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NASA CR-159449

INASA-CR-159449) -JT8D AND JT9D JET ENGINE N79.-20116

PERFORMANCE IMP3OVEMENT PROGEAM. TASK 1:

FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS Final Report, Feb.

Dec. 1977 .Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Group) Unclas

CSCL 21E G3/07 17240

227 p-HC-A11/MF A-01

NASA

JT8D AND JT9D JET ENGINE

PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM-

TASK 1, FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS - FINAL REPORT

by
W. 0. Gaffin and D. E. Webb

UNITED TECHNOLOGIES CORPORATION

.Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group
Commercial Products Division 4

Prepared for

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASA Lewis Research-Center

Contract NAS3-20630

 1. Report No 2 Government Accession No 3 Recipients Catalog No.

CR-159449
4 Title and Subtitle
I
5 Renort Date

JTBD AND JT9D JET ENGINE PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT April 1979

PROGRAM- TASK1, FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS- 6. Performing Organiration Code

FINAL REPORT

7. Authors) 8 Performing Organization Report No

W.0. Gaffin and D. E. Webb P&WA5515-38

10. Work Unit No
9 Performing Organization Name and Address

UNITED TECHNOLOGIES CORPORATION 11. Contract or Grant No

Pratt &Whitney Aircraft Group NAS3-20630

Comercial Products Division

13. Type of Report and Period Covered
12 Sponsoring Agency Name and Address Contractor Report
National Aeronautics and Space Administration February 1977 to December 1977
14. sponsoring Agency Code
Washington, D. C. 20546
15 Supplementary Notes
Project Manager, Joseph A. Ziemianski William Prati, Project Engineer

Engine Component Improvement Office

NASA-Lewis Research Center, 21000 Brookpark Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44135

16. Abstract
JTBD and JT9D component performance improvement concepts which have a high probability of incorpor­
ation into production engines have been identified and ranked. A new evaluation method based on airline
payback period was developed for the purpose of identifying the most promising concepts. The method
used available test data and analytical models along with conceptual/preliminary designs to predict the per­
formance improvements, weight, installation characteristics, cost for new production and retrofit , main­
tenance cost, and qualitative characteristics of candidate concepts. These results were used to arrive at
the concept payback period, which isthe time required for an airline to recover the investment cost of con­
cept implementation. The concept payback period was compared to a maximum acceptable payback period,,
which was defined based on airline financial and operational requirements, to determine the economic ac­
ceptability of the concept. The potential cumulative fuel saving with each acceptable concept was projected
for all engines produced through the year 1990. -

Candidate performance improvement concepts were collected from a wide variety of sources, including en­
gine and airframe manufacturers, airline operators, and Government sponsored programs. These concepts
were subjected to preliminary screening which eliminated those candidates having high development risk,
small fuel saving potential, or those concepts which were well along in the development cycle. The remain­
ing concepts were subjected to the payback period evaluation process.

17 Key Words (Suggested by Authoris)l 18 Distribution statement

Payback Period

Performance Improvement Concept

Fuel Saving

JTBD, JT9D

19 Security Cbsataf(of ths report) 20 Security Classif. (of this page 21. No- of Pages 22. Price'
Unclassified Unclassified 228

- For sale by the National Technical Inforinalion Service. Springfield. Virginia 22151

NASA-C.568 (R,, 6-715

 FOREWORD

This report prepared for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research
Center under Contract NAS3-20630 presents the results of Task 1, Feasibility Analysis which
identifies performance improvement concepts having high probability of being incorporated
into JT8D and JT9D engines. Mr. J. A. Ziemianski was the NASA Project Manager for this
effort and Mr. W. 0. Gaffin was Program Manager for Pratt & Whitney Aircraft. Other parti­
cipants in the program included representatives from Trans World Airlines, United Airlines,
American Airlines, Douglas Aircraft Company and Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section Title Page

1.0 SUMMARY 1/2

2.0 INTRODUCTION 3/4

3.0 ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE 5
Team Member Role Definition and Analysis Functions 5

Market Projection - 9

Maintenance Cost and Exhaust Gas Temperature Reductions 10

Establishment of Economic Figure of Merit 11

Calculation of Cumulative Fuel Savings 13

Required Payback Period Derivation 18

4.0
CONCEPT IDENTIFICATION AND CATEGORIZATION 23

Selection of Component Improvement Concepts 23

5.0 DETAILED SCREENING ASSESSMENT 25

5.1 Introduction 25
5.2 Concepts Recommended for ECI Development - 26
5.2.1 JT9D Ceramic Outer Air Seal 36

5.2.2 JT8D Revised HPT Cooling and Outer Air Seal 42

5.2.3 JT8D HPT Root Discharge Blade - 47

5.2.4 DC-10 Improved Cabin Air System 53

5.2.5 DC-9 Nacelle Drag Reduction 55

5.2.6 JT9D-7 3.8 AR Fan 58

5.2.7 JT8D Trenched Tip HPC 64

5.2.8 JT9D Trenched Tip HPC 70

5.2.9 JT9D 16-Strut Intermediate Case 74

5.2.10 JT9D Thermal Barrier Coating 79

5.2.11 JT9D-70/59 4.2 AR Fan 86

5.2.12 JT9D-70f59 HPT Improved Active Clearance Control 90

5.2.13 JT9D Structural FEGV 96

5.3 Concepts Recommended for Further Study 104

5.3.1 JT9D Mixer 104

5.3.2 JT9D Electronic Control 114

5.4 Concepts Not Recommended for Further Consideration 117

5.4.1 JT8D Fan Aero Refinements 118

5.4.2 JT8D Fan Tip Abradables 121

5.4.3 JT8D Revised HPC 122

5.4.4 JT8D LPT Abradable Seals 124

5.4.5 JT8D Forced Mixer 125

5.4.6 727 Installation Weight Reduction 128

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Section Title Page

5.4.7 DC-9 Improved Cabin Air System 130

5.4.8 JT9D-70/59 Increased Fan Diameter 132

5.4.9 JT9D Revised HPC 135

5.4.10 JT9D HPC Active Clearance Control 138

5.4.11 JT9D-70/59 LPT Active Clearance Control 140

5.4.12 JT9D-70/59 CNS Short Aftbody 143

APPENDIX

A Boeing Commercial Airplane Company - Final Report 147

B Douglas Aircraft Company - Final Report 191

C Long Duct Mixed Flow Nacelle Study - Douglas Aircraft Company 199

SYMBOLS 223

REFERENCES 224

iv
 1.0 SUMMARY

A feasibility study was conducted under Task 1 of NASA Contract NAS3-20630 to develop
analytical procedures leading to the selection of specific-performance improvement concepts
which have a high probability of being incorporated into JT8D and JT9D engines. This task
is part of a five year program to reduce fuel consumption in these engines during the 1980
time period. The technical effort reported herein covers the period February 1977 to
December 1977 and encompasses the following goals:

e Development of an analytical procedure for determining fuel and economic benefits

* Identification of concepts

* Detailed screening and ranking of concepts

* Preparation of technology development plans for the concepts selected by NASA.

A large number of potential improvement concepts were considered for evaluation. The
selection was guided by previous work under NASA sponsorship(), and from studies con­
ducted by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft and airplane and airline companies participating in this
program. A "common sense" approach screened out those concepts showing small fuel sav­
ings potential, high development risk, and concepts that were beyond the scope of the pro­
gram. Further screening based on preliminary evaluations reduced these improvement con­
cepts to those candidates that appeared most promising.

An evaluation procedure was developed by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, Trans World Airlines,
Boeing Commercial Aircraft Company, and Douglas Aircraft Company with consultation by
American and United Airlines to determine the acceptability of the selected component
improvement concepts. This method uses technical information derived from available test
data and analytical models along with conceptual/preliminary designs to establish the pre­
dicted performance improvement, weight, installation characteristics, the cost for new pro­
duction and retrofit, maintenance cost and qualitative characteristics of the performance
improvement concepts being evaluated. The results are used to arrive at "payback period",
which is the time required for an airline to recover the investment cost of concept imple­
mentation, and to predict the amount of fuel saved by the concept. The results of the feasi­
bility analysis were used to rank the selected improvement concepts according to economic
acceptability, fuel saved and qualitative considerations.

Based on the findings of the feasibility analysis effort, development program information,
and NASA technical and funding considerations, several concepts were selected by NASA for
further considerations. Technology development plans were prepared for the selected con­
cepts as the first step in defining the effort required to complete the development of these
concepts. The concepts that appear most likely to receive follow-on support under the sub­
ject program for the JT8D are the Revised HPT Cooling and Outer Air Seal, HPT Root Dis­
charge Blade, Trenched Tip HPC and DC-9 Nacelle Drag Reduction, and for the JT9D the
HPT Improved Active Clearance Control, 3.8 AR Fan, Trenched Tip HPC, Ceramic Outer Air
Seal, and Thermal Barrier Coating. If all of these concepts are implemented as estimated in
the feasibility study, a total of 12 billion liters (3.2 billion gallons) of fuel will be saved. Of
this total 60% would be saved in new production JT9D engines, 17% in retrofit of existing
JT9D engines, 7% in new production JT8D engines, and 16% in retrofit of existing JT8D
engines.
*References appear after the Appendices.
1/2
 2.0 INTRODUCTION

National energy demand has outpaced domestic supply, creating an increased U.S. dependence
on foreign oil. This increased dependence was dramatized by the OPEC oil embargo in the
winter of 1973-74. In addition, the embargo triggered a rapid rise in the cost of fuel which,
along with the potential of further increases, brought about a changing economic circumstance
with regard to the use of energy. These events, of course, were felt in the air transport indus­
try as well as in other forms of transportation. As a result, the government, with the support
of the aviation industry, has initiated programs aimed at both the supply (sources) and de­
mand (consumption) aspects of the problem. The supply problem is being investigated by
looking at increasing fuel availability from such sources as coal and oil shale. An approach to
the demand aspect of the problem is to evolve new technology for commercial aircraft pro­
pulsion systems which will permit development of a more energy efficient turbofan or the use
of a different propulsive cycle such as a turboprop. Although studies have indicated large re­
ductions in fuel usage are possible (e.g., 15 to 40 percent), the fuel savings impact of develop­
ing and introducing into service a new turbofan or turboprop engine would not be signifi­
cant for at least ten to fifteen years. In the short term, the only practical propulsion approach
is to improve the fuel efficiency of current engines. Examination of this approach has indi­
cated that a five percent fuel reduction goal, starting in the 1980-82 time period, is feasible.
Inasmuch as commercial aircraft in the free world are using fuel at a rate in excess of 75 bil­
lion liters of fuel per year, even five percent represents significant fuel savings.

Since a major portion of the present commercial aircraft fleet is powered by the JT8D and
JT9D engines, NASA is sponsoring a program whose objective is to reduce the fuel consump­
tion of these engines. This program has two main parts, performance improvement and engine
diagnostics. The latter part, which is not reported herein, is aimed at identifying the sources
and causes of engine deterioration. The performance improvement part is intended to iden­
tify and evaluate the concepts which are technically and economically viable for the 1980­
82 time period, and then develop and demonstrate these concepts through ground and flight
tests.

The initial step to identify and evaluate the JT8D and JT9D performance improvement con­
cepts was conducted under Task 1 of NASA Contract NAS3-20630 and is reported herein.
The evaluation procedure which was developed to determine the acceptability of these con­
cepts by the airlines is described in detail. This procedure is a new screening method which
predicts airline acceptance of proposed engine and airframe modifications and uses payback
period (time required for an airline to recover the investment in a specific concept) to pre­
dict economic acceptability. Technical information for the performance improvement con­
cepts is given along with the economic results of the screening process. Based on these results,
several performance improvement concepts have been selected by NASA for further devel­
opment.

3/4
 3.0 ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE

Team Member Role Definitions and Analysis Functions

In an attempt to establish both realism and credibility in the evaluation of candidate perfor­
mance improvement concepts, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft established an evaluation team con­
sisting of both manufacturers and operators (sellers and buyers) who simulated, as nearly as
possible, the evaluation process that exists on a day-to-day basis in the air transport indus­
try. This team consisted of The Boeing Commercial Aircraft Company, The Douglas Aircraft
Company, Trans World Airlines, American Airlines, United Airlines and The Pratt & Whitney
Aircraft Group. Each company filled the role that represented their own self interest and
area of expertise. Figure 3-1 shows the contributions of the various team members to final
evaluation output, payback period and cumulative fuel burned.

TA
MNFCUESOPERATORS

REQUIRED MARKET QUALITATIVE

PEFRMNE
EGH RIEMAN.PAYBACK PROJECTION CONCERNS

FUEL FUIETE

SIMULATIO

Figure 3-1 E-PIEvaluation Procedure

 Each applicable engine performance improvement concept was evaluated by both the per­
formance and design groups of the P&WA engineering organization, using established P&WA
procedures. Component performance was estimated using analytical methods, experience
with similar designs and if possible, test results. Engine performance was calculated based
on this component performance; engineering decisions were made on rematching the engine
(changing flow areas) to adjust for the effects of the modified component. The flight con­
ditions used for engine performance calculations are shown in Table 3-1 for each of the air­
craft studied. The engine performance calculation provided TSFC and stability information
plus temperatures, pressures, flows and rotor speeds which were used to estimate noise,
emissions and parts life. The design function included both analytical and mechanical design,
and provided the basis for estimating weight, cost and maintenance requirements. The design
effort also provided a focal point for defining the nature and extent of the program required
to develop, certify and initiate production of the modification. This definition was combined
with the manufacturing cost estimate and several other factors to determine the concept's
impact on the engine price and on the price of the modification kit, when applicable.

Both BCAC and DAC assisted in defining these screening and evaluation processes, con­
ceived performance improvement concepts, critiqued concepts for feasibility, supplied air­
plane performance, weight, and cost information on selected concepts to TWA, and par­
ticipated in the qualitative assessment and ranking of the concepts evaluated. In evaluating
concepts, both companies relied on established design study organizations and utilized pro­
cedures developed from previous analyses, model tests, rig tests, flight tests, and certification
tests (see Boeing Final Report, Appendix A and Douglas Final Report, Appendix B for de­
tails).
TWA provided the route structure, fleet composition and extensive experience necessary
to provide practical viewpoints and real world economic evaluation of ECI concepts. The
economic model used by TWA in all aircraft evaluations is called Aircraft Performance and
Economic Simulation (APES). This model, developed and improved over the past twelve
years, is fully computerized. Each aircraft type is represented by a unique card deck con­
taining aircraft performance (takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and loiter) data, operating cost
factors and route applications. Card decks were available at the beginning of the program
representing all of the aircraft types in the current TWA system. The TWA aircraft and routes
that were of interest to the ECI evaluation are summarized in Table 3-2. With the concurrence
of American Airlines and United Airlines, the route structure shown on this table and the
APES economic model were deemed representative of most major U.S. carriers. The airplane
characteristics in the APES model were changed to correspond to the aircraft/engine com­
binations listed in Table 3-3.

6
 TABLE 3-1

FLIGHT CONDITIONS FOR ENGINE PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS

All Conditions Are Std. Day

DC-9 Takeoff Climb Avg. Cruise Hold

Alt. - meters (ft) 0 7925 (26,000) 9145 (30,000) 3050 (10,000)

MN 0.2 0.7 0.78 0.45
Power Setting % Max. T/O Max. Climb 90% 40%

727
Alt. - meters (ft) 0 7925 (26,000) 9145 (30,000) 3050 (10,000)
MN 0.2 0.7 0.84 0.45
Power Setting Max. T/O Max. Climb 90% 40%

DC-10-40
Alt. -meters (ft) 0 7925 (26,000) 10,670 (35,000) 3050 (10,000)
MN 0.2 0.7 0.82 0.45
Power Setting Max. T/O Max. Climb 90% 35%

747
Alt.- meters (ft) 0 7925 (26,000) 10,670 (35,000) 3050 (10,000)
MN 0.2 0.75 0.84 0.45
Power Setting Max. T/O Max. Climb 90% 35%

 TABLE 3-2

TWA "APES" FLEET &ROUTE SUMMARY

Daily
Utilization Average Min/Max
Hs. Trip Trip Scheduled
Fleet - Block Length Length Weekly City -
Aircraft Size Hrs/Day -km (St. miles) -'km (St. miles) Trips Pairs

DC9-10 17 7.98 626(389) 114/1429 (71/ 888) 708 62

727-200 39 8.92 949(590) 114/2602 (71/1617) 1416 129

10114 29 10.45 2449(1522) 178/4551 (111/2704) 623 45

747-100 11 13.24 5028 (3125) 365/8782 (227/5458) 162 24

TABLE 3-3
COMPARISON OF TWA ACTUAL AND ECI-PI AIRCRAFT MODELS
Aircraft in TWA Fleet Aircraft Used in ECI-PI Evaluations

DC9-10 DC9-50/JT8D-17
727-200 727-200/JT8D-15
,1011-1 DClO-40/JT9D-59A
747-100 747-200/JT9D

Concepts for performance improvement were reviewed by TWA's Engineering and Materials
Management Department. Provisioning requirements were established and criticisms and sug­
gestions from TWA engineering were taken into account before detailed analysis of economic
effects were performed. TWA was also consulted on the establishment of the evaluation figure
of merit, payback period. The TWA "APES" model produced the critical output in the
evaluation, annual cost and annual fleet fuel burned. Direct operating cost (DOC) was also
produced by the APES program.

Both United Airlines and American Airlines served as consultants to P&WA. The combined
expertise of these two major carriers was used in establishing the route structure, economic
and financial ground rules and the final ranking of the evaluated concepts. Table 3-4 presents
the economic and financial ground rules recommended by the team of airline operators.

8
 TABLE 3-4

ECONOMIC & FINANCIAL GROUND RULES

Operating Economics

* 1977 Dollars

* Base Fuel Prices

Domestic Flights (DC-9, 727, DC-10) - 9.24¢ /lter (350 gal.)
International Flights (747) - 11.894 /lter (450 gal.)

* Labor Rate 30 $/man hr. (fully allocated)

* Non Revenue Flying 2%
* Insurance Rate 0.5% of Purchase Price (Domestic), 1.0% (International)
* Tax Rate 50% (Total of Federal, State & Local)
* Remaining Operating Costs TWA Internal Model

Financial Ground Rules

* Economic life 15 years

Debt/Equity = 50/50 (Debt @ 10%, Simple Bond Interest)

* After Tax Cost of Capital = 15%

* Investment Tax Credit = 7%

* Depreciation, Double Declining Balance to Point where Straight Line is Greater, 9.5 Years

Market Projection

All members of the team were consulted on the establishment of a market projection for the
JT8D and JT9D engines. The objective was to establish a "reasonable" market projection
which would be used to estimate the fuel savings potential in future production engines.
The individual team members projections were arithmetically averaged to arrive at the pro­
jections shown in Figure 3-2. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft considers these projections as "reason­
able" for purposes of a conservative estimate of potential fleet fuel consumption levels. The
projections of total sales were divided into sales by engine model in order to evaluate con-­
cepts that are not applicable for all models of a given engine (e.g. cooled or uncooled JTSD
HP Turbines). The engine population (existing plus projected) by model will be discussed
later in light of their role in the cumulative fuel savings estimates.

 0 3000

0
~JTgD

2000

LU

1D0

U 0

1978 '80 '82 '84 '86 188 "90

END OF YEAR

Figure3-2 JT8D andJT9D)Sales Projections(PICA, TWCA, AA, BCAC, DA CO Consensus)

Maintenance Cost-and Exhaust Gas 'Temperature (EGT) Reductions

The three airlines under contract to P&WA as well as the-two under direct contract to NASA
(Pan American and Eastern) were consulted on the effect of reductions in EGT resulting
from component efficiency gains on the maintenance cost of the engine. A conservative ap­
proach was used due to the volatility of the issue. Only savings in shop labor associated with
improvements in the frequency of shop visits were claimed even though it is highly probable
that significant material cost savings would result from reduced EGT. No improvement i'n
costs due to longer parts life associated with lower EGT were claimed. Table 3-5 shows the
results of the survey of the five airlines and the expected improvement in mean time between
shop visits (MTBSV) for a 6C (I10°F) reduction in EGT. Significant differences exist in the
expected benefit and the "team" was consulted in choosing 200 hours for 6°C (10F) as a
conservative estimate. Since the disassembly, inspection, repair, and reassembly process for
each visit was assumed the same, the labor cost savings expressed in Table 3-5 in terms of dol­
lars per engine operating hour merely reflect the percentage change in the engine shop visit
rate. The actual relationship for any given operator will depend on the operator's route struc­
ture, equipment (type, weight and age), overhaul build standards, operating environment and
flight procedures.

10
 TABLE 3-5

SHOP VISIT RATE IMPROVEMENT FOR 6-C (10°F) REDUCTION

IN EGT @T/O AND CLIMB POWER

Airline Increase in Mean Time Between Shop Visit - Hours

JT8D JT9D

A 300 300-500

B 180 150

-C 150-200

D > 150 > 200

E 300 1000

"Team" 200 200

- Reductions in Engine Shop Labor,

$/Engine Operating Hour 1.25 3.67

Establishment of Economic Figure of Merit

One of the most critical decisions was the choice of an economic figure of merit to decide
the economic acceptability of a given concept. This figure of merit should be easy to calcu­
late and understand and yet reflect the financial complexities of the "real world". Conse­
quently, traditional air transport approaches were examined. Direct Operating Cost (DOC)

was eliminated because it did not reflect the cost of capital. (Cost of capital is the implied

obligation to earn an "adequate" rate-of-return on invested capital in 6rder that like funds

can be attracted in the future). The cost of capital funds invested directly in flight equip­
ment was established by United Airlines in the NASA RECAT'studies ( 2 ) at 15% on an after
tax basis. This value, which the airline team members agreed was reasonable, results in a
very significant cost increase (about 2-1/2 times) over that of the straight depreciation
found in DOC. Direct Operating Cost, although eliminated as a prime figure of merit, was
calculated for each concept and the results were carried in the evaluation summary.
Return on Investment (ROI), generally cofsidered the most sophisticated approach, was

eliminated as a figure of merit for the following reasons:

1. it does not permit direct use of TWA output

2. marginal ROI analysis can yield results that vary to such extremes (e.g., ROI's
of 300%) that they are difficult to interpret

3. ROI calculations involve many ground rules, both financial and economic, some of
which can be controversal. A figure of merit that allows broad application to all
ground rules, but still supplies a realistic screening process would be more desirable.

