast methods. The number, the form of election,
the duration of representation, etc., are left to the discretion of the leaders of every age and every country.
What is important is that one should be surrounded by representative personalities, enjoying the
confidence of those whom they represent and possessing integrity of character.
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II. Equality of all Mankind:
The fundamental doctrine of Islam is the equality of all mankind. It is implied in the basic Islamic
teachings of the Tawhid. As Allama lqbal puts it "the essence of Tawhid as working idea is equality,
solidarity and freedom." Accordingly, in Islamic polity there is no distinction or discrimination of
man and man on the ground of race, colour, language, profession or country. Islam does not believe in
territorial and ethnic nationalism. Islam believes in universal equality and nationalism of mankind.
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) declared in his Farewell Sermon:
"O people verily your Lord is one and your father is one". All of you belong to Adam and Adam
was made of clay. There is no superiority for an Arab over a non-Arab or for a non-Arab over an
Arab or for a white-skinned over a black-skinned or for a black- skinned over a white-skinned except
in piety".
Islam Abolishesall Artificial Inequalities:
The Prophet (PBUH) said. Similarly, Islam abolished priesthood as a privileged profession or a caste
and made every man his own priest. Islam established equality before law and practiced it to the extent
never practiced before or since. The Prophet (PBUH) never considered himself to be above law and
offered himself to others for retaliation even when he had unwillingly hit them. He told his daughter
Fatimah not to assume any privilege or exemption from ordinary law; if you steal, by God, your hand will
be cut.
III. Foreign Policy:
The first Muslim state was founded and governed by the Prophet (PBUH). It was the city-state of
Madinah, a confederacy of autonomous villages, inhabited by Muslims, Jews, and Pagan Arabs, arid
possibly a handful of Christians. The very nature of this state demanded a religious tolerance, which
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was formally recognized in the constitution of this State, which document has come down to us-
Principles of foreign policy include the following:
 Treaties with foreigners are to be honored.
 The ambassadors enjoy diplomatic immunity. They enjoy liberty of creed, security of
sojourn and return.
 Foreigners residing in an Islamic territory are subject to their personal laws.
 The Muslim law of Jihad is humane. "Women, children, old and infirm men should
not be molested, nor trees and crops cut down, nor peace withheld when the enemy
comes to term
IV. Obedience of the Ruler:
V. The Quranic injunction calls upon the Muslims to obey or the supreme commander among
them.
VI. Order Good and Forbid Wrong:
VII. Islam enjoins the State to maintain morality. It asks the ruler to order well and punish wrong:
Amral al-Maruf Wa Nahi-An-al Munkar. The Quran also requires the Muslims to enjoin upon
each other to do well and prevent others from committing wrong. These Quranic verses are
very significant in as much as they declare that the chief objectives of the Islamic state is to
be the enforcement of duties on the Muslims. It has been ordained in Surah Al-Hajj.
VIII. ”(They are) those who, if We establish them in the land, establish regular prayer and give
regular charity, enjoin the right and forbid wrong With Allah rests the end (And decision) of
(all) affairs.
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IX. Payment of Zakat:
X. Collection of Zakat is one of the essential functions of the Islamic State. It is also the primary
duty of the Muslims, who are enjoined to pay it as dutifully as they perform five time prayer.
The office of Imam (Head of Islamic State):
The institution is called the 'Caliphate' or the 'Imamate'. The person in charge of it is called the
'Caliph' or 'the imam': In later times, he has been called 'the Sultan'. In other words, all power which any
one has over another is a trust and the trustee of the power is only the owner of it in name and should the
condition on which such a grant of power of ownership is made be violated, the wielder of the power
becomes accountable. And it is in this sense that the ruler is accountable to the humblest subject in the
realm and indeed it is this liability to account for any abuse of power, for which the victim of the abuse of
such power has the absolute and unqualified right to claim redress that constitutes the most effective
attribute of a just society. Grunebaum says "Muslim public law does not start from a definition of state,
but from that of the Imamat the leadership of the community. The concept of the state is alien to Muslim
political theory in its classical phase". Justice is the inviolable foundation not only of the God-made order
but also of the human order which is established to reflect it. In Islam all power and authority belongs to
God, and with man there is only delegated power which becomes a trust everyone who becomes a
recipient or a dose of such a power has to stand in awful reverence before his people towards whom and
for whose sake the will be called upon to use these powers. This was acknowledged by Caliph Abu Bakr
who said in his very first address:
"My fellow men I called God to witness, I never had any wish to hold this office, never aspired to
possess it, neither in secret nor in the open, did I pray for it. I have agreed to bear this burden lest mischief
raise its head; Else there is no pleasure in leadership. On the other hand, the burden placed on my
shoulders is such as, I feel, I have no inherent strength to bear and so cannot fulfill my duties except with
divine help. You have made me your leader although in no way am I superior to you. Co-operate with me
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when I am right but correct me when I commit error; obey me so long as I follow the commandments of
Allah and His Prophet (PBUH); but turn away from me when I deviate".
Against such a ruler as Abu Bakr no subject could conceivably put forward a "partition of rights" and
claim that his human rights be acknowledged if only because Abu Bakr himself refuses to claim any
power over any one and chooses to conduct the affairs of the realm strictly in accordance with the
teachings of the Book of God. For him, not his will, but God's Will is the law. Consequently the sort of
constitutional battles that have been waged between the sovereign and the subjects in the west are
unknown in Islamic history.
I. Selection of Head of State/Process of Election:
In the words of Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah:
"To recognize the Prophet (PBUH), one used to take the oath of allegiance and one did the same
for the caliphs at the moment of their election. The basis of the state organization is a contract
concluded between the ruler and the ruled. In practice only persons the most representative of the
population take this oath of allegiance. This nomination under a contract of course implies the
possibility of the annulment of the contract and the deposition of the ruler by the same representative
personalities.
II. The Duties and Functions of an Islamic State:
III. According to Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah, the duties and functions of a Muslim state seem to
be involving executive (for the civil and military administration), legislative, judicial, and
cultural.
 The executive does not require elaborate examination; it is self-evident, and obtains
everywhere in the world. The sovereignty belongs to God and it is a trust which is
administered by man, for the well-being of all without exception.
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 Legislation can be carried out in the light of Quran and Hadith.
 In the domain of judiciary, there is equality of all men before law, in which the head
of the state is not exempt even vis-a-vis subjects.
 By cultural duty, we mean the very raison d’être of Islam, which seeks that the Word
of God alone should prevail in this world. It is the duty of each and every individual
Muslim and the Muslim government, not only to abide by the Divine law in daily
behaviors, but also to organize foreign missions in order to make others know what
Islam stands for. The basic principle, as the Quran (2:256) says, is that "There is no
compulsion in religion." Far from implying a lethargy and indifference, a perpetual
and disinterested struggle is thereby imposed to persuade others for the well-
foundation of Islam.
 To fight for Right:
"The justification of the righteous in resulting oppression when not only they put
their Faith is persecuted and when they are led by a righteous Imam, is that it is a
form of self- sacrifice. They are not fighting for themselves, for land, power, or
privilege. They are fighting for the right".
 It has been laid down in Surah:
Ye are the best of Peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and
believing in Allah. If only the People of the Book had faith, it was best for them: mong them are some
who have faith, but most of them are perverted transgressors.
Conclusion:
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Thus Islam gives a complete political system based on the teachings of Qur'an and Sunnah as Nazih N.
Ayubi puts it
"Muslims had indeed been state builders, in the practical sense, in such fields as military expansion,
government arrangements and administrative techniques-in this respect they probably preceded
Europeans.”
ECONOMIC SYSTEM OF ISLAM
Introduction:
The supremacy of God is the basis of everything in Islam, no matter of what nature, whether
spiritual, economic, political or economic. God is the Creator and Owner of everything on the earth. He
has created all things for all mankind: "His is the Sovereign of the heavens and the earth, and all affairs
are referred back to God" (57 5). And in Surah Al-Baqarah we read: "He it is who created for you all that
there is on the earth" (2 29). Thus it is the birthright of every individual to make efforts to get his share of
this Divine Inheritance and no one can claim this on the basis of his colour, creed or race alone. All
individuals enjoy this right equally and no one can be deprived of this by law or otherwise, or can be
given precedence over others. There is absolutely no distinction between people or any restriction on any
individual, race of group, for making efforts to earn a living in any way they like. All enjoy equal
opportunities in the field of economics as to how they earn their living. Likewise, there is no distinction
between people on the basis of their colour, creed or race, which can create special rights giving anyone a
monopoly of any particular means of production, consumption, exchange or distribution. All people enjoy
an equal right to endeavor to get their share of the sustenance of God on the earth. It is the duty of the
Islamic State to ensure that all its citizens enjoy equal opportunities and a fair chance to earn their
livelihood.
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This freedom of work and enterprise to make one's living is secure an guaranteed by the Islamic
State so long as the activities are within the law and do not involve any indecency or wrong-doing. There
is absolute freedom for honest work and honest business, organised by individuals, agencies or companies
Whosoever strives to make a decent living through honest and hard work will find ample opportunities in
this system; but a dishonest person or company will find it difficult, or rather impossible, to prosper in
such a system. People who venture into activities involving fraud, dishonesty, unfair means, cheating,
corruption, exploitation, smuggling, etc. will not gain anything but punishment.
Fundamentals of Islamic Economic System:
1. Golden Mean:
The economic system of Islam is basically different from other economic systems in its nature,
form and purpose It tries to solve the difficult economic problems of man by adopting the Golden
Mean between the two extremes of Capitalism and Communism, retaining the virtues of both without
including any of their evils. It allows neither unrestricted freedom to damage the interest of the
community and the individual, nor does it recommend totalitarian regimentation so as to destroy the
personality (ego) of the individual, which is the central figure and source of strength of its system.
2. Individual and Social Nature:
The individual is given freedom of enterprise and work so that he may freely exercise his right to
earn his living and organize his activities in a manner conducive to the development of a spirit of
cooperation and help in place of unhealthy competition and rivalry. Moral education and training
change the entire outlook of the individual. He feels no rivalry towards other members of society but,
instead, regards it as his moral and religious duty to help his coworkers in their economic struggle, or
at least not to obstruct them in their struggle for life This attitude generates feelings of love,
cooperation, help, sacrifice and brotherhood among individuals and leads to the maximum productive
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effort on the part of the community as a whole, with its benefits of prosperity, plenty and betterment
for all This policy meets the desires of the community as well as of individuals, in all areas, without
neglecting one or over- emphasing the other. In this system, no rights are lost and no liberty curtailed;
no part of wealth is taken away unlawfully by force; consequently, the pests of greed and rivalry,
selfishness and self- interest disappear or are channeled in healthy directions.
3. Obligation of Lawful Earning:
Islam has its own philosophy of life, according to which the life of a Muslim in the world is a
temporary phase in his eternal life in the Hereafter. He must, therefore, use every moment of this life
to improve his permanent life, and this requires him to use all his mental and physical faculties to the
