Nitin

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Acknowledgement

“It is not possible to prepare a training report without the assistance and
encouragement of other people. This one is certainly no exception.”

On the very outset of this report I would like to extend my sincere and
heartfelt obligation towards all the personages who have helped me in this
endeavour. Without their active guidance, help, cooperation and
encouragement, I would have not made head way in the report.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the faculty of ITTM-MTNL,


I was privileged to experience a sustained enthusiastic and involved interest
from their side. This fuelled my enthusiasm and my thoughts to think broad
and out of the box.

I would also like to thank all employees of ITTM-MTNL for organizing and
permitting the winter training program for us.

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About MTNL and ITTM

Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) is a state-owned


telecommunications service provider in the metro cities of Mumbai and New
Delhi in India and in the island nation of Mauritius in Africa. It was created
by the Government of India in 1986 to oversee the telephone services of Delhi
and Mumbai. “Transparency makes us different” is the motto of the company.
The Government of India currently holds 100% stock in the company. MTNL
provides fixed line telephones and WLL Services. It also provides mobile
services on GSM and CDMA platforms. As of December 2017, it has 3.58
million subscribers.

The Institute of Telecom Technology & Management, ITTM


(formerly DTTC), Shadipur is a state of the art training centre of MTNL,
Delhi engaged in imparting induction training and short duration trainings to
its officers and employees in the field of Telecom, IT, Computer systems and
Management. With impressive growth of telecom sector in India, the
requirement of telecom trained personnel is increasing day by day.

Realising this ever-growing demand for telecom personnel, ITTM started


training engineering students also as part of their summer training. The main
goal of ITTM is to provide infrastructure and facilities to the future technocrats
of the country by imparting summer industrial training and short-term technical
courses to engineering students as a part of corporate responsibility so that their
knowledge and skill levels may match the best in the industry.

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Objectives and Scope of
Training

The objective of training is to fetch the information about various technical


areas of concerning telecommunication fundamental, Digital Communication,
Broadband, GSM, Wi-Fi, Advance Optical Network and Mobile
Communication.

The training helped me to learn about the transmitting and receiving the
signal and finally establishing communication path. The practical use of
electronics as well as communication can be understood with this training.

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Contents

Acknowledgement 1

About MTNL and ITTM 2

Objectives and Scope of Training 3

1 Introduction to Telephony 6

2 Transmission Cables 9
2.1 Guided Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 Coaxial Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Twisted Pair Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 Optical Fiber Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 Switching 14
3.1 Methods of switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Electronic Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Signaling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4 Broadband Technology 19
4.1 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Broadband Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2.1 Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer . . . . . . . . 21
4.2.2 Broadband Remote Access Server (BRAS) . . . . . . . . 22

5 Fiber To The Home 23


5.1 Optical Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.2 FTTH Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.2.1 Network Components and Architecture of Passive Optical
Network (PON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.2.2 Active Ethernet Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

6 Wireless Media 28
6.1 GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.1.1 Architecture of GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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6.2 UMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.2.1 Architecture of UMTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.3 LTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.3.1 Architecture of LTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Conclusion 36

References 37

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Chapter 1

Introduction to Telephony

How does a Telephone work?

A telephone is a telecommunication device that is used to transmit and


receive electronically or digitally encoded speech between two or more people
conversing. The basic principle of telephony includes a transmitter and a
receiver. At the calling end, transmitter converts sound waves into electrical
signals. At the called end, receiver converts back electrical signals into sound.

Basic Requirements of Speech Transmission


• Speech level at receiver should be about -30db (a thousandth part) of the
transmitter level.
• Telephone system should introduce minimum amplitude distortion &
reasonable amount of phase & frequency distortions.

• Acoustical impedance should match at each point of energy conversion.


• Apparatus and Transmission media should be capable to transmit
frequency spectrum of 300 - 3400 Hz.
• Transmitter and receiver are based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.

Transmitter
• Consists a diaphragm, front electrode, back electrode and carbon granules
between two electrodes.
• Compression moves diaphragm + front electrode inwards. Increased
mechanical pressure packs carbon granules decrease the contact
resistance of carbon granules.

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Receiver
• Consists electromagnet coils wound on pole pieces attached to a permanent
magnet, a flexible diaphragm.