IT
Payback period (PBP) was selected as the figure of merit because it is subjectively easy to
identify with ("How quickly do I get my money back?") and has the capacity for all the
sophistication (time value of money, tax rules, etc.) required to be valid in the commercial
air transport economic synthesis. PBP is more discriminating as a figure of merit than DOC;
it results in the elimination of some concepts that would appear acceptable in a DOC analy­
sis. The traditional criticisms of PBP are that one value is not good for different economic
lives and that cash flow discontinuities are not properly evaluated on a present worth (dis­
counted at the rate established by cost of capital) basis. These shortcomings have been eli­
minated by: 1) calculating a required PBP as a function of remaining life, 2) calculating the
present worth of tax implications associated with investment, and 3) assuming that each air­
craft operates uniformly for the remaining years of its economic life. The required PBP on a
before tax basis, conforming to these constraints, is derived below and shown in Figure 3-3.
Establishing required PBP (maximum acceptable) on a before-tax basis allows direct use of
the TWA "APES" program output of cash (out-of-pocket) cost, which is on a before tax
basis, and the estimated investment required, to calculate PBP, where

PB? = A Investment
_________
A Annual Cash Savings

Concepts that provide annual cash savings as well as reduced first cost (negative A investment)
will produce payback periods that are negative. Since such an investment opportunity is
acceptable by inspection (costs less to buy and saves cash during its operation) and because
negative values of PBP have no fiscal significance, the PBP in these cases is defined as zero.
The zero PBP implies instantaneous payback and is therefore acceptable under any criteria
for PBP. Concepts that resulted in negative PBP values due to negative annual cash savings
(i.e., annual cash costs were increased) were eliminated from further consideration.

Table 3-6 shows that the maximum acceptable PBP for an investment that has a 15 year
economic life is 5.97 years. This is called the "new buy" case in ECI-PI evaluations. As
shown in Figure 3-3, the maximum acceptable PBP decreases with decreasing economic life
(increasing engine age at time of investment). For example, if a PBP of 4.0 years is calculated
for the retrofit of a given concept, only engines 8 years old or younger would be considered
candidates for the retrofit of that concept.

TABLE 3-6
EFFECT OF LIFE ON PBP REQ'D
FOR USE IN RETROFIT ANALYSIS

5
Life - Yrs 15 10 5 (Expense)
Present Value 030 032 037 0.43
of Depree

Present Value 015 0 13 008 008

of Interest Paid
Present Value 0 06 0 06 0 06 0
of ITC
Present Value of 0 51 0 51 051 051
Taxes Avoided
Net Investment 0 49 0 49 0 49 0 49
Savings Req'd (A T.) 049 x 0171 049 x0 199 0 49 x 0.298
=Net lnv xCRF =0084 =0098 =0 146 =0146
Savings Rcqd (B T) 0168 0.196 0.292 0.292
PBP Yrs 597 51 34 34

12
 )- 4

LU

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

ENGINE AGE -'YRS

Figure3-3 Effect of Engine Age on PBPRequired

Table 3-6 shows that the require1, PBP for a short life investment (5 years or less) is not
changed by the accounting treatment of the investment (expense or capitalize). This is
shown because expensing would probably be common for many of the ECI-PI concepts ap­
plied to engine components of relatively short lives (e.g., high pressure turbines). Expensing
means the "investment" is claimed as a cost of doing business during the current year and
taxes are therefore not paid on the "investment" or cost in this case. Capitalizing (or depreciat­
ing) the investment would result in an annual spreading of the investment over a period of
years determined by the life of the asset. Generally, expensing reduces tax exposure to the
greatest degree and, when possible, is the most economically rational option. There are,
however, complications such as tax law, desired posture in the stock market (price to earn­
ings ratio) and absolute earnings level (if there are no earnings there are no taxes and hence
no tax savings) that make the choice of accounting treatment unintuitive.
It should also be noted that some airlines might retrofit entire engine fleets with an accept­
able concept, and not draw an age limit through the fleet. This would be done to limit shop
assembly error, minimize investment in spare parts or for other commonality reasons.

Calculation of Cumulative Fuel Savings

The potential fuel saved through the implementation of an ECI-P concept is an important
figure in the selection of c6ncepts foi NASA development participation. Concepts passing
the PBPhurdle are judged on their poteifial for cumulative fuel savings over the life of the
engine, the ultimate goal of the program..

The factors considered in calculating the cumulative fuel saved are the mission-averaged
change in fuel burned (supplied by the APES program as a percent of total fuel usage), the
date the improvement enters service, the number of new production engines with the per­
formance improvement concept, the number of existing engines acceptable for retrofit and

13
the time required to retrofit the existing eihgine fleet. In the case of a new buy, fuel saved
was calculated for all new production if the PBP was equal to or less than 6.0 years. In the
case of retrofit, the allowable engine age was determined by the retrofit PBP as shown in
Figure 3-3. The allowable engine age and the assumption that the retrofit was accomplished
on a convenience basis over a three-year time period determined the number of in-service
engines affected. Figures 3-4, 3-5, 3-6, and 3-7 show the JT8D and JT9D engine populations
by model as a function of time, used in the cumulative fuel saved calculations. These popula­
tions reflect actual engine sales through the year 1977 and the team consensus in the later
years. Note that the JTSD refan models (for example, the JTSD-209) are not included in
these projections, since none of these models had been committed to production at the time
of the study.

4000

3000­

2000

C,)10o -­

1900 1970 1980 1990

END OF YEAR

Figure3-4 JT8D-9 Engine Population

14
 4000

3000

U,

0- 2000
z

U,
1960 1970 1980 1990
END OF YEAR

U
0 2000
2
-3
-Figure3-5 JT8D-15]I 7 Engine Population
4000

3000

o 1000

OO 100 1

1960 1970 1980 1990

END OF YEAR

Figure 3-6 JT9D-7 EnginePopulation

15
 4000

0
Z

Z 200, ­

1000 ­

0
lowO 1970 1980 1990

END OF YEAR

Figure 3-7 iTgD-70/59 Engine Population

once the number of candidate engines and the percent change in fuel burned is established,
only the base level of annual fuel consumption remained to be established.
In order to reflect realistic levels, the baseline annual fuel burned per engine was chosen
based on a study of CAB data. The values chosen as typical are shown in Table 3-7 and are
considered to be reasonable for purposes of estimating world wide fuel savings potential.
(These values may vary somewhat from operator to operator depending on route structure,
utilization, build standards, flight procedures, traffic limitations, and age of equipment with
annual utilization being perhaps the biggest variant.)

-% TABLE 3-7
'TYTICAL ANNUAL FUEL BURNED

Annual Fuel Used Per Engine

Million Liters (Million Gallons)

JT8D 3.78 (l.0)

JT9D 10.98 (2.9)

16
The remaining step is to integrate the annual fuel saved by each modified engine from its
production or modification date to its economic life limit (15 years from production). Only
engines produced through 1990 were considered and the last year of fuel saved is 2005 (en­
gine produced in 1990 serving in its last economic year).

Figure 3-8 is a flow chart of the fuel savings calculation process. Annual fleet fuel burned and
the percent change in fuel burned is calculated based on the inputs shown. The engine
population simulation is simply a numerical method for integrating the area under the engine
population vs. time curve with the constraints defined by the inputs to the simulation.

MANUFACTURERS INPUT

TWA
"APES"

1%AFUEL BURNED

I F O R R E T R O F IT GESIMULATION TIME REQUIRED TO RETROFIT

CUMULATIVE

FUEL

SAVED

Figure3-8 Cumulative Fuel Saved

An example of this process, Figure 3-9, shows the engines entering service and being retired
after 15 years. A start of service date("S") of 1980 defines the "new engine years" area to
be integrated by the simulation. The maximum engine age for retrofit defines "M?' (in this
case 4 years) and, therefore, the number of engines that are candidates for retrofit.. "C"
represents the effect of a 3 year retrofit program. The "retrofit engine years" then is the­
area to be integrated by the simulation. The total engine years (new plus retrofit) is multi­
plied by the annual base fuel burned per engine and the percent change in fuel burned de­
termined by the "APES" program to produce the cumulative fuel saved.

17

 3500­

3000 NEW ENGINE YEAR

2600

D R OFIT

LA. 2000 ENGIN YEARS

1500

.-J
cc,

1000

I S - START OF SERVICE
C - TIME REQUIRED TO RETROFIT
ON "CONVENIENCE" BASIS
500/
I MAXIMUM ENGINE AGE
M-
Os FOR RETROFIT
0I 1 I
1970 1976 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
BEGIN CALENDAR YEAR

Figure 3-9 Example of Cumulative FuelSavings Estimate

Required Payback Period Derivation

The before tax payback period required to ensure an adequate after tax return on capital
invested (cost of capital) is derived based on a reasonable set of ground rules reflecting an
approach for the air transport industry rather than an individual operator. These ground
rules and the resultant derivation are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Table 3-8 establishes the financial ground rules for determining the desired maximum ac­
ceptable payback period (PBP). These ground rules represent input from United Airlines as
well as Trans World Airlines with review and consent from American Airlines, Pan American
World Airways, and Eastern Air Lines. The latter two were under direct contract to NASA.

18
Table 3-9 presents the calculation of the present worth of future tax reductions supplied by
depreciation claims for a $1.00 investment with zero salvage value (i.e., no cash market value
at the end of its life). The present worth of the depreciation at the 15% discount rate is about
304.

Table 3-10 presents the present worth determination for interest paid (a deductible expense)
and an assumed 7% investment tax credit (ITC) which is assumed to come 1 year after in­
vestment. The present worth of the taxes avoided by interest paid is 14.64 and the present
worth of taxes avoided by ITC is worth 6.14.
Table 3-11 summarizes the present value of the investment after accounting for avoided taxes
(reduced tax obligations). The net present value of the $1.00 investment is shown on line 6
to be $0.49. Line 7 establishes the annual savings (after taxes) required on the $0.49 invest­
ment to yield a 15% return (capital recovery factor of 0.171). Line 8 establishes the required
annual savings on a before tax basis to be 0.168 S/year. Line 9 inverts line 8 to yield a be­
fore tax payback period of 5.97 years.
Table 3-6 (shown on page 12) presents the results of this same process for 10 and 5 year
economic lives. The 5 year case was done using both depreciation and expensing (1 year
write-off) and shows that the required PBP remains the same at 3.4 years. Figure 3-3
(page 12) shows the relationship between required PBP and engine age.

TABLE 3-8
REQUIRED PBP CALCULATION
ASSUMPTIONS
* Economic Life = 15 Years
* Debt/Equity = 50/50 (Debt @ 10%, Simple Bond Interest)
" Total After Tax Cost of Capital = 15%
* Investment Tax Credit (ITC) = 7%
* Depreciation, Double Declining Balance to Point Where Straight Line

is Greater, 9.5 Years

* Tax Rate = 50%

19
 TABLE 3-9

PRESENT WORTH OF TAX DEPRECIATION

* Investment = $1.00
* Zero Salvage

Present Worth
Tax Factor for Discounted
Year Depreciation 15% Interest Value
1 0.2105 08696 0 1831

2 0.1662 0.7561 0.1257

3 0.1312 0.6575 0.0863

4 0.1036 0.5718 0.0592

5 0.0818 0.4972 0.0407

6 0.0682 0.4323 0.0295
7 0.0682 0.3759 0.0256
8 0.0681 0.3269 0.0223
9 0.0681 0.2843 0.0194
10 0.0341 0.2472 0.0084
1.0000 0.6002

Present Worth of Tax Depreciation = (7 Discounted Values) x (Tax Rate)

= 0.6002 x 0.50
= 0.3001

TABLE 3-10
PRESENT WORTH OF TAXES AVOIDED BY INTEREST AND INVESTMENT TAX CREDIT

* Investment =$1.00

INTEREST INVESTMENT ITC PRESENT

PRSN
Interest Present Worth Discounted TAX WORTH Discounted
Year Paid Factor Value CREDIT FACTOR Value
1 0.05 0.8696 0.0435 0.07 0.8696 0.061
2 0.05 0.7561 0.0378 0 0
3 0.05 0.6575 0.0329 0 0
4 0.05 0.5718 0.0286 0 0
5 0.05 0.4972 0.0249 0 0
6 0.05 04323 0.0216 0 0
7 0.05 0.3759 0.0188 0 0
8 0.05 03269 0.0163 0 0
9 0.05 0.2843 0.0142 0 0
10 0.05 0.2472 0.0124 0 0
11 0.05 0.2149 0.0107 0 0
12 0.05. 0.1869 0.0093 0 0
13 0.05 0.1625 0.0081 0 0
14 0.05 0.1413 0.0071 0 0
15 005 0.1229 0.0061 0 0
Total 0.5847 0.0292 0 07 0.061

Present Worth of Interest Paid = 0.292 x 0.50 = 0.146, Present Worth of ITC = 0.061

20
 TABLE 3-11
REQUIRED PBP CALCULATION

(1) Investment $1.00

(2) Present Value of Depreciation 0.6 x 0.5 = 0.30
(3) Present Value of Interest Paid 0.3 x 0.5 = 0.15
(4) Present Value of ITC 0.07 x 0.87 = 0.06
(5) Total Present Value of Taxes Avoided
by Deprec. + Int + ITC 0.51
(6) Net Present Value of Investment 1.00 - 0.51 = 0.49
(7) After Tax Savings Required
= Cap. Rec. Factor (1 ) x Net Invest. 0.171( 1 )x 0.49 = 0.084
(8) Before Tax Savings Required = 0.168
- After Tax Savings * 0.50
(9) Before Tax PBP 1.00/0.168 = 5.97 Years
= Investment/Savings

(1) From Interest Tables @ 15%, 15 Years, Capital Recovery Factor = i(I+i)N/(I+i)N-l

21/22
 4.0 CONCEPT IDENTIFICATION AND CATEGORIZATION

Selection of Component Improvement Concepts

In this effort, component performance improvement concepts having the potential of being
accepted and incorporated into production JTSD and JT9D engines were selected and
screened. An extensive list of candidate concepts was compiled based on previous work
under NASA contract ( ' ) , on improvement concepts submitted by NASA, airplane and
airline companies and on more recent ideas from P&WA. The concepts described in Section
5.0 were selected from this initial list as being the most promising fuel saving ideas for
follow-on support under the subject program. The concepts on the initial list that were
considered and rejected are listed in Table 4-1 with the reasons for rejection. Some of these
concepts might be reconsidered for fuel savings or other benefits in the future as the demand
for fuel economy increases or as technology advances.

TABLE 4-1
REJECTED JT8D CANDIDATE CONCEPTS

Concept Reason for Rejection

Improved fan blade shrouds Low fuel saving

Abradable LPC tip seals Low fuel saving
Abradable knife-edge seals in LPC & HPC Low fuel saving
Blade root sealing in LPC & HPC Low fuel saving
LPC & HPC airfoil aerodynamic refinements High development cost
Mini-shrouded stators in LPC & HPC High development cost
Aerodynamic improvement of intermediate case struts High development cost
HPC rotor windage covers Low fuel saving
Reduced case flange leakage No known practical design
Carbon seal in No. 4 bearing compartment Development effort nearly completed
Blade root sealing in HPT Low fuel saving
Closed HPT blade shroud notches Development effort nearly completed
Sealed HPT vane platforms Development effort nearly completed
HPT & LPT airfoil aerodynamic refinements High development cost
Improved HPT airfoil material & coatings High development cost
Rotor windage covers in HPT Low fuel saving
Blade root sealing in LPT Low fuel saving
Case-tied LPT seals High development cost
Low drag temperature & pressure probes Low fuel saving
Aerodynamic improvement of turbine exhaust case struts High development cost
Discharge nozzle area change Take-off performance penalty
Fan duct loss reduction High development cost

23
 TABLE 4-1 (Cont'd)
REJECTED JT9D CANDIDATE CONCEPTS

Concept Reason for Rejection

Improved fan blade manufacturing process Development effort nearly completed

Improved fan blade rubstrip configuration Low fuel saving
Aerodynamic improvement of fan exit case struts Low fuel saving
Improved fan duct acoustic treatment Low fuel saving
Mini-shrouded stators in LPC Low fuel saving
Blade root sealing in LPC Low fuel saving
LPC airfoil aerodynamic refinements Low fuel saving
Non-adjustable LPC inlet guide vane Development effort nearly completed
Cruise-optimized HPC stator vane schedule Low fuel saving
HPC rotor windage covers Low fuel saving
Reduced case flange leakage No known practical design
Carbon seal in No. 3 bearing compartment Development effort nearly completed
Blade root sealing in HPT Low fuel saving
HPT airfoil cooling refinements High development cost
Improved HPT airfoil material & coating High development cost
HPT rotor windage covers Low fuel saving
HPT & LPT airfoil aerodynamic refinements High development cost
Clustered vanes in LPT Development effort nearly completed
Case-tied LPT seals Development effort nearly completed
Low drag temperature probes Low fuel saving
Aerodynamic improvement of turbine exhaust case struts Development effort nearly completed
Fan discharge nozzle area changes Development effort nearly completed
Remove primary reverser Development effort nearly completed

24
 5.0 DETAILED SCREENING ASSESSMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The procedure described in Section 3.0 was used to evaluate concepts selected for Detailed
Screening Assessment.

The concepts are presented and discussed in this section in three categories:

* those recommended for ECT development and demonstration (Section 5.2)

* those recommended for further study (Section 5.3)

* those not recommended for further consideration (Section 5.4)

The concepts in each category are identified and the evaluation results are summarized in
Tables 5-2, 5-56, and 5-65 (pages 27, 104, and 118, respectively). The evaluation parame­
ters presented in these tables are defined in Table 5-1.

Following the summary table in each category are descriptions, performance substantiation
discussions, and economic evaluation details for each concept. In addition, a performance
and economic risk sensitivity analysis is presented for each concept in the first category.

TABLE 5-1
DEFINITIONS OF EVALUATION PARAMETERS

PBP: Pay-back period (PBP) is the ratio of-the incremental investment

to the annual cash savings attributable to the performance improve­
ment concept. The maximum acceptable value of PBP for any
concept has been established by the evaluation team to meet an
investment hurdle rate of 15 percent. The maximum acceptable
PBP, which is a function of engine age, varies as illustrated by
Figure 3-3.

Block Speed Effect The reduction in annual costs resulting from reduced trip time
(increased block speed). The trip time reductions are the result
ofreduced fuel loads throughout any given route structure and
schedule pattern.

A DOC:
(percent) The percent change in direct operating cost (DOC) on a new buy
basis using conventional cost classification and TWA calculation
procedures.

25
 TABLE 5-1 (Cont'd)

Percent Fuel Savings: The percent of mission fuel saved integrated over the entire appli­
cable route structure as calculated by the TWA "APES" program.
This value will differ from the internal performance improvement
because it includes any weight or aircraft drag effects as well as an
integration of engine power settings over the mission profiles for
the entire route structure.

Cumulative Fuel
Savings: The world-wide accumulated fuel saved from date of introduction
through 15 years total engine life, for engines entering service
through 1990, attributable to the performance improvement con­
cept. Both new buy and retrofitted engines which meet or better
the payback requirement are included.

5.2 CONCEPTS RECOMMENDED FOR ECI DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION

The concepts in this category met the PBP criteria, showed significant fuel savings, and ap­
peared to meet the general funding and schedular requirements of the subject program.
These concepts are listed in Table 5-2 in the order ranked by the P&WA evaluation team,
according to the criteria previously described in Section 3.0. The ranking considers not only
the evaluation results summarized in the table, but qualitative considerations, such as po­
tential for shop assembly error, passenger comfort, and potential for change to flight man­
uals, which were considered significant by the team. These concepts are discussed in the
ranked order, starting on page 36.

Technology development plans were prepared by P&WA for each of the concepts listed in
Table 5-2, except for the DC-10 Improved Cabin Air System and the DC-9 Nacelle Drag
Reduction concept, which were prepared by DAC.

NASA combined the results of the evaluation and ranking of the Table 5-2 concepts with the
information supplied in the technology development plans, and with NASA's own technical
and funding considerations to select the concepts to be included in the ECI-PI development
and demonstration effort (see Table 5-3).

The concepts listed in Table 5-2, with the exception of the DC-10 Improved Cabin Air
System and the DC-9 Nacelle Drag Reduction concepts, were also subjected to an analysis
of their sensitivity to technical and economic risk. Technical risk was assessed in terms of
the best, most likely, and worst TSFC performance that can be expected with each concept.
Economic risk was assessed by arbitrarily assuming a 2.6 per liter (104 per gallon) increase
in the price of fuel.

Table 5-4 presents the performance improvement uncertainty range estimated for each con­
cept.

26
 TABLE 5-2

DETAILED CONCEPT EVALUATION RESULTS

PBP(years) ADOC Percent Cumulative Fuel Savings - 106 liters (gal.) Team Described
Concept Airplane New Buy Retrofit (%) Fuel Savings New Buy Retrofit Total Rank on Page

JT9D Ceramic Outer Air Seal 747(-7/70) 0.3/0.3 0.4/0.4 -0.3/-0.3 1 36

DC-10 (-59) 0.4 0.7 -0.2
Total 0.4 1120 833 1953
(296) (220) (516)

JT8D Revised HPT Cooling 727 3.9 5.4 -0.1 2 42

& Outer Air Seal DC-9/737 5.2 7.3 -0.1
Total 0.4 189(50) 151(40) 340(90)

JT8D HPT Root Discharge 727 0 0 -0.3* 3 47

Blade DC9/737 0 0 -0,3*
Total 0.75* 144(38) 836(221) 980(259)
DC-10 Improved Cabin DC-10 0.9 0.9 -0.3 0.7 2403(635) 848(224) 3251(859) 4 53

Air System

DC-9 Nacelle Drag Reduction DC-9 0.7 0.7 -0.1 0.5 117(31) 193(51) 322(85) 5 55

JT9D-7 3.8 AR Fan 747 0.9 9.6 -0.8 1.5 2725(720) 0 2725(720) 6 58

JT8D Trenched Tip HPC 727 1.2 5.0 -0.4 7 64

DC-9 1.4 6.0 -0.4
Total 1.0 310(82) 723(191) 1033(273)

JT9D Trenched Tip 1-IPC 747(-7/70) 0.1/0.1 0.7/0.2 -0.3/-0.3 70

DC-10 (-59) 0.1 0.3 -0.2
Total 0.3 1071 795 1866
(283) (210) (493)

*Relative to JT8D Revised HPT Cooling and Outer Air Seal

 TABLE 5-2 (Cont'd)
DETAILED CONCEPT EVALUATION RESULTS

PBP (years) ADOC Percent Cumulative Fuel Savings - 106 liters (gal.) Team Described
Concept Airplane New Buy Retrofit (%) Fuel Savings New Buy Retrofit Total Rank on Page

JT9D 16-Strut Intermediate 747(-7/70) 0.3/0.3 6.2/6.1 -1.0/-1.0 9 74

Case DC-10 (-59) 0.5 9.2 -0.8
Total 1.1 2831 2831
(748) 0/0 (748)

JT9D Thermal Barrier 747(-7/70) 0/0 0/0 -0.31-0.3 10 79

Coating DC-10 (-59) 0 -0.3
Total 0.2 560 420 980
(148) (111) (259)

JT9D-70/59 4.2 AR Fan 747 0 7.6 -0.9 11 86

DC-10 0 11.5 -0.8
Total 1.5 1571(415) 0 1571(415)

JT9D-70/59 HPT Improved 747 1.0 6.0 -0.3 12 90

.Active Clearance Control DC-10 2.1 11.7 -0.3
Total 0.9 1771(468) 0 1771(468)

JT9D-7 Structural FEGV 747 0 12.2 -0.35 0.6 833(220) 0 1833(220) 13 96

JT9D 70/59 Structural 747 0 17.0 .0.3 0.3 439(116) 0 439(116)

FEGV DC-1C 0 28.6 -0.2
 TABLE 5-3

NASA SELECTED CONCEPTS AND ASSOCIATED FUEL SAVINGS

Fuel Saved - 106 Liters (Gal.)