maximum possible limit. This is because he cannot improve his eternal life without making the
maximum use of this life. In other words, his success in the Hereafter is dependent on the utilisation
of the resources of this world in the best and right way. The Holy Qur'an refers to the t wealth a man
earns by hard and honest efforts as `blessings of God', 'Favours of God', 'clean things', 'wealth of
God', etc. It also recommends him to work hard in this world for the betterment of his life in the
Hereafter. "But seek the abode of the Hereafter in that which God has given you and neglect not your
share of the world." (28: 77) And God's Messenger made honest effort compulsory for a Muslim:
"Next to obligatory prayer is the obligation of earning an honest living.”
4. Human to Exploit Natural Reasons for Betterment in this World and Success in Hereafter:
This leaves no doubt that even if the purpose of this life is the attainment of real success in the
Hereafter, a Muslim is urged and required to make every effort diligently and honestly to exploit the
physical resources of the world for his use and the use of other members of the community. It is only
by serving others that he can achieve his goal in the Hereafter. This makes people responsive to the
needs of others and encourages them to sacrifice some of their personal interests for the sake of the
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community, thereby saving them from the misery of selfishness, greed and injustice. This is the true
conception and reality of human effort and the wealth it earns.
This is why the Qur'an regards wealth as a trial for people: to see who uses it properly to improVe his
eternal life in the Hereafter and who spends it on the lustful desires of his worldly self and earns the
wrath of God:
"It is He, Who has made you vicegerents on the earth, and raised some of you above others in rank so
that He may test you in that He has given you. Indeed you Lord is quick in ID punishment; yet He is
also forgiving and Merciful." (6: 165)
6. Islam Forbids asceticism and Unchecked Materialism:
This concept also makes struggle and effort for existence on the earth a key factor in the life an
individual. It condemns the monastic attitude to life and encourages positive effort to enter into the
economic field with full vigor and power in order to fulfill the terms of the trust and the duties of the
vicegerency on the earth. This attitude, therefore, opposes both extreme views, of monasticism on the
one hand and of secularism or materialism on the other. It neither lays too much emphasis on the
spiritual development of man, regarding all economic activity as a vice and economic struggle as
sinful, nor does it confine all its attention to the mere acquisition of material things by fair or foul
means while ignoring or paying very little attention to the spiritual or moral aspect of man. It adopts a
balanced course of action in every area of life. It suggests a golden mean between these two divergent
views and emphasizes that success is neither in the former nor in the latter but in a true harmony and
balance between them. One should neither give one's self entirely too spiritual activities, while
disregarding the needs of the body, nor should one judge everything while ignoring the moral value of
life ignoring by its economic benefit.
7. Welfare of Individual and Society:
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It emphasizes that the success of the individual and of society depends upon adjustment between
the spiritual and the material needs of man It must keep a right balance between the needs of the body
and the soul in order to protect its personal interests, as well as the welfare of society and must not
forget that human progress depends upon the successful co-operation of, and harmony between, the
spiritual and material aspects of life. When the spiritual life is separated from the economic struggle
of man, he loses the balance which is essential to maintain stability in the economic system. As a
result, people experience rivalry and antagonism, instead of cooperation and mutual love, between the
two concepts of life, thus causing disruption and chaos in society.
Man is plainly told in the following verses of the Qur'an to benefit from the Treasures of God to
the fullest extent and thereby enjoy the physical pleasures of life which may add to his spiritual life as
well: "Eat of the pleasant and pure things that God has bestowed on you" (5: 5). Again: "O
Muhammad, ask them, 'Who has forbidden the decent garments that God has created for His servants
and (who has forbidden) the good and pure things of life bestowed by Him? (7. 32)
Duties of Employer & Employee: Islam also imposes moral duties upon both the employee and
the employer. The employee is commanded by God to do his work diligently, efficiently honestly. It
is reported that the Messenger of God said that if anyone undertakes any work, God loves to see him
do it nicely and efficiently for He is Good and Beautiful and He Loves to see things done in a
beautiful and nice way. When the work is finished, the employee is entitled to a just and reasonable
wage for his work. The employer is bound by law to pay a fair wage as soon as the work is done. It is
reported by Abdullah bin Umar that God's Messenger said, "Give the labourer his wages before his
sweat dries". (lbnMajah). And Abu Hurairah reported God's Messenger as saying, "There are those
whose adversary I shall be on the Day of Resurrection; one of them is a man who hired a worker and,
after receiving full service from him, did not give him his wages" (Bukhari).
Characteristics of Islamic Economic System:
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1. Individual Liberty:
The individual enjoys complete liberty to do anything or adopt any profession or use his (or her)
wealth in any manner he (or she) likes within the law of the land. "Islam allows a person to create as
much wealth as he can by his knowledge, skill and labour, through means that are not unsocial and
immoral, and it envisages a natural inequality of energy and aptitude which necessarily results in the
inequality of material or social rewards. But as all society is one organism, it prohibits all those means
that lead to the concentration of wealth in a few hands. It is a Quranic injunction that economic life
must be so organised that too much wealth does not remain locked up in private treasures. Like all
religions, Islam inculcates charity, but it goes further than any other creed by imposing a capital levy
on all surpluses that remains unutilised in single hands for a whole year. Then the Islamic lawpf
Inheritance is used as a means of dispersion of capital, creating a comparative equality of opportunity
for a number of individuals to start life again on the basis of individual initiative and personal effort:
2. Right to Property:
Islam has recognized individual's right to own property, but subjects it to such limitation as to
render it absolutely harmless to the common good of society It has, however, established and
developed such an intimate relationship between the individual and society that they work together
without any apparent clash between them. It maintains that the individual has two simultaneous
capacities: his capacity as an independent individual and his capacity as a member of the community.
His response to either capacity may at times be greater than his response to the other one, but he will
finally combine and harmonies both. The social concept based on such a belief does not separate the
individual from his community nor does it regard them as two conflicting forces trying to overcome
one another. Islam recognises the individual's right to ownership, and this concept forms the basis of
economic life in a Muslim society. This right of the individual is fundamental and is recognised by
the Qur'an: 'And in their wealth and possession the beggar and the needy have due share' (51: 19).
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And in Surah Al-Nisaa we read: "And for men are the benefit of what they earn; and for women are
the benefit of what they earn' (4: 32). And again in the same Surah: And give to the em-phans their
property, and substitute not worthless (things) for (their) good ones" (4: 2).
I. Extent and Limitation of Private Ownership:
However, it may be pointed out that this, right of ownership is not absolute. Islam
recognises this right of the individual but does not leave him entirely free to use this right in any
way he likes. It does not favour the expansion of private property to an extent that may endanger
the very foundation of the Islamic system and thus destroy its real object. Therefore, it has
allowed private ownership in principle, as pointed out earlier, but has subjected it to such
limitations as to render it absolvably harmless. It has authorised the community' to enact the
necessary legislation to organize private ownership and to change it whenever the public interest
demands it. The individual enjoys certain rights but has also certain obligations and duties to
society which has conferred these rights on him. He has undoubtedly the right to own property, to
purchase or to sell it and to inherit it; but this right is accompanied by certain duties and
obligations which he owes to society. In other words, the individual's right to property is not
absolute but restricted and limited by the obligations which it carries with it.
II. Circulation & Concentration of Wealth and Money:
Another principle likely to affect the use of wealth is its sphere of circulation. Islam
wants wider circulation of wealth so that it is spread out in the community and not confined to a
small group of people. The laws of inherence and charity (compulsory as well as optional)
partially assist in widening the area of circulation of wealth but still there is a likelihood of
centralization of such resources; Therefore, Islam has issued instructions and empowered the
community to take the necessary steps whenever it feels the need of such measures: `Whatsoever
God may restore to His Messenger....is due to God and to His Messenger...,the orphans and the
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needy so that it may not be confined to the (few) rich among you" (49: 7) As society is one
organism, Islam likes to keep a steady flow of wealth in all the parts, in order to maintain its vigor
and strength, like the circulation of blood in a healthy body. It is a sign of a healthy society. This
is why Islam organizes it in such a way that the wealth remains in wider circulation and is not
locked up in private treasures. It encourages people through moral education to give away their
wealth (above their needs) to the poor and the ' needy in the community, merely for the Pleasure
of God. Then it imposes a compulsory levy of Zakat on all surplus wealth for the use of the poor
and the destitute. The law of inheritance further helps by spreading wealth among the relatives of
the deceased.
3. Economic Inequality within Natural Limits:
Islam recognizes economic inequalities among people but does not let them grow wider; it tries to
maintain the differences within reasonable, equitable and natural limits. The existence of economic
inequalities among people is not only natural but essential for the purification of 'self and the
development of the human personality (ego); without its existence, the individual would be deprived
of an important but basic means of achieving this goal. He is left free to achieve the highest possible
ideal through helping others, without expecting any reward except the Pleasure of God." There are
immense opportunities for him to develop high qualities of love, fraternity, spirit of natural help and
co-operation. Islam, therefore, permits private ownership and economic inequalities within reasonable
limits in society in order to provide an opportunity to the individual for the development and
utilization of his noble qualities.
Equitable Differences:
Islam permits differences in wealth within reasonable limits but does not allow these differences to
grow so wide that some people spend their life in luxury, while the great majority of people are left to
lead a life of misery and hunger. This difference in wealth and rank must not exceed natural and
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reasonable limits, because if it does, it will be the beginning of the end of that society, as referred to in the
Qur'an in these words: "And when We wish to destroy a town, We give Commands to its well-to-do
people who transgress therein; thus the word proves true against them, so We destroy them utterly" (i7
16) These people widen the gulf between the rich and the poor and cause the growth of inequalities in
wealth beyond natural and equitable limits. As a result, mutual rivalries and hostilities of the groups
within the community gradually destroy the economic life of the people.
4. Social Security:
The Islamic state is legally and morally responsible for the provision of basic needs to its
members. And it is the distinctive feature of the state that, along with social utility services, it takes
the responsibility of public maintenance as well. Every citizen is guaranteed his basic needs. The
principle of public maintenance pervades the whole fabric of Muslim society.. The individual is held
responsible for his person, his family, his near relatives, the society in which he lives and, finally, for
the whole of humanity. Islam gives such moral education and training to its members that they seek
wealth not only for themselves, but also to help other members of their families and the poor destitute
members of the community. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) described the individual responsibility for
protecting social welfare in these words: "Those who honour the boundaries ordained by God and
those who don't are like the people who together bought a boat. Some of them occupied the upper part
of the boat and some the lower part. Those who were occupying the lower part of the boat had to go
upstairs to fetch their water; they thought that it would be much better if they were to make a hole in