In earlier days there used to be different telephone exchange components-


1. Switching Equipment —Common Equipment which effects
interconnection of telephones.

2. Telephone Exchange —Switching centre which houses the terminating and


switching equipment.
3. Manual Exchanges —Manually operated by operators to effect
interconnection of subs.

4. Automatic Exchanges —Having automatic switching equipments.


5. Switchboard —Switching Equipment of a Manual Exchange
One of them can be described as-

Magneto Switch Boards


Operation

1. Calling subscriber cranks generator. His line indicator shutter falls.


2. Operator plugs answering plug of free cord connects into callers line jack
& operates speak/ring key to speak person.
3. Restores shutter manually & ascertain callers requirement.

4. Inserts calling plug into called subscriber line jack. Cranks generator
holding ring key in ring person.
5. When called subscriber answers, operator.
6. Restores speak/ring key to normal. At end of call, one of the subscriber
cranks to give clearing indication.
7. Operators operates speak/ring key to confirm end of call & removes calling
and answering plugs to free cord connect.
8. Restores clearing drop indicator manually.

Telephony basic operation was based on TDM, i.e is a method of putting


multiple data streams in a single signal by separating the signal into many
segments, each having a very short duration. Each individual data stream is
reassembled at the receiving end based on the timing.

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Figure 1.1: Magneto Switch Board

The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a


communications link is known as a multiplexer.

It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each signal into
segments, and assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating,
repeating sequence. The composite signal thus contains data from multiple
senders.

At the other end of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are
separated out by means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the
proper end users.

A two-way communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at


each end of the long-distance, high-bandwidth cable.

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Chapter 2

Transmission Cables

In communications and electronic engineering, a transmission line is a


specialized cable or other structure designed to conduct alternating current of
radio frequency, that is, currents with a frequency high enough that their wave
nature must be taken into account. Transmission lines are used for purposes
such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas (they
are then called feed lines or feeders), distributing cable television signals,
trunk lines routing calls between telephone switching centres, computer
network connections and high speed computer data buses.

There are two type of transmission modes:


1. Guided medium are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Guided Transmission media uses a “cabling” system that guides the data
signals along a specific path. The data signals are bound by the “cabling”
system.
2. Unguided medium relates to data transmission through the air and is
commonly referred to as wireless. The transmission and reception of data
is carried out using antenna.
In this section we study about guided mediums in details, we will read
about unguided mediums and OFC in later sections.

2.1 Guided Media


2.1.1 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is a type of electrical cable that has an inner conductor
surrounded by a tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting
shield. Many coaxial cables also have an insulating outer sheath or jacket. The

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Figure 2.1: Different transmission media

term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a
geometric axis. Coaxial cable was invented by English engineer and
mathematician Oliver Heaviside, who patented the design in 1880. Coaxial
cable differs from other shielded cables because the dimensions of the cable are
controlled to give a precise, constant conductor spacing, which is needed for it
to function efficiently as a transmission line.

Bandwidth of coaxial cable is different-different according to use. It is


depend on signal. For example, the bandwidth allocation of a telephone voice
grade channel, which is classified as narrowband, is normally about 4,000 Hz,
but the voice channel actually uses frequencies from 300 to 3,400 Hz.

Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals. Its
applications include feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with
their antennas, computer network (Internet) connections, digital audio
(S/PDIF), and distributing cable television signals.

2.1.2 Twisted Pair Cable


Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single
circuit are twisted together for the purposes of improving electromagnetic
compatibility. Compared to a single conductor or an untwisted balanced pair,
a twisted pair reduces electromagnetic radiation, crosstalk between

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Figure 2.2: Coaxial Cable

Figure 2.3: Twisted Pair Cable

neighbouring pairs and improves rejection of external electromagnetic


interference. These are of two types, Shielded and Unshielded Twisted Pair
Cables.

Unshielded Twisted Pair


Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are found in many Ethernet networks and
telephone systems. For indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into
sets of 25 pairs according to a standard 25-pair color code originally developed by
AT&T Corporation. A typical subset of these colors (white/blue, blue/white,
white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables. The cables are
typically made with copper wires measured at 22 or 24 American Wire Gauge
(AWG), with the colored insulation typically made from an insulator such as
polyethylene or FEP and the total package covered in a polyethylene jacket.

