PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR PHILOSOPHIES

1. Jean Paul Sartre

Jean Paul Sartre's philosophical career began upon the construction of a philosophy of
existence commonly known as existentialism. He was recognized for developing classic
phenomenologies, but his reflection diverges from Husserl's on methodology, the concept of the
self, and an interest in ethics. He used these diversions to formulate his philosophy on human
freedom. He built an existentialist philosophy in which man's loneliness and responsibility is
absolute. Despite this delicate condition, man needs to create his approach to characterize his
identity.
According to Sarte, human consciousness is the power of nihilation (explanation to come)
and freedom. It is opposed to the in-itself, a being described to be full, solid, and opaque.
Therefore, condemned to absolute freedom, the man should invent himself.
His philosophical masterpiece, Being and Nothingness, where he defines two types of
reality which lie beyond our conscious experience: the being of the object of consciousness and
that of consciousness itself served as the explanation behind Sartre's ontology. The object of
consciousness exists as the "in-itself", that is, in an independent and non-relational way. However,
consciousness is always consciousness "of something", by which one can experience nothingness.
This power is additionally at work inside oneself, where it makes a natural absence of self-
character. So, the solidarity of oneself is comprehended as an undertaking for the for-itself rather
than as a given.
So as to ground itself, the self needs projects, which can be seen as parts of a person's major
task and propelled by a desire for "being" existing in the person's awareness. The source of this
venture is an unconstrained unique decision that relies upon the person's freedom. Nonetheless,
self's decision may prompt a venture of self-deception, for example, dishonesty, where one's own
genuine nature with respect to itself is disposed of to embrace that of the in-itself. Our only way
to escape self-deception is authenticity, that is, choosing in a way which reveals the existence of
the for-itself as both factual and transcendent. For Sartre, my proper exercise of freedom creates
values that any other human being placed in any situation could experience, therefore each
authentic project expresses a universal dimension in the singularity of a human life.
2. Soren Kierkegaard
 Søren Kierkegaard is an outsider in the history of philosophy. His peculiar authorship
comprises a baffling array of different narrative points of view and disciplinary subject matter,
including aesthetic novels, works of psychology and Christian dogmatics, satirical prefaces,
philosophical "scraps" and "postscripts," literary reviews, edifying discourses, Christian polemics,
and retrospective self-interpretations. His arsenal of rhetoric includes irony, satire, parody, humor,
polemic and a dialectical method of "indirect communication" - all designed to deepen the reader’s
subjective passionate engagement with ultimate existential issues. Like his role models Socrates
and Christ, Kierkegaard takes how one lives one’s life to be the prime criterion of being in the
truth. Kierkegaard’s closest literary and philosophical models are Plato, J.G. Hamann, G.E.
Lessing, and his teacher of philosophy at the University of Copenhagen Poul Martin Møller,
although Goethe, the German Romantics, Hegel, Kant and the logic of Adolf Trendelenburg are
also important influences. His prime theological influence is Martin Luther, although his reactions
to his Danish contemporaries N.F.S. Grundtvig and H.L. Martensen are also crucial. In addition to
being dubbed "the father of existentialism," Kierkegaard is best known as a trenchant critic of
Hegel and Hegelianism and for his invention or elaboration of a host of philosophical,
psychological, literary and theological categories, including: anxiety, despair, melancholy,
repetition, inwardness, irony, existential stages, inherited sin, teleological suspension of the
ethical, Christian paradox, the absurd, reduplication, universal/exception, sacrifice, love as a duty,
seduction, the demonic, and indirect communication.
3. Karl Jaspers
Jaspers’ philosophy dealt with the concepts of existentialism, a theory according to which
all philosophical ideas begin by a human individual, his actions, feelings and attitudes. Jaspers’
ideas of existentialism were heavily influenced by those of Friedrich Nietzsche and Søren
Kierkegaard. Jaspers’ works also hint of influence from both Kant and Weber, the latter being a
close family friend of Jaspers’. He applied his psychiatric approach to Nietzsche’s philosophical
notions and presented his theories as direct expressions of his outlook on life, rather than fixed
postulates. Jaspers gave his view of the history of philosophy and introduced his major themes.