their part (to get the water); thus they would be saved from the trouble of going upstairs and
disturbing the people living there. If the people would let them do what they wanted, they would all
be destroyed; but if they stopped them from doing this, they would not only save themselves, but also
save all the other people occupying that boat.
Social Justice:
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The establishment of a system of social justice on the earth was one of the important functions of
the Messengers of Allah. They were sent from time to time for the guidance of man to enable him to
establish such a society. Muhammad was the last of the line of Messengers: 'We surely sent Our
Messengers with clear Signs and revealed with them the Book and the Balance (of Right and Wrong), that
man may stand forth in justice; and We sent down iron, in which is (material for) mighty was and many
uses for men" (57: 2).
Social and Individual Welfare:
Islam recognizes social and individual welfare as complementary rather than competitive and
antagonistic accordingly it tries to harmonies their conflicting but complementary interests. It considers
the good of the individual as the good of society and vice versa; if the individual is better off. But this is
possible only when individual good and the social good, so that in acquiring their individual needs they
do not, directly or indirectly, damage the good of others. If they themselves benefit, they also let others
share in that benefit: and if they cannot derive any benefit from any enterprise, they complete it for sake
of others, who may benefit from it This is how every individual shares in the welfare or others and how
individual and social welfare become complementary in the economic system of Islam. In other words,
individual and social welfare is closely linked.
Specific Islamic Guidelines Regarding:
I. Production:
Islam forbids its followers to exploit other people or to use unjust methods in acquiring
wealth, but t allows them the use of all good means to acquire wealth. It also admits the right of
the individual to own property and work in freedom, but does not tolerate the misuse or abuse of
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these rights. In other words, it does not discourage people from earning wealth and getting rich
through just and lawful means; what it does not like is the use of wrong and unjust means to earn
wealth.
The Holy Qur'an makes it obligatory for every Muslim to struggle hard according to his
ability and power to earn his living. It tells him that the whole world is full of the means of
sustenance and it is for him to find them out through his own efforts. The Holy Prophet (PBUH)
emphasised the importance of human endeavor by saying, "Seeking lawful livelihood is the
greatest duty of the Muslim after the duty of (daily) prayers." And on another occasion, he said,
"When you have finished the Morning Prayer, do not rest until you have worked for your living "
While demanding hard and constant effort from men in seeking their livelihood, Islam enjoins
them to adopt just and equitable means and to avoid unlawful and wrong ones.
Islam adopts the same attitude towards capital formation. It does not forbid saving; what
it prohibits is hoarding or accumulation of wealth for anti-social activities. It advises people to
keep their wealth in circulation either by consuming it, or by investing it, or by giving it over to
others who have little or no means of livelihood. The levy of Zakat is a strong preventive measure
against those who merely want to hoard their wealth.
II. Consumption:
The same principle of justice governs activities of people in the fields of consumption. It
forbids both miserliness and extravagance and suggests a middle course between the two
extremes: "And do not tie your hand to your neck nor stretch it without any restraint lest you
should become blameworthy and left destitute"! 17:29). And in Surah AI-Furqan we read. "And
they who, when they spend are neither extravagant nor miserly, and there is ever a just mean
between the two"(25.67). The Holy Prophet (PBUH) explained this kin these words-"Moderation
between income and expenditure is half the pleasure of the economic life." In order to achieve its
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objective in this field, Islam forbids all methods expenditure which causes moral or social injury.
It suggests that surplus wealth of people is better spent in* the service of virtue, righteousness,
public welfare etc, instead of on luxuries.
III. Distribution:
The main principle governing the field of distribution is justice and benevolence in order
to achieve a two-fold objective; first, that wealth may not be concentrated in few hands but
continue circulating in the community; secondly that the various people who have Participated in
the production of national wealth should be justly and fairly rewarded. It does not permit
inequalities of wealth to grow beyond a certain point and tries to keep the within reasonable
limits. And, in order to check the growth and concentration of wealth, it prohibits accumulation
and hoarding of wealth and insists its expenditure on the welfare of the community.
Its basic concept of wealth is that all the means of living which god has created on this
earth are meant to satisfy the real needs himself possessing more of these means than his
requirements justify implies that a surplus which was really the portion of others has reached him.
Why should he therefore hold it for himself? He should transfer it to those who need it. Islam
demands that this surplus should be given over to the community for meeting the needs of the
poorer people, so that the national wealth may continue circulating among all classes of people.
Moral education makes people conscious of this fact of life, while legal measures ensure the
balanced flow of wealth in the community and checks its undue concentration at any particular
point.
IV. Exchange:
Islam applies the same principal to all the forms of exchange. It allows those forms of
exchange which are based on justice and fair play and prohibits others which are either unjust or
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are likely to lead to quarrels and litigation, or resemble gambling, or contain an element interest
(Riba) or deceit or where the gain of one is based on the loss of another. These measures are
recommended partly to purify all the forms of exchange from unhealthy and socially harmful
elements and introduce very strictly the principal of justice in the entire field of exchange
LEGAL SYSTEM OF ISLAM
Introduction:
Law is essential for the maintenance and development of healthy and peaceful civilized life of
any society and no civilized life can be imagined without some sort of regulation. Every nation has
contributed its share to the world legal system and Islam is no exception, but its contribution to the
international system of law is so rich and valuable that it needs special mention.
Source of the Law:
Primary Sources of Islamic Legal System: Quran and Sunnah:
The primary sources of Islamic law are the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
Any law clearly stated in the Qur'an is eternal and unchangeable because it is the Ultimate Source of all
law: "The Authority is for none but God. He has ordered you to obey Him alone; that is the Right Way,
even though most men do not understand it" (12: 40). And in Surah Al-Kahf we read: "They have no
partner besides Him, nor does He let anyone else share in His Authority" (18: 26). These verses
categorically deny the authority of any other than God to make laws for mankind: "They said, 'Have we
any say in the (conduct of) affairs?' Say; 'All (authority to conduct) affairs lies with God (alone)” (3: 154).
Legal authority belongs completely to God and to no one else. He is the Creator, the Sovereign
and the Lord: "Surely Creation and Authority belongs to Him" (7: 54). And again in Surah Al-Baqarah we
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read: "God (alone) holds control over heaven and earth" (2: 107). Thus, all mankind must obey Him and
follow His Law: "Follow whatever has been sent down to you by your Lord and do not follow any
sponsors besides Him" (7: 3). And those who do not obey and follow His Law are aggressors: "Such are
God's Limits are wrong doers" (2: 229). And: "Those who do not judge but what God has sent down are
disbelievers...wrong doers...rebels" (5: 47, 48, 50).
The second source of law is the practice (Sunnah) of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). The Holy Qur'an
gives only broad or essential principles of religion and the Holy Prophet (PBUH) provides the details by
his example or explanation, and these, being part of the Law, is as binding as the Law itself: "We have not
sent any Messenger unless he was to be obeyed with God's Permission"( 4, 65). And again in the same
Surah we read: "Anyone who obeys the Messenger has obeyed God (Himself)" (4: 80). And whoever
does not follow the way of the Messenger follows the way to Hell: "Anyone who opposes the Messenger
after Guidance has been clearly explained to him, and follows some way other than the believers; We
shall turn over to what he himself has turned to, and lead him to hell. How evil is such an end!" (4: 115)
This is clearly stated in this verse: "Accept anything the Messenger may give you and keep away
from anything he forbids you to do. Heed God (alone); God is severe in punishment." (59: 7) And again:
"Yet, by your Lord, they can never become believers until they accept you as judge concerning what they
are quarrelling over among themselves, and then surrender to your decision with entire submission
without feeling the least resentment in their hearts." This clearly lays down that 'the way of life taught by
the Holy Prophet (PBUH) under the Guidance of God, and the rules and regulations practiced and taught
by him, shall remain the final authority forever. And the Holy Prophet (PBUH) explained this in these
words: "None of you can claim to be a believer unless he subordinates his desires to the way of life I have
brought."
Secondary Sources (Ijmah, Qiyas, Ijtihad):
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These are the two principal and basic sources of law in Islam and if anything or any problem is
not covered by these two, then, in the light of these instructions, the Muslim jurists will judge each case
exerting all their ability to the maximum possible limit to reach a decision. This is called Ijtihad (the
exercise of judgment). The source of y Ijtihad is a tradition narrated by Muadh bin Jabal: "On being
appointed governor of Yemen, he was asked by the Holy Prophet (PBUH) how he would decide cases; he
replied, "By the law of the Qur'an." "But if you do not find any direction therein?' asked the Holy Prophet
(PBUH).”Then I will act according to the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH)," was the reply. "But if you do
not find any direction in the Sunnah?" He was asked again. "Then I will exercise my judgement and act
on that," came the reply. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) raised his hands and said, "Praise be to God Who
guides the Messenger, His Apostle, as He Pleases."
The scope of Ijtihad is very wide because it is a method of meeting the needs of the community
which are not met expressly in the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) Qiyas (i.e.,
reasoning based on analogy) is an important method of Ijtihad, through which jurists have tried to meet
the needs of the Muslim community since the times of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). When all, or the
overwhelming majority of, the jurists agree, it is called Ijmah (i.e., consensus of opinion among the
jurists). But the source of all Law remains the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) for all
time to come, and if any problem is not covered by them, then the jurists use their discretionary powers in
the light of the two principal sources of the Islamic Law, i.e., the Qur'an and the Sunnah.
Inviolability of the Authority of Law:
Equality of Law:
Islam established, for the first time on earth, the rule of one Law for all, irrespective of race, colour, creed
or nationality. All citizens of the state were subject to the same law and no one was regarded as being
above the Law. Citizens with wealth, status or privilege were treated the same as the humblest of the
citizens of the state in subordination to the law. All stand equal in the eyes of the law, with no privileges
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or reservations for anyone. The Caliph and the beggar stand together for judgment before the law: "No
believing man and believing woman should exercise any choice in their affairs once God and His
Messenger have decided upon some matter. Anyone who disobeys God and His Messenger has clearly
wandered into error." (33: 36) And in Surah Al-Nur we read: "The only statement believers should make
when they are invited to God and His Messenger, so that He may judge between them, is: 'We have heard,
and we are at your orders.' Those persons will be successful." (24: 51).
Rule of Law:
The Law of God is Supreme in the land and all are subordinate to it without exception: "O you
who believe, obey God and obey His Messenger and those from among yourselves who hold authority:
then if there is any dispute between you concerning any matter, refer it to God and His Messenger if you
really believe in God and the Last Day. This is the best course and better as regards the final end" (4: 59).
Thus the authority of God and His Messenger is the final authority in the Islamic State and no one is
outside the Divine Law. If there is any dispute between the ruler and the ruled, both will be judged by the
same Law on an equal basis, without giving any special favours to the former. The Holy Prophet (PBUH)
explained this fundamental principle in these words: "Even if Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, had
committed a theft, I swear by God, I would have cut off her hands."
Enforcement of Law of God:
any Law expressly stated in the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). In the enforcement