Shielded Twisted Pair


Twisted pair cables are often shielded in an attempt to prevent
electromagnetic interference. Shielding provides an electrically conductive
barrier to attenuate electromagnetic waves external to the shield, and provides
a conduction path by which induced currents can be circulated and returned
to the source, via ground reference connection.

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This shielding can be applied to individual pairs or quads, or to the
collection of pairs. Individual pairs are foiled, while overall cable may use
braided screen, foil, or braiding with foil.

When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is usually referred


to as screening, but different vendors and authors use “screening”, “shielding”,
and “STP” (shielded twisted pair), inconsistently, in attempting to denote
various shielded cable types.

Common shield construction types used include:


1. Individual shield (U/FTP) - Individual shielding with aluminum foil for
each twisted pair or quad. Common names: pair in metal foil, shielded
twisted pair, screened twisted pair. This type of shielding protects cable
from external EMI entering or exiting the cable and also protects
neighboring pairs from crosstalk.
2. Overall shield (F/UTP, S/UTP, and SF/UTP) - Overall foil, braided shield
or braiding with foil across all of the pairs within the 100 ohm twisted pair
cable. Common names: foiled twisted pair, shielded twisted pair, screened
twisted pair. This type of shielding helps prevent EMI from entering or
exiting the cable.
3. Individual and overall shield (F/FTP, S/FTP, and SF/FTP) - Individual
shielding using foil between the twisted pair sets, and also an outer foil or
braided shielding. Common names: fully shielded twisted pair, screened
foiled twisted pair, shielded foiled twisted pair, screened shielded twisted
pair, shielded screened twisted pair. This type of shielding helps prevent
EMI from entering or exiting the cable and also protects neighbouring
pairs from crosstalk.

An early example of shielded twisted-pair is IBM STP-A, which was a two-pair


150 ohm S/FTP cable defined in 1985 by the IBM Cabling System specifications,
and used with token ring or FDDI networks.

Figure 2.4: Common types of Twisted Pair Cables

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2.1.3 Optical Fiber Cable
An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by
drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a
human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit light
between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic
communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables. Fibers are used instead of
metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss; in addition, fibers
are immune to electromagnetic interference, a problem from which metal wires
suffer excessively. Fibers are also used for illumination and imaging, and are
often wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry light into, or
images out of confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed
fibers are also used for a variety of other applications, some of them being
fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers.

Optical fibers typically include a core surrounded by a transparent


cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by
the phenomenon of total internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a
waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes
are called multi-mode fibers, while those that support a single mode are called
single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core
diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for
applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are
used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft).

Being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic
communication This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and
involves careful cleaving of the fibres, precise alignment of the fiber cores, and
the coupling of these aligned cores. For applications that demand a permanent
connection a fusion splice is common. In this technique, an electric arc is used
to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a
mechanical splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by
mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by
means of specialized optical fiber connectors.

OFC will be discussed in later chapters.

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Chapter 3

Switching

Switch is a control consisting of a mechanical or electrical or electronic device


for making or breaking or changing the connections in a circuit and the
process is called switching.
As the number of subscribers increased beyond a certain limit, the need for a
so-called switching system or switching office or switching exchange was
realized. In this new system, the subscribers are directly connected to the
exchange and not to one another as in the case of point-to-point
communication.

Figure 3.1: Switching Exchange

Exchange: The prime purpose of an exchange is to provide a temporary


path for simultaneous, bidirectional transmission of speech between:

• Subscriber lines connected to same exchange (Local Switching),


• Subscriber lines and trunks to other exchanges (Outgoing trunk call),

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• Subscriber lines and trunks from other exchanges (Incoming trunk call),
and
• Pairs of trunks towards different exchanges (Transit switching).
These are switching functions of an exchange & are implemented through the
equipment called the Switching Network.

Strowger Exchange, the first automatic exchange having direct control


feature, appeared in 1892 in Le Porte (Indiana). As a result of further research
& development, cross-bar exchanges having an indirect control system
appeared in 1928 in Sweden. However much more improvement was expected
and the revolutionary change in field of electronics provided it. A large
number of moving parts in Registors, Markers, Translators were replaced by a
single computer.