JT8D New Engines Retrofit Engines Total

Revised HPT Cooling and Outer Air Seal 189(50) 151(40) 340(90)
HPT Root Discharge Blade 144(38) 836(221) 980(259)
Trenched Tip HPC 310(82) 723(191) 1033(273)
DC-9 Nacelle Drag Reduction 117(31) 204(54) 310(85)

Total JT8D 760(201) 1911(506) 2663(707)

JT9D

HPT Improved Active Clearance Control 1771(468) 0 1771(468)

3.8 AR Fan 2725(720) 0 2725(720)
Trenched Tip HPC 1071(282) 794(210) 1865(492)
Ceramic Outer Air Seal 1120(296) 833(220) 1953(516)
Thermal Barrier Coating 560(148) 420(110) 980(258)

Total JT9D 7247(1914) 2047(540) 9294(2454)

 TABLE 5-4

RISK ANALYSIS

PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT UNCERTAINTY

Cruise Performance Improvement - %

Rank Concept Worst Expected Best

1 JT9D-7 and -70/59 Ceramic Outer Air Seal 0 0.3* 0.6

2 JTSD Revised HPT Cooling and Outer Air Seal 0.3 0.5* 0.7
3 JTSD HPT Root Discharge Blade 0.7 0.95* 1.15
4 DC- 10 Improved Cabin Air System
5 DC-9 Nacelle Drag Reduction
6 JT9D-7 3.8 AR Fan 1.0 1.3* 1.6
7 JT8D Trenched Tip HPC 0.7 0.9* 1.1
8 JT9D-7 Trenched Tip HPC 0.2 0.3* 0.5
JT9D-59/70 Trenched Tip BPC 0.1 0.25* 0.4
9 JT9D 16-Strut Intermediate Case** -0.5 0.0 0.9*
10 JT9D Thermal Barrier Coating 0 0.2* 0.2
11 JT9D-70/59 4.2 AR Fan 1.0 1.4* 1.8
12 JT9D-70/59 HPT Improved Active
Clearance Control 0.7 0.9* 1.0
1 JT9D-7 Structural FEGV -0.1 0.2 0.5*
13 JT9D-70/59 Structural FEGV -0.1 0.1 0.3*
*Used in Detailed Evaluation
**Details on additional risk assessment of this concept are presented in Section 5.2.9, page 74.

Table 5-5 presents the effects of performance uncertainty on PBP. An examination of the
case of worst performance shows that the JT9D Ceramic Outer Air Seal, the JT9D 16-Strut
Intermediate Case, the JT9D Thermal Barrier Coating, and the JT9D Structural FEGV result
in no fuel savings and would therefore be unacceptable. The worst performance in the case
of the JT8D Outer Air Seal results in a PBP of 12.4 years for new buy and 17.2 years for
retrofit, and would therefore be unacceptable. The remainder of the concepts subjected to
the risk analysis remain acceptable even in the case of worst performance. It should be noted
that in the case of two concepts, the JT9D 16-Strut Intermediate Case and the JT9D Struc­
tural FEGV, the detailed evaluation used a level of performance that was actually the best
that could be expected. If the most likely, or expected, value of performance had been used,
the 16-Strut Intermediate Case would have shown no fuel savings and would have therefore
been eliminated from further consideration. In the case of the Structural FEGV, the expect­
ed level of performance would still result in economic acceptability; however, its fuel savings
would decrease from 834 million liters to 333 million liters, as shown in Table 5-6.

Table 5-6 presents the impact of performance risk on fuel saved. The fuel saved values repre­
sent the combined effect of performance change and the number of candidate engines as affect­
ed by any change in economic acceptability due to performance changes.

Table 5-7 shows the impact on PBP of an increase in fuel price of 2.6 liter (IOf/gal.). As
expected, all concepts have improved economic acceptability at higher fuel prices. Concepts
previously not attractive for retrofit but meeting the less than 6.0 year limit at the higher
fuel price are the JT9D-70/59 Improved Active Clearance Control and the JT9D 16-Strut
Intermediate Case.

30
 TABLE 5-5

RISK ANALYSIS PERFORMANCE/PAYBACK PERIOD

Performance PBP - Years

Uncertainty 747 or 727 DC10 or DC9
Concept New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit

JT9D Ceramic Outer Air Seal

-7 Expected*(E) 0.3 0.4
Best (B) 0.2 0.2
Worst (W) No Fuel Saved
-70/59 E* 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.7
B 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.9
W No Fuel Saved

JT8D Revised HPT Cooling and E* 3.9 5.4 5.2 7.3

Outer Air Seal B 2.4 3.3 2.9 4.1

W 12.4 17.2 24.6 34.2

JT8D HT Root Discharge E* 0 0 0 0

Blade B 0 0 0 0
W 0 0 0 0

JT9D-7 3.8 AR Fan E* 0.9 9.6 --

B 0.7 7.8
1.1 12.0 ­ -
W

JT8D Trenched Tip HPC E* 1.2 5.0 1.4 6.0

B 1.0 4.2 1.2 5.1

W 1.5 6.3 1.8 7.7

JT9D Trenched Tip IGPC

-7 E* 0.1 0.7 - -

B 0.6 0.4

W 0.12 1.0 - ­
-70/59 E* 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3
B 0.06 0.1 0.08 0.14
W 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.5

JT9D-7 and 59/70 16-Strut

Intermediate Case E No Fuel Saved
B* 0.3 6.1 0.5 9.2
W No Fuel Saved

*Used in Detailed Evaluation

31
 TABLE 5-5 (Cont'd)

RISK ANALYSIS PERFORMANCE/PAYBACK PERIOD

Performance
PBP - Years
Uncertainty
747 or 727 DC1O or DC9
Concept New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
JT9D Thermal Barrier Coating
E*
0 0
B 0 0
W No Fuel Saved

JT9D-70/59 4.2 AR Fan E 0 7.6 0 11.5

B* 0 6.5 0 10.1
W 0 9.1 0 13.4

JT9D-70/59 HPT Improved

Active Clearance Control E* 1.0 6.0 2.1 11.7
B .9 5.4 1.9 10.4
W 1.3 7.6 2.8 15.3

JT9D Structural FEGV

-7 E 0 25.0
B* 0 12.2
W No Fuel Saved

-70/59
E
0 40.0 0 54.0
B* 0 17.0 0 28.6
W No Fuel Saved
*Used in Detailed Evaluation

32
 TABLE 5-6

RISK ANALYSIS PERFORMANCE/CUMULATIVE FUEL SAVED

,Cumulative Fuel Saved x 106 - liters (gal)

Concept Performance New Buy Retrofit Total
Uncertainty
JT9D-7/70/59 Ceramic Outer Air Seal (E)* 560 (148) 420 (111) 980 (259)
(B)
560 (148) 420 (111) 980 (259)
(W) 0 0 0

JT8D Revised HPT Cooling and Outer Air Seal (E)* 189 (50) 151 (40) 341 (90)
(B)
265 (70) 553 (146) 818 (216)
(w) 0 0 0

JT8D HIPT Root Discharge Blade (E)* 144 (38) 836 (221) 980 (259)
(B)
174(46)
1022(270) 1196(316)
(W) 1-10(29) 628(166) 738(195)

JT9D-7 3.8 AR Fan (E)* 2725 (720) 0

'1033(273)
(B)
3354 (886)
0
1260(333)

(W) 2097 (554)

0
242(64)

JT8D Trenched Tip HPC (E)* 310(82) 723(191) 1033 (273)

(B) 378(100) 882(233) 1260 (333)
(W) 242(64) 0 242 (64)

JT9D-7 Trenched Tip HPC (E)* 541 (143) 519 (137) 1060 (280)
(B)
897 (237) 859 (227) 1756 (464)
(W) 363 (96) 348 (92) 712 (188)

*Used in Detailed Evaluation

 TABLE 5-6 (Cont'd)

RISK ANALYSIS PERFORMANCE/CUMULATIVE FUEL SAVED

Cumulative Fuel Saved x 106 liters (gal)

Performance
New Buy Retrofit Total
Concept
Uncertainty

JT9D-70/59 Trenched Tip HPC (E)*

530 (140) 276 (73) 806 (213)
(B) 878 (232) 458 (121) 1336 (353)
(W) 356 (94) 185 (49) 541 (143)

JT9D-70/59 16-Strut Intermediate Case (E) 0 0 0

(B)" 2831 (748) 0 2831 (748)
(W)
0 0 0

JT9D Thermal Barrier Coating (E)* 1120 (296) 832 (220) 1952 (516)
(B) 2240 (592) 1665 (440) 3905 (1032)
(W) 0 0 0

JT9D-70/59 4.2 AR Fan (E)*

1571 (415) 0 1571 (415)
(B)
2021 (534) 0 2021 (534)
(W)
1120(296) 0 1120(296)

JT9D-70/59 HPT Improved Active

(E)* 1771 (468) 0 1771 (468)
Clearance Control
(B) 1968 (520) 189 (50) 2157 (570)
(W)
1382 (365) 0 1382 (365)

JT9D-7 Structural FEGV (E) 144 (38) 0 144 (38)

(B)*
439(116) 0 439(116)
0 0 0
(W)

JT9D-70/59 Structural FEGV (E) 333 (88) 333 (88)

(B)*
834 (220) 834 (220)
(W) 0 0 0

':Used in Detailed Evaluation

 TABLE 5-7

RISK ANALYSIS - FUEL PRICE/PAYBACK PERIOD

EFFECT OF 2.60 LITER (10p /GAL) INCREASE IN FUEL PRICE
PBP - Years

747 or 727 DC10 or DC9

New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Fuel Price Base +100 Base +td# Base +100 Base +10
Concept

JT9D Ceramic Outer Air Seal

-7 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 - - ­

-70/59 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.6

JT8D Outer Air Seal 3.9 3.3 5.4 4.6 5.2 4.2 7.3 6.1
JT8D HPT Root Discharge Blade 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.8 9.6 8.2 - ­ - -
JT9D-7 3.8 AR Fan 0.9
JT8D Trenched IPC 1.2 1.0 5.0 4.4 1.4 1.2 6.0 5.3
JT9D Trenched Tip HPC
-7 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.6 - - - ­
-70/59 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2
JT9D 16 Strut Intermediate Case
-7 0.3 0.3 6.2 5.5 - - - ­
-70/59 0.3 0.3 6.1 5.6 0.5 0.4 9.2 8.2
JT9D Thermal Barrier Coating
0 0 0 0
-7 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-70/59

6.6 - - -
JT9D-70/59 4.2 AR Fan. 0 0 7.6 ­

JT9D-70/59 HPT Improved Active Clearance 1.0 0.8 6.0 4.9

2.1 1.7 11.7 9.2
Control

JT9D Structural FEGV 0 17.0 14.8 0 0 28.6 24.7

-7 0
tA-70/59 1.0 0.8 6.0 4.9 2.1 1.7 11.7 9.2
 Introduction

The following subsections describe in detail those concepts recommended for further ECI
development and demonstration. The discussions appear in the P&WA evaluation team
ranked order and include a description of the concept, performance substantiation, and
results of the economic evaluation of the concept with respect to engine performance data,
airline costs, and fuel savings.

5.2.1 JT9D Ceramic Outer Air Seal

Concept Description

Reduced turbine blade tip clearance can be achieved through the application of an abradable
coating to the turbine outer air seal segments as shown in Figure 5-1. Currently, the JT9D
high pressure turbine blade tips run against a solid metal seal because available abradable
materials have been found to be unacceptable in this environment. The modification applies
advanced ceramic coating techniques to obtain an abradable seal surface and an abrasive
blade tip treatment.

Abrasive silicon-carbide "Grits"

Sprayed layered
Turbine blade Y3 02 -ZrO 2 /CoCrAlY
ceramic coating

MAR-M-509

Abradable ceramic seal segment (reduced number of segments)

MAR-M-509

Current production seal segment (36 segments in JT9D-7, 56 in JT9D-70)

Figure5-1 JT9D Turbine OuterAir Seal: Improved version (top) and currentproduction
seal (bottom).

36
The seal system selected is a sprayed yttria stabilized zirconia system, initially investigated
under the Ref. 3 contract and continued under the Ref. 4 and 5 contracts. The tips of the
turbine blades are treated with abrasive silicon carbide grits so that in the event of a rub,
reduction of blade length due to the rub interaction is held to a minimum and the ceramic
material is abraded away.

Use of the graded ceramic/metal layer minimizes thermal stresses that would otherwise
exist at the interface of a low thermal expansion ceramic material on a high thermal expan­
sion metal. Figure 5-2 is a cross-section showing how the graded layers vary from the metal
rich at the metal surface to zirconia rich at the ceramic layer.

MATERIAL
Zo 2 CoCrAIY
THICKNESS, CM (IN.)

0.216-0.241 (0.086-0.095) 100% 0

(BY WT)

0.063-0.089 (0.025-0.035) 35 15

0.063-0.089 (0.025-0.035) 40 NiCrAI 60

0.008-0.013 (0.003-0.005)
dASE MATL
/// - MAR:M5097//

Figure5-2 Schematic of Sprayed GradedCeramic/MetalStructure

Yttria (Y2 03 ) is added to the zirconia to act as a stabilizer to prevent a phase transformation
of the zirconia, which occurs in the 980 - 10950C (1800 - 2000 0 F) temperature range along
with a 10% volume change. This volume change can cause destructive internal stresses.

The potential benefits of the ceramic seal are as follows:

* Reduced tip clearance allows higher turbine efficiency and lower fuel consumption.

* Increase in tip clearance resulting from rubs is minimized resulting in less perform­
ance loss.

* Insulating qualities of ceramic material reduce temperature of metal seal support.

37
 The turbine efficiency benefit for blade tip clearance reduction for a typical commercial
engine is shown in Figure 5-3. Since current turbine seals are generally not abradable, rotor
wear and damage results from tip rubs; therefore, a conservative approach is taken in estab­
lishing turbine operating clearances.

Rubbing between the blade tips and the static seal shroud can be caused by shroud seal
distortions, rotor bending and abnormal engine operation when operating with tight clear­
ances. Since rub interactions usually occur on all blade tips, but only locally on the seal
shroud, the rubbing action wears down the blade tips when the conventional metallic seal
shroud is used. Figure 5-4 illustrates the advantage of an abradable seal in minimizing the
effect of rubs on tip clearance.

TURBINE
EFFICIENCY
BENEFIT %
2

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 CM
I I I I
0 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 IN.

DECREASE IN 1ST STAGE TURBINE BLADE TIP CLEARANCE

Figure5-3 Turbine Efficiency and Blade Tip Clearance

38
 ORIGINAL ROTOR
DIAMETER

ROTOR
NON-ABRADABLE I

SEAL I

INTERACTION

NOTE.
COLD CLEARANCE .010CM INTERACTION ROTOR WEAR CAUSES
.010CM INCREASED
CLEARANCES
ORIGINAL SEAL

DIAMETER

ABRADABLE (D~s

INTERACTION

COLD CLEARANDE .010CM INTERACTION MINIMIZED

CLEARANCE INCREASED

ABRADABLE SEALS WILL REDUCE POST RUB CLEARANCE BY 70%

Figure 5-4 Effect of Rubbing on Rotor-To-Seal Clearance

By providing a seal system with a ceramic insulating surface, the temperature of the metal
support as well as the thermal stresses will be reduced considerably. As a result it may be
possible to:

1) increase the size of the seal segments

2) reduce the amount of required cooling air

3) utilize a less expensive base material

Since current JT9D engines employ 1%or less of engine airflow for outer air seal cooling,
a modest reduction in this cooling flow would have an insignificant effect on TSFC.

Advanced engines, however, with higher turbine temperatures will require much greater
amounts of cooling air for the seals unless improvements such as a ceramic seal system are
developed.

Performance Substantiation

High turbine ceramic outer air seal development work began in 1972 under company funded
and government programs. Under Contract N00140-74-C-0586, directed to the development
of an advanced turbine high temperature blade tip seal, engine-testing was conducted on the
JT9D-7 consisting of 31 hours and 17 thermal cycles. This testing revealed that a graded
metallic/ceramic system attached to a metallic substrate was technically feasible for a high
turbine seal application.

39
Through analysis and testing conducted on past JT9D programs, it has been conservatively
estimated that a 0.0254 cm (0.010 in.) reduction in tip clearance is possible with an abrad­
able outer air seal. Applying this reduction to both stages of the high pressure turbine results
in an estimated turbine efficiency improvement of 0.7%.

Economic Evaluation

The turbine efficiency improvement translates into an engine TSFC improvement of 0.3 2%
at cruise, as shown in Table 5-8. The application of ceramic to the seal shoes results in a
price increase, but the increase is small because it was assumed that the number of shoes
can be reduced. As a result, the payback period is less than one year in all cases, as shown
on Table 5-9. Applying the concept to all JT9D-7 and JT9D-70/59 engines starting in 1982
will result in a fuel savings of nearly 2 billion liters, as shown on Table 5-10.

TABLE 5-8

JT9D CERAMIC OUTER AIR SEAL

ENGINE DATA
Per Engine (-7 and -70/59)
TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
Takeoff 0.56 6
Climb 0.32 3
Cruise, Avg. 0.32
Hold 0.7
Weight Change, Kg (Lb.) 0
Price Change, $ +3,400
Kit Price, $ +5,000 (Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Change, S/Oper. Hr.
Materials +0.70
Labor @$30 Per Man-Hr. -2.54

40
 TABLE 5-9

JT9D CERAMIC OUTER AIR SEAL

AIRLINE COSTS

Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 747-200 DCIO-40

Operating Costs Changes, S/Year
-7 -70/59 -70159

Fuel -31,830. -34,100 -13,230

Maintenance -33,600. -33,700 -18,940

Block Speed Effect -200. -200 -500

Total -65,630 -68,000 -32,670

Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit

Required Airline Investment

Changes, $
-7&-70/59 -7&-70/59 -70/59 -70/59
Installed Engines +13,600 +20,000 +10,200 +15,000
Spare Engines +3,710 +5,450 +2,350 +3,450
Spare Parts +2,720 +4,000 +2,040 +3,000

Total +20,030 +29,450 +14,590 +21, 4 50

Payback Period, Years 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.7

DOC Change, % -0.3 -0.2

TABLE 5-10
JT9D CERAMIC OUTER AIR SE-.L
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.4

Start of Service Date 1-82

Investment Type
New Buy Retrofit Total

-7 810 2,070 2,880

No. of Engines Affected

-70/59 810 460 1,270

Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 -7 560 (148) 583 (154) 1143(302)

liters (gal). -70/59 560 (148) 250 (66) 810 (214)
Total 1953 (516)

41
5.2.2 JT8D Revised HPT Cooling and Outer Air Seal

Concept Description

In a JT8D engine, the high-pressure turbine efficiency is inversely proportional to blade tip
seal leakage. Many design factors including materials, operating temperatures, and mechan­
ical design requirements determine the operating tip seal leakage.

The current JT8D-15/17 high-pressure turbine blade tip leakage is controlled by a single
knife edge on the blade tip running against a nickel-base abradable honey-comb stationary
outer strip. Figure 5-5 -compares the current outer air seal with the proposed configuration
described in the following paragraph.

A significant reduction of seal leakage can be achieved by adding an additional knife edge
seal to the blade tip, increasing the width of the honey comb strip, and altering the material
of the support ring from Hastelloy C to Hastelloy S to better match the thermal expansion
of the disk. The high-pressure turbine blade is aircooled through 11 radial holes discharging
out of the tip. Incorporation of an additional shroud knife edge and utilization of the spoiler
as a seal to improve outer airseal performance would restrict cooling flow in the first seven holes,
resulting in higher metal temperatures and a decrease in airfoil life. In order to maintain the
present cooling flow several revisions have been made to the airfoil cooling scheme. The
first four leading edge holes have been vented to the convex (suction) side of the foil and the
next three holes have been vented to the rear of the spoiler as shownin Figure 5-5. Increased
flow restriction due to the new cooling path through the blade is compensated by the de­
creased exit pressure, so that the flow rate and cooling capacity remain the same. Venting
of the cooling air to the suction side does, however, reduce flow to the tip region of the air­
foil and consequently increases its temperature. The increased tip metal temperature does
not reduce the life of the airfoil since it is still below the life limiting temperature.

Performance Substantiation

The revised seal configuration will provide leakage reduction as a function of radial seal clear­
ance as shown on Figure 5-6. This leakage reduction is achieved by the added sealing surfaces
provided by the second knife edge and use of the spoiler as a sealing surface, plus the change
of the support ring material. Seal operating clearance is established by adjusting the cold seal
clearance so that the knife edges and the honey comb just touch during the critical transient
condition. This condition occurs during deceleration from a stabilized sea level take-off
power to idle power, as shown on Figure 5-7. Cruise clearance between the knife edges and
the honey comb is 0.096 cm (0.038 in.) for the current seal configuration. The substitution
of Hastelloy S, with its reduced thermal coefficient of expansion, will permit reduction of
cruise clearance to 0.089 cm (0.035 in.).