of Law, the ruler and the ruled are alike, both are subject to it. Umar punished his son who committed
adultery with a hundred stripes and he died during the punishment and a few remaining stripes were
lashed on to his dead body. The law does not discriminate between the high and the low or between friend
and foe but treats them all alike. "He is God Who has sent His Messenger with Guidance and the Right
Way so that He may make it prevail over other ways, even though the unbelievers may not like it" (9: 33).
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This verse establishes the inviolability of the Law for all time and no one can oppose this Supreme
Authority of the Divine Law in an Islamic society.
The Nature of the Islamic Legal System:
Critical Appraisal Islam has laid down universal and most equitable laws for mankind, covering
all aspects of human activity, including protection of life and property, honour and religion, family life,
inheritance and wills, marriage, divorce, war and peace, international relations, and every other sphere of
human life. For a Muslim, religion is everything; it pervades his whole life, his home, his work and his
business. His entire life is governed by Islamic principles, from the cradle to the grave. And this is
precisely what non-Muslims; especially a Westerner entrenched in his own cultural and religious
prejudices, finds hard to understand, much less to appreciate.
 There is a fundamental difference of approach to religion between a Muslim and
Christian. A Muslim, unlike a Christian, believes that every word of the Holy Qur'an
is the Word of God and that every word of Revelation to the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
1400 years ago has been preserved without any change in the original text right down
to the present.
 Every true Muslim obeys the Commandments of God and feels pleasure in the very
act of obedience. Obedience to the word of God comes from within, spontaneously,
and without external compulsion.
 No Muslim can interpret the injunctions of the Holy Qur'an to suit his own ends.
First, because the Holy Qur'an can be fully understood only with reference to the
corresponding explanation or elaboration by the Holy Prophet (PBUH); second,
because every injunction of the Qur'an or Tradition of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) is
fully explained in detail and supported by long established historical practice. Third,
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if any problem needs further elaboration or interpretation, it has to be explained and
interpreted by those Muslims who are well versed in the Qur'an and the Sunnah of
the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Just as a lawyer is needed in matters relating to law and a
doctor for medical problems. Only a Muslim scholar is competent to explain or
interpret the injunctions of the Qur'an.
 If some individuals express their views about Islam, they merely express their
personal opinions; such isolated individual opinions can by no means be treated as
genuine interpretations of Quranic injunctions. The fact that some Muslim men and
women have adopted the social norms and ways of Western society does not make
their behaviour Islamic.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF ISLAM
Introduction:
Islam accords complete judicial autonomy to the various sections of the community in order to
protect and preserve their own personal and religious affairs. It allows every community to have its own
tribunals to judge its civil as well as criminal cases and leaves it to the discretion of the parties to take the
case to their own judicial tribunal or to the Muslim judiciary: "If they do come to you, either judge
between them, or decline to interfere. If you decline, they cannot hurt you in the least. If you judge, judge
in equity between them, for God loves those who judge in equity" (5: 45). In order to administer justice
fairly and equitably, Islam not only eliminates long procedural intricacies and makes it simple and
expeditious, but it also takes the necessary steps to purify the 'institution of witnesses.' This is the
responsibility of every local tribunal which keeps a record of the conduct and habits of the people? The
Qur'an renders all accusers who cannot prove their charges unworthy to testify before the judicial
tribunals: "And those who accuse chaste women but bring not four witnesses (to support their allegation),
flog them with eighty stripes, and never accept their testimony" (24: 4).
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Importance of Justice in Quran:
I. It has been ordained in Surah An-Nahl:
"Allah commands justice, the doing of good, and liberality to kith and kin, and He forbids all
shameful deeds, and injustice and rebellion: He instructs you, that ye may receive
admonition."
II. The concept of justice has been crystallized in Surah Al-Maidah:
“O ye believe' Stand out firmly for Allah, as witnesses to fair dealing, and let not the hatred
of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from Justice. Be just: that is closer to
piety: and fear Allah, for Allah is well-acquainted with all that ye do.
Importance of Justice in Hadith:
The Holy Prophet (PBUH) also highlighted the importance of justice.
"Abdullah Ibn Amr Ibn 'As (R.A) relates that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said "The just will be
placed in columns (seated on chairs) of light in the presence of Allah. They will be those who act justly in
their decisions, their families and the affairs committed (entrusted) to them (Muslim)."
"lyad ibn Himar (R.A) relates that he heard the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) say "The dwellers of
paradise will be of three types: a just ruler who spends in charity having been given the capacity; a man
merciful and of tender heart towards every relative and Muslim; and a pious man with a family who
refrains from asking (Muslim).”
“Ayisha (R.A) also relates that the Quraish were worried about the case of a Makhzumi woman who had
committed theft and wondered who should intercede on her behalf with the Holy Prophet (PBUH). Some
said: 'Who can venture to do so except Usamah-ibn-Zaid who is greatly loved by the Holy Prophet
(PBUH)? So Usamah spoke to him and the Holy Prophet (PBUH) said to him. 'Do you seek to intercede
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in the matter of the limits prescribed by Allah?' Then he stood up and made an address in which he said:
'those who were before you were ruined because they would left off a high- placed one if he committed
theft and would exact the prescribed penalty from a poor one who stole. I call Allah to witness that were
Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, to steal, I would cut off her hand. (Incidentally the name of the culprit
woman was also Fatimah) (Bukhari and Muslim).
During the life time of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) and Khulafa-e- Rashedeen, mosques were ordinarily
used as courts.
Features of Islamic Judicial System:
i. The Sources of Law:
a. Primary sources of Islamic Shariah:
(i) The Quran;
(ii) The Sunah of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
b. Secondary Sources of Islamic Shariah:
(i) lima (consensus )
(ii) Ijtihad (independent reasoning /effort ) Qiyas (analogy)
c. The implicative Sources of Islamic Shariah:
(i) lstislah (public good)
(ii) Istihsan (public welfare)
(iii) MasalihMarsalah (public weal)
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(iv) Urf (local culture/ indigenous practices )
ii. Rule of Law:
In Islamic judicial system, even the Head of State is not above law. The concept that "the King
can do no wrong" is absolutely alien to Islam. This system envisages complete rule of law. The Holy
Prophet (PBUH) said: "Had Fatima daughter of Muhammad committed theft, I would have cut off her
hands. ' (Bukhari)
Caliph Umar and Caliph Ali appeared in the courts of Qadi as ordinary citizens and did not like
special treatment. The letter written by Caliph Umar to Abu Musa Ashari contains the cardinal
principles of rule of law. Nepotism, bribery, partiality etc. have been condemned in this letter.
iii. Production of Witness:
According to Verse 283 of Surah Al-Baqarah, giving Shahadah (producing evidence / giving
evidence) is a trust. It has been ordained not to conceal evidence. Burden of proof lies on the plaintiff.
Islam acknowledges the principle of "Audi alterampartem" that no man shall be condemned unheard.
iv. Qualifications of Judges:
Al-Mawardi gives the following criteria set for the appointment of Judges in his book 'Al-Ahkam-ul-
Sultania':
 Academic excellence.
 Integrity, impartiality.
 Suitability of character, inter alia.
The judges should be sober. They should not deliver judgment when they are angry. Revision in judgment
is permissible. There are not many channels of appeal in Islamic judicial system.
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Woman as Qadi:
A Muslim Woman qualifies as Qadi according to:
➢ Imam Malik
➢ Imam Shafi, and
➢ Imam Ahmad bin Hunbal
According to Imam Abu Hanifa, she cannot be appointed Qadi in Hudud and Taazirat cases.
v. Walaya-tul-Mazalim (Courts of Tort):
Grunebaum in his book 'Islam, Essays in Nature and Growth of a Cultural Tradition', (London
1955), termed Mazalim Courts as Courts of Tort which the Holy Prophet (PBUH) introduced. It was
an excellent institution which provided prompt justice to the people. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) also
appointed Muhtasibs for the first time. He (PBUH) appointed Deputies (Naibeen) in Hudud cases e.g.
appointment of Anees al-Aslama as a deputy Oath to collect evidence in a Zina case. The following
procedures were also introduced:
 Qasamah: It was a system of compensation in cases of homicide.
 Aqilah: It was a group of male relations in a tribe to pay blood money.
vi. Other Judicial Institutions:
Now, other judicial institutions shall be discussed:
a. Adalat-Fauq-ul-Adah. It was a special tribunal which worked even in the days of the
Holy Prophet (PBUH).
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b. Caliph Umar established the Department of Ifta. It envisaged free legal aid.
c. In Islamic Law of Evidence, the system of screening of witnesses (Tazkia-tul-Shahood)
was introduced. It was of two kinds:
 Secret System: It was inquisitorial.
 Open System (in court).
During the period of Abbasids, the following courts were also established:
 Adalat Alia Marafia
 Adalat Alia Walayat
 Adalatlslah
 AdalatTahkim, inter alia.
vii. Islamic Penal System (Hudud and Taazirat):
Hadd means to check or stop. The word 'Haddad' means chamberlain. Hadd also means buffer.
Hududullah' means things prohibited by Allah. It also means measure, limit and, in law it means a
punishment, the measure of which has been definitely fixed. Punishments by way of hadd are of the
following forms:
 Whoredom (Zinc, fornication)
 Theft > Highway Robbery (Harabah)
 Drunkenness Slander (imputation of unchastity, Qadhf)
 Rebellion
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 Apostasy (Irtidad)
Jurists have accorded hudud much attention because they are grounded in the Qur'an and the
Hadith, as is qisas.
Ta'zir, however, because of its discretionary nature, has escaped precise definitions and detailed
treatments of the elements of the crimes that it encompasses. It might be said, though, that all acts
that violate private or community interests of a public nature are subject to to zir; it was left to
public authorities to establish rules, within the spirit of the shareah, to punish such acts."
Head of an Islamic State has no right of mercy and pardon in Hudud as we I as Qisas and Diyat
cases. In Qisas and Diyat cases the aggrieved person or in case of his death his relatives in order
of inheritance have the right to pardon or get Diyat (money compensation).
viii. Agents in Suits or Attorneys in Litigation:
According to Al-Marghinani in his book Al-Hidayal in Islamic judicial system, agent in suits or
attorney in litigation is permissible e.g. Caliph All appointed Hazrat Agee! and Abdullah bin Jafer as
attorneys.
ix. Separation of Judiciary from the Executive:
Caliph Umar for the first time separated judiciary from the executive. It is wrongly claimed by
the western scholars that Montesquieu gave the idea of separation of powers (i.e. separation of
executive, judiciary and legislature). In Islamic judicial system, judges enjoy a venerable and
independent position.
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MORAL SYSTEM OF ISLAM
Introduction:
Moral sense is inborn in man and through the ages it has served as the common man's standard of
moral behavior, approving certain qualities and disapproving others. While this instinctive faculty may
vary from person to person, human conscience has given a more or less uniform verdict in favor of certain
moral qualities as being good and declared certain others as bad. On the side of moral virtues, justice,
courage, bravery and truthfulness have always elicited praise.
History does not record any period worth the name in which falsehood, injustice, dishonesty, and
breach of trust may have been upheld. Fellow-feeling, compassion, fidelity, and magnanimity have
always been valued while selfishness, cruelty, miserliness and bigotry have never received the approval of
the human society; men have always appreciated perseverance, determination and courage and have never
approved of impatience, fickle-mindedness, cowardice and imbecility. Dignity, restraint, politeness, and
amiability have throughout the ages been counted among virtues, whereas snobbery, misbehavior and
rudeness have never found recognition as good moral qualities. Persons having a sense of responsibility
and devotion to duty have always won the highest regard of men; never have people who are incompetent,
slothful and lacking in sense of duty been looked upon with approval Similarly, in respect of the standard
of good and bad in the collective behavior of society as a whole, the verdict has always been almost
unanimous. Only that society has been looked upon as worthy or honor and respect which possesses the