A crossbar switch is an assembly of individual switches between a set of


inputs and a set of outputs. The switches are arranged in a matrix.
Non-blocking means that other concurrent connections do not prevent
connecting other inputs to other outputs.

Figure 3.2: Comparison between Electromechanical and Electronic Exchanges

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3.1 Methods of switching
Circuit switching
Circuit switching creates a direct physical connection between two devices such
as phones or computers. We can use switches to reduce the number and length
of links.

Message switching
Message switching was the precursor of packet switching, where messages were
routed in their entirety, one hop at a time. It was first introduced in 1961.
Nowadays, message switching systems are mostly implemented over
packet-switched or circuit-switched data networks. E-mail is example of a
message switching system.

Packet switching
Packet switching is a communications paradigm in which packets (discrete
blocks of data) are routed between nodes over data links shared with other
traffic. The term “packets” refers to the fact that the data stream from your
computer is broken up into packets of about 200 bytes (on average), which are
then sent out onto the network. Each packet contains a “header” with
information necessary for routing the packet from source to destination. Each
packet in a data stream is independent.
The main advantage of packet-switching is that it permits “statistical
multiplexing” on the communications lines. The packets from many different
sources can share a line, allowing for very efficient use of the fixed capacity.
With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on a
first-come, first-served basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are
delayed or discarded (“dropped”).

3.2 Electronic Switching


Space Division Switching
A space switch directs traffic from input links to output links. An input may
set up one connection (1, 3, 6 and 7), multiple connections (4) or no connection
(2, 5 and 8).

Time Division Switching


Time division switching is done through a device called time-slot interchanger,
which buffers m incoming time-slots, e.g. 30 time-slots of an E1 frame, arranges
new transmit order and transmits n time-slots. Time-slots are stored in buffer
memory usually in the order they arrive or in the order they leave the switch

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Figure 3.3: Space Division Switching

- additional control logic is needed to decide respective output order or the


memory slot where an input slot is stored.

Figure 3.4: Time Division Switching

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Figure 3.5: Comparison of Space and Time Switches

The space and time switches may be used individually or in combination.


The commonly used configurations in modern switches are:
1. E10B - T-S-T
2. EWSD - T-S-S-S-T

3. AXE10 - T-S-T
4. 5ESS - T-S-T
5. OCB283 - T

3.3 Signaling Systems


A signaling system in a data communication networks exchanges signaling
information effectively between subscribers. The signaling systems are
essential building blocks in providing the ultimate objective of a worldwide
automatic telephone services standardized. Signaling provides the interface
between different national systems. The introduction of signaling system was
the big step in improving the PSTN.

The Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and


Telephony (CCITT) based in Geneva, recommended seven formats related
to signaling. The first five formats related to Inband signaling and the last two
in the category of common channel signaling. In In-band signaling, voice
information and signaling information travel on common paths, where as in
common channel signaling, they travel on separate paths.

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Chapter 4

Broadband Technology

The term Broadband refers to a high speed internet access. It is non-specific


term. In fact there is no specific international definition for broadband. As the
Internet market continues to grow, demand for greater bandwidth and faster
connection speeds have led to broadband access to all consumer. The rapid
growth of distributed business application-commerce and BW intensive
application (such as multimedia, video conferencing and video on demand)
generates the demand for bandwidth and access network.

In India DoT has issued a broadband policy in 2004, keeping in mind,


Broadband connectivity and is defined as —“A data connection which has
capability of minimum downloads speed of 256 kbps is said to be broadband.”
In 2012 new NTP was announced and broadband speed was revised to 2 mbps
in place of 256 kbps. Practically obtained speed is 56 kbps.

Types of Broadband Services


• DSL 2G/3G/4G
• Cable Modem WI-Fi
• OFC Wi-max
• PLC FSO

4.1 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)


DSL is a family of technology that provides high speed Internet access by
transmitting digits over the wires of a local telephone network. DSL service is
delivered simultaneously wired telephone service on the same telephone line.

DSL uses higher frequency band for data transmission.

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The bit rate of consumer DSL service typically ranges from 256 kbps to 40
mbps in downstream direction depending on DSL technology used, line
condition and service level implementation.

