Nitin
Nitin
Nitin
“It is not possible to prepare a training report without the assistance and
encouragement of other people. This one is certainly no exception.”
On the very outset of this report I would like to extend my sincere and
heartfelt obligation towards all the personages who have helped me in this
endeavour. Without their active guidance, help, cooperation and
encouragement, I would have not made head way in the report.
I would also like to thank all employees of ITTM-MTNL for organizing and
permitting the winter training program for us.
1
About MTNL and ITTM
2
Objectives and Scope of
Training
The training helped me to learn about the transmitting and receiving the
signal and finally establishing communication path. The practical use of
electronics as well as communication can be understood with this training.
3
Contents
Acknowledgement 1
1 Introduction to Telephony 6
2 Transmission Cables 9
2.1 Guided Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Coaxial Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Twisted Pair Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Optical Fiber Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Switching 14
3.1 Methods of switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Electronic Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Signaling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4 Broadband Technology 19
4.1 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Broadband Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2.1 Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.2 Broadband Remote Access Server (BRAS) . . . . . . . . 22
6 Wireless Media 28
6.1 GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.1.1 Architecture of GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4
6.2 UMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.2.1 Architecture of UMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.3 LTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.3.1 Architecture of LTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Conclusion 36
References 37
5
Chapter 1
Introduction to Telephony
Transmitter
• Consists a diaphragm, front electrode, back electrode and carbon granules
between two electrodes.
• Compression moves diaphragm + front electrode inwards. Increased
mechanical pressure packs carbon granules decrease the contact
resistance of carbon granules.
6
Receiver
• Consists electromagnet coils wound on pole pieces attached to a permanent
magnet, a flexible diaphragm.
4. Inserts calling plug into called subscriber line jack. Cranks generator
holding ring key in ring person.
5. When called subscriber answers, operator.
6. Restores speak/ring key to normal. At end of call, one of the subscriber
cranks to give clearing indication.
7. Operators operates speak/ring key to confirm end of call & removes calling
and answering plugs to free cord connect.
8. Restores clearing drop indicator manually.
7
Figure 1.1: Magneto Switch Board
It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal into
segments, and assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating,
repeating sequence. The composite signal thus contains data from multiple
senders.
At the other end of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are
separated out by means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the
proper end users.
8
Chapter 2
Transmission Cables
9
Figure 2.1: Different transmission media
term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a
geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and
mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880. Coaxial
cable differs from other shielded cables because the dimensions of the cable are
controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it
to function efficiently as a transmission line.
Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its
applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with
their antennas, computer network (Internet) connections, digital audio
(S/PDIF), and distributing cable television signals.
10
Figure 2.2: Coaxial Cable
11
This shielding can be applied to individual pairs or quads, or to the
collection of pairs. Individual pairs are foiled, while overall cable may use
braided screen, foil, or braiding with foil.
12
2.1.3 Optical Fiber Cable
An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by
drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a
human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit light
between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic
communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables. Fibers are used instead of
metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss; in addition, fibers
are immune to electromagnetic interference, a problem from which metal wires
suffer excessively. Fibers are also used for illumination and imaging, and are
often wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry light into, or
images out of confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed
fibers are also used for a variety of other applications, some of them being
fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers.
Being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic
communication This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and
involves careful cleaving of the fibres, precise alignment of the fiber cores, and
the coupling of these aligned cores. For applications that demand a permanent
connection a fusion splice is common. In this technique, an electric arc is used
to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a
mechanical splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by
mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by
means of specialized optical fiber connectors.
13
Chapter 3
Switching
14
• Subscriber lines and trunks from other exchanges (Incoming trunk call),
and
• Pairs of trunks towards different exchanges (Transit switching).
These are switching functions of an exchange & are implemented through the
equipment called the Switching Network.
15
3.1 Methods of switching
Circuit switching
Circuit switching creates a direct physical connection between two devices such
as phones or computers. We can use switches to reduce the number and length
of links.
Message switching
Message switching was the precursor of packet switching, where messages were
routed in their entirety, one hop at a time. It was first introduced in 1961.
Nowadays, message switching systems are mostly implemented over
packet-switched or circuit-switched data networks. E-mail is example of a
message switching system.
Packet switching
Packet switching is a communications paradigm in which packets (discrete
blocks of data) are routed between nodes over data links shared with other
traffic. The term “packets” refers to the fact that the data stream from your
computer is broken up into packets of about 200 bytes (on average), which are
then sent out onto the network. Each packet contains a “header” with
information necessary for routing the packet from source to destination. Each
packet in a data stream is independent.
The main advantage of packet-switching is that it permits “statistical
multiplexing” on the communications lines. The packets from many different
sources can share a line, allowing for very efficient use of the fixed capacity.
With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on a
first-come, first-served basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are
delayed or discarded (“dropped”).
16
Figure 3.3: Space Division Switching
17
Figure 3.5: Comparison of Space and Time Switches
3. AXE10 - T-S-T
4. 5ESS - T-S-T
5. OCB283 - T
18
Chapter 4
Broadband Technology
19
The bit rate of consumer DSL service typically ranges from 256 kbps to 40
mbps in downstream direction depending on DSL technology used, line
condition and service level implementation.
Types of DSL
1. SDSL: Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line —Equal upstream and
downstream speeds.
2. ADSL: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line —Unequal upstream and
downstream speeds.
20
Figure 4.1: DSL Block Diagram
21
Figure 4.3: DSLAM
22
Chapter 5
The glass used to make Optical Fibers is so pure that if the Pacific Ocean
was filled with this glass then we would be able to see the ocean bottom form
the surface.!!!!