virtues of organization, discipline, mutual affection and fellow feeling and has established a social order
based on justice, freedom and equality of men. As opposed to this, disorganization, no-discipline,
anarchy, disunity, injustice and social imbalance have always been considered as manifestations of decay
and disintegration in a society. Robbery, murder, larceny, adultery, fraud and graft have always been
condemned. Slandering, scandal mongering and blackmailing has never been considered as wholesome
social activities.
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Islamic Concept of Life and Morality:
The viewpoint of Islam, however, is that this universe is the creation of God Who is One. He
created it and He alone is its unrivaled Master, Sovereign and Sustainer. The Whole universe is
functioning under His Divine Command. He is All-Wise, All-Powerful and Omniscient. He is Subbooh
and Quddoos that is, free from all defects, mistakes, weaknesses and faults and pure in every respect). His
God-hood is free from partiality and injustice. Man is His creature, subject and servant and is born to
serve and obey Him.
The correct way of life for man is to live in complete obedience to Him. It is not for man to
determine the mode of worship and obedience; it is for God to decide this God, being the master, has
raised from time to time Prophet (PBUH) s for the guidance of humanity and has revealed His books
through them. It is the duty of man to take the code of his life from these sources of divine guidance. Man
is answerable to God for all his actions in life. The time for rendering an account will be in the life-
hereafter and not in this world. The short span of worldly life is really an opportunity to prepare for that
great test. In this life all efforts of man should be centered on the object of soliciting the Pleasure and
Blessings of God in the Hereafter. During this test every person is responsible for all his‘beliefs and
actions. He, with all his faculties and potentialities, is on trial. There will be an impartial assessment of his
conduct in life. By a Being Who keeps a complete and correct record not merely of his movements and
actions and their influence on all that is in the world from the tiniest speck of dust to the loftiest
mountains but also a full record of his innermost ideas and feelings and intentions.
Goal of Moral Striving:
This is Islam's fundamental attitude towards life. This concept of the universe and of man's place
therein determines the real and ultimate goal which should be the object of all the endeavors of mankind
and which may be termed briefly as "seeking the pleasure of God" This is the standard by which a
particular mode of conduct is judged and classified as good or bad. This standard of judgment provides
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the nucleus around which the whole moral conduct should revolve. Man is not left like a ship without
moorings, being tossed about by the blows of wind and tides. This dispensation places a central object
before mankind and lays down values and norms for all moral actions. It provides us with a stable and
flawless set of values which remains unaltered under all circumstances. Moreover, with making the
"pleasure of God" as the object of man's life, a highest and noblest objective is set before humanity, and
thus, unlimited possibilities are opened for man's moral evolution, unstained at any stage by any shadow
of narrow selfishness or bigoted race or nation worship.
While providing a normal standard Islam also furnishes us with means of determining good and
evil conduct. It does not base our knowledge of vice and virtue on mere intellect, desire, intuition, or
experience derived through the sense-organs, which constantly undergo shifts, modifications and
alterations and do not provide definite, categorical and unchanging standards of morality. It provides us
with a definite source, the Divine Revelation, as embodied in the Book of God and the Sunnah way of life
of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). This source prescribes a standard or moral conduct that is permanent and
universal and holds good in every age and under all circumstances. The moral code of Islam covers the
smallest details of domestic life as well as the broad aspects of national and international behavior It
guides us in every stage of life. These regulations imply the widest application of moral principles in the
affairs of our life and make us free from exclusive dependence on any other source of knowledge, expect
as an aid to this primary source.
Sanction Behind Morality:
This concept of the universe and of man's place therein also furnishes the sanction that must he at
the back of every moral law i-e. The love and fear of God, the sense of accountability on the Day of
Judgment arid the promise of eternal bliss and reward in the life hereafter. Although Islam wants to
cultivate a powerful and strong mass opinion, which may induce individuals and groups to abide by the
principles of morality laid by it and also aims at the evolution of a political system which would enforce
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the moral law, as far as possible, through its legislative and executive power, Islam's moral law does not
really depend on these external pressures alone. It relies upon the inherent urge for good in every man
which is derived from belief in God and a Day of Judgment. Before laying down any moral injunction,
Islam seeks to firmly implant in man's heart the conviction that his dealings are with God Who sees him
at all times and in all places. That he may hide himself from the whole world but not from Him. That he
may deceive everyone but cannot deceive God. No one can escapes from the kingdom of God. That while
the world can see man's onward life, only God probes into his innermost intentions and desires, that while
he may, in his short sojourn on this earth, do whatever he likes but in any event he has to die one day and
present himself before the Divine court of justice where no advocacy, favor, recommendation,
misrepresentation, deception or fraud will be of any avail and where his future will be decided with
complete impartiality and justice. There may or may not be any police, law court or jail in the world to
enforce the observance of these moral injunctions and regulations but this belief firmly rooted in the
heart, is the real force at the back of the moral law of Islam which helps in getting it enforced. If popular
opinion and the coercive powers of the state exist to give it support so much the better; otherwise, this
faith alone can keep a Muslim individual and a i Muslim community on the straight path of virtue,
provided, the spark of genuine faith dwells in their hearts.
Motives and Incentives:
This concept of Islam about man and his place in the universe also provides those motivating
forces which can inspire a person to act in conformity with the moral law. The fact, that a man voluntarily
and willingly accepts God as his own Creator, and the obedience to God as the mode of his life and
strives to seek His Pleasure in his every action, provides a sufficient incentive to enable him to obey the
commandments which he believes to be from God. Along with this, the belief in the Day of Judgment and
the belief that whosoever obeys Divine Commands are sure to have a good life 'in the Hereafter, the
Eternal Life, whatever difficulties and handicaps he may have to face in this transitory phase of life,
provides a strong incentive for virtuous life. On the other hand, the belief that whoever violates the
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Commandments of God in this world and dies in a state of Kufr (unbelief) shall have to bear eternal
punishment however superficially nice a life he may have led in this temporary abode is an effective
deterrent against violation of moral law. If this hope and fear are firmly ingrained, and deeply rooted in
one's heart they will provide a strong motive-force to inspire one to virtuous deeds even on occasions
when worldly consequences may appear to be very damaging and harmful, and it will keep one away
from evil even on occasions when it looks extremely attractive and profitable.
Distinctive Features of Islamic Moral Order:
 By setting Divine pleasure as the objective of man's life, it has furnished the highest
possible standard of morality. This is bound to provide limitless avenues for the
moral revolution of humanity.
 By making Divine Revelation the primary source of knowledge, it gives permanence
and stability to the moral standards which afford reasonable scope for genuine
adjustment, adaptations and innovations though not for perversions, wild variations,
atomistic relativism or moral fluidity. It provides a sanction to morality in the love
the fear of God which will impel man to obey the moral law even without any
external pressure.
 Through belief in God and the Day of Judgment, it furnishes a motive force which
enables a person to adopt the moral conduct with earnestness and sincerity, with all
the devotion of heart and soul.
 It does not, through a false sense of originality and innovation, provide any novel
moral virtues nor does it seek to minimize the importance of the well-known moral
norms nor give exaggerated importance to some and neglect others without cause It
takes up all the commonly known moral virtues and with a sense of balance and
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proportion it assigns a suitable place and function to each one of them in the total
plan of life. It widens the scope of their application to cover every aspect of man's
individual and collective life his domestic associations, his civic conduct, and his
activities in the political, economic, legal educational and social realms. It covers his
life from home to society, from the dining table to the battlefield and peace
conferences, literally from the cradle to the grave.
 It stipulates for man a system of life which is based on all good and is free from all
evil. It invokes the people, not only to practice virtue, but also to establish virtue and
eradicate vice, to bid good and to forbid wrong.
 It wants that the verdict of conscience should prevail and virtue must not be subdued
to play second fiddle to evil. Those who have responded to this call and gathered
together into a community (Ummah) are given the name "Muslim" and the singular
object underlying the formation of this community (Ummah) is that it should make
an organized effort to establish and enforce goodness and suppress and eradicate evil.
The Qur'an is quite explicit on this fact as can be seen from the following verse:
"Ye are the best for Peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding
what is wrong, and believing in God. If only the People of the Book Had faith, it
were best for them: among them Are some who have faith, But most of them Are
perverted transgressors." (Qur'an, 3.1 10)
And also in the following verse:
"(They are) those who, If we establish them in the land, establish regular prayer and
give regular charity, enjoin the right and forbid 'wrong: With God rests the end (And
decision) of (all) affairs." (Qur'an, 22:41
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It will be a day of mourning for the community and a bad day for the entire world if
the efforts of this very community were at any time directed towards establishing evil
and suppressing good.
In short, no sphere of life is exempt from the universal and comprehensive
application of the moral principles of Islam. It makes morality reign supreme and
ensures that the affairs of life, instead of being dominated by selfish desires and petty
interests, should be regulated by the norms of morality.
RELATIONSHIP OF MORALITY AND FAITH:
Morality has the most important place in Islam. The aim of sending the last Messenger (PBUH) to the
best of all nations was the perfection of all moral values.
The Prophet (PBUH) said:
1. The most perfect in belief and faith is the one who is the best morally.
2. The best amongst you is the person who is best morally.
3. The "good" is the other name of good morals (Muslim)
4. A man of good morals gets the rank of ever-fasting and ever-praying. (Abu dawood)
5. On day of Judgement the heaviest thing TO the credit of a believer will be Husne-Khulq. Allah
dislikes a man of absence language (Tirmizi)
6. My most beloved and the nearest sitter with me in Qiyamah will be a man of best morals
(Tirmizi).
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7. The Prophet (PBUH) was asked which things would guarantee entry to paradise the most, he
replied. "Piety and good morals" (Tirmizi)
8. I have been sent to complete noble Akhlaq (morals.
9. The last messenger was on the Peak, of best morals and Quran declares it.
Noble moral virtues of Islam:
The seventeen verses (1 7:23-39) of Surah Beni Israel give these commandments:
 To Worship Allah alone.
 Extreme kindness to parents.
 Giving their due to kinsmen, the poor and wayfarer.
 Do not squander your wealth in profligation.
 Moderation in expenditure.
 Do not slain own children.
 Do not commit fornication.
 Slay not a life which Allah has forbidden.
 Come not near the property of an orphan.
 Keep the promise.
 Fulfill the measure.
 Follow not hearsay
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 Do not walk on earth boastfully.
As the Prophet (PBUH) (PBUH) the noblest of all mankind with respect to his moral
character, a look at the noble values taught by him seems necessary here. The following are
moral characters and values that that the Prophet (PBUH) had encouraged during his lifetime
through his teachings and noble character.
1. Wife & Family:
 "The believers who show the most perfect Faith are those who 'have the best behavior,
and the best of you are those who are the best to their wives". [At-Tirmidhi].
 "Spend on them and you will be rewarded for what you spend on them". [AI-Bukhari and
Muslim].
 "Whatever you spend seeking thereby the Pleasure of God, will have its reward, even the
morsel which you put in the mouth of your wife". [Al-Bukhari].