42
 GASFLOW

VIEW A-A

CURRENT CONFIGURATION

Gas flow '

-0 a

Knife edges Honeycomb support ring

Honeycomb material

0\0

REVISED CONFIGURATION

Figure5-5 Comparisonof Current and Revised Outer Air Seal Configuration

43
 3.0
2.8 /

2.6 BI LL-OF-MATERIAL SEAL

2.4
O2.2

14.
1.4­
u1.2

LU0.8

0.6- REVISED
LSEAL WITH 2 KN IFE
EDGES + SPOILER AND HONEY
0.4 COMB

0.2
0 I I. I
.02 .050 .07 o100 .125 CM
L I I I I I
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 IN.
RADIAL SEAL CLEARANCE

Figure5-6 Comparisonof First-StageTurbine OuterAir Seal Leakage as a Function of

Clearancefor the JT8D-15 Engine
IN. CM
0.06 o.1

SNAP DECELERATION T N 1

0.12 MID-CRUISE
0.04 (CURRENT SEA Lr_

TSEAL MID CRUISE--.O

0.08 (REVISED SEAL)

L) 0.02
0.04 REVISED
-SEAL,

20 40 60 80 100
TIME (SECONDS)

Figure5-7 Pinch Curve for the JT8D-15 Engine with Currentand Revised OuterAir
Seals

44
Using these clearances and Figure 5-6, the following cruise clearances and leakages may be
tabulated for the current seal and the revised seal:

Cruise
Clearance Leakage
cm (in.) (%WAE)

Bill-of-Materials Seal 0.096(0.038) 2.45

Revised Seal 0.089(0.035) 1.40

Net Reduction in Leakage 1.05

An influence coefficient for leakage past the high-pressure turbine blade tip based on analysis
and past experience, may be stated as:

1% leakage reduction - 1% high-pressure turbine efficiency increase

On this basis, the 1.05 percent leakage reduction from Figure 5-6 translates into an efficiency
increase of 1.05 percent. However the discharge of about 50% of the blade cooling air on the
convex (suction) surface of the turbine blade results in a loss of momentum because of the
injection of the low-velocity cooling air into the relatively high-velocity gas stream. This
momentum loss is equivalent to a loss in high-pressure turbine efficiency of 0.24 percent.*
When these two effects are combined (+1.05 - 0.24), the net resulting improvement in
turbine efficiencyis 0.81 percent.

An increase in turbine efficiency increases the power available to drive the high-pressure
compressor. This increase in power results in an increased high-pressure compressor speed
and an accompanying increase in air flow and pressure ratio. These cycle improvements per­
mit a reduction in fuel flow for a given level of thrust. The combined effects were determined
by computer analysis, and are summarized in Table 5-11. These data are for standard day
cruise conditions at a representative altitude and Mach number for each aircraft type. Im­
provements in TSFC for other conditions for the two aircraft are also presented in Table 5-11.

* Subsequent investigation indicated that this analysis was pessimistic, since no credit was taken for the favorable mo
mentum effects of reducing the cooling flow discharged from the blade tip.

45
Another benefit of increased turbine efficiency is a reduction of the exhaust gas temperature
required to attain rated thrust. This effect results in an increase of the required shop-visit
interval and a slight increase in expected component life.

Economic Evaluation

Tables 5-11, 5-12, and 5-13 present the economic evaluation of the concept in terms of
engine performance data, airline costs, and fuel savings, respectively. In Table 5-11, the manu­
facturing cost of the revised HPT blade and OAS is increased due to the added manufactur­
ing steps for weld-plugging cooling passages and drilling intersecting holes on the blade. The
seal cost is increased due to the extension of honeycomb material under the spoiler.

TABLE 5-11
JT8D REVISED HPT COOLING AND OUTER AIR SEAL
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine
JT8D-15/17
TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 0 C
Takeoff .20 4
Climb .23 3
Cruise, Avg. .50
Hold 0
Weight Change, Kg (Lb) 0
Price Change, $ +7400
Kit Price, $ 10,500 (Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials +0.90
Labor @ $30 per Man-Hr. -0.95

Table 5-12 shows the concept to have acceptable PBP for new buys of both aircraft models.
It is acceptable for retrofit of only the newer (less than 3 years old) 727 models, but not
for DC9 models. Application to all acceptable aircraft would result in a cumulative fuel
saving of 341 million liters, as shown on Table 5-13.

46
 TABLE 5-12
JT8D REVISED HPT COOLING AND OUTER AIR SEAL
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 727-200 DC9-50

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year
Fuel -7,670 -4,000
Maintenance -386 -220
Block Speed Effect -1,050 -300
Total -9,100 -4,520
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines 22,200 32,500 14,650 21,000
Spare Engines 4,540 6,450 3,200 4,320
Spare Parts 8,700 11,250 5,740 7,480
Total 35,440 49,200 23,600 32,800
Payback Period, Years 3.9 5.4 5.2 7.3
DOC Change, % -0.1 -0.1

TABLE 5-13
JT8D REVISED HPT COOLING AND OUTER AIR SEAL
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.4

Start of Service Date 1-80
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 720 780 1500
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 liters (gal.) 189 (50) 151 (40) 340 (90)

5.2.3 JT8D HPT Root Discharge Blade

Concept Description
a mod­
The proposed JT8D high pressure turbine root discharge blade (Figure 5-8) employs
concept with the cooling flow being discharged
em improved effectiveness two-pass cooling
demon­
from the blade root into the downstream disk rim cavity, a concept which has been
the B/M once-through tip
strated successfully in a JT9D engine. This blade design replaces
is modified in the
discharge multi-holed cooling scheme (described in Section 5.2.2) which
suction
suction side vent scheme to discharge about 50% of the cooling air from the airfoil
tempera­
surface (Figure 5-8). The root discharge blade design maintains acceptable metal
tures with reduced cooling air flow.

47
 H view B

&AS FLOW

A K

V Ew A-A
ROOT DISCHARGE

SUCTION SIDE VLEf t

Figure5-8 Comparisonof Suction Side Vent and Root DischargeConfigurationsfor

JT8D-15/17HPTBlade

Because of the different blade internal core configuration, the root discharge blade requires
a completely new airfoil casting, which provides an opportunity to use updated materials
and casting technology to reduce the airfoil trailing edge (T.E.) thickness. At the same time,
some minor improvements in airfoil shape will be incorporated.

The blade tip sealing configuration of the root discharge blade is exactly the same as that

described in Section 5.2.2 for the JT8D Revised HiFT Cooling and Outer Air Seal, so that

no change in seal leakage is expected relative to that configuration.

Performance Substantiation

Table 5-14 summarizes the performance related characteristics of the root discharge relative
to the current blade and the suction side vent blade, which is part of the Revised HPT
Cooling and Outer Air Seal concept (Section 5.2.2).

48
 TABLE 5-14

JT8D HPT BLADE CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARY

Suction Root Disch.

Current Side Vent Blade

Seal Leakage, % Wae 2.45 1.28 1.28

3lade T.E. Thickness, in. 1.372(0.54) 1.372(0.54) 0.76(0.30)
Blade Cooling Disch. Location 100% Tip 50% Tip 100% Root
50% Suction Side
Blade Aero Design Base Base -Improved
Blade Cooling Flow, % Wae 1.5 1.5 1.0

Table 5-15 summarizes the turbine efficiency and TSFC improvements of the root discharge
blade relative to the suction side vent configuration. The 1.11% turbine efficiency improve­
ment shown converts to a 0.94% TSFC improvement when the cycle effects are included at
a typical cruise condition of 90% max cruise power at Mach 0.8 and 10,670 meters (35,000 feet).

TABLE 5-15
JT8D HPT BLADE ROOT DISCHARGE IMPROVEMENTS

An TSFC
Reduced T.E. Thickness +0.75 -0.50

Elimination of Suction Side Disch. +0.24 -0.16

Blade Aero Refinement +0.12 -0.08

Sub Total +1.11 -0.74

Cycle Effect of Cooling Flow Reduction -0.20

Total -0.94

Reduced T. E. Thickness - A large part of the performance improvement of the root dis­
charge blade is attributable to the reduced T. E. thickness. By redesigning the airfoil and
using updated materials and casting technology, the T. E. thickness can be reduced to 0.076
cm (0.030 in.), which is 55% of the B/M thickness. Figure 5-9 shows a correlation of airfoil
T. E. loss data with T. E. thickness. For comparison, a line representing 30% of the theore­
tical sudden expansion loss is superimposed. The data correlation indicates that the T. E.
loss of the redesigned JT8D blade will be reduced to about 30% of that of the B/M blade,
which is equivalent to a high pressure turbine efficiency improvement of 0.75 percentage
points.

49
 TABLE 5-17
JT8D HPT ROOT DISCHARGE BLADE
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 727-200 DC9-50

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year
Fuel -11,400 -7,400.
Maintenance -12,700 -7,080.
Block Speed Effect -1,050 -300.
Total -25,150 -14,780
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment (Attrition) (Attrition)
Changes, $
Installed Engines 0 0 0 0
Spare Engines 0 0 0 0
Spare Parts 0 0 0 0
Total 0 0 0 0
Payback Period, Years 0 0 0 0
DOC Change, % -0.3 -0.3

TABLE 5-18
JT8D HPT ROOT DISCHARGE BLADE
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, 'T 0.75

Start of Service Date 6-81
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 350 2320 2670
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 liters (gal) 144 (38) 836 (221) 980 (259)

52
5.2.4 DC-1O Improved Cabin Air System

Concept Description

The Environmental Control System in the DC-l0 provides conditioned air to the cabin. A
comfortable cabin environment requires temperature control and circulation. The tempera­
ture controlled air is provided by air-conditioning packs that are driven by engine bleed.
Studies indicate that the addition of recirculation loops in the cabin air distribution system
will allow a 50%reduction in the quantity of bleed air required from the engine. Reduc­
tion in bleed air results in a direct improvement in engine fuel consumption due to the de­
crease in pneumatic power extraction and a reduction in turbine inlet temperature which
decreases engine maintenance costs by prolonging the life of the engine hot section parts.
The implementation of this concept provides the additional benefit of decreasing the cabin
ozone content and improving the cabin relative humidity. Figure 5-10 is a schematic of the
modified system.

FWD CABIN ZONE MID CABIN ZONE AFT CABIN ZONE

FROM
AIR
- -
CYCLE
PACKS t

'' IP -- R E C IR C A I R

~FROM CABIN
C;HECK CHECK
VALVE FAN FILTER VALVE FAN FILTER

Figure5-10 RecirculationSystem Added to DCI 0 Environment ControlSystem to

Reduce Bleed Air Requirementsfrom JT9D Engines

53
Performance Substantiation

The recirculation system was evaluated by DAC under subcontract to P&WA. The evaluation
results were very favorable in applications on all DC-i 0 models powered by JT9D engines.

It was estimated that the recirculation system would increase the airplane operating empty
weight 84 Kg (185 lb). Engine cycle computer programs were used to calculate the change
in fuel consumption due to reducing bleed flow. It should be noted that the DC-i 0 cabin
air discharge system has a thrust recovery nozzle which minimizes the performance loss
from the cabin air conditioning system. This was accounted for in the calculations.

The improved system reduces engine air bleed by 1.47 Kg/sec (3.24 lb/sec), effecting an
installed equivalent TSFC improvement of 0.635 percent.

Economic Evaluation

Tables 5-19, 5-20, and 5-21 present the economic evaluation of the concept in terms of
engine data, airline costs, and fuel savings, respectively. There is a direct maintenance cost
increase due to the addition of the recirculating system, primarily for the cost of changing
filters. However, this is more than compensated for by the reduction in engine maintenance
cost because there is a decrease in takeoff and climb turbine inlet temperature when the
bleed flow is reduced. Retrofit of the modified system is considered economically practical
if done on a piecemeal basis.
TABLE 5-19
DC-1 0 IMPROVED CABIN AIR SYSTEM
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine
Performance: TSFC EGT
Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
Takeoff 0.51 4
Climb 0.79 4
Cruise, Avg. 0.64
Hold 0.58
Weight Change, Kg (lb)/Aircraft 84(185)
Price Change, $/Aircraft +37,000
Kit Price, S/Aircraft Same
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials +0.3
Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. -2.39

54
 TABLE 5-20
DC-1 0 IMPROVED CABIN AIR SYSTEM
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model DCI0-40

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year
Fuel -24,670
Maintenance -20,500
Block Speed Effect - 840
Total -46,010
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Systems +37,000
Spares 0
Spare Parts + 3,330
Total +40,330
Payback Period, Years 0.9
DOC Change, % -0,3

TABLE 5-21
DC-10 IMPROVED CABIN AIR SYSTEM
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.7

Start of Service Date 1-80
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Aircraft Affected 428 270 698
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters (Gal.) 2403 (635) 848'(224) 3251 (859)

5.2.5 DC-9 Nacelle Drag Reduction

Concept Description

The current and modified design of the aft part of the J.T8D installation on the DC-9 is
shown in Figure 5-1 1. The thrust reverser hinge assembly in the current configuration is
only partially faired, leaving a significant base area, as shown in the figure. The modified
configuration reduces the base area with a more complete fairing. The new fairing is made
pro­
of advanced composite materials which will tolerate the exhaust temperatures while
viding improved fatigue strength and lighter weight than the current aluminum fairing.
55
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY

CURRENT PRODUCTION MODIFIED

CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION

Figure5-11] Currentand Modified ExhaustNozzle and ReverserStangs of the Douglas

DC-9 Engine Installation

Performance Substantiation

The new reverser stang fairing effects a base area reduction of 260 sq. cm (40 sq. in.) per
airplane. Using the classical equation involving dynamic pressure and free stream relation­
ships (see Figure 5-12), an effective base area reduction of 0.012 sq. m. (0.13 sq. ft.) per.
airplane can be calculated. This base reduction translates to 0.5% of cruise drag, with
attendant fuel savings.

Economic Evaluation

Economic evaluations of the concept in terms of engine data, airline costs, and fuel savings
are presented in Table 5-22, 5-23, and 5-24 respectively.

56

 CURRENT FAIRING -.-- MODIFIED FAIRING

- O~4RI'ziqAL PAqG )4
OF POOR QM~

BASE AREA

REVERSER STANG

" .4­

\ BASE-AREA REDUCTION

DUE TO FAIRING OF 260 CM2

(40 IN2 ) PER AIRPLANE

BASE-AREA REDUCTION = 260 CM2 (40 IN2 ) PER AIRPLANE

1
BASE-DRAG COEFFICIENT = 0.25, AND EFFECTIVE q = 1 (qjet + q) - 1.82 qo(CRUISE)
2je
EFFECTIVE BASE AREA REDUCTION OF - D = 0.012 M2 (0.13 FT 2 ) PER AIRPLANE (CRUISE)
qc

=0.5% OF CRUISE DRAG

Figure5-12 Schematic DiagramofNacelle Base

TABLE 5-22
DC-9 NACELLE DRAG REDUCTION
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

Performance
TSFC EGT

Reduction, % Reduction, 'C

Takeoff
0 0
Climb 0.5 0

Cruise, Avg. 0.5

Hold
0.5

Weight Change, Kg (lb) Neg.

Price Change, $ 1350

Kit Price, $
1350*
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.

Materials
0
Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr.
* Subsequent check indicated that the kit price is higher than the nacelle price change.

57
 TABLE 5-22

DC-9 NACELLE DRAG REDUCTION

AIRLINE COSTS

Per Aircraft

Airplane Model DC9-50

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year
Fuel -4880
Maintenance 0
Block Speed Effect - 210
Total -5090
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit

Required Airline Investment

Changes, $
Installed Stangs 2700 2700
Spare Engines 0 0
Spare Parts 700 700
Total 3400 3400

Payback Period, Years 0.7 0.7

DOC Change, % -0.1

TABLE 5-23
DC-9 NACELLE DRAG REDUCTION
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.5

Start of Service Date 1-79
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total

No. of Engines Affected 399 1165 1564

Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters (Gal.) 117(31) 204(54) 322(85)

5.2.6 JT9D-7 3.8 AR Fan

Concept Description
with a modified fan exit
A lightweight single shroud 3.8 aspect ratio (AR) fan blade used Currently, the
guide vane has shown significant improvements in engine performance.
The improved blade is lower
JT9D-7 uses a high aspect ratio, two part span shroud blade.
shroud.
The proposed configura­
in aspect ratio, permitting elimination of one part span
the JT9D-7 fan blade and an earlier

tion was based on structural analysis conducted on for the lightweight

design information
and heavier 3.8 aspect ratio fan blade which provided
blade.

58
 The primary parts involved in the 3.8 AR fan improvement package include the fan blades,
hub, fan exit guide vanes, nose spinner, rubstrip assembly, and fan speed electronic trans­
mitter (see Figure 5-13).

- ORIGINAL PAGE 1,
I 11 OF POOR QUALITY
Fan blade -- 2
and hub 1 '

+'47

Spinner 4 ?'<V .

FEGV

Figure5-13 Changes in JT9D-7 Turbofan Engine Includes Fan Blades, Fan Exit Guide
Vanes and Spinner

Table 5-25 compares the parameters of the 3.8 AR blades with the 4.6 AR blades currently
used in the JT9D-7. The 3.8 AR fan blade has a longer chord and only one shroud. The 3.8
AR blades also employ a multiple circular arc airfoil cross section as opposed to the Bill-of-
Material J blade airfoil series.

The lightweight 3.8 AR blade benefitted from the structural analysis and test data taken
with the heavy 3.8 AR blade. As a result of improved structural analysis, the lightweight
3.8 AR blade is generally thinner and has a shorter chord in the middle of the blade as shown
in Figure 5-14. It can also be seen that the two blade root attachments differ slightly. Aero­
dynamic improvements include optimized blade incidence and choke margins and a revised
flow capacity.

59
 TABLE 5-25

SUMMARY OF 4.6 and 3.8 AR FAN BLADE FEATURES

4.6 AR 3.8 AR
(Current)

Blade Material AMS 4928 AMS 4928

Number of Blades 46 38

Airfoil Series J MCA

Root Chord Length, cm (in.) 15.32(6.030) 18.44(7.262)
Tip Chord Length, cm (in.) 19.66(7.740) 25.77(10.148)
Shroud Location 50 & 85% Span 68% Span

ORrGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUAITX

4.6 A/R 3.8 A/R 3.8 A/R

HEAVY WT. LIGHT WT.

Figure5-14 4.6 Aspect Ratio BIM Blade Shown with 3.8 AR Development Blades

60
Performance Substantiation

The heavy 3.8 AR fan blade employs a blade and hub combination which is too heavy for
practical application. However, tests of the heavy 3.8 AR blade showed increased efficiency
and flow capacity over the JT9D-7 blade (Figure 5-15). Based on the work with the heavy
3.8 AR blade, aerodynamic data was developed which contributed to the lightweight 3.8 as­
pect ratio blades. The lightweight 3.8 AR fan is designed to eliminate the excess flow capacity
so that the Bill-of-Material engine match and nozzle areas will not be affected.

The number of fan exit guide vanes (FEGV) must be greater than twice the number of fan
blades to minimize the propagation of discreet frequency noise by the blade-vane wake inter­
action. Since the 3.8 AR fan requires fewer blades than the B/M fan (46 to 38) it can meet
the noise requirements with fewer FEGV's (108 to 86). The vane chord and thickness are
dictated by vane vibration considerations, so when the number of vanes is reduced, the gap/
chord of the vane assembly is increased resulting in reduced aerodynamic blockage, which
reduces pressure loss, increases fan stage efficiency, and improves TSFC.

A pressure loss reduction of 0.2% in AP/P (Figure 5-16) has been conservatively assumed for
the 86 vane configuration which will be used with the lightweight 3.8 AR fan.

0
U.

U-

O~4G6AR FAN, TEST 1\

O 4.6 AR FAN,TEST2

rI I I I 1 " 1.
570 685 600 615 630 645 660 KG/SEC
I 1 I I I I I I I I I
1260 1280 1300 1320 1340 1360 1380 1400 1420 1440 1460 LB/SEC
FAN CORRECTED FLOW (DUCT)

Figure5-15 JT9D-7 Blade Performance

61
 BASE = 108 VANES (B/M
0

*-0.1

ASSUMED FOR PROPOSED CONFIGURATION

Z -0.2 0

z 0 0
-0.30
TEST DATA WITH 86 VANES

AND HEAVY 3.8 AR BLADES

-0.4 I I
600 615 630 645 660 KG/SEC

1320 1340 1360 1380 1400 1420 1440 1460 LB/SEC

FAN DUCT CORRECTED FLOW

Figure 5-16 Change in Fan Exit Guide Vane Loss

Economic Evaluation

The improved lightweight 3.8 AR fan blade performance is manifested in the overall engine
performance through a reduction in TSFC and a reductionin exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
as shown in Table 5-26. The reduced EGT leads to an increase in the time between shop
visits of about 170 hours which reduces the estimated labor cost per hour of engine operation.
The manufacturing cost of the 3.8 AR blade and hub assembly is increased over the Bill-of-
Material due to the increased size of the parts and tighter manufacturing tolerances. This
cost increase is partially offset by the reduction in the number of blades from 46 to 38. The
weight increase is due to the heavier wide chord blades and the increased hub depth.

The investment cost for the 3.8 AR fan in the new buy case is low compared to the annual
operating cost saving, resulting in a very favorable payback period of less than one year
(Table 5-27). The relatively high investment cost required for the retrofit case results in a
payback period which is larger than the maximum acceptable period (6 years), indicating
that the airlines would probably not retrofit the 3.8 AR fan to their existing engines.

If the lightweight 3.8 AR fan is applied to the projected deliveries of all JT9D-7 powered
airplanes, starting in 1980, a total savings of 2.7 billion liters of fuel will be realized (Table
5-28).

62
 TABLE 5-26
JT9D-7 3.8 AR FAN
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine
TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
Takeoff 0.6 3
Climb 2.1 7

Cruise, Avg. 1.3

Hold 0.6

Weight Change, Kg (Lb) +20(+45)

Price Change, $ +25,500

Kit Price, $ 300,600 (Non-Attrition)

Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.

Materials +0.20

Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. -3.10

TABLE 5-27
JT9D-7 3.8 AR FAN
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 747-200

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year

Fuel -126,360

Maintenance - 53,130

Block Speed Effect - 1,630

Total -181,120

Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit

Required Airline Investment

Changes, $

Installed Engines 102,000 1,202,400

Spare Engines 27,800 327,900

Spare Parts 27,500 149,100

Total 157,300 1,722,400

Payback Period, Years 0.9 9.6

DOC Change, % -0.8

63
 TABLE 5-28
JT9D-7 3.8 AR FAN
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 1.5

Start of Service Date 1-80
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 1050 0 1050
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters (Gal) 2725 (720) 0 2725 (720)

5.2.7 JT8D Trenched Tip HPC

Concept Description

The JT8D engine has relatively large high pressure compressor (HPC) blade tip clearances
to minimize the probability of blade tips rubbing the non-abradable shrouds. In-house pro­
grams have shown that reduction of these clearances can result in significant potential per­
formance gain, but with some loss in stability margin at high power conditions. These pro­
grains also indicate that the stability can be improved through the use of rim seals which
isolate the stator inner shroud cavities from the flowpath. A combination of longer blades,
trenched abradable tip shrouds, and simple rim seals, applied to all seven stages of the HPC,
was selected to obtain a performance improvement while maintaining adequate stability
margin and providing for practical retrofit in existing engines. The modifications are shown
in Figure 5-17.