Beginning with modern science and empiricism, Jaspers points out that as we question reality, we
confront borders that an empirical (or scientific) method simply cannot transcend. At this point,
the individual faces a choice: sink into despair and resignation or take a leap of faith toward what
Jaspers calls Transcendence. In making this leap, individuals confront their own limitless freedom,
which Jaspers calls Existenz, and can finally experience authentic existence
The philosophy of Karl Jaspers is based on the idea that a human is not merely existentially
present, but he also desires to be more like himself. His three-volume Philosophy
(1923) specifically contains these notions. He attempts to explain and explore the height of human
experiences. He created the German term “Umgreifende” which literally translates to ‘the
encompassing’; the term was meant to encapsulate the depth and limits of all possible human
experiences, both subjective and objective. These would include all those experiences which can
never be logically interpreted but are felt by man at a deeper, instinctive level.
Initiating his intellectual journey from science and the observation-based empiricism,
Jaspers reaches at another concept of philosophy in his book Existenzphilosophie (1938). He
debated with the empiricists of his time and said that whenever a person questions his perceived
reality, he/she comes across boundaries which are above our empirical senses and logic. This
makes way for the person to choose between despair, depression and a feeling of giving up, or he
could make a go at a profound belief which he called ‘Existen’ which contains in itself a myriad
of possibilities and limitless freedom, which forms an integral part of the personality of any
individual who faces limiting situations like death, chance, guilt et cetera. For Jaspers’ philosophy
was not a science, but rather existential enlightenment, which deals with being as a whole. Every
utterance about philosophy is itself philosophy. Philosophy occurs where people wake up.
Philosophy is the awareness of one’s own powerlessness and weakness. Jaspers thus distinguished
scientific truth from existential truth. While the one is intersubjectively comprehensible, one
cannot speak of knowledge with the other, since it is directed towards transcendent objects (God,
freedom). Science knows progress, philosophy in his opinion does not. Jaspers was strictly
opposed to the mixing of philosophy as he understood it with a philosophy that wanted to compete
with science and limited itself to its methods. This makes itself the maid of science.
In the domain of theology, Jaspers strictly opposed religious doctrines and the concept of
a personal God. His notions of limited experiences created an impact on modern theology. His
religious interests varied. He was largely influenced by the religious teachings of Buddha, from
which he gave his theory of Axial Age.
In his political views, an ideal government would be the one which guarantees maximum
personal freedom while holding a strong authority where necessary, run by a few intellectuals of
choice. Jaspers considered humanism as the best way forward in politics and advised time and
again about the cons of technocracy, an establishment which considers humans as puppets in the
hands of the government, who takes wrong advantage of their capabilities.
4. Viktor Frankl
Viktor Frankl developed the psychological approach known as logotherapy, widely
recognized as the "third school" of Viennese psychotherapy after the "first school" of Sigmund
Freud and the "second school" of Alfred Adler. The basis of Frankl’s theory was that the primary
motivation of an individual is the search for meaning in life and that the primary purpose of
psychotherapy should be to help the individual find that meaning. For Frankl, meaning came from
three possible sources: purposeful work, love, and courage in the face of difficulty.
Frankl's thesis echoes those of many sages, from Buddhists to Stoics to his 20th century
Existentialist contemporaries: "Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the
human freedoms—to choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one's own
way." Not only did he find hope and meaning in the midst of terrible suffering, but after
his unimaginable loss, he "remarried, wrote another twenty-five books, founded a school of
psychotherapy, built an institute bearing his name in Vienna," and generally lived a long, happy
life. Frankl maintains that we always have some freedom of choice, "in spite of the worst
conditions," and therefore always have the ability to seek for meaning. "People are free," says
Frankl, no matter their level of oppression, and are responsible "for making someone or something
out of themselves."
5. King Solomon
King Solomon, also known as Qohelet, was revered as a man of great wisdom, a theist, and
the author of the books of Ecclesiastes and most of Proverbs in the Christian Holy Bible. Proverbs
summarized the way a man should live to be wise, while Ecclesiastes, written much later in
Solomon’s life, was spent mourning the indulgences of the “vanity” he pursued. The two books
present wisdom and the pursuit of wisdom in very different lights. The life of Solomon, and his
philosophy during his life were an evolving process, which makes the context of his life in
conjunction with his philosophy of life endearing.