 "It is enough sin for a person to hold back the due of one whose provision is in his hand".
2. Parents:
 A person came to Messenger of God (Peace be Upon Him) and asked, "Who among
people is most deserving of my fine treatment?" He (Peace be Upon Him) said, "Your
mother, then your mother, then your mother, then your father, then your nearest, then
nearest".
 "May he be disgraced? May he be disgraced! May he be disgraced, whose parents, one or
both, attain old age during his life time, and he does not enter Heaven (by rendering being
dutiful to them)".
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 "(Of the) major sins are: to ascribe partners to God disobey parents, murder someone, and
to take a false oath (intentionally)". [Al-Bukhari].
 "It is one of the gravest sins to abuse one's parents." [Al-Bukhari and Muslim].
3. Orphans:
 "He who takes care of an orphan, whether he is his relative or a stranger, will be in
Heaven with me like these two". The narrator, Malik bin Anas raised his forefinger and
middle finger for illustration. [Muslim].
4. Moderation:
It was reported that the Prophet (PBUH) was never offered two things (options) but chooses the
easiest.
 "God did not send me to be harsh, or cause harm, but He sent me to teach and make
things easy." (Muslim)
 "Religion is very easy and whoever overburdens himself in his religion will not be able to
continue in that way. So you should not be extremists, but try to be near to perfection and
receive the good tidings that you will be rewarded; and gain strength by worshipping in
the mornings, the nights." (Bukhari)
5. Kindness:
 "Be kind, for whenever kindness becomes part of something, it beautifies it. Whenever it
is taken from something, it leaves it tarnished." He also said. "Make things simple and do
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not complicate them Calm people and do not drive them away. - Imam Bukhari's Book of
Muslim Morals and Manners
 The Prophet (PBUH) (PBUH) would hear the crying of a child in the company of his
mother during payer, and he would then recite only a short portion of the Quran (to end
the prayer and let the mother comfort her child) "(Muslim).
 "God did not send me to be harsh, or cause harm, but He sent me to teach and make
things easy (Muslim).
6. Equality:
 "God does not judge you according to your bodies and appearances, but He looks into
your hearts and observes your deeds."
7. Truthfulness:
 "Truth leads to piety and piety leads to Heaven. A man persists in speaking the truth till
he is enrolled with God as a truthful. Falsehood leads to vice and vice leads to the Fire
(Hell), and a person persists on telling lies until he is enrolled as a
liar".(Bukhari&Muslim).
 "Give up what is doubtful to you for that which is not doubtful; for truth is peace of mind
and falsehood is doubt". [Al-Tirmidhi].
8. Watchfulness:
 "Fear God wherever you are, do good deeds after doing bad ones, the former will wipe
out the latter, and behave decently towards people". [At- Tirmidhi].
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 "Safeguard the Commandments of God, you will find Him before you. Remember Him in
prosperity and He will remember you in adversity.'
9. Piety:
 The life of the world is sweet and green. God makes you generations succeeding one
another so that He may try you in respect of your actions. So beware of the beguilements
of the world and those of women. The first trial of Banu Israel was through women".
[Muslim].
 "The most honorable of you is one who is the most pious of you." [Al-Bukhara and
Muslim].
10. Uprightness and Steadfastness:
 "Say, T believe in God' and then be steadfast". [Muslim].
11. Being good To Others:
 "You should restrain yourself from doing wrong to people, because it (serves as) charity
which you bestow upon yourself'. [Al-Bukhari and Muslim].
 "Do not belittle any good deed, even meeting your brother with a cheerful face".
[Muslim].
 'Every good deed is a charity". [Al-Bukhari].
 It is also charity to utter a good word." [Al- Bukhari and Muslim].
12. Animals & Environment:
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 "Once a dog was going round the well and was about to die out of thirst. A prostitute of
Banu Israel happened to see it. So she took off her leather sock and lowered it into the
well. She drew out some water and gave the dog to drink. She was forgiven on account of
her action.”
 "When a Muslimplants a tree, whatever is eaten from it is charity from him and whatever
is stolen is charity and whatever is subtracted from it is charity". [Muslim],
 "If a Muslimplants a tree, or sows a field and men and beasts and birds eat from it, all of
it is charity from him".
13. Neighbors:
 Muslim women, never belittle any gift you give your neighbor even if it is a hoof of a
sheep". [Al- Bukhari and Muslim],
 "By God, he is not a believer' By God, he is not a believer! By God, he is not a believer."
It was asked, "Who is that, O Messenger of God?' He said, "One whose neighbor does
not feel safe from his evil". [Al-Bukhara and Muslim].
 "He will not enter Heaven whose neighbor is not secure from his wrongful conduct'. •
"He who believes in God and the Last Day let him not harm his neighbor" [AI-Bukhari
and Muslim].
14. Love For God's sake:
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 "No one of you becomes a true believer until he likes for his brother what he likes for
himself. [Al- Bukhara and Muslim].
 "On the Day of Resurrection, God, the Exalted, will say: 'Where are those who have
mutual love for the sake of My Glory? Today I shall shelter them in My Shade when
there will be no shade except mine". [Muslim]
15. Cheating:
 'Whoever cheats (anyone) is not from among us (the believers)".
16. Avoid from committing Oppression:
 "(God) has revealed to me that you should adopt humility so that no one oppresses
another." (Riyadh-us-Salaheen)
 "A Muslim is the one from whose tongue and hands the people are safe".
(Bukhan&Muslim).
 "Many people misappropriate (acquire wrongfully) God's Property (meaning Muslims'
property). These people will be cast in Hell on the Day of Resurrection" (Bukhari).
 “Help your brother, whether he is an oppressor or he is oppressed." People asked, "? It is
right to help him if he is oppressed, but how should we help him if he is an oppressor'?"
The Prophet (PBUH) said, "By preventing him from oppressing others." Collection of
Al-Bukhari, 3:624.
 "Allah has revealed to me, that you must be humble. No one should boast over one
another, and no one should oppress another." (lyad b. Hinar al- Mujashi: Muslim)
17. Mercy:
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 "Allah will not give mercy to anyone, except those who give mercy to other creatures. '
(Abdullah b. Amr: Abu Daud&Tirmidhi).
18. Peace:
 "Do you know what is better than charity and fasting andprayer'? It is keeping peace and
good relations between people, as quarrels and bad feelings destroy mankind. (Muslims
& Bukhari).
IJMA AND ITS POCEDURES
Defining Consensus:
The literal meaning of the word Ijma (consensus)is `to resolve firmly to do something' (al- 'azm
'ala shay').
 Scholars have differed about its legal definition, although the most commonly accepted
definition is the one mentioned by the Shafi'i jurisprudent, Sayf al-Din al-Amide
(1233/631): "Consensus (lima') is an expression of the agreement of the generality of
those qualified to loosen and bind from the community of Muhammad in a particular age
upon the ruling of a particular occurrence."
 The popular 20th century Hanafi legal theorist, 'Abd Al-Wahhab Khallaf (1956/), says in
his definition of consensus: "It is the agreement of all of the mujtahids of the Muslims in
a particular age coming after the death of the Messenger upon a scriptural ruling
regarding a particular occurrence."
 According to Sir Abdur Rahirn: "Ijma is defined as agreement of the jurists among the
followers of Muhammad in a particular age on a question of law.
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Proofs for the Authority of Ijma:
The common approach among Muslims for resolving intra-religious conflict is to take
recourse to the sacred sources. While the doctrine of consensus had no operative value during the
period of divine revelation, scholars faced with unprecedented challenges after the Prophet
(PBUH)'s demise sought inspiration through the Qur'an and Prophetic traditions in confronting
these new tests whose answers were not clearly defined in Islamic scripture. Consequently, the
school which would later be referred to as Sunnis introduced the doctrine of scholarly consensus.
While there are more than just a few scriptural proofs that imply the authoritativeness of
consensus, the most decisive of them are two: one from the Qur'an itself. The other is from the
Prophetic tradition.
 As for the Quranic proof, it is Allah's saying in Surat al-Nisa':"Whoever splits with the
Messenger after guidance has become clear to him and then follows other than the i way
of the believers, We shall leave him in the path he has chosen and enter him into Hell.
How horrid is such a, destination"
 The Holy Quran has made various references about the use of lima. According to Surah
Yunus:
"Get ye then an agreement about your plan and among your partners, so you plan."
 According to Surah An-Nisa:
“O ye who believe! Obey Allah and obey the Apostle, And those charged with authority
among you. If ye differ in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and His Apostle.
And the Prophet (PBUH) said that: "My community will not unite on error"
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i. After the death of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) the constitutional question of selecting
Hazrat Abu Bakr as the first Caliph was solved by ljma.
ii. Collection of the Holy Quran was also done by ljma.
iii. The four Sunni schools hold ljma as a valid source. Some Shafii and Maliki Jurists not
only recognize its validity in matters of law and religion but also in matters connected
with the organization of the army, preparation of war and other questions of executive
administration.
Types of Ijma:
There are five types of Ijma:
i. Regular Ijma: In this kind, the Jurists express their opinion by words or deeds.
ii. Irregular Ijma: Inthis case a particular opinion is expressed and the other jurists
do not contradict it within (say three days.)
iii. Ijma-ul-Ummah: The companions used to be unanimous in their opinion. It was
the most superior kind of lima.
iv. Ijma-ul-Ulema: lt is consensus of the learned people only
v. Ijma-i-Madinah: This was lima by the learned people who used to reside in
Madinah.
Prerequisites of Mujtahid Carrying out Ijmah:
The first requirement of Ijma is that only Muslim Jurist may participate in lima proceedings.
 The mujtahid who participates in ljma must be of sound mind.
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 He must be a man of thorough Judgment and must have the capability of making logical
deductions.
 A mujtahid is one who has thorough knowledge of Quran and Sunnah, Islamic law and
Jurisprudence and rules and methods of analogical deduction. According to the accepted
doctrine of the Four Sunni Schools, there must be unanimous decision in the former assembly
of Jurists.
 According to the Hanafi, Shaft and even Maliki Jurists if the number of dissensions is not
large, the view of the majority will be valid and therefore binding. lfthe Jurists agree after due
deliberations, the ljma is complete but according to some Hanbli and Shafii jurists who regard
it complete only after the life of the jurists and not before, provided that no one opposes or
withdraws from the ljma.
 Maliki School only recognizes Ijma of the Companions or their successors who resided in
Madinah.
 According to Hanbli School only ljma of the Companions is valid.
 Shaft and Hanafi Schools recognise ljma even outside Madinah and of those who are Jurists
of the later age.
According to Hanafi School, ljma will be binding if the following conditions are fulfilled:
i. No companion should have differed.
No jurist should have changed his mind later on
ii. The decision must be proved as being either universally known or at least well-known.
iii. ljma should be based on an express text of the Quran or a tradition of a continuous or
well-known character.
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iv. It must be regularly constituted.
Modern Procedures for ijma:
As ijtihad is a type of ijma, the modern procedures proposed for ijtihad can be used for lima
namely.
a. Parliament as ljtihadi legislative body (lqbal)
b. World Islamic litihad council (Dr. Hamidullah)
c. A academy of Islamic Jurisprudence (International Islamic Collegium)
d. Codification of the opinions jurists adaptable to contemporary conditions of life
(Anderson)(Note:- for detail see next topic on ljtihad)
According to Dr. Allama Muhammad lqbal in his book, 'Reconstruction of Religious Thought in
Islam', that the principle of ljma should be applied and that the power of Ijtehad should reside not in one
individual but in a body of learned Muslim Scholars of advanced views who may interpret the law in the
light of modern legal and social ideas Kemal A Faruki in his 'Islamic Jurisprudence', tried to adopt the
concept of the legal validity of lima to the necessities of the modem world and the pressing needs of the
socio-political system of which the Muslim is apart. Kemal A. Faruki gave the same view in his book'
Ijma and the Gate of Ijtihad.
IJTIHAD AND ITS PROCEDURES (INDEPENDENT REASONING)
Introduction:
Reasoning or the exercise of judgment, which in essence means Ijtihad is an essential part of
Islamic law and legislation. There are no two opinions about the fact that the revealed principles of the
Quran have superiority over human reason, but it is also admitted both in theory and practice that reason's
P a g e | 349
complementary role for the enrichment of knowledge and solution of vital issues of changing human
circumstances is also indispensable. The exercise of human judgment is not to negate the fundamentals of
Shariah; its main purpose is to make the area of individual and social conduct extensive enough so that
the community's affairs are not starved of the dynamics of progress.