The blades are lengthened sufficiently to achieve a line-on-line position with the flowpath
outer wall at the average cruise condition. The blade length increase is between 0.051 and
0.221 cm (0.020 and 0.087 in.) depending on the stage. The average increase is 0.114 cm
(0.045 in.), and is equivalent to 1 to 2 percent of the blade span.

The blade tip clearances required to accommodate the thermal growth and stress deflec­
tion differences between the rotor and shrouds, which are critical during transients, are
provided by trenches in the abradable rubstrips, as shown in Figure 5-17. The abradable
material could be fibrous metal like that used in current JT9D engines, or an advanced
material such as nichrome-polyester for reduced cost and improved erosion resistance.

Previous testing of the JT8D HPC with blade tip clearances reduced by an average of 0.086
cm (0.034 in.) showed an efficiency improvement of 2%, but the high speed stall margin
was significantly reduced as shown on Figure 5-18. This rig test was run without trenched
or abradable tip shrouds, so special precautions were required to minimize transient effects
and avoid blade tip rubs.

64
The loss of high speed surge margin is believed to result from improved OD pumping capa­
bility with the tigher tip clearances, which takes flow away from the airfoil root sections.
The reduced root flow lads to a thicker boundary layer, which results in reduced stall tol­
erance especially in the stators. The root flow can be strengthened and stabilized by isolating
the disturbing effects of the stator ID shroud cavities from the flowpath. The selected
configuration uses a simple seal ring extension on the front side of each stator ID shroud.
These seals mate with the ID surface of the blade platforms, (see.Figurc 5-17). A similar seal
at the rear side of each stator shroud would provide some additional improvement, but not
enough to justify the extensive modifications required in the blades, disks, and stator shrouds.

Performance Substantiation

An efficiency improvement of 2% with no loss of surge margin is predicted for the modified
HPC design. This prediction is based on the reduced tip clearance test of the JT8D HPC
described above, and the results of a 3-stage research rig test program. The rig was run with
smooth walls over the blade tips, and with two different trench configurations over the tips,
as shown on Figure 5-19. The efficiency variation presented on Figure 5-20 was obtained by
changing the tip clearances in this rig, which shows both higher efficiency and reduced sen­
sitivity to clearance with the trenched configuration. Based on these results, it is estimated
that the efficiency improvement of 2% shown on Figure 5-18 can be maintained when realis­
tic tip clearances are pi-ovided in the JT8D HPC with trenches in abradable rubstrips. It is
also predicted that the surge margin loss shown on Figure 5-18 will be recovered by use of
rim seals with a minimum requirement for stage rematching.

Added rim seal

(all 7 stages)

i - Rotor

Longer

blades

Trenched abradable Current Stators

rubstrip (all 7 stages)

Figure5-17 StatorandRotorModifications
65
 2%

6.0 *~.C
5.8 -. ) -900
S8,000 900
5.6 I 10% 80!

. L I 10,0

= /
5.2 10,000

5 .0
6,000w
6,0001STALL
' PERATING
LINE- . LINE

4.8 _U STALL LINE

46 /
4.2- ,44
42

4.0 - BILLOF MATERIALTIP CLEARANCE

REDUCED TIP CLEARANCE

3.8

cr 3A.-
LU

=' 3.10000 I

1.0
3.19,000

28

2.6-Z0,4

2.4­

2.2­

1.8 -~ I 7,000
6,000
1.6
1.4 I \I II
10 15 20 25 KG/SEC

1I I I I I I I I I I
10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 50 54 LB/SEC
CORRECTED AIRFLOW

Figure5-18 Results of HPCTest Rig Results ComparingBIM and LongerBlase Data

66
 CLEARANCE

-BASE 4
SMOOTH WALL

CLEARANCE

CYLINDRICAL
TRENCH

CLEARANCE

CONICAL
TRENCH

Figure5-19 Three-Stage CompressorRotor Tip Configuration

LINE ON LINE OVER A TRENCH

L-

1%
< I SMOOTH WALL
L)
z

INCREASING CLEARANCE

Figure 5-20 Three-Stage CompressorTest Results

67
 Economic Evaluation

The projected HPC efficiency improvement of 2% results in an engine TSFC improvement

of 0.9% and an EGT reduction of 80 C, as shown on Table 5-29. The reduced EGT leads to
an increase in the time between shop visits of about 280 hours which reduces the estimated
labor cost per hours of engine operation. The manufacturing cost of the stator assembly is
increased because of the changed shroud, requiring machining of a cavity to accept the abrad­
able material rubstrip. The retrofit cost (kit price) reflects the required purchase of new vane/
shroud assembly as well as a set of new (longer) blades.

TABLE 5-29
JT8D TRENCHED TIP HPC
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

TSFC EGT

Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C

Takeoff 0.9 8

Climb 0.9 8

Cruise, Avg. 0.9

Hold 1.4

Weight Change, Kg (lb) 0

Price Change, S 10,000

Kit Price, S 43,000 (Non-attrition)

Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.

Materials 0

Labor @ $30 per Man-Hr. -1.90

Table 5-30 shows the payback period to be acceptable for new buys of both airplanes, margin­
ally acceptable for 727 retrofit, and unacceptable for DC-9 retrofit. If this concept is applied
to projected deliveries of JT8D engines beginning in March 1981, and retrofitted in 727
installations that are 6 or less years in age beginning on the same date, a total of 1.0 billion
liters of fuel will be saved by the year 1990 (Table 5-31).

68
 TABLE 5-30

JT8D TRENCHED TIP HPC

AIRLINE COSTS

Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 727-200 DC9-50

Operating Cost Changes, $/Year
Fuel -14,650 -9,480

Maintenance -14,930
-8,300

Block Speed Effect -1,870 z650

Total -31,450 48,430

Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
changes, $
Installed Engines +30,000 +129,000 +20,000 +86,000
Spare Engines +6,150 +26,450 +5,300 +22i790
Spare Parts +900 3,870 +600 +2,580
Total +37,050 +159,320 +25,900 +111,370
Payback Period, Years 1.2 5.0 1.4 6.0
DOC Change, % -0.4 -0.4

TABLE 5-31
JT8D TRENCHED TIP HPC
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 1.0

Start of Service Date 8-81
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 560 1660 2220
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 liters (gal.) 310 (82) 723 (191) 1033 (273)

69
 5.2.8 JT9D Trenched Tip HPC

Concept Description

The JT9D engine is believed to have relatively large blade tip running clearances in the last
five stages of the high pressure compressor. The use of a trenched tip configuration employ­
ing available abradable outer air seal material and a modification to the criteria for setting
blade tip and outer air seal diameters permits the use of tight running clearances, resulting
in improvements in efficiency and TSFC.

P&WA's experience with a three-stage research compressor rig (Figure 5-20) was discussed
previously under Section 5.2.7, JT8D Trenched Tip HPC, and is the basis for the HPC de­
sign. The low speed rig tests have shown a potential compressor efficiency improvement
with outer case wall trenches providing the clearance over the rotor tips rather than a gap
between a smooth wall and the rotor tip.

Figure 5-21 and 5-22 illustrate the details of the revised blade rub strips. The blade rub strip ID
surfaces are recessed slightly into the flowpath outer wall. Longer high pressure compressor
blades are used so the rotor tip maintains a line-on-line position with the gas path outer wall
at the average cruise condition.

Figure5-21 Revised Blade Rub Strip Configuration

70
 B/M BLADE COLD

REVISED BLADE LENGTHFM

ABRADABLE MATERIAL

REVISED BLADE POSITION AT CRUISE

Figure5-22 Blade andRubstrip Relationships

Figure 5-23 shows the location of the five stages that will be modified. These stages will
respond most effectively to change in rub strip design since they are the shortest and any
given tip clearance or change in tip clearance affects a greater percentage of the total flow.
In addition, these stages have cylindrical or almost cylindrical endwalls over the blade tip
which seem to react more favorably to this endwall design concept.

T TRENCHED

TIP ST ss

Figure5-23 JT9D Engine Layout Showing Affected HPCStages

71
Performance Substantiation

The internally funded three-stage compressor research rig has been used to investigate a
variety of parameters relating to compressor blade tip clearance effects on compressor
efficiency as described in Section 5.2.7. Based on this work an optimum configuration and
tip clearance has been selected and will be used to improve the JT9D HPC efficiency about
0.7 percentage points.

The following maximum potential benefits for incorporating longer blades and trenched
rotors in the rear five stages of the JT9D HPC were estimated analytically.

Model A HPC Flow Capacity A HPC Efficiency A TSFC

D-7 +1.6% +0.92% -0.4%

D-70/59 +1.3% +0.70% -0.3%

This analysis assumes blade tips are running line on line with the flowpath O.D. wall, and
that the shroud trenches are as previously described.

The following trade factors were used in the above analysis:

+1%in HPC efficiency results in -0.5% TSFC

+1%in HPC flow capacity results in +0.05% TSFC

The HPC efficiency trade factor results from cycle studies, whereas the flow capacity factor
is derived from experimental engine testing data.

Surge margin or stability is not expected to be affected by the tip trenching. Through past
rig and engine testing and analysis it has been determined that blade root sections in the
HPC mid stages are critical concerning stall margin. The increased flow required by stages 11
through 15 will pull more flow through these root sections, thereby improving stall margin
of the mid stages. Similarily, it has been determined that the rear stages are tip sensitive
regarding stall margin so that incorporating the longer blades in these stages will also improve
stall margin. The increased flow may require slight changes in the front stage variable vane
settings. The predicted overall result of the proposed changes is no change to stall margin or
stability.

Economic Evaluation
The maximum potential benefits estimated for the concept were reduced to the TSFC
values shown on Table 5-32 to allow for production variations in blade tip diameter and
in trench width and position. The cost and weight impact is small because the separate rub­
strip arrangement of the JT9D HPC can be modified easily to accommodate the trenches,
and the longer blades can be incorporated on an attrition basis in existing engines. As a
result, the payback period is less than one year in both new buy and retrofit cases, as shown
in Table 5-33. Applying the concept in all engines starting in 1981 will result in a cumula­
tive fuel saving of over 1.8 billion liters, as shown in Table 5-34.

72
 TABLE 5-32
JT9D TRENCHED TIP HPC
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

TSFC
EGT

Performance Reduction, % Reduction, 'C

-7 -70/59
Takeoff
0.3 0.25 3
Climb
0.3 0.25 3
Cruise, Avg.
0.3 0.25
Hold
0.3 0.25
Wt. Change, Kg (Ib) 0 0
Price Change, $ +1,000 +1,000
Kit Price, $ +8,300 +1,800 (Attrition)
Maintenance Cost, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials 0 0
Labor @ $30 per Man-Hr. -1.94 -1.76

TABLE 5-33
JT9D TRENCHED TIP HPC
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft
Airplane Model 747-200 DC-10-40
Operating Cost Changes, S/Yr.: -7 -59/70
-59/70
Fuel -27,300 -24,030
-9,190
Maintenance -35,510 -32,220
-18,120
Block Speed Effect -175 -80 -215
Total -62,985 -56,330 -27,525
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
-7 &-70/59 -7 -70/59 -70/59 -70/59
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines +4,000 +33,180 +7,190 +3,000 +5,400
Spare Engines +1,090 +9,065 +1,965 +690 +1,235
Spare Parts +180 +1,500 +325 +135 +240
Total +5,270 +43,745 +9,480 +3,825 +6,875
Payback Period, Year 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.3

DOC Change, % -0.3 - - -0.2 ­

73
 TABLE 3-34
JT9D TRENCHED TIP HPC

FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.35

Start of Service Date 3-81 (-7), 6-81 (-70/59)
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected -7 910 1940 2855
-70/59 825 400 1225
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters (Gal.) -7 541 (143) 518 (137) 1059 (280)

-70/59 530 (140) 276 (73) 806 (213)

Total 1865 (493)

5.2.9 JT9D 16-Strut Intermediate Case

Concept Description

The intermediate case is a major structural case in the JT9D engine, located between the low
pressure and high pressure compressors. It supports the thrust bearings for both engine rotors
and contains the towershaft assembly which provides power to drive the engine and airframe
accessories. It has eight structural struts which span the airflow path immediately behind the
low pressure compressor (LPC).

In this concept, the number of struts has been increased and the thickness of each strut
decreased (as shown in Figure 5-24) to reduce the strength of the flow disturbances prop­
agated upstream into the LPC. The reduced flow disturbances will improve the stability of
the LPC, allowing the LPC operating line to be raised while maintaining adequate surge
margin. The high pressure turbine nozzle flow area must be increased 7.5 percent and the
low pressure turbine nozzle flow area must be decreased 7.5 percent to raise the LPC operat­
ing line. These nozzle area changes are large enough to cause significant changes in the inci­
dence angles on the turbine airfoils which will affect the turbine efficiencies.

74
 U V

TOPSTRUT BTOSR= / 8 STRUTS EQSp

PRPSDCONCEPT

1 STRUTS EQ SP.
EOTTOMS

-~FRONT VIEW OF PROPOSED

STRUT5.SRUS4E(S

INTERMEDIATE CASE

Figure 5-24 Sketch ofJTgD-70 BIM IntermediateCase and ProposedModified Configura­

tion

A prototype intermediate case was fabricated in 1977 to simulate the aerodynamic effects
of the proposed design. The prototype has a non-structural "dummy" strut between each of
the eight struts in the B]M case, resulting in a total of 16 struts. An analysis of the wake in­
teractions with the compressor blades indicates a resonance vibration with the HPC first
stage that falls within the operating speed range of the rotor. This resonance is acceptable in
an experimental engine, allowing the prototype case to be used to explore tihe aerodynamic
performiance and stability aspects of the concept. Preliminary design work has been done on
a 15 strut case design which eliminates the resonance vibration problem, making it structur­
lly acceptable in production engines.

Performance Substantiation

The low pressure compressor (LPC) feels a reduced back-pressure effect from the reduced
thickness struts in the 16 strut intermediate case. This improves the stability of the LPC to
the extent that the engine operating line for the LPC can be raised about 8 percent. The
higher operating line means a higher pressure ratio at a given flow and corrected speed and
also moves the LPC into a region of higher efficiency.

75
 The reduced thickness struts of the 16 strut intermediate case do not affect the stability .
of the high pressure compressor (HPC), therefore no increase in HPC operating line is pos­
sible. Since the pressure ratio of the LPC is higher at the same flow, the exit corrected flow
from the LPC (inlet corrected flow to the HPC) is smaller, thus creating a downward shift in
pressure ratio and corrected speed in the HPC to maintain the same operating line. This may
cause a change in efficiency of the HPC depending upon where the HPC was operating
relative to its efficiency islands. In most compressors, a downward shift along the operating
line at high power output would tend to increase the compressor efficiency, but at low
power output it would tend to lower the compressor efficiency.

This rem atching of the pressure ratio and corrected flow between the LPC and the HPC is
accomplished by changing the inlet nozzle flow areas of the high pressure and the low pres­
sure turbines. In this instance the nozzle area of the high pressure turbine must be increased
about 7.5 percent while the inlet nozzle area to the low pressure turbine must be decreased
about 7.5 percent.

Engine performance was calculated using an engine simulation performance deck with repre­
sentative LPC and HPC performance maps. Using the turbine nozzle area changes previously
quoted, a significant improvement in LPC efficiency and a somewhat smaller improvement
in HPC efficiency were predicted. At lower power levels, these improvements in efficiency

were smaller. The net effect of these efficiency changes is an estimated reduction of 0.9

cruise TSFC.

Since the above evaluation was completed, the modified intermediate case has been studied
further for possible application to an advanced model of the JT9D. This effort revealed the
possibility of a turbine efficiency penalty resulting from the turbine nozzle area changes
needed to rematch the low pressure compressor to a higher operating line. When rematching
an engine in this manner, the expansion ratio of the high pressure turbine is reduced, in
keeping with the lower pressure ratio and reduced work requirements of the HPC.The re­
duced expansion ratio and the opened up (increased area) nozzle both tend to result in inter­
nal mismatching and increased incidences in the high pressure turbine which results in the
lower efficiency. This penalty would reduce the engine performance improvement of the
concept to near zero, as indicated by the "most likely" entry in the risk assessment summarized
in the beginning of Section 5.2.

A redesign of the high pressure turbine might eliminate most, if not all, of the loss in turbine
efficiency thus attaining the original ATSFC estimate. This estimate is carried as the "best"
that could be expected. But a turbine redesign would be very expensive and could add to
the cost increase of the concept although this was not done in the economic evaluation.

A "worst" case, which completes a normal distribution with the "best" and "most likely"

values, results in increased fuel consumption. Since only the "best" case is economically ac­
ceptable based on the new buy payback period criteria, the possibility of achieving a fleet

fuel saving with the modified intermediate case appears unlikely, making it a poor candidate

for the follow-on ECI-PI program.

76
Economic Evaluation
Table 5-35 summarizes the effects of the 16 strut intermediate case on the JT9D engine.
The performance shown in this table is the "best" case described above, but the other ef­
fects are based on the assumption that only the intermediate case is modified. The modified
intermediate case is slightly heavier, and it results in an engine price increase because of the
increased labor and material cost associated with the increased number of struts. The main­
tenance material cost does not increase, however, because the intermediate case is not norm­
ally replaced during the life.of the engine. The maintenance labor cost reduction is a result
of the EGT reduction, which improves the time between shop visits.

TABLE 5-35
JT9D 16-STRUT INTERMEDIATE CASE
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

TSFC EGT

Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C

-7, -70/59

Takeoff 0.9 9
Climb 0.9 9
Cruise, Avg. 0.9
Hold
Weight Change, Kg (lb) +7 (+15)
Price Change, $ +11,750
Kit Price, $ 221470 (-7), 227560 (-59/70) (Non Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials 0
Labor @ $30 per Man-Hr. -5.62

Table 5-36 summarizes the change in costs to the airline operator which would result from
incorporating the modified intermediate case. Annual operating cost changes and required
airline investment are shown on a per airplane basis for the Douglas DC1 0 and two models
of the Boeing 747 (JT9D-7 and JT9D-70 powered).

The new buy payback period is less than one year in all cases, which means that the concept
would be an excellent investment for the airlines. The retrofit payback period is greater than
the maximum acceptable value of 6 years in each case, which means that airline operators
would probably not retrofit this concept.

77
 Table 5-37 shows the worldwide fleet fuel savings that could be realized if the modified
intermediate case were introduced into all applications entering service between mid-1982
(the estimated earliest date that it could be available) and 1990. According to the market
projection used in the study, 740 engines of each model will enter service in this time
period, and the cumulative fuel saving through the year 1990 would be 2.8 billion liters
with the modified case.

TABLE 5-36
JT9D 16-STRUT INTERMEDIATE CASE
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 747-200 DC 10-40

Operating Cost Changes. S/Year
-7 -70/59 -70/59
Fuel - 86000 -91900 -36200
Maintenance -102500 -102800 -57800
Block Speed Effect - 360 - 500 - 700
Total -188860 -195200 -94700
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
-7&-70/59 -7 -70/59 -70/59 -70/59
Installed Engines +47000 + 885,900 + 909,800 +35,250 +682,400
Spare Engines +12800 + 241,800 + 248,300 + 8,100 +156.800
Spare Parts + 2100 + 39.900 + 41,000 + 1.600 + 31,000
Total +61900 +1167.600 +1199100 +44,950 +870,200
Payback Period, Years 0.3 6.2 6.1 0.5 9.2
DOC Change, % -0.9 -09

TABLE 5-37
JT9D 16-STRUT INTERMEDIATE CASE

FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved. %X I1

Start of Service Date 6-82
New Buy Retrofit Total
Investment Type
-7 740 00 740
740
-70/59 740
No. of Engines Affected
-7 1415 (374) 0 1415 (374)
00 1415(374)
Cum. Fuel Saved 106 Liters (Gal) -7
_70/59 1415 (374)
1415 (374) 1415 (374)

2830 (748)

78
 ORIGcNAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALJ~y
5.2.10 JT9D Thermal Barrier Coating

Concept Description

To provide adequate cooling of the platform as well as the vane airfoil in JT9D high pressure
turbines, cooling air holes are drilled in the surface of the platform to provide a film of cool­
ing air, from an internal cavity source to flow along the platform surface. The drilling of
many small surface holes is very expensive and the use of compressor bleed air for cooling
increases engine fuel consumption. With the development of improved durability thermal
barrier coatings, the insulating property of the coating can be used to reduce the transfer
of heat to the vane platform and permit elimination or reduction of the film cooling holes,
a reduction in cooling airflow and a reduction in vane fabrication costs (Figure 5-25). Use of
this vane will provide savings in fuel at no increase in engine production cost.

Figure 5-25 Bill of MaterialsTurbine Vane (Left) and Thermal BarrierCoated Turbine
Vane Platform(Right) - Use ofa thermal barriercoatingpermits elimin­
ation of platform cooling holes.

Thermal Barrier Coating Systems

Current state-of-the-art thermal barrier coating systems of which the microstructure is

shown in Figure 5-26, consist of a plasma sprayed insulative ceramic layer applied over an

oxidation resistant metaUic coating. A second coating system uses electron beam evapora­
tion/physical vapor deposition (EB/PVD) coatings, also applied over an oxidation resistant

79
 metallic coating. The metallic sublayer must be capable of providing a protective adherent
oxide seal to inhibit oxidation of the superalloy substrate since the ceramic is not a good
oxygen barrier. Also, the sublayer adherent oxide scale provides a satisfactory surface for
bonding the ceramic layer to the component. The most promising protective sublayers
consist of ductile (Ni, Co) CrAlY alloys. Available thermal fatigue data indicate that stab­
ilized zirconia is the best available ceramic for advanced airfoil thermal barrier coating ap­
plications.

YTTRIA STABILIZED
ZIRCONIA (PLASMA
SPRAYED)

CoCrAIY (PLASMA SPRAYED)

CoCrAIY (EB/PVDI

... .PWA 647

Figure5-26 ScanningElectron Microscope Photographof CoCrAlY Applied by Plasma

Sprayingplus Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia ThermalBarrierCoatingSystem -
This system representsthe currentstate-of-the-art of thermal barriercoatings.

Performance Substantiation

Thermal barrier coatings of 0.0254 cm (0.010 in.) thickness have been tested on vane plat­
forms in a number of engines over the past few years. Tests have been conducted on first
stage vane platforms in a TF30-P- 100 engine and a JT9D development engine. In both tests
after less than 100 hours, minor coating spallation occurred.

Figure 5-27 shows the thermal barrier coated platforms of the first vane of a JT9D-TF
experimental engine after 160 hours (1025 cycles) engine operation. Currently, the vanes
with the thermal barrier coated platforms have accumulated 310 hours (2025 cycles) with
moderate coating spallation.