Optical fibre is used to guide light waves with a minimum attenuation. They
are composed of fine threads of glass in layers. The fine threads are of silica glass
mix with some dopant material. Two main layers are known as core (central, of
8 to 50µm) & cladding(outer, 50to125µm) .Core is having 1 % more refractive
index than cladding. It transmits the Optical waves (Light) through it at the
speed of 2/3 of speed of light in vacuum observing the total internal reflection
principle. Light is either reflected or refracted depending upon the angle of
incident at which it strikes the layer of separation. It refracts away when it
goes from denser to a rearer medium. It reflects when it crosses the critical
angle,which is known as phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection.
23
Figure 5.1: Working of Optical Fiber
24
Passive optical networks (PON) and point-to-point Ethernet are
architectures that are capable of delivering triple-play services over FTTH
networks directly from an operator’s central office.
25
Optical Splitter
The optical splitter splits the power of the signal. That is to say, each
fibre link entering the splitter may be split into a given number of
fibres leaving the splitter. Usually, three or more levels of
fibres correspond to two or more levels of splitters. This enables sharing of
each
bre by many users. The passive optical splitter has the characteristics of
broad operating wavelength range, low insertion loss and uniformity, minimal
dimensions, high reliability, and supporting network survivability and protection
policy.
26
Architecture
27
Chapter 6
Wireless Media
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide
geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g.,
mobile phones, tablets and laptops equipped with mobile broadband modems,
pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and
telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the
transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.
6.1 GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a standard developed by
the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the
protocols for second-generation digital cellular networks used by mobile
28
devices such as tablets, first deployed in Finland in December 1991. 2G
networks were developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog
cellular networks, and the GSM standard originally described as a digital,
circuit-switched network optimised for full duplex voice telephony. Features of
GSM are—Communication, mobile, wireless communication; support for voice
and data services, international access, Worldwide connectivity, High capacity,
better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell, High
transmission quality, high audio quality and reliability for wireless,
uninterrupted phone calls at higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains), Security
functions ,access control, authentication. Generations of GSM
• 1st generation:- Analog mobile technologies :- AMPS , TACS & NMT.
29
Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The BSS consists of three major hardware components:
BSS includes the network elements taking care of the radio cellular resources
within the GSM network. On one side, it is directly linked to the MSs through
the radio interface (Air interface). On the other side it is interconnected with
the switches of the Network Switching Subsystem (NSS). Its role consists in
connecting MS and NSS and hence in connecting the caller to the other users.
It is controlled by the Network Monitoring System (NMS).
30
Home Location Register (HLR)
The Home Location Register (HLR) contains the identities of mobile
subscribers, their service parameters, and their location information.
31
Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC)
The Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC) is the centralised maintenance
and diagnostic heart of the base station system (BSS). It allows the network
provider to operate, administer, and monitor the functioning of the BSS.
6.2 UMTS
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third
generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard.
Developed and maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership
Project), UMTS is a component of the International Telecommunications
Union IMT-2000 standard set. UMTS uses wideband code division multiple
access (W-CDMA) radio access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency
and bandwidth to mobile network operators.
Node B
Node B is known as 3G-BTS. It is responsible for the transmission/reception
radio from/to MS in one or more cells. NODE-B supports FDD, TDD or dual
mode. It is connected to RNC via ATM interface links.
32
Figure 6.2: UMTS Network Architecture
33
6.3 LTE
In telecommunication, Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a standard for
high-speed wireless communication for mobile devices and data terminals,
based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA technologies. It increases the
capacity and speed using a different radio interface together with core network
improvements. The standard is developed by the 3GPP (3rd Generation
Partnership Project) and is specified in its Release 8 document series, with
minor enhancements described in Release 9. LTE is the upgrade path for
carriers with both GSM/UMTS networks. The different LTE frequencies and
bands used in different countries mean that only multi-band phones are able to
use LTE in all countries where it is supported.
eNode-B (eNB)
Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or more cells. The
base station that is communicating with a mobile is known as its serving eNB.
LTE Mobile communicates with just one base station and one cell at a time and
there are following two main functions supported by eNB:
• The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the
analogue and digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.
34
• The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending
them signalling messages such as handover commands.
Each eNB connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface and it can
also be connected to nearby base stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly
used for signalling and packet forwarding during handover.
A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to
provide femtocell coverage within the home. A home eNB belongs to a closed
subscriber group (CSG) and can only be accessed by mobiles with a USIM that
also belongs to the closed subscriber group.
35
Conclusion
The telecom industry in the form of the service providers and infrastructure
vendors have always been able to drive the way forward. Drive the networks,
drive the standards, drive what subscribers see and can do with the network.
But that has been changing over the past 10 years - networks today are data
pipes, and the drivers of the industry today can arguably be seen as who you,
as a subscriber, interface with the most - that is, apps and devices. And the
industry as I described it above has been trying desperately to hang onto the
wheel to continue to drive the way forward, so the likes of social networking
applications dont take the drivers seat for the foreseeable future. But its
inevitable to happen, and well see more of that, especially due to 5G, NFV,
and IoT in the near future.
36
References
1. Telephone, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone
37
17. GSM Architecture, http://www.radio-electronics.com/
info/cellulartelecomms/gsm technical/gsm architecture.php
18. UMTS, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS
19. UMTS Architecture, http://www.radio-electronics.com/
info/cellulartelecomms/umts/umts-wcdma-network-architecture.php
20. LTE, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LTE (telecommunication)
21. LTE Architecture,
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/lte/lte network architecture.html
38