Need of Ijtihad from Quran and Sunnah:
Ijtihad as an essential element of law and legislation is supported both by the Quran and Hadith. The
Quran has recognized the necessity of independent judgment to arrive at decisions in the following verse:
"And if any tidings, whether of safety or fear, come into them, they noise it abroad, whereas if they had
referred it to the messenger and such of them as are in authority, those among them who are able to think
out the matter would have known it."
The Arabic word in the Quranic verse for "search out" reads yastanbitana from istnbat which signifies the
search of hidden meaning by the use of judgment and reason.
There is a famous hadith (tradition) of the Prophet (PBUH) which is generally considered to be an
authentic source of Ijtihad. The hadith establishes human reason as an important supplementary source to
Sharjah in conducting the affairs of an Islamic state it read as follows:
On being appointed Governor of Yemen Muadh Bin Jabal was asked by the Holy Prophet (PBUH) as to
the rule by which he would adjucate. He replied, "by the law of the Quran". But if you do not find any
direction in the Quran how would you decide asked the Prophet (PBUH) ". He replied, "I will apply the
Hadith/Sunnah. "But it you don't find and guidance in the Sunnah as well he was asked, "I will then
exercise my judgment and act on that" came the reply. The Prophet (PBUH) raised his hand and said,
"Praise be to Allah Who guides his Messenger as He pleases."
P a g e | 350
Defining Ijtihad:
 Literally striving; truth seeking; the individual opinion; or judgment of a person who has
considered all facts in the light of reason and revelation.
 A The whole of this legislative process which makes the legal system of Islam dynamic
and makes its development and evolution in the changing circumstances possible results
from a particular type of academic research and intellectual effort, which in the
terminology of Islam is called Ijtihad. Literally the word Ijtihad means to put in the
maximum effort to ascertain in to given problem or issuing injunction of Islam and its
real intent.
 To quote Prof. N.J. Coulson: "Ijtihad is the general process of juristic endeavour to
ascertain the tenets of Shariah Law, The person thus engaged is known as a Mujtahid".
 According to Sir Abdul Rahim: "Ijtihad literally means striving, exerting and as a tenant
of jurisprudence it means the application by a lawyer (faqih) of all his faculties to the
consideration of the authorities of the law (that is, the Quran, the Traditions and the Ijma')
with a view to find out what in all probability is the law (that is, in a matter which is not
covered by the express words of such texts and has not been determined by Ijma. In other
words Ijtihad is the capacity for making deductions in matters of law in cases to which no
express text of a rule already determined by Ijma is applicable".
 According to The Encyclopedia of Islam: "Literally exerting oneself is the technical term
in Islamic law, first for the use of individual reasoning by analogy (Qiyas)."
History of Evolution of Ijtihad:
The common belief among Muslims is that Ijithad started with the formation of Fiqh
(Jurisprudence) under the founders of the four schools of Fiqh about which a brief account will be given
P a g e | 351
late in this chapter. The fact remains that from the earliest days of Islam, some learned companions of the
Prophet (PBUH) did exercise independent judgment in matters where no light was thrown from the Quran
or from the deeds and saying of the Prophet g (PBUH). Abu Bakr, Umar and All did resort to Ittihad
when they encountered problem which had no specific solution in the Quran and Sunnah. Aisha the
Prophet (PBUH)'s widow, Ibn Abbas and Ibn Umar are counted among the earliest mujtahids of Islam.
They gave decisions according to their own discretion, and the laws framed by them were subject only to
the condition that they were not contrary to the Quran and Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH).
In the second century of Hum there arose the four great schools of Muslim jurisprudence which made
extensive use of ljtihad and evolved several methods of exercising independent judgment in all matters of
individual and community life. At this point it is desirable to have some idea about these four schools of
Sunni Jurisprudence which have had 9 lasting impact on the legal system and political organization of
Islam.
i. Imam Abu Hanifa (699-767):
Abu Hanifa Al Numan ibn Thabit was born in Basra. He developed his school at Kufa. He based
his analogical reasoning (qiyas) on the Quran and accepted hadith only when it was fully
authenticated It was because of Abu Hanifa's exposition that the Qiyas (analogy) became the fourth
source (The Quran Sunnah and Ijma being the other three sources) of Islamic law. His two learned
pupils Muhammad Shaybani and Abu Yusuf, organized the teachings of their master into a permanent
school of jurisprudence, called the Hanafi School.
ii. Imam Malik (711-795):
Malik Ibn Anas was born in Medina. His investigations into Islamic law were confined to the hadith
which he collected in Medina. His book known as Muwatta is the first collection of Hadith and is
recognized as an authoritative complication of the traditions of the Prophet (PBUH).
P a g e | 352
iii. Imam Shafi (767-820):
Muhammad Ibn Idris Al-Shafi was born in Palestine. In his day, he had a tremendous reputation as a
scholar of Quranic knowledge and learned Sunnah with great pain, travelling from place to place in
search of information and verification. His main emphasis was on Sunnah (words and deeds) of
Prophet (PBUH).
iv. Imam Hanbal (780-855):
Ahmad IbnHanbal was born in Baghdad. His understanding of the Hadith was equally extensive. His
compilation of Hadith known as Musnad has been for centuries a useful authentic source book on the
subject. Abu Hanifa Malik, Shafi and Hunbal havedremainded controversial figures in Islamic legal
history, and more than anything else the closing of the door of ljtihad, after them has been a tragic
incident in the history of Islam.
Scope of Ijtihad:
The scope of Islamic jurisprudence is described by Goldziher in the following words. Fiqh is
'like the jurisprudential of the Romans, rerumdevinarumatquehumanatumnotitia and in its widest sense it
covers all aspects of religious, political and civil life. In addition to the laws regulating ritual and religious
observances, as far as concerns performance and abstinence, it includes the whole field of family law, the
law of inheritance of property and of contract, in word, provisions for all the legal questions that arise in
social life, it also includes criminal law and procedure and finally constitutional law and law regulating
the administration of the state and conduct of war."
Traditional method/ Procedures of ljtihad:
The sphere of Ijtihad was also very wide and so the Mujtahids (exponents of ljtihad) used several
methods in the use of individual reason. The well-known methods were Qiyas (Analogical reasoning),
Istihsan (equity), Istislah (public good) and istidial (inference). In the early years of the growth of Islamic
P a g e | 353
law any jurist who possessed the requisite qualifications was deemed to be competent to exercise Ijtihad,
that is, he could interpret the original sources of law to arrive at an independent decision with the passage
of time , however, increasing restrictions were imposed and towards the close of the third century of
Hijra, the four Sunnite school of jurisprudence were regarded as fully developed with the result that the
gates of further Ijtihad were closed. The subsequent generations produced jurists who were only
Muqallids (followers) whose main task was to follow rigorously the opinions of their predecessors. The
closing of the doors of ljtihad has been considered one of the greatest intellectual disasters in the
development of Islamic thought. It stifled all the original drive and advancement of the Muslims in social,
political and legal avenues of life.
Doors of Ijtihad closed: causes:
It is difficult to determine with historical precision how and when the gates of ljtihad `were
closed. Professor Waft thinks that later in Islamic history, when Muslim rulers became despotic and used
governmental pressure on scholar-jurists to make judgments which had no precedent in the Sharjah, the
latter intentionally make Shariah a closed system in order to check the increasing demands of the rulers,
which were based on political or dynastic expediency. Thus the purpose was to save the Sharjah from the
secular inroads of the governments of the day, by telling the rulers that the sanctity and rigidity of the
Sharia did not given them the right to interpret the law in an unprecedented manner.
Causes:
As above we have noted the views of Montgomery Watt about the reasons leading to the closing
of ljtihad. He tried to show that it was in order to guard against the constant pressures of the rulers to
interpret law to suit their will the jurists refused and further interpretation. lqbal is of the opinion that
ljtihad was checked due to three reasons.
P a g e | 354
(i) Firstly, the sudden rise of rationalism created considerable fears in the orthodox circles,
that unrestricted use of reason in matters of faith would disintegrate the stability of Islam
as a social policy.
(ii) Secondly, the rise of mysticism which preached renunciation and asceticism did a great
harm to Islam.
(iii) Finally, the sack of Baghdad marked the destruction of the centre of Muslim intellectual
life.
For the fear of further disintegration which is only natural in such a period of political decay, the
conservation thinkers of Islam focused all their efforts on the one point of preserving a uniform social life
for the people by a jealous exclusion of all innovations in the law of Shariat as expounded by the early
doctors of Islam.
Efforts to revive ljtihad:
After the fall of Baghdad, the Muslims were exposed to new challenges and renowned scholars felt
greatly the need of Ijtihad. Following is a list of religious scholars who theorized and asked for carrying
out ljtihad:
a. Parliament as Ijtihadi Legislative Body (lqbal):
Iqbal watched the religious and political developments in Turkey during the early twentieth
century with great interest and anxiety. The Turkish experiment made him evolve a thesis that a
National Legislative Assembly is a competent body to exercise litihad in matters of religion and
politics in a Muslim society.
"Let us now see how the Grand National Assembly has exercised this power of Ijtihad in regard
to the institution of Khilafat. According to Sunni law the appointment of an Imam or Khalifa is
P a g e | 355
absolutely indispensable. The first question that arises in this connection is this: Should the Caliphate
be vested in a single person? Turkey's Ijtihad is that according to the spirit of Islam the Caliphate or
Imamat can be vested in a body of persons or an elected Assemble. The religious doctors of Islam in
Egypt and India so far as I know, have not yet expressed themselves on this point. Personally I
believe the Turkish view is perfectly sound". And he concludes his remarks about the Turkish
experiment by saying: "The truth is that among the Muslim nations of today, Turkey alone has shaken
off its dogmatic slumber, and attained to self-consciousness".
b. World Islamic Ijtihad Council (Dr. Hamidullah):
Stressing the need of establishing an institutional mechanism for carrying out litihad regarding
changing requirements of time, Dr. Hamidullah opined that a World Ijtihad council should be formed
in capital of an Islamic country which should be represented by Muslims scholars from across the
globe. The proposed council may carry out independent reasoning for dealing with issues relating to
economic, political social scientific , gender, etc. with which the Muslims are generally faced. He
further suggested that the council may be assisted by various professional committees on economic,
scientific, business, etc. subjects who may give expert opinion to the council.
c. Academy of Islamic Jurisprudence (International Islamic Collegium):
This tendency from individual to collective ljtihad was taken up by the ljtihad session of the
International Islamic Collegium in 1958. It was suggested that an academy for Islamic jurisprudence
should be established. It should include the most competent jurists from every Muslim county, whose
minds were open to doubt in matters of economics, sociology, law, medicine, etc. An academy of this
type staffed by full time paid scholars, with up-to-date facilities for research should be given the
power to interpret the law in accordance with the demands of modern time.
P a g e | 356
d. Codification of the Opinions of Jurists Adaptable to Contemporary Conditions of Life
(Anderson):
Anderson has pointed out that a codification of the opinions of the jurists, which are adaptable to
contemporary conditions of life although heterogeneous in nature is a useful and beneficial effort, but
it is theoretically unsatisfactory. That is to say the progressive elements form all schools of Muslim
jurisprudence should be codified into a compact code of legal principles which are workable in
modern times.
e. Saying no to Blind Following (Taqlid):
The best course in his view would be to accord frank and unqualified recognition to Ittihad even
though it would entail repudiation of the binding and sanctified influence of the great jurists of the
past. An additional endeavour will be needed to evolve a doctrine the some precepts of the
predecessors were of temporary utility and that a change in circumstances has made such a change in
law inevitable.
As per lqbal, there is no room for Taqlid (Blind following) which is contrary to religion. He
believed that the completion or finality of the Quranic message did not mean that the details which
were worked out to implement the fundamentals of Islam in the past, under different political and
socio-economic conditions, were to be binding for all times to come. ljtihad, he believed was an
integral part of the principle of .movement. It gives Islamic doctrines their dynamic nature and
universal application.