Why is DSL used?


Traditional modem can provide data rate up to 56 kbps to achieve high speed
internet access another techniques named DSL was used. Sampling rate of
telephone company=8000samples/sec. Each sample is represented by 8 bits.
One bit is used for control purpose.

Hence each sample is effectively represented by 7 bits.


Data rate =8000*7=56000 bits/sec i.e.56kbps.

Where is DSL used?


DSL service is used on a local telephone line. As telephone line is twisted pair
cable capable of handling bandwidth up to 1.1 MHz but voice utilizes only 4
kHz bandwidth .So to enhance the efficiency of cable pair, a portion of large
bandwidth is utilized for data communication.

Types of DSL
1. SDSL: Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line —Equal upstream and
downstream speeds.
2. ADSL: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line —Unequal upstream and
downstream speeds.

3. HDSL: High Rate Digital Subscriber Line.


4. VDSL: Very High Bit Rate Digital Subscriber Line.

4.2 Broadband Network Architecture


The broadband network architecture is shown in figure 4.2 and the components
are described below.

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Figure 4.1: DSL Block Diagram

Figure 4.2: Broadband Network Architecture

4.2.1 Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer


A DSLAM delivers exceptionally high-speed data transmission over existing
copper telephone lines. A DSLAM separates the voice-frequency signals from
the high-speed data traffic and controls and routes digital subscriber line
(xDSL) traffic between the subscriber’s end-user equipment (CPE) and
Broadband Access Server or BBRAS.

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Figure 4.3: DSLAM

4.2.2 Broadband Remote Access Server (BRAS)


The BRAS is the piece of equipment that sits between the DSLAM at the
telephone exchange and the ISP that connects to the Internet. It may be in
local exchange or it may be elsewhere in service provider’s network. Single
BBRAS will probably handle connections from several DSLAMs. A BRAS is a
multi-service access node able to manage IP service access for a large number
of subscribers. In order to access a specific service managed by the BRAS, the
subscriber must login towards the BRAS.

Figure 4.4: BRAS

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Chapter 5

Fiber To The Home

5.1 Optical Fiber


What are Optical Fibers?
Optical Fibers are thins long (km) strands of ultra pure glass (silica) or plastic
that can to transmit light from one end to another without much attenuation
or loss.

The glass used to make Optical Fibers is so pure that if the Pacific Ocean
was filled with this glass then we would be able to see the ocean bottom form
the surface.!!!!

Working of Optical Fibers


The light source (LAZER) at the transmitting (Tx) end is modulated by the
electrical signal and this modulated light energy is fed into the Optical Fiber.
At the receiving end (Rx) this light energy is made incident on photo-sensors
which convert this light signal back to electrical signal.

Optical fibre is used to guide light waves with a minimum attenuation. They
are composed of fine threads of glass in layers. The fine threads are of silica glass
mix with some dopant material. Two main layers are known as core (central, of
8 to 50µm) & cladding(outer, 50to125µm) .Core is having 1 % more refractive
index than cladding. It transmits the Optical waves (Light) through it at the
speed of 2/3 of speed of light in vacuum observing the total internal reflection
principle. Light is either reflected or refracted depending upon the angle of
incident at which it strikes the layer of separation. It refracts away when it
goes from denser to a rearer medium. It reflects when it crosses the critical
angle,which is known as phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection.

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Figure 5.1: Working of Optical Fiber

5.2 FTTH Architectures


The fibre extends from the central office to the subscriber’s living or working
space. Once at the subscriber’s living or working space, the signal may be
conveyed throughout the space using any means, including twisted pair,
coaxial cable, wireless, power line communication, or optical fibre.

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Passive optical networks (PON) and point-to-point Ethernet are
architectures that are capable of delivering triple-play services over FTTH
networks directly from an operator’s central office.

5.2.1 Network Components and Architecture of Passive


Optical Network (PON)
Optical Line Terminal (OLT)
The optical line terminal is the main element of the network and it is usually
placed in the local exchange. It is the engine that drives FTTH system. Traffic
scheduling, buffer control and bandwidth allocation are the most important
functions of optical line terminal. Typically, OLT operates using redundant DC
power and has at least 1 Line Card for incoming internet, 1 System Card for
on-board configuration, and 1 to many GPON cards. Each GPON card consists
of a number of GPON ports.