OIG&GAL PAGE rs
't P ns)8QUALTrPy
 0)NO

Figure5-27 JT9D-7FFirst-Stage Turbine Vanes With ThermalBarner Coating- These

vanes completed 160 hoursand 1025 cycles of engine testing.

Coated JT9D-70 second stage platforms are also being tested and have exhibited minor
spalling after 337 hours (2455 cycles). In both the JT9D-7F and JT9D-70 tests, spalling
initiated along the edges of the platforms at the acute-angle corners and at "hot spots"
along the edges.

Limited success was demonstrated with NASA and P&WA plasma sprayed thermal barrier
coatings on the first stage turbine blades of an experimental JT9D-7E engine during a 264
hour (1424 cycles) endurance test (Figure 5-28). Ceramic layer failures (spalling) were
limited to the highest temperature locations; i.e., the leading edge and about one third of
the pressure (concave) side of the airfoil. The thermal barrier coatings were intact at other
locations on the airfoils and the platforms after the engine testing. The successful perform­
ance of the coatings on the blade platforms may be partially attributable to the fact that the
ceramic layers were relatively thin (0.0127 cm, or 5 mils).

81
 Figure5-28 JT9D-7E First-StageTurbine Blades With ThermalBarrierCoating- After
264 hours, 1424 cycle endurance test, spalling occurredin the high-tempera­
ture regions of the blades.

The thermal fatigue durability of plasma sprayed and EB/PVD Yttria stabilized Zirconia
thermal barrier coating systems are demonstrated by the test specimens in Figure 5-29. The
specimens were thermally cycled in an 1010°C (1850 0 F) hot rig. The thermal cycles consist
of four (4) minutes hot and two (2) minutes forced air cooled.

Improved thermal stress durability is sought compared to current plasma sprayed coatings
for JT9D-70 turbine vane platform applications. Spallation resistant thermal barrier ceramic
layers can be achieved from the development of microcracked or segmented ceramic struc­
tures which accommodate ceramic-metal thermal expansion mismatch and thermal strains
by free expansion into small gaps between segments. Decreasing the segment diameter also
reduces the stress at the ceramic-metal interface (Figure 5-30). EB/PVD coatings may pro­
vide further improvement in thermal stress durability.

Thermal barrier coatings on the vane platforms have a small potential for improving turbine
efficiency but the reduction in cooling flow has a significant effect on cycle efficiency and
TSFC improvement. A much larger potential improvement in turbine efficiency, cycle
efficiency and TSFC is possible when thermal barrier coatings applied to vane and blade
airfoil surfaces are developed to have durability characteristics that are satisfactory.

82
 SPECIMEN A SPECIMEN B SPECIMEN C SHOWN ACTUAL SIZE

Specimen A Specimen B Specimen C

Coating Process Plasma Sprayed Plasma Sprayed EB/PVD

Ceramic Layer
Material Yttria Stabilized Zirconia
Thickness, cm (in.) 0.0254 (0.010) 0.0127 (0.005) 0.0152 (0.006)

Oxidation Resistant Layer

Material NiCoCrA1Y NiCoCrA1Y NiCoCrA1Y
Thickness, cm (in.) 0.0127 (0.005) 0.0127 (0.005) 0.0127 (0.005)

Cycles to Initiate Spalling 40 140 >140

Total Cycles Tested 40 1210 >1210

Figure 5-29 ThermalFatigueDurability Test Specimens After Test - These specimens

demonstrate typicalresultsfor plasma sprayed and electron beam physical
vapor deposition thermalbarriercoatings.

83
 1.0

Relative
interface
stress
0.5

Contant ceic layer t~tkness

0

Decreasing ceramic segment diameter

Figure5-30 Effect of Segment Size on Interface Stress.

The elimination of vane platform film cooling holes is made possible by the insulation prop­
erties of thermal barrier coatings which reduce the transfer of heat to the vane platforms.
This allows the vane platform cooling configuration to be redesigned for the same metal
temperatures with fewer or complete elimination of film cooling holes while requiring
less cooling flow. This eliminates or reduces the momentum loss which occurs when the low
momentum film cooling air is introduced into the high velocity main gas stream and results
in a turbine efficiency improvement of 0.09 percentage points.

A further TSFC improvement results from the engine cycle effect of reducing the vane
platform cooling flow by 1.6 percent of the gas generator flow. The estimated effect is
based on no change in the turbine nozzle flow areas which results in a small shift in com­
ponent matching.

Economic Evaluation

Tables 5-38, 5-39 and 5-40 provide the economic evaluation relating to engine data, airline
costs, and fuel savings for the JT9D high pressure turbine thermal barrier coatings. The
engine data in Table 5-38 shows reduction in cooling flow provides a performance and EGT
benefit. The elimination of the cooling holes reduces the cost to manufacture the vanes
and hence their price. The price change is greatest in the more complex and expensive
-59/70 vanes. Engine maintenance is reduced by the EGT reduction and the reduction in
the price of the vanes. Since both the first cost and the annual costs are reduced, PBP be­
comes instantaneous, indicating a very attractive economic situation, exceeding all criteria
for acceptance. The performance improvement would impact over 4,000 engines between
1982 and 1990 and result in a combined fuel saving of 980 million liters.

84
 TABLE 5-38
JT9D THERMAL BARRIER COATING
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
0.17 2
Takeoff
0.17 2
Climb
Cruise, Avg. 0.17
Hold 0.17
Weight Change, Kg (lb) 0
-7 -70/59
Price Change, $ -5,500 -35,000
Kit Price, $ -6,300 -32,200 (Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials - 0 -1.35
Labor @$30 Per Man-Hr. -1.10 -1.10

TABLE 5-39
JT9D THERMAL BARRIER COATING

AIRLINE COSTS

Per Aircraft

Airline Model 747-200 DC1O-40

Operating Cost Changes, $/Year -7 -70/59 -70/59

Fuel -16,135 -17,330 -6,990

Maintenance -20,100 -44,840 -25,220
Block Speed Effect 0 0 0
Total -36,235 -62,170 -32,210
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New-Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $ -7 -70/59 -7 -70/59 . -70/59 .70/59

Installed Engines -22,000 -140,000 -25,300 -128,800 -105,000 --96,600

SpareEngines -6,000 -38,220 -6,900 -35,160 -24,150 -22,220

Spare Parts -4,400 -28,000 -5,000 -25,760 -21,000 -19,320
Total -32,400 -206,220 -37,200 -189,720 -150,150 -138,140
Payback Period, Years 0 0 0 0 0 0
DOC Change, % -0.3 -0.3 -0.3

85
 TABLE 5-40
JT9D THERMAL BARRIER COATING
FUEL SAVINGS
Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.2
Start of Service Date 1-82
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected -7 810 2,075 2,885
-70/59 810 460 1,270
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters -7 280 (74) 295 (78) 575 (152)
(Gal.) -70/59 280 (74) 125 (33) 405 (107
Total 980 (259)

5.2.11 JT9D-70/59 4.2 AR Fan

Concept Description

Although it would have been desirable to use the tested 3.8 AR fan blade as the new single
shrouded blade for the JT9D-70/59, the weight and resulting gyroscopic loads and unbalance
loads in the event of a blade loss introduced by the 3.8 AR blade made its application
impractical. As a result the slightly more aggressive 4.2 AR fan blade was selected. However,
the same design system and the results from the 3.8 AR fan blade tests were used as the basis
to establish the details for the 4.2 AR fan blade, since the 4.2 AR fan also uses a single shroud.

Table 5-41 shows the 4.2 AR fan blade features as compared to the JT9D-70 Bill of Material
and the 3.8 AR fan for the JT9D-7.

TABLE 5-41
FAN BLADE FEATURES

Features JT9D-70 B/M JT9D-70 Proposed JT9D-7 3.8 AR

Aspect Ratio 4.6 4.2 3.8

Number of Blades 46 42 38

Root Chord, cm (in) 15.34 (6.04) 17.97 (7.076) 18.41 (7.25)

Tip Chord, cm (in) 21.71 (8.55) 23.70 (9.33) 25.80 (10.16)

Thickness ratio, 0.070 0.078 0.0909

Thickness ratio, 0.024 0.020 0.020

Hub/tip ratio .4125 .4064

.398
Shroud Location 55 & 85% 70% 68%

Airfoil Series MCA* MCA* MCA*

*Multiple Circular Arc.

86
As shown in the table the 4.2 AR blade geometry is similar to the successful performing 3.8
AR fan blade tested in the JT9D-7. Development modifications are expected to be minimal
to the blade.

Although the 4.2 AR fan design is more aggressive structurally than the 3.8 AR fan, the de­
viation in the design from the 3.8 AR fan is not felt to be large enough to reduce the confi­
dence in the expected success of the 4.2 AR fan program.

The number of airfoils in the FEGV is primarily set by a noise criteria. In the JT9D-7 with
46 blades the criteria dictated 108 FEGV's. The JT9D-7059 which was designed after the
D-7 employed a slightly more aggressive noise posture and utilized 96 FEGV's with the orig­
inal 46 fan blades. With ie change to 42 blades a correspondingly aggressive posture would
result in 88 FEGV's. The gain in performance in going from 96 vanes to 88 was considered
too small to warrant the fabrication of new fan exit guide vane assemblies.

The parts involved in the 4.2 AR fan change are shown in Figure 5-31 and include the fan
blades, hub, spinner support, and fan blade rup strip. Changes to the fan case and fan exit
guide vane case may be necessary depending on results of a blade containment study.

FAN EXIT GUIDE VANE CASE

FAN BLADES .M.1

ANDHUB., . , ,

,,,
_7 1
Ii 'I I \
SPINNER SUPPORT 31 '-- .

FAN BLADE
RUB STRIP
FAN
CASE

Figure 5-31 JTDD-70/59 PartsAffected by FanBlade Change

87
 Performance Substantiation

As mentioned earlier, the design system and test results from the 3.8 AR fan blade were used
to establish the details for the 4.2 AR fan blade. Figure 5-32 shows that the 4.2 AR fan has
a higher estimated efficiency than the B/M 4.6 AR fan, resulting in improved TSFC.

The fan airflow and pressure ratio capabilities at a given speed are slightly higher for the 4.2
AR fan compared to the Bill-of Material 4.6 AR fan. However, both parameters are increased
proportionally so the fan operating line (pressure ratio vs airflow) is unchanged.

)" S POINTS

U­

4 6 AR FAN
- -- 42ARFAN

600 610 620 630 640 660 660 KG/SEC

I I I I I I I I I
1300 1320 1340 1360 1380 1400 1420 1440 1460 LB/SEC

CORRECTED FAN AIRFLOW

Figure 5-32 Predicted4.2 AR FanBlade Performance

Economic Evaluation

The engine data shown in Table 5-42 indicate the effect of improved 4.2 AR fan blade
performance on TSFC and EGT. The reduced EGT results in a decrease in the frequency of
shop visits of about 260 hours which reduces the estimated labor cost per hour of engine
operation. The price of each blade is increased due to the increased cost to manufacture the
larger blade, an increase more than offset by the reduction in the.number of blades from
46 to 42, resulting in a net decrease in engine price. The increased weight is due to the
heavier wide chord blades and the increased hub depth.

Payback periods for new buy cases appear very attractive as shown in Table 5-43. The retro­
fit case, however, is unattractive due to the large investment required to install the 4.2 AR
blades in engines currently having 4.6 AR blades making it unlikely that operators would
consider retrofit of this concept. The 910 engines impacted between introduction in 1981
and 1990 will consume 1571 million liters less fuel during their service lives (Table 544).

88
 TABLE 5-42
JT9D - 70/59 4.2 AR FAN
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
Takeoff 0.7 5
Climb 3.1 9

Cruise, Avg. 1.4

Hold 0.7

Weight Change, Kg (Ib) +330 (+150)

Price Change, $ -3800

Kit Price, $ 284,600 (Non-Attrition)

Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.

Materials -0.20

Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. -4.77

TABLE 5-43
JT9D - 70/59 4.2 AR FAN
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 747-200 DCIO-40

Operating-Cost Changes, S/Year

Fuel -122530. -50555

Maintenance - 89300. -50240

Block Speed Effect - 1575 - 1330

Total -213405 -102125

Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit

Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines -15200 +1,138,400 -11410 +853,800
Spare Engines - 4145 + 310,470 - 2620 +196,275
Spare Parts - 3100 + 167,930 - 2320 +121,700
Total -22445 +1,616,800 -16,400 +1,171,775
Payback Period, Years 0 7.6 0 11.5
DOC Change, % -0.9 -0.8

89
 TABLE 5-44

JT9D - 70/59 4.2 AR FAN

FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 1.5

Start of Service Date 3-81
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 910 0 910
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters (Gal) 1571 (415) 0 1571 (415)

5.2.12 JT9D-70/59 HPT Improved Active Clearance Control

Concept Description

The Bill-of-Materials JT9D-70/59 engine incorporates a high-pressure turbine active clearance

control system to obtain reduced blade tip clearances during cruise operating conditions.
Clearance reduction is provided by ducting cooling air to the outer flanges of the high­
pressure turbine case to reduce the temperature of this component. The reduced temperature
level results in limiting the thermal growth of the turbine case which, in relation to the
normal thermal growth of the turbine disk and blades, provides a reduction in blade tip
clearance and a corresponding reduction in thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC). Air for
cooling the turbine case is provided by a scoop in the nacelle fan-air duct.

Compared to the Bill-of-Materials system, the improved active clearance control system
includes: 1) a three-fold increase in the amount of cooling air from the fan, and 2) an im­
proved air delivery and distribution system featuring "square" cooling air pipes which are
positioned closer to the turbine case flanges and rails. Cooling air is ducted from the fan
air stream in the engine nacelle by two scoops, two elbows, and two air control valves to
twin cooling air collectors. A schematic comparison ofthe Bill-of-Materials and the improved
active clearance control systems is shown in Figure 5-33. The improved system uses sets of
semicircular cooling air pipes (Figure 5-34), which connect to the air collectors as shown
in Figure 5-35. The dual air delivery plumbing in the improved active clearance control
system ensures passage of the higher air flow with a reasonable pressure drop.

The utilization of nominally square cooling air pipes in the improved system increases the
cooling capability and efficiency by providing for the increased cooling air flow and opti­
mizing the impingement of the cooling air onto critical regions of the turbine case structure
while limiting the required spatial envelope by nesting the pipes closely between the turbine
case flanges and rails. Figure 5-36 compares the Bill-of-Materials configuration, with its
round pipes, with the improved system configuration, with its square pipes. The improved
configuration is designed to have an air flow capacity sufficient to reduce the high-pressure
turbine case flange and rail temperatures by an additional 90°C (160°F) at cruise conditions
pared to the Bill-of-Materials configuration, as illustrated in Figure 5-37.

90
 CONTRO VALVEMY

Control Systems
AIR SUPPBY RSECOND
INLE TOR AIPE
SYSTEM ADDED
3 TIMES BiM SUARE SEC[WN
TOTAL FLOW CAPACITY
CPIPES

Figure 5-33 Schematic Comparison of Bill-of-Matrialsand Improved Active Clearance

ControlSystems

INLETITOAIR

CONTROL VALVEARDRDARNR

AIR INLET BOSSES

i~u L
--
,_._
N G E

PIPES,,
R_PIPS
-COOOING AIR
._IN
TURBINE
_COO CASE)

V V ROLV VAALVE

BILL-OF-MATERIALS SYSTEM
IMPROVED SYSTEM

Figure5-34 Comparison of Turbine Outer Case CoolingAir PipeArrangement for Bill­

of-MaterialsandRevised Systems
91
 COOLING AIR PIPES

AIR COLLECTOR
(I OF 21

Figure5-35 "Square" PipeAttachment to Cooling Air Collector

BILL-OF-MATERIALS CONFIGURATION
0
j (Z SEAL

PIPE
HIMPROVED
I
3xBSIM STRIKING

GLOW CAPACITY DISTANCES

IMPROVED SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

Figure5-36 Comparisonof Bill-of-MaterialsandImproved System CoolingPipe

Configurations
92
 0
F 0c
400
Z 200 ACC = ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
0
o 300 ":
­
150 IMPROVED ACC - - - IMPROVED AGC
SYSTEM
c 0-SYSTEM AIR
2 00 FLOW
<1 ZBILL-OF-MATERIALS
-
cii- ACCSYSTEM WITH
U It BILL-OF- SHOP AIR
, 100 MATERIALS
c AIR FLOW
I-I- I
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 KG/SEC
I I I I I I I I I I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 LB/SEC

COOLING AIR FLOW

Figure5-37 High-PressureTurbine Case TemperatureReduction Potential

Analytical thermal evaluations show that internal engine parts, such as the outer air seal
support rings, outer air seals, and second-stage turbine vanes, resist the shrinkage of the tur­
bine outer case. In some regions where this internal resistance exists, because of parts inter­
ference and resultant binding, possible damage to internal parts may result. "Shaving" of
some internal parts (that is, increasing the clearance between.adjacent parts) will reduce
the binding condition. Shaving of the outer air seal segments and the second-stage vanes has
been considered to relieve the binding condition. Structural modification of the seal supports
is also possible to increase the responsiveness of the seal clearance to case diameter changes.

Performance Substantiation

Experimental engine testing has been conducted at sea level static conditions with the
Bill-of-Materials active clearance control system using shop air for turbine case cooling.
As shown in Figure 5-38, the results of these tests indicate a TSFC improvement of 1.2
percent for the Bill-df-Materials high-pressure turbine case temperature reduction of 85°C
(156 0 F). (This temperature reduction is equal to that expected at altitude cruise conditions.)
The indicated sea level TSFC improvement is equivalent to 0.7 percent at altitude cruise
conditions. Tests at simulated altitude conditions of another experimental engine incorpor­
ating the Bill-of-Materials active clearance control system verified the TSFC reduction of 0.7
percent.

93
 2 OPERATING
pOINT 1 ?p~tI5~G

ICI I

HIGHPREUSRE TURBINECASETEMPERATUREREDUCTIO

Figure5-38 Sea Level TSFCReduction DemonstratedUsing Shop Air for Active Clear­
ance Control

To investigate the effect of high-pressure turbine outer case temperature reductions in excess
of the initial tests with the B/M system, the high pressure shop air was again used to provide
a higher flow capacity. With the higher flow, a high-pressure turbine outer case temperature
reduction of nearly 140'C (250'F) with a corresponding TSFC reduction of 2.0% was achieved
0
compared to the initial temperature reduction of 85 C (156'F). If the curve in Figure 38 is
0 C (320 0 F), a temperature reduction achieved during an altitude
extrapolated to about 175
test of an engine with square pipes and fan cooling air, a total potential TSFC reduction of
2.6% is obtained at sea level conditions compared to an uncooled turbine case. This sea level
reduction in TSFC is equivalent to 1.4% TSFC improvement at altitude conditions. This demon­
strated achievement represents a cruise TSFC improvement of 0.7% over the capability of the
B/M active clearance control system.

The tabulation below indicates the conversion of the sea level results to the resultant TSFC
improvement at cruise conditions.

Improvement Sea Level-to- Fan, Air Cooling Improvement

in Level Altitude Flow TSFC in Altitude
TSFC Cruise TSFC Penalty Cruise TSFC
(%) Ratio (%) (%)

Improved 2.6 x 0.7 - 0.42 = 1.4

System

Bill-of-Materials 1.2 x 0.7 - 0.14 =

0.7
System

Net Improvement over Bill-of-Materials

System 0.7

94
Two factors have not been accounted for in the above evaluation. Decreasing the internal
resistance to turbine case shrinkage will permit a reduction in cooling air flow to achieve the
same degree of clearance reduction. The reduced air flow required from the fan stream will
provide a slight additional reduction in TSFC by reducing the fan air penalty. Further,
the cooling air flow on the downstream flange of the high-pressure turbine will also influence
the case temperature of the first stage of the low-pressure turbine and decrease its clearance.
This will provide a still further reduction in TSFC. Both of these effects are expected to be
relatively small, but studies have indicated that the total additional TSFC reduction should
be about 0.2 percent. On this basis, it is expected that the improved active clearance con­
trol system should provide a total TSFC reduction of 0.9 percent, the value used in the
economic evaluation.

Economic Evaluation

The price of the engine is increased due to the segmenting of the outer seal support rings
and associated changes to the HPT case to accommodate the segmented rings plus a more
costly dual control valve and delivery system. The relatively high kit price is due to the re­
quirement to buy a new HPT case, a purchase that would not be done on an attrition basis.
Table 5-45 presents the engine data for this concept.

TABLE 545
JT9D - 70/59 HPT IMPROVED ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine
TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
Takeoff
Climb
Cruise, Avg. 0.9
Hold
Weight Change, Kg (lb) +34 (+75)
Price Change, $ +13,400
Kit Price, $ 80,600 (Non-Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials 0
Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. 0

An evaluation of the airline costs shows that new buy economics are excellent with payback
periods of 1.0 and 2.1 years for the 747 and DC10 respectively (Table 546). The retrofit
case is not attractive and would probably not be adopted by the airline operators. Installation
of the HPT active clearance control systems on 1150 new JT9D-50/70 engines beginning
service in 6-79 show that 1771 million liters of fuel would be saved (Table 5-47).

95
 TABLE 546
JT9D - 70/59 HPT IMPROVED ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 747-200 DCIO-40

Operating Cost Changes, $/Year

Fuel -74,140 -27,100

Maintenance 0 0

Block Speed Effect -1,920 -1,200

Total -76,060 -28,300
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines +53,600 +322,400 +43,500 +241,800
Spare Engines +14,600 +87,900 +10,000 55,600
Spare Parts +7,900 +44,000 +6,000 33,350
Total +76,100 +454,300 +59,500 +330,750
Payback Period, Years 1.0 6.0 2.1 11.7
DOC Change, % -0.3 -0.3

TABLE 5-47
JT9D - 70/59 HPT IMPROVED ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.9

Start of Service Date 6-79

Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total

No. of Engines Affected 1150 0 1150

Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 liters (gal.) 1771 (468) 0 1771 (468)

5.2.1.3 JT9D Structural FEGV

Concept Description

The Structural FEGV concept proposes a change to the fan exhaust case of the JT9D-7
and JT9D-70f59 engines in which the fan aerodynamic exit vanes are moved downstream
into the plane of the structural struts and combines the functions of both into one row of
airfoils, thereby eliminating one row of loss producing surfaces. The fan exhaust cases
of the JT9D-7 and D-70/59 engines are similar in many respects. The major difference be­
tween the two is the addition of a second thick structural strut in the bottom of the case
of the D-70/59 to accommodate a tower shaft which drives the accessories mounted on the
bottom outer diameter of the fan case as shown on Figure 5-39. The D-7 accessories are

96
mounted in the space between the high spool and the fan duct, eliminating the need for a
tower shaft penetrating the fan duct. A thick structural strut is common to both engines at
the top of the fan case to provide a leading edge fairing for the duct bifurcation which con­
tains the engine support structure and some accessories, airframe bleed and other power
requirements. The two models also have different numbers of aerodynamic vanes as shown
in Table 5-48. The Structural FEGV concept results in the same spacing of structural vanes
in both models, with the only difference being the requirement for a second thick strut
in the D-70 to accommodate the tower shaft. This thick strut replaces two of the thin struts
in the D-7.