Proverbs begins with the heading “The Beginning of Knowledge” signifying exactly what the book
will be about: wisdom and knowledge. To King Solomon, revered at the wisest man of his time,
“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom; fools despise wisdom and instruction,” as he
states in Proverbs 1:7. His attitude towards the pursuit of wisdom, or his philosophy, is hopeful
and fresh. Solomon takes the stance that following the law of the Jewish God and fearing him- or
revering his authority as God- was the only way to live a life of wisdom. He also argues that any
person who is not a fool should chase wisdom. In other words, following the laws of God would
be to “walk in the way of good and keep to the paths of the righteous,” (Proverbs 2:20). The
wisdom he pursues is not all of religious significance though; it is a book of wisdom in how to get
the most full life out of our numbered days, exploring the ways to have productive friendships and
the way to work.
Despite Solomon’s concession that the best way to live a wise life is to follow the law of God,
he falls away from his own suggestions for the pursuit of “vanity.” Essentially he turns to a life of
hedonism- pursuing any pleasure that meets his eye. Solomon chased things that were contrary to
God’s law - obnoxious and meaningless worldly possessions, and therefore brought destruction to
his life. In Deuteronomy 17:17, for example, God commands the kings that they “must not take
many wives, or his heart will be led astray. He must not accumulate large amounts of silver and
gold.” Solomon lived a life quite antithetical to that, claiming 700 wives and 300 concubines and
accumulating more wealth than any other Israelite king. This vanity, which Solomon then goes on
to warn about in Ecclesiastes, was dangerous and destructive.
In contrast with the book of Proverbs, the book of Ecclesiastes begins with the heading
“Everything is Meaningless” - the anti-thesis of what you would expect to find in a book that is
said to contain the meaning of life. Jennifer Hecht, the author of Doubt, calls Ecclesiastes a sort of
anomaly for a holy book or “out of sync”. It’s discussion of doubt towards the meaning of life and
wisdom seems antithetical to the principles of the Bible on first glance. But the beauty in
Ecclesiastes, and the Bible as a whole, is that the flaws and the doubts of each author are included
in the narrative. In the book of Ecclesiastes, Solomon reflects on a life that was “long on experience
but short on lasting rewards.” Solomon writes: “Then I applied myself to the understanding of
wisdom, and also of madness and folly, but I learned that this, too, is a chasing after the wind,”
in Ecclesiastes 1:17. After living a long life of chasing the wind after whatever sort of pleasure he
wanted, Solomon faced an existential crisis at the end of his life- questioning if his life really had
a purpose at all. His doubt according to Hecht, is doubt of “providence, justice and righteousness.”
Solomon mourns for the way he lived the middle of his life, full of vanity. In short, Solomon came
to the understanding that a life without God is worthless, regardless of what you learn or study or
experience.
Ecclesiastes is essentially a return to the principles of Proverbs and a clarification of them
after a long life of rebellion towards those principles. Life is unfair, our circumstances will not feel
just, but the best thing we can do is “do good and be happy while we live.” Qohelet is broken and
mangled over what has come of his life in a lot of ways. The worthlessness he feels causes him to
mourn for days of greater purpose. Solomon looks back onto his life and sees the ruin he has
created for himself by abandoning the wisdom he has once pursued enumerated in Proverbs- the
fear of the Lord. At first glance, he seems to be rejecting the idea of the Jewish God altogether,
questioning justice and righteousness, but when taken in complete context from the whole Biblical
narrative, he is really just questioning humans and their pursuit of uselessness. But the inclusion
of these doubts are an important, unique aspect of the Bible’s honesty about the nature of humans.
According the Aristotelian notion of teleology, the purpose of wisdom is to lead us to the
unmoved mover, in this case, the God of the Bible. Solomon begins to adopt a teleological view
of philosophy- that everything has a purpose, and the purpose of wisdom is that it is a tool given
to humans to know their Creator more fully. Although contradictory to many other views of
philosophy, and many philosophers who found philosophy worthwhile without a discussion of the
gods, Solomon, reflecting on his life, comes to the conclusion that wisdom does not have any value
without God because the beginning of wisdom is the fear of God, and without God wisdom is
meaningless. To Solomon wisdom is essentially just another vanity if it is not being pursued in the
context of knowing his God and living a better life.
SOURCES:
https://www.iep.utm.edu/sartre-ex/
http://scihi.org/karl-jaspers/
https://www.the-philosophy.com/sartre-philosophy
https://www.iep.utm.edu/kierkega/
https://www.famousphilosophers.org/karl-jaspers/
http://www.openculture.com/2016/02/viktor-frankl-explains-how-to-find-meaning-in-life.html