Figure 5.2: Optical Line Terminal

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Optical Splitter
The optical splitter splits the power of the signal. That is to say, each
fibre link entering the splitter may be split into a given number of
fibres leaving the splitter. Usually, three or more levels of
fibres correspond to two or more levels of splitters. This enables sharing of
each
bre by many users. The passive optical splitter has the characteristics of
broad operating wavelength range, low insertion loss and uniformity, minimal
dimensions, high reliability, and supporting network survivability and protection
policy.

Figure 5.3: Optical Line Terminal

Optical Network Terminal (ONT)


ONT is deployed at customer’s premises. It is connected to the OLT by means
of optical fibre and no active elements are present in the link. In GPON, the
transceiver in the ONT is the physical connection between the customer premises
and the central office OLT.

Figure 5.4: Optical Network Terminal

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Architecture

Figure 5.5: GPON Architecture

5.2.2 Active Ethernet Architecture


This is a traditional method of transmission. It uses two single bidirectional
fibres. An SFP (Small Form-factor Pluggable) module is used for interconversion
between light and electrical energy. Active electronics are used with a dedicated
Ethernet line. So, each user has a dedicated line corresponding to higher data
rates. CWDM/DWDM is used for feeder. It covers distances longer than PON.

Figure 5.6: Active Ethernet Network Architecture

27
Chapter 6

Wireless Media

Wireless communication, or sometimes simply wireless, is the transfer of


information or power between two or more points that are not connected by
an electrical conductor. The most common wireless technologies use radio
waves. With radio waves distances can be short, such as a few meters for
Bluetooth or as far as millions of kilometres for deep-space radio
communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable
applications, including two-way radios, cellular telephones, etc.

A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where


the last link is wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called cells,
each served by at least one fixed -location transceiver, but more normally
three cell sites or base transceiver stations. These base stations provide the
cell with the network coverage which can be used for transmission of voice,
data and others. A cell typically uses a different set of frequencies from
neighbouring cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed service quality
within each cell.

When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide
geographic area. This enables a large number of portable transceivers (e.g.,
mobile phones, tablets and laptops equipped with mobile broadband modems,
pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and
telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the
transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission.

6.1 GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a standard developed by
the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe the
protocols for second-generation digital cellular networks used by mobile

28
devices such as tablets, first deployed in Finland in December 1991. 2G
networks were developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog
cellular networks, and the GSM standard originally described as a digital,
circuit-switched network optimised for full duplex voice telephony. Features of
GSM are—Communication, mobile, wireless communication; support for voice
and data services, international access, Worldwide connectivity, High capacity,
better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell, High
transmission quality, high audio quality and reliability for wireless,
uninterrupted phone calls at higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains), Security
functions ,access control, authentication. Generations of GSM
• 1st generation:- Analog mobile technologies :- AMPS , TACS & NMT.

• 2nd generation:- digital mobile technologies :- GSM , CDMA


• 2.5 generation:- Enhancement of GSM:- GPRS
• 3rd generation:- Technologies coursed by ITU-IMT

6.1.1 Architecture of GSM


The GSM network architecture is shown in figure 6.1 and the systems are
described below.

Figure 6.1: GSM Network Architecture

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Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The BSS consists of three major hardware components:

The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)


The BTS contains the RF components that provide the air interface for a
particular cell. This is the part of the GSM network which communicates with
the MS. The antenna is included as part of the BTS.

The Base Station Controller (BSC)


The BSC as its name implies provides the control for the BSS. The BSC
communicates directly with the MSC. The BSC may control single or multiple
BTSs.

The Transcoder (XCDR)


The Transcoder (XCDR) is required to convert the speech or data output from
the MSC (64 kbit/s PCM), into the form speci
ed by GSM speci
cations for transmission over the air interface, that is, between the BSS
and MS (64 kbit/s to 16 kbit/s and vice versa).

BSS includes the network elements taking care of the radio cellular resources
within the GSM network. On one side, it is directly linked to the MSs through
the radio interface (Air interface). On the other side it is interconnected with
the switches of the Network Switching Subsystem (NSS). Its role consists in
connecting MS and NSS and hence in connecting the caller to the other users.
It is controlled by the Network Monitoring System (NMS).