96 FEGV0 8 STRUTS

LEFAIRING
"o
] T. E. FAIRING

J
Figure5-39 JT9D-70 Bill-of-MaterialsFan Exhaust Case Showing FEG V's and Structural
Struts

TABLE 5-48

SUMMARY OF JT9D FAN EXHAUST CASE GEOMETRY

B/M Structural FEGV

D-7 D-70/59 D-7 D-70/59

Number of EGV's 108 96 0 0

Number of Struts, thick 1 2 1 2
thin 8 6 58 56

97

 The structural FEGV concept is shown in Figure 5-40. It can be seen that the leading edge
(LE) of the FEGV's have been moved to the same axial plane as the LE of the sheet metal
fairing around the thick structural strut at the bottom of the B/M D-70/59 case. Looking up
from the bottom of the engine, the JT9D-70/59 B/M fan exhaust case is compared to the
structural FEGV configuration in Figure 5-41. The constant speed drive oil cooler for the
JT9D-70/59 installation interferes with the structural FEGV arrangement and has been
relocated to the side of the bottom bifurcation fairing.

FEGV MOUNT POCKET

I D & 0 D REMOVED
T. E. OF
THICK
STRUT

"
L. E. OF STRUCTURAL FEGV / '

T. E.OF STRUCTURAL FEGV-

Figure 5-40 ProposedStructuralFEG V Conceptfor the JT9D-7and JT9D-70/59Fan

Exhaust Case

98
 BOTTOM4 5TRUT

-"-8 -.TRUCTURAIL STRUTS.,

E45Y)ALLEQSALLE 96 F ED
4/ A ////A///I//I

B/M FEGV

- 70 *-ARC n 11

-CSD OIL COOLER

PROPOSED TRhUR/
RAL FEGv RELOCATION (D-70/59ONLY)
-BOTTOM STRUT

5(STRUGT.)RAL FEG5
FRONT EQUALLY SPACED ON TE
0
BASIS OF

STRUCTURAL FEGV

Figure 5-41 View of UnwrappedSection ofJT9D-70 BIM Fan Exhaust Case and Proposed
StructuralFEG V Exhaust Case

Performance Substantiation

The losses in the fan exhaust case are made up from two sources: (1) the FEGV's and
(2) the structural struts.

FEGV Losses - The pressure loss in the FEGV of the D-7B/M case is approximately 2%
of the duct stream pressure. This FEGV has a gap/chord ratio which is too tight and results
in a less than optimum aerodynamic loading on the airfoils. This tight vane spacing was
believed to be necessary to monimize fan noise at the time the D-7 was designed. The
D-70/59 case has only 96 FEGV's with approximately 1.8% pressure loss.

99
 Strut Losses - The strut losses for the B/M cases are approximately 1%. When the FEGV's
are moved to the plane of the struts, now becoming structural FEGV's, the gap/chord
ratio of the struts are reduced to approximately the level of the D-70/59 B/M FEGV's to
be able to efficiently handle the aerodynamic turning now required of the struts. The losses
of the structural FEGV's are increased somewhat above the B/M levels because of the thick
struts that are still required to accommodate accessories and airframe services. In addition,
the structural loads the new FEGV's are required to carry dictate a small increase in airfoil
thickness ratio which also increases the loss level.

A summary of the fan exhaust case losses for the JT9D-7 and D-70/59 with and without
the structural FEGV concept is presented in Table 549.

TABLE 5-49
SUMMARY OF FAN EXHAUST CASE LOSSES

B/M Cases Structural FEGV

D-7 D-70/59 D-7 D-70/59

FEGV Loss, AP/P .020 .018 0 0

Strut Loss, AP/P .010 .010 .025 .025
Total Airfoil Loss .030 .028 .025 .025

Change in loss relative BASE BASE - .005 - .003

to base, L (AP/P)

Reduction in TSFC relative BASE BASE 0.5 0.3

to base, % (A TSFC)

Economic Evaluation

Economic evaluations for the D-7 in terms of engine performance data, airline costs and fuel
savings are presented in Tables 5-50, 5-51 and 5-52, respectively, and for the D-70/59 in
Tables 5-53, 5-54 and 5-55, respectively.

Table 5-50 shows the engine price decrease due to a reduction in the cost to manufacture
the configuration with fewer fan exit guide vanes. The maintenance materials cost reduc­
tion corresponds to this price reduction. The maintenance labor cost reduction is a result
of the EGT reduction.

Table 5-51 shows the payback period in the new buy case to be very attractive because there
is a savings in both annual cash costs and initial investments. The retrofit case is prohibitively
expensive due to the fact that cases must be replaced that are not normally replaced. It is
unlikely that operators would consider this concept for retrofit.

The resultant fuel saving of 0.6% shown in Table 5-52 would save a total of 834 million
liters of fuel if applied to the eligible 850 JT9D-7 engines that will start service after 9-81.

100
 TABLE 5-50
JT9D STRUCTURAL FEGV
ENGINE DATA
JT9D-7 ENGINE
Per Engine
TSFC
EGT

Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C

Takeoff 0.5 4
Climb 0.5 4
Cruise, Avg. 0.5
Hold 0.5
Weight Change, Kg (lb) +11 (+35)
Price Change, $ -28,600
Kit Price, $ 157,000 (Non-Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials -0.45
Labor @$30 Per Man-Hr. -0.73

TABLE 5-51
JT9D STRUCTURAL FEGV
AIRLINE COSTS
JT9D-7 ENGINE
Per Aircraft
Airplane Model 747-200
Operating Cost Changes, $/Year
Fuel - 45670

Maintenance - 21530
Block Speed Effect - 900
Total - 68100
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines -114,400 +629,200
Spare Engines - 31,230 +171,800
Spare Parts - 5,150 + 28,300
Total -150,780 +829,300
Payback Period, Years 0 12.2
DOC Change, % -0.35

101
 TABLE 5-52
JT9D STRUCTURAL FEGV
FUEL SAVINGS
JT9D-7 ENGINE
Per Engine

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.6

Start of Service Date 9-81
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 850 0 850
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters 834 0 834
(Gal.) (220) (220)

TABLE 5-53
JT9D STRUCTURAL FEGV
ENGINE DATA
JT9D-70/59 ENGINE
Per Engine

TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
Takeoff 0.3 2
Climb 0.3 2

Cruise, Avg. 0.3

Hold 0.3

Weight Change, Kg (lb) +32 (+70)

Price Change, $ -5,500
Kit Price, $ 136,700
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials -0.45

Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. -0.37

102
 TABLE 5-54
JT9D STRUCTURAL FEGV
AIRLINE COSTS
JT9D-70/59 ENGINE
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 747-200 DCIO-40

Operating Cost Changes, $/Year
Fuel -26800 -9700
Maintenance -15000 -8440
Block Speed Effect 400 160
Total -42200 -18300
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines -22000 +546,800 -16500 +410,100
Spare Engines - 6000 +147,600 - 3800 + 94,300
Spare Parts - 1000 + 24,600 - 740 + 18,500
Total -29000 +719,000 -21040 +522,900
Payback Period, Years 0 17.0 0 28.6
DOC Change, % -0.3 -0.2

TABLE 5-55
JT9D STRUCTURAL FEGV
FUEL SAVINGS
JT9D-70/59 ENGINE

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.3

Start of Service Date 9-81
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 850 0 850
Cum. Fuel Saved, 10 6 Liters (Gal) 439(116) 0 439(116)

103
 Table 5-53 shows a JT9D - 70/59 engine price reduction due to a reduction in the number
of fan exit guide vanes. The maintenance materials cost is reduced in accordance with the
number of parts and price. The labor cost is reduced due to the EGT reduction.

As in the case of the 9D-7, the new buy situation is very attractive, while the retrofit case
is prohibitively expensive due to the cost of the majorparts required for retrofit, as indicated
in Table 5-54.

The 0.34 reduction in fuel burned results in a savings of 439 million liters of fuel from 9-81
through the life of the 850 JT9D-70 engines that are candidates for this concept (Table 5-55).

5.3 CONCEPTS RECOMMENDED FOR FURTHER STUDY

The incorporation of the two concepts in this category, the JT9D Mixer and the Electronic
Control, depends on substantial airframe integration efforts. The overall benefits from these
two concepts can be significant in terms of fuel saved, reduced flight crew workload and im­
proved engine diagnostics but very costly modifications to and investigations of existing
systems would be required. Table 5-56 summarizes the results of the evaluation of the two
concepts. These results utilize the analyses of both BCAC and DAC which are included as
Appendices A and C.

TABLE 5-56
CONCEPT EVALUATION RESULTS

Pay-Back Period
PBP (years) ADOC Percent Cumulative Fuel Savings - 106 liters (gal.)
Concept Airplane New Buy Retrofit (%) Fuel Savings New Buy Retrofit Total

JT9D Mixer 747 1.9 - -0.8 2.7 1885 (498) -" 1885 (498)
Nacelle DC10 2.0 - -1.6 6.6 1026 (271) - 1026 (271)

JT9D Electronic 747/ Low fuel saving, evaluation discontinued

Control DC 10

5.3.1 JT9D Mixer

The JT9D mixer concepts were analyzed for technical and economic risks because of their
large potential improvement benefit. However, further study is needed to determine the
mixer performance characteristics and overall internal engine performance. In addition,
further testing is required to determine overall external engine performance in order that
uncertainty bands associated with the propulsion system may be reduced. Comparable
analysis and test is required on afn integrated engine/airframe basis to reduce drag and
weight uncertainty. Table 5-57 presents the risk analysis of the JT9D mixer concepts.
This analysis shows the large potential benefit for mixing and the areas in which risks
exist.

104
 TABLE 5-57
RESULTS OF JT9D-7 AND JT9D-59 MIXER SENSITIVITY EVALUATIONS
Predicted Values for Estimated
JT9D-7 JT9D-59 Uncertainty
in 747's in DC-I 0's Band
Internal Performance, ATSFC (%) -4.2 -5.1 -1 to +2
(cycle, AP, leakage, % mixing, Cv)
A Drag, equivalent ATSFC (%) +1.2 -0.8 -1 to +2
(isolated nacelle, interference)
A Weight per nacelle, Kg (lb) 645 (+1425) 0 ± 130 (±300)
(mixer, nacelle with advanced materials)
A Price per nacelle ($) +137,150 +183,300 ±50,000
(mixer, nacelle)
A Maintenance Cost per Engine -7.10 -7.10 ±2
Operating Hour ($)
Pay-Back Period (years) +1.9 +2.0 -2 to +4
Fuel Savings (%) +2.7 +6.6 ±3
Cumulative Fuel Savings +498 +271 ±500
(106 gallons)

Mixer Design

The JT9D mixer design (Figure 5-42) evaluated in the ECI-PI program is based on the P&WA
JT8D mixer program experience. Mixer flowpaths for both JT9D-7 and JT9D-70 engines were
determined using engine hard points and flows. Temperatures and pressures at the inlet of
the mixer were determined through existing engine simulators. The maximum mixer tem­
perature including the effects of expected engine deterioration is predicted to be 650'C
(1200 0 F) at takeoff on a hot day and occurs at the mixer inlet.

The material selected for the mixer is INCO 625. To save weight, titanium was considered;
however, titanium alloys that are currently available have not been proven for temperatures
above 590°C (1 100 0 1) where alloy instability becomes a concern.

The JT9D mixer wall thickness of 0.198 cm (0.078 in.) is based on calculations of blending
stresses in the valley of the lobes in the JT8D program. The JT9D tailplug thickness is esti­
mated to be 0.170 cm (0.067 in.), scaled up from the 0.127 cm (0.050 in.) wall of the JT8D
mixer based on the same stresses. More detailed effort in this area is required.

105
 MIXER 12 LOSES

L--FAN AIR END VIEW

PRIMARY ENGINE EXHAUST

Figure542 JT9D MixerDesign Evaluated In ECI- PIProgram

Struts are used on the I.D. of the lobes to support the mixer from the tailplug, providing
radial and circumferential restraint. Use of struts at the O.D. of the lobes (as in the 8D pro­
gram) was unacceptable to Douglas because of the flexible, lightweight composite materials
they had selected for the tailpipe in the area of the struts.

The inboard attachment of the struts has the capability of taking radial loads in two direc­
tions to restrain the mixer. Since the fan duct static pressure is higher than the primary, and
since the tailplug is at a higher temperature than the mixer in normal operation, the struts
are in compression. During thrust reverser operation, the direction of the resultant pressure
acting on the mixer is reversed, directing the fan air outboard of the engine ahead of the
mixer, resulting in heating mixers to the same temperature as the tailplug. Therefore, the
effect of thrust reverser operation causes the struts to be in tension. The struts are free to
slide in the axial direction to allow for thermal exposure.

A study to investigate potential problems with the inner flange of the turbine exhaust case
caused by the new tailplug concluded that no problem existed. Both the weight and location
of the C.G. of the new plug relative to the mounting flange are less severe than the baseline.

106
Mixer Maintenance

Maintainability and reliability studies conducted by P&WA determined the impact of the
mixer on engine maintenance cost. Experience of UAL with jet noise suppressors revealed
little maintenance cost associated with noise suppressors, and that no materials cost is
associated with such a part since it is easily repaired. The frequency of repair was estimated
from the UAL experience and .is thought to be conservative since suppressors are in a more
hostile environment (sonic flow) for vibration and hence cracking that requires repair.
The result is a 0.30 $/EOH maintenance labor penalty for the mixer itself. There is, of
course, the associated EGT reduction for the mixer which reduces engine shop visit rate.

Mixer Weights and Costs

Mixer weights and costs are determined from the material selection and mixer wall thick­
nesses. Manufacturing confirmation is obtained for all cost estimates in order to ensure
fabrication practicality.

Mixer Performance

The source of the P&WA estimate of the internal engine performance improvement in the
mixed flow installations is shown in Figures 5-43 and 5-44. In each case, the performance
accounting starts from the basic unmixed engine with separate ideal (no loss) ducts and
nozzles for the fan and primary flow. The current short duct 747-200 installation effects
are applied to the JT9D-7 and the current 3/4 duct DC10 installation effects are applied to
the JT9D-59 to establish baselines for the mixed installations. The thermodynamic effect
of mixing is based on 85% mixing in both cases, but the TSFC benefit differs somewhat as
shown because of cycle differences between the two engine models. When the pressure losses
in the long ducts, mixers, tailpipes and discharge nozzles on the mixed installations are de­
ducted from the mixing benefit, the TSFC of the mixed engines is still somewhat better
than the unmixed engines with ideal installations. Compared to the actual current installa­
tions of the unmixed engines, the mixed installations show approximately 5.5% TSFC im­
provement at the average cruise condition. Because of thermodynamic effects, this improve­
ment increases at higher power settings and decreases at lower power settings. It should be
noted that the external drag of mixed installations will be different from that of the short
and 3/4 duct baseline installations. These differences are discussed by BCAC and DAC in
Appendices A and C, and are reflected in the data presented in the Economic Evaluation
below.

Figure 5-45 shows the envelope of model test data used by P&WA to establish 85% as a target
for the JT9D mixer in the ECI-PI program. Although this goal appears aggressive based on
the data, it must be pointed out that no attempt was made in the testing of the various
mixers to optimize configuration details nor was scalloping (a successful technique in the
JT8D mixer program) included. It is felt that a JT9D program which optimizes the mixer
configuration will have high probability of achieving 85% mixing.

107
Economic Evaluation

The economic evaluations presented in the following tables are based on BCAC and DAC
estimates of the effects of installing the JT9D with a mixer in their respective airplanes.
These estimates are discussed in Appendices A and C, which were prepared by BCAC and
DAC, respectively. The airplane companies elected to use the P&WA estimates of the inter­
nal engine effects of the mixer in all cases except for the internal performance effect in the
747 airplane, which are shown on the first section of Table 5-58. These performance effects
were estimated by BCAC, based on 70% mixing instead of the 85% assumed by P&WA. This
difference results from different interpretations of similar testing results, and represents a
major portion of the uncertainty band on mixed engine performance shown in Table 5-57.
The second section of Table 5-58 summarizes the BCAC estimates of the effects of installing
the JT9D-7 engine with mixer in the 747 airplane instead of the same engine in the standard
short duct nacelle. The weight and price effects shown on this table are based on the use of
an advanced nacelle design without the use of advanced composite materials as described in
Appendix A. Tables 5-59 and 5-60 complete the summary of the economic evaluation of
the mixer on the 747 airplane, showing the concept to have an acceptable payback period
and a significant fuel saving if it were developed and incorporated in all 747's delivered after
January 1985.

Table 5-61 summarizes the effects of installing the JT9D-59 with mixer in the DC 10 airplane
instead of the same engine in the 3/4-length duct Common Nacelle System. All of the internal
engine effects are those estimated by P&WA, while the installation effects were estimated by
DAC, as discussed in Appendix C. Table 5-62 shows the payback period in the DC10 to be
about the same as in the 747 despite the significantly higher fuel burned improvement pre­
dicted for the DC 10. This result is due to a combination of factors. The higher (international)
fuel price used for the 747(45 /gal vs. 35d /gal for the DC-10), the relative sizes of the two
aircraft (reflecting absolute levels of fuel flow) and the international route structure of the ­

747 (yielding higher annual utilization) all place more importance on fuel in the 747 and
lead to the nearly equal payback periods. The cumulative fuel saving is less with the DC 10
as shown on Table 5-63 because the low sales projection for JT9D powered DC1O's over­
balances the higher percent fuel saving.

108
 * 0
I- +
W O
N 'Cw0
+ N
U] 0 ~ X W]U
+6 N
N Z
< F-
U2
Wf 0 N
N

4 - >--
CC F- 04 U
C9 i4 aw
X< _U -5 .% NET
+2 +45% X - INTERNAL
i 0 f_ BENEFIT
U 0

I­
-2

-BASELINE
INSTALLATION

-6 MIXED
INSTALLATION

Figure5-43 InternalPerformanceBenefit Due to Mixing JT9D - 7 in 747-200 atAverage

CruisePower

F- t
n 0
0

1 _,
"N < E,..
o N '
X
0J
+ N~~LUU
N Z~ < z 0
<
o 00

-- S.a -5.6%NET
+53- m 0-0
x '
< INTERNAL
+2 - BENEFIT

LL-
U)
0
­

-2

BASELINE
MIXED
INSTALLATION INSTALLATION

Figure5-44 InternalPerformanceBenefit Due to Mixing JT9D-59 in DC10 atAverage

CruisePower
109

 100

O0 ­

7ZF

z
60

LU

LU
x 40­

20 l
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
MIXING LENGTH RATIO
(LENGTH OF MIXING CHAMBER/DIAMETER AT MIXING PLANE)

Figure 5-45 Results ofP&WA High Bypass Ratio MixerModel Tests (No Scalloping)

TABLE 5-58
JT9D-7 MIXER ENGINE
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine
Performance: (Internal JT9D-7) TSFC EGT
Reduction. % Reduction, 'C
(Internal)
Takeoff 2.0 210C
Climb 5.2 60 C
Cruise, Avg. 4.2
Hold 2.5

Weight Change, Kg (lb) +188 (+415)

Price Change, $ per Engine +28,400

Kit Price, $ per Engine +36,900

Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.

Materials 0

Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. -7.10

110
 TABLE 5-58 (Cont'd)

Performance: (Installed on 747) TSFC EGT

Reduction. % Reduction, 'C
(Effective)
Takeoff 2.0 2,1

Climb 4.0 6

Cruise. Avg. 3.0

Hold 1.6

Weight Change, Kg (lb), AOWE/Engine 645 (+1425)

Price Change. S per Nacelle +137,150
Kit Price. S per Nacelle None Defined
Maintenance Cost Change. S/Oper. Hr.
Materials 0
Labor @ S30 Per Man-Hr. -7.10

TABLE 5-59
JT9D-7 MIXER
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Airplane

Changes in Annual Cash Cost

-S/Aircraft Year 747-200

Fuel -220160

Maintenance -129.930

Speed Effect - 1,200

Total .-351,290
Required Airline Investment Charges -S New Buy
Installed Systems +548,600 (435,000 Airframe, 113.600
Spares +117,100 Engine)
Total 665,700
Payback Period 1.89 Years
DOC Change. % -0.8

111
 TABLE 5-60
JT9D-7 MIXER
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, %

2.7

Start Service Date

1-85

Investment Type
New Buy Total

360 360

No. of Engines Affected

Cumulative Fuel Saved

-106 Gallons Liters 1885 1885

(106 Gallons) (498) (498)

TABLE 5-61
JT9D-59 MIXER
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine
Performance: (Internal JT9D-59) TSFC EGT
Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
3.6 20
Takeoff
Climb 6.5 8
Cruise. Avg. 5.6
Hold 3.8

Weight Change, Kg (lb) +188 (+415)

Price Change, $ +28,400

Kit Price, S 36,900

Maintenance Cost Change, S/Oper. Hr.

Materials
0

Labor @ S30 Per Man-Hr. -7.10

Performance: (Installed on DC10) TSFC EGT

Reduction, % Reduction. 'C
(Effective)
Takeoff
3.6 20

Climb
5.6 8
Cruise, Avg. 6.4

Hold
2.4

Weight Change, Kg (lb) AOWE/Engine 158 (347)

Price Change, S/Engine +183.300 (Mixer plus Nacelle)

Kit Price, $ None Defined

Maintenance Cost Change. S/Oper. Hr.