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What are the five principles of Islam according to Hazrat Umar?

What are the five principles of Islam according to Hazrat Umar?

What are the different views on who should hold the position of Caliph or Imam?

What are the different views on who should hold the position of Caliph or Imam?

INSTITUTE FOR CENTRAL SUPERIOR SERVICES

ISLAMIC STUDIES NOTES

2. To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly

3. To pay Zakat (i.e. obligatory charity)

5. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan

1- Literal Meaning of Islam

slim both signify peace.”

2- Terminological Meanings of Islam:

rest in the remembrance of God-

and one who refuse to follow it becomes a Kafir (Disbeliever).

life to come;---- these have received the direction of their Lord”.

4- Exposition of Religion of Islam:

the duties of life.

These sections are five in Number namely:

(ii) Practicle Devotions;

(a) Beliefs: Five Articles of Faith

(b) Devotion/Worship: Five Pillars of Islam

Devotions are sub divided into five articles of practice:

1. Rectal of the creed (Kalimah)

2. Prayers to Allah (Salat);

3. Paying legal alms (Zakat);

4. Fasting the month of Ramadan (Saum);

claims etc.., are embraced under those three heads.

1. Penalties exacted for manslaughter or serious bodily injures,

2. Punishment for theft by the loss of a hand,

hundred lashes for an unmarried person,

4. Punishment for slander by eighty lashes,

5. Punishment for apostasy by death,

6. Punishment for inebriation by Eighty lashes,

IMPORTANCE OF DEEN IN HUMAN LIFE

people, of all ages, irrespective of race and colour through Quran.

has come to them?” (18: 54-55)

Religion and divine Religion (Islam):

deals with individual life only.

i. According to Sir E.B Taylor:

“Religion means the belief in spiritual beings”

ii. According to Mohammad Mazhar-uddin Siddiqui

iii. Ibn-Khaldun (1332-1406)

“(Devine) Religions are introduced by Allah in order to leads mankind to eternal

blessings. Their objective is to worship Allah as well as management of worldly affairs.

Religion provides guidelines to establish a composite state and government on the

fundamentals enjoined by Allah”.

i. Man is naturally a religious being; he requires a metaphysical being to fall upon

in his quest for unresolved mysteries of universe, life, death etc.

ii. Religion create mental satisfactions by giving meaning to life

v. Religion teaches equality and dignity of mankind.

vi. Religion gives us the concept of brotherhood of mankind.

which are essentials for world peace.

viii. Religion leads to purification of soul.

ix. Research takes place in various branches of knowledge because of motivation

the weak and all and sundry.

Deen as it is a complete code of life.

According to Dr. Khalifa Abdul Hakim:

further went to say that;

Importance of Deen in Human life