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)


Mobile services switching centre (MSC)
Mobile services switching centre (MSC) performs the switching functions for
all mobile stations located in the geographical area covered by its assigned
BSSs.

Functions of the MSC include :-


• Management of MSC-BSS signalling Protocol.
• Handling location registration and ensuring inter-networking between
mobile station and VLR.

• Call handling that copes with mobile nature of subscribers.


• Exchange of signalling information with other system entities.

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Home Location Register (HLR)
The Home Location Register (HLR) contains the identities of mobile
subscribers, their service parameters, and their location information.

Functions of the HLR include storing:-


• Identity of mobile subscriber.
• Location information for call routing.
• ISDN directory number of mobile station.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)


The Visitor Location Register (VLR) contains the subscriber parameters and
location information for all mobile subscribers currently located in the
geographical area controlled by that VLR.
Functions of the VLR include storing:-
• Identity of mobile subscriber.
• Any temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI) allocation.
• Location area where the mobile station is registered
• Copy of the subscriber data from the HLR.

Authentication Centre (AUC)


The Authentication Centre (AUC):
• Contains subscriber authentication data called authentication key (Ki)
• Generates security related parameters needed to authorise service using
Ki.
• Generates unique data pattern called a cipher key (Kc) needed for
encrypting user speech and data.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)


The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is accessed during the equipment
validation procedure when a mobile station accesses the system. It contains
the identity of mobile station equipment which may be valid, suspect, or
known to be fraudulent. This contains:
• White or Valid list —list of valid MS equipment identities.
• Grey or Monitored list —list of suspected mobiles under observation.
• Black or prohibited list —list of mobiles for which service is barred.

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Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC)
The Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC) is the centralised maintenance
and diagnostic heart of the base station system (BSS). It allows the network
provider to operate, administer, and monitor the functioning of the BSS.

6.2 UMTS
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third
generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard.
Developed and maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership
Project), UMTS is a component of the International Telecommunications
Union IMT-2000 standard set. UMTS uses wideband code division multiple
access (W-CDMA) radio access technology to offer greater spectral efficiency
and bandwidth to mobile network operators.

UMTS specifies a complete network system, which includes the radio


access network (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, or UTRAN), the
core network (Mobile Application Part, or MAP) and the authentication of
users via SIM (subscriber identity module) cards.

The technology described in UMTS is sometimes also referred to as Freedom


of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA) or 3GSM.

6.2.1 Architecture of UMTS


The architecture for UMTS network is shown in figure 6.2.

Node B
Node B is known as 3G-BTS. It is responsible for the transmission/reception
radio from/to MS in one or more cells. NODE-B supports FDD, TDD or dual
mode. It is connected to RNC via ATM interface links.

Radio Network Controller (RNC)


RNC does all Radio Resource Control. It controls several Node-B. It is
connected to core switch part and also to core-packet part in 3G.

Home Location Register (HLR)


HLR is a permanent database of customer. It manages mobile subscribers.
PLMN area contains one or more HLR’s. HLR stores location data that allow
to appraisal and direction of call and sms to the MSC/SGSN where MS is
registered.

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Figure 6.2: UMTS Network Architecture

Visitor Location Register (VLR)


VLR controls roaming of the MS in MSC area. It has to organise one or several
MSC’s. It contains temporary directory of subscriber data. VLR changes as
subscriber changes the location i.e. it is location dependent.

Authentication Centre (AUC)


AUC checks customer identity. It gives security on air interface using HLR,VLR,
MSC, SGSN for authentication. In 3G, not only customer is authenticated but
also the network too authenticated i.e. two way authentication is done.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)


SGSN is in core-packet of 3G. It has security and access control in 3G. SGSN
establishes PDP context for routing packet data with GGSN. It stores
subscription information and location data of customer. It is connected to
BSC and RNC.

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)


GGSN communicates with external packet networks via Gi interface. One
GGSN is connected to several SGSN. Localisation registry in GGSN stores
routing data and subscription information.