Materials 0

Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. -7.10

112
 TABLE 5-62

JT9D-59 MIXER

AIRLINE COSTS

Per Airplane

Changes in Annual Cash Cost DC10-40 (JT9D-59)

'S /Aircraft Year
Fuel -208,300
Maintenance - 73.000
Speed Effect - 17,900
Total -299,200
Required Changes in Airlines Investment - S

Installed Engines & Nacelles 550,000 (85,200 Engine, 464,800 Nacelle)

Spares (Engines and Nacelles) 50,600 (19,600 Engine, 31,000 Nacelle)
Total 600,600
Payback Period 2.0 Years
DOC Change, % -1.6

TABLE 5-63
JT9D-59 MIXER
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 6.6

Start of Service Date 1-85
Investment Type New Buy Total
No. of Engines Affected 90 90
Cumulative Fuel Saved, 106 liters (gal.) 1026(271) 1026(271)

113

 5.3.2 JT9D Electronic Control

Summary

The fuel saving potential of a full authority electronic control system on the JT9D engine
was evaluated. The results, summarized in Table 5-64, show that fuel savings would probably
be small relative to the current hydromechanical control system. Based on this finding, the
electronic control was not considered under the ECI-PI program. It is recognized that the
electronic control may offer significant fuel saving and other benefits when coupled with
other modifications of the JT9D engine or with advanced engine designs.
TABLE 5-64
SUMMARY OF ELECTRONIC CONTROL EVALUATION
POTENTIAL FUEL SAVINGS, %

P&WA BCAC DAC

Ground Trim 0 to 0.1 0.1 to 0.2 -

Mission Fuel 0 to 0.1 0 -

Deterioration 0 0.3 to 0.4 -

TOTAL 0 to 0.2 0.4 to 0.7 0

Concept Description

The control system evaluated for the JT9D consists of two identical full authority electronic
engine controls which are separately mounted, and one hydromechanical flow body unit.

The electronic units are vibration isolated and fuel cooled 16-bit digital computers mounted
on the engine. The isolation and cooling scheme is specifically designed to provide a well de­
fined and controlled internal environment that is completely compatible with the electrical
and mechanical design of the circuit boards and components. This approach assures a re­
liable control with high component life.

The electronic functions of the two separate control -units provide full redundancy for fail­
safe operation. Either of the electronic sections is capable of performing the following:

1. Schedules engine starting, acceleration, and deceleration fuel flow as a function of

burner pressure, high rotor speed, compressor exit temperature and fan inlet tempera­
ture.

2. Provides closed loop governing of engine ratings as a function of power lever angle,
fan inlet temperature, ambient pressure, and fan inlet pressure.

3. Provides closed loop governing of high rotor speed at idle.

114
4. Limits maximum burner pressure.

5. Limits low turbine inlet temperature-for-hot section- protection during starting.

6. Limits high and low rotor speeds for structural protection.

7. Schedules the variable compressor stator vanes, and resets for additional transient stability
margin.

8. Schedules compression system surge bleeds­

9. Provides digital engine data gathered from control sensors for engine and control con­
dition monitoring, and for flight deck thrust setting displays.

10. Provides switching for two solenoids which: a) operate the engine starting bleeds, and
b) operate the turbine case cooling system.

The electronic units incorporate extensive self-test features which enhance system func­
tional integrity by keeping the percentage of undetected failures extremely low.

Failure protection is provided by employing a hierarchy of fault logic as follows:

1. First failure - switch to other (healthy) channel

2. Next failure - obtain data from first channel
3. Next failure - synthesize required data using healthiest channel
4. Shutdown,

Fuel Saving Evaluation

The following potential sources of fuel savings with a full authority electronic control

system on the JT9D engine were evaluated by P&WA with assistance from the team

members:

" Ground Trim

* Mission Fuel

* Reduced Turbine Deterioration

The results of the evaluation are discussed below. BCAC and DAC also conducted independ­
ent evaluations of the electronic control, including its integration with the aircraft control
system. These evaluations are discussed in Appendices A and B, respectively.

115
 Ground Trim - Hydromechanical controls must be adjusted or trimmed on the airplane to
coordinate the control functions with the engine operating requirements and limits. This
trimming has been done by running the engine on the ground while a mechanic makes the
necessary adjustments on the fuel control. The electronic control eliminates the need for
trimming, since the engine operating requirements and limits are programmed into the con­
trol. Data obtained from TWA, UAL, BCAC, and DAC under the study shows that the
extent and frequency of ground trimming of JT9D engines by the airlines varies over a wide
band. The extremes of this band are shown below.

Trim Frequency Fuel Used, liters (gal.)

Trim/eng/yr Per Trim Per Eng.-Yr.
Minimum 3 340 ("90) 1020 (270)
Maximum 4.5 2910 (770) 23230(3500)

Since the average JT9D uses about 11 million liters (2.9 million gallons) of fuel per year
(see Table 3-7 in Section 3.0), the fuel saving for elimination of ground trimming is about
0.1% maximum.

Information received from current JT9D operators indicates a trend toward reduced use of
ground runup for trim with the current control system, which will reduce further the poten­
tial saving with the electronic control. The requirement for ground runup is being reduced
by adjusting the control based on information supplied by the flight crew from the service
operations of the airplane.

Mission Fuel - Derated takeoff and climb are used in practice to save turbine life by reduc­
ing the high temperature exposure which can be due in part to overboost. The electronic
control would eliminate overboost while holding ratings, thereby allowing a higher rating
for the same turbine life. The higher rating would in turn shorten climb distance and allow
slightly more of the mission to be flown in the more efficient cruise mode. However, the
benefits of eliminating derate are small. Fuel is saved at the rate of 0.02% for each 1%of
derate eliminated.

Reduced Turbine Deterioration - The ability of the electronic control to prevent overboost
would be expected to reduce damage to the hot section parts and slow the rate of engine
performance deterioration that occurs between shop visits. The effect of such damage on
fuel consumption depends on the extent of overboost being experienced and the sensitivity
of hot section part performance to high temperature damage. Many airlines depend entirely
on the flight crew to be aware of the rating limits specified in the flight manual, and to
observe the limits. The frequency and extent of overboost under these conditions is difficult
to determine, and probably varies depending on the pilot workload. Other airlines use
optional on-board computers to indicate the rating limits on the engine gages, depending on
the crew to observe the limits, which would be expected to reduce the frequency of over­
boost.

116
 Studies of JT9D turbine blades and vanes that have been scrapped by the airlines indicate
that over temperature damage is one of the lower ranking causes of parts scrappage. Other
causes, such as erosion, corrosion, and foreign object damage are much more prevalent.
This finding would lead to the conjecture that the overboost which does occur does not
lead to airfoil damage that significantly affects the engine performance. However, further
study is needed to quantify these observations, and to determine the effect of overboost
on turbine seal clearance deterioration.

Evaluation results show that fuel saving with the electronic control on current production
models of the JT9D would not be large enough to warrant the investment required. However,
the electronic control may offer significant fuel saving and other benefits in combination
with advanced engine designs. Some of the potential benefits that should be considered are
listed below:

* Reduced flight crew workload

* Improved engine diagnostics

* Fuel savings with optimized engine designs

* Reduced control system cost (initial and maintenance) and weight as control
requirements become more complex.

5.4 CONCEPTS NOT RECOMMENDED FOR FURTHER CONSIDERATION

The concepts in this category were not recommended for further consideration by NASA for
a variety of reasons, as indicated on 'Table 5-65. As noted in the table, when a concept was
found to be unacceptable in the initial steps of the evaluation process, the evaluation was dis­
continued so more effort could be devoted to the more promising concepts.

117
 TABLE 5-65

NOT RECOMMENDED
CONCEPTS

Pay-Back Penod Fuel Savings

PBP(years) ADOC Cumulative 10' liter ('gal) Desribed
Concept Airplane New Buy Retrofi (%) Percent New Buy Retrofit Total Reasons for Unacceptabiy on Page

JTSD FanAs. Refinement 727 09 0 -O3 Perlotat n.e deionstranion effort neaite", li
DC-91737 I I 0 .0 2 ompleton under in housefunding
Total 07 462122) 1185(313) 1646(435)

JTSD Fan Tip Abradibles Insufficient perfoemance

imaproveaent 121

JThD Revused HPC 727 29 110 -05 High developmen

cosat 122
(Includes 3T8D-209) DC-9/737 34 129 05
Total IS 409(108) 0 409(108)

JT8D LPT Abradable Seals No measurable perfonnance improve. 124

.ent after snap acceleratuns andde­
celeratios

JTD ForcedMiser 727 II 0 II 0 -003 Unacceptable payback period 1 25

DC-91737 110 110 -004
Total 07

727 Installation Weight 727 Fuel improvement too small for de. IN1
Redution velopment and certfliion costs
DC-9Improved Cabin Arr DC-9 226 - 0 Unacceptable payback period 130
System

JT9D-70159 Increased 747 39 - -1.3 20 1241(328) - 1241(328) High development cost 132
Fan Diameter

MID Rewised
HC 747 (-7/70) 1 2106 35/33 -0 5/O 5 High development cost 135
DC-10 0.9 49 04

Total 07 2146 (567) 1143(302) 3289 (869)

MID HK Acme Clearance 747 (-7170) 88/71 None 0 1/.o I Unacceptable payback period 138
Control DC-10 227 Ntose 0
Toni]

JT9D-70159 LfT Actve 747 04 08 - 03 Majorbenefit would beprovided 140

ClearanceControl DC-10 09 1.7 - 02 by HPT ActivrClearance Control
Total 08 1559(412) 140(37) 1699(449) System

JT9D-70/59 CNS DC-J0 01I 48 -07 26 1059(280) 39(10) 1098(290) Development for DC-10 nearly com- 143
Short Afibody plete. not suitable for 747 applicatot

5.4.1 JT8D Fan Aero Refinements

Engine ratings and fan design technology have progressed extensively since the development
of the JT8D two-stage fan in the early 1960's. Preliminary investigations have indicated
that relatively minor aerodynamic modifications to the fan airfoils would result in signifi­
cant performance improvements, especially at the high corrected airflow conditions of the
higher rated models of the engine.

One modification involves a chamfer cut on the suction side of the leading edge of both
rows of fan blades, as shown in Figure 5-46 The chamfer cut effectively reduces the leading
edge radius to near the lower limit of the production tolerance band, and also increases the
leading edge camber slightly. Chamfer cut leading edges have been applied successfully as a
field refurbishment for lower rated models of the JT8D, but had not been applied to pro­
duction of the newer, high rated engines.

The second modification, also shown on Figure 5-46, involves restaggering and recambering
the second stator (located between the first and second fan rotor stages) to improve the
stage airflow matching at high flow conditions.

118

 vis
\Recambered
%Nstatoro

Typical production position

blade variation ,
2030

1st & 2nd stage.

fan blade reqontour Recambered 2nd stator
Figure5-46 The Chamfer Cut LeadingEdge on the FanBlades and a Recamber/Restagger
of the Second Stator(between the second fan blade and the LP compressor)
were consideredto improve the performance of the JT8Dfan.

The effects of these modifications on fan pressure ratio, airflow, and efficiency were esti­
mated analytically. The results were evaluated in the engine performance simulation to obtain
the TSFC and EGT improvement estimates shown on Table 5-66. The chamfer cuts require
an additional step in the blade manufacturing process, resulting in the estimated engine
price increase and kit price shown in Table 5-66. Since the JT8D fan blades are scrapped
very infrequently in service, the higher price of the parts is reflected in a relatively small
increase in maintenance material cost. The EGT reductions at the critical take-off and climb
out conditions reduces the frequency of engine removals for hot section maintenance, re­
sulting in a significant estimated reduction in maintenance labor cost.

TABLE 5-66
JT8D FAN AERO REFINEMENTS
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine
TSFC EGT

Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 0 C

Takeoff 0.35 3
Climb 0.50 3
Cruise, Avg. 0.80
Hold 0.80
Weight Change, Kg (lb) 0
Price Change, $ +4,075
Kit Price, $ +5,200 (Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials +.04
Labor @$30 Per Man-Hr. -.62
119
 A review of these modifications by airframe subcontractors has shown that the 727 and
DC9 airframe drags, prices, and empty weights are unaffected by these internal engine
modifications. One negative qualitative factor was identified during the evaluation: the
sharper blade leading edges created by the chamfer cuts may be more prone to erosion and
FOD damage.

The concept was judged to be very acceptable as a performance improvement idea, but it
was not pursued further under the subject program because the performance demonstration
effort was nearing completion under in-house funding.

The effects on airline economics are shown in Table 5-67. Note that the airline investment
cost to retrofit the concept to existing engines is shown as zero. This reflects the opinion of
the operators in the study that the modifications can be accomplished by reworking the
existing parts. This results in the unusual situation of the retrofit case providing a shorter
payback period than the new buy.

As shown on Table 5-68, the concept results in a fleet fuel saving of 0.7% and a cumulative
fuel saving of over 1.6 million liters, with the major portion of the savings coming from
retrofit of existing engines.

TABLE 5-67
JT8D FAN AERO REFINEMENTS
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 727-200 DC9-50

Operating Cost Changes, $/Year
Fuel -10,450 -6,350
Maintenance -4,450 -2,530
Block Speed Effect -1,250 -450
Total -16,150 -9,330
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment Rework Rework
Changes, $
Installed Engines 12,225 8,150
Spare Engines 2,510 2,160
Spare Parts 400 300
Total 15,135 0 10,610 0
Payback Period, Years 0.9 0 1.1 0
DOC Change, % -.25 -.22

120
 TABLE 5-68
JT8D FAN AERO REFINEMENTS
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.7

Start of Service Date 1-80
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 1,040 4,650 5,690
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters (Gal). 462 (122) 1,185 (313) 1,646 (435)

5.4.2 JT8D Fan Tip Abradables

The JTSD fan blades operate with tip clearances large enough to ensure that the blades will
not rub the metal containment case walls under the most severe thermal transient or struc­
tural load conditions during normal operation. The clearances could be closed if abradable
rubstrips were recessed into the case walls, as shown in Figure 5-47, so that the rub could be
tolerated without damage to the blades or case. This abradable rubstrip concept is used
successfully on the fan and all compressor stages of the JT9D engine. The amount of clear­
ance closure possible on the two JT8D fan stages was estimated at 0.0 125 and 0.025 cm
(0.005 and 0.0 10 in), respectively, based on X-rays of a running engine and on structural
analyses. These closures represent clearance-to-span ratios of only 0.04% and 0.1%, respcc­
tively. Evaluation showed the effect of these changes on fan efficiency and engine perfor­
mance to be too small (TSFC improvement is less than 0.1%) to justify the redesign of the
fan cases.

IGV IB IV'2

FAN CASEABRADABLE
RUBSTRIPS

0.0125 CM 10.005 IN.) TIP GAP 0.025 CM (0.010 IN.) TIP GAP

REDUCTION
REDUCTION

Figure 5-47 The Fan Cases areModified to Receive an Abradable Material,Which Allows
theTip Clearanceto be Reduced Without Dangerof Damagingthe Blade
Tips in a Rub

121
 5.4.3 JT8D Revised HPC

The JT8D high-pressure compressor (HPC) rotor is assembled with long tie-bolts extending
through holes in the individual disks, hubs, and spacers, as shown in Figure 5-48. For disk
structural reasons, the bolt holes are located at a relatively short radial distance from the
rotor centerline. Consequently, the spacers which carry the interstage seal knife edges are
small in diameter relative to the flowpath, resulting in deep cavities which communicate
aerodynamically with the flowpath. The air in these cavities is pumped radially by the disk
faces, creating a windage loss for the rotor and a disturbing perpendicular flow into the main
compressor flow.

ROTOR
TIE BOLT

R7 R8 R9 7R8R

Self-trenching

Current JT8D Improved JT8D abradable tip seal

Figure5-48 The Concept Includes A MajorReduction in the InterstageSeal Cavity

Volumes, Trenched AbradableBlade Tip Rubstrips,and Airfoil Refinements.

These undesirable effects could be reduced significantly by adding secondary spacers trapped
between the disk rims, as shown in Figure 5-48. The interstage seals are then established at
this larger diameter by adding knife edges to the secondary spacer and forming the seal land
directly on the stator inner shrouds. The performance effect of this modification was es­
timated to be 1.1% increase in HPC efficiency, based on experience with a three stage re­
search (see Section 5.2.7). This improvement was combined with the JT8D Trenched Tip

HPC concept described in Section 5.2.7 and aerodynamic refinements of the airfoils to

form the Revised HPC performance improvement package. The total effect on engine TSFC

is a 1.4% improvement at the higher power conditions, as shown in Table 5-69. The weight

and price of the engine has increased as shown, primarily due to the addition of the secon­
dary spacers. The retrofit kit price is relatively high because new disks, blades, and stator

assemblies are required in addition to the secondary spacers.

122
 TABLE 5-69
JT8D REVISED HPC

ENGINE DATA PER ENGINE

TSFC EGT

Performance: Reduction, % Reduction. 'C

Takeoff 1.4 13

Climb 1.4 13

Cruise, Avg. 1.4

Hold 2.2

Weight Change, Kg (lb) +6.3 (+14)

Price Change, $ +30,000

Kit Price, $ 113,000 (Non-Attrition)

Maintenance Cost Change, S/Oper. Hr.

Materials +1.00

Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. -2.68

The airline cost evaluation, Table 5-70, shows the concept to be acceptable for new engines,
but not for retrofit. The cumulative fuel savings is limited by the projected number of en­
gines to be produced after the estimated start of service date of mid-1981, as shown in
Table 5-7 1.

TABLE 5-70

JT8D REVISED HPC

AIRLINE COSTS PER AIRPLANE

Airplane Model 727-200 DC9-50

Operating Cost Changes, 3/Year
Fuel -22,200 -14,350
Maintenance -13,200 -7,340
Block Speed Effect -2,820 -1,000
Total -38,220 -22.690
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines +90.000 +3.39,000 +60.000 +226.000
Spare Engines +18,450 +69,500 +15.900 +59,900
Spare Parts +2,700 +10,000 +1,800 +6.700
Total +111,150 +418,500 +77,700 +292;600
Payback Period, Years 2.9 11.0 3.4 12.9
DOC Change, % -0.5 -0.5

123

 TABLE 5-71
JT8D REVISED HPC
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved. % 1.5

Start of Service Date 6-81
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 500 0 500
Cum. Fuel Saved, 10_ liters (gal) 409 (108) 409 (108)

The complete package represented by this concept was not recommended for further con­
sideration because the development risk and cost associated with the rotor structural modif­
ications appeared too high for the fuel savings benefit, and because it is applicable to new
engines only. However, the trenched tip portion of the package was evaluated as a separate
concept, "JT8D Trenched Tip HPC". This concept was recommended for development, and
is discussed in Section 5.2.7.

5.4.4 JT8D LPT Abradable Seals

The JT8D low pressure turbine (LPT) flowpath is sealed by knife-edges on the disk spacers
and the blade tip shrouds running with close clearances against smooth metal lands on the
vane inner shroud rings and against floating rings in the outer case. A major redesign of this
LPT has been accomplished to accommodate the higher work and expansion requirements
of the JT8D refan models, and this redesign includes abradable honeycomb rubstrips to
achieve tighter clearances without destructive knife-edge wear. The abradable honey comb
could be incorporated in the standard JT8D LPT as shown in Figure 5-49 with minor re­
design of the inner and outer seal land rings. In 1974, a similar configuration was tested.
Results of this earlier testing showed an initial measurable performance improvement, but
the improvement disappeared after snap accelerations and decelerations were run to simulate
engine acceptance test procedures.

While these results cannot be explained analytically using effective abradable rubstrips, the
evaluation effort was discontinued because of the risk that no performance improvement
could be obtained.

124
 LPT ROTOR

NEW RING
INNER AIR SEMAL ABRADABLE STRIP
TYPICAL

LPT CASE

OUTER AIR SEAL

TYPICAL
ABRADABLE STRIP

Figure 5-49 Abradable Honeycomb Materialis Applied to Both the Inner and Outer Seal
Rings of all Stages

5.4.5 JT8D Forced Mixer

The JT8D engine is equipped with a full length fan discharge duct that is integral with the
engine case structure. The engine is installed with a common exhaust nozzle, which com­
bines the fan discharge and turbine discharge flows into a single stream. The configuration
of the engine cases and the nozzle permits about 30% mixing of fan and turbine discharge
before they leave the nozzle.

A forced mixer has been developed for the JT8D-refan models, which are similar to the
standard JT8D in duct arrangement, but have a higher fan duct flow. This mixer (see
Figure 5-50) was developed primarily forjet noise reduction, but it also provides a small
cruise performance improvement.

An FAA-funded effort, which includes model and full-scale engine testing, is being con­
ducted to apply the refan mixer technology to the standard JT8D. A basic objective of this
effort is to provide significant noise suppression within existing 727 and DC9 nacelles
where space limitations dictate a very short mixer length. A secondary objective is to main­
tain or improve installed engine performance. Figure 5-51 shows the general configuration
and some of the integration details of a typical mixer being evaluated under the program.
Model test results indicate that such a mixer will improve TSFC by about 1% at high nozzle
expansion ratio conditions such as altitude climb and cruise operations; however, no per­
formance improvement is attained at take-off and climb out conditions, as indicated on
Table 5-72.

125
 me.

ii

Figure5-50 JT8D Refan Engine With FullScale Mixer

Inner struts

Existing splitter

Turbine configuration

exhaust case New adapter flange

Primary streum AMixer

New transition struts

-Outer

stream
FOR fairing
VIEW A

Figure5-51 Noise ReducingMixer Which Can be Used Within the CurrentNacelle -

Model test results indicatethat the engine performance may also improve,
especially at cruise conditions.
126
 TABLE 5-72
JT8D FORCED MIXER
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

Performance: TSFC EGT

Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
Takeoff 0 0
Climb 1.0 0
Cruise, Avg. 1.0
Hold 0
Weight Change, Kg (b) +45 +100)
Price Change, $ +25,000
Kit Price, $ +25,000
Maintenance Cost Change, S/Oper. Hr.
Materials 0
Labor @$30 Per Man-Hr. +0.30

The weight of this mixer was estimated at 45 Kg (100 lb). An additional 727 and DC9 air­
plane weight penalty of about 27 Kg (60 lb) per engine is imposed by ballast which must
be carried in the nose to counterbalance the mixer weight on their aft-mounted engines.

The price of the mixer in JT8D Bill-of-Materials production quantities is estimated to be

$25,000. This estimate is consistent with the prices of other concepts evaluated for the ECI
program. (A higher price for limited quantity production has been discussed with some air­
lines who are interested in a near term application to meet severe local noise restrictions.)
A maintenance labor cost increase of 30 per engine operating hour was estimated for re­
pair of the mixer itself, as shown on Table 5-72.
The mixer fails the payback period limit of 6 years, as shown on Table 5-73. This means that
it would not be purchased for its fuel saving potential alone, so it was not given credit for
a cumulative fuel saving in the subject program. However, the mixer has the potential for a
0.7 percent fleet fuel saving which reduces the penalty that would be suffered if it were re­
quired to meet future noise criteria.

127
 TABLE 5-73

JT8D FORCED MIXER

AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 727-200 DC9-50

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year
Fuel -10470 -7300
Maintenance + 2360 +1350
Block Speed Effect - 125 - 50
Total - 8235 -6000
Type of Investment New Buy & Retrofit New Buy & Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines 75000 50000
Spare Engines 15373 16000
Spare Parts 0 0
Total 90,373 66,000
Payback Period, Years 11.