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6.3 LTE
In telecommunication, Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a standard for
high-speed wireless communication for mobile devices and data terminals,
based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA technologies. It increases the
capacity and speed using a different radio interface together with core network
improvements. The standard is developed by the 3GPP (3rd Generation
Partnership Project) and is specified in its Release 8 document series, with
minor enhancements described in Release 9. LTE is the upgrade path for
carriers with both GSM/UMTS networks. The different LTE frequencies and
bands used in different countries mean that only multi-band phones are able to
use LTE in all countries where it is supported.

6.3.1 Architecture of LTE


The architecture of LTE is shown in figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: LTE Network Architecture

eNode-B (eNB)
Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or more cells. The
base station that is communicating with a mobile is known as its serving eNB.
LTE Mobile communicates with just one base station and one cell at a time and
there are following two main functions supported by eNB:
• The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the
analogue and digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.

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• The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending
them signalling messages such as handover commands.
Each eNB connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface and it can
also be connected to nearby base stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly
used for signalling and packet forwarding during handover.

A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to
provide femtocell coverage within the home. A home eNB belongs to a closed
subscriber group (CSG) and can only be accessed by mobiles with a USIM that
also belongs to the closed subscriber group.

Home Subscriber Server (HSS)


The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) component has been carried forward from
UMTS and GSM and is a central database that contains information about all
the network operator’s subscribers.

Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW)


The Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW) communicates with the
outside world i.e. packet data networks PDN, using SGi interface. Each packet
data network is identi
ed by an access point name (APN). The PDN gateway has the same role as
the GPRS support node (GGSN) and the serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
with UMTS and GSM.

Serving Gateway (S-GW)


The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the
base station and the PDN gateway.

Mobility Management Entity (MME)


The mobility management entity (MME) controls the high-level operation of
the mobile by means of signalling messages and Home Subscriber Server (HSS).

Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)


The Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is a component which
is responsible for policy control decision-making, as well as for controlling the
flow-based charging functionalities in the Policy Control Enforcement Function
(PCEF), which resides in the P-GW.

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Conclusion

The telecom industry in the form of the service providers and infrastructure
vendors have always been able to drive the way forward. Drive the networks,
drive the standards, drive what subscribers see and can do with the network.
But that has been changing over the past 10 years - networks today are data
pipes, and the drivers of the industry today can arguably be seen as who you,
as a subscriber, interface with the most - that is, apps and devices. And the
industry as I described it above has been trying desperately to hang onto the
wheel to continue to drive the way forward, so the likes of social networking
applications dont take the drivers seat for the foreseeable future. But its
inevitable to happen, and well see more of that, especially due to 5G, NFV,
and IoT in the near future.

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References

1. Telephone, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone

2. PPTs provided by ITTM


3. Coaxial Cable, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial cable
4. Twisted Pair Cable, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted pair

5. Strowger Switch, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strowger switch


6. Crossbar Switch, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbar switch
7. Time and Space switches, nptel.ac.in/courses/117105076/pdf/
9.4%20Lesson%2032.pdf

8. Network Switching, https://www.tutorialspoint.com/


data communication computer network/physical layer switching.htm
9. Digital Subscriber Line,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital subscriber line

10. Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM), iec.org.


11. Chris Hellberg; Truman Boyes; Dylan Greene (2007). Broadband Network
Architectures: Designing and Deploying Triple-Play Services. Pearson
Education. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-13-270451-9.
12. Tim Poulus, “FTTH networking: Active Ethernet versus Passive Optical
Networking and point-to-point vs. point-to-multipoint”, Telecompaper,
17 November 2010. Retrieved 12 July 2013.
13. Ed Gubbins, “Active Ethernet grows in PON’s shadow” Archived 2011-
10-01 at the Wayback Machine., NXTcomm Daily News, Penton Media,
13 May 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2013.

14. Wireless, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless


15. Cellular Network, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular network
16. GSM, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM

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17. GSM Architecture, http://www.radio-electronics.com/
info/cellulartelecomms/gsm technical/gsm architecture.php
18. UMTS, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS
19. UMTS Architecture, http://www.radio-electronics.com/
info/cellulartelecomms/umts/umts-wcdma-network-architecture.php
20. LTE, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LTE (telecommunication)
21. LTE Architecture,
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/lte/lte network architecture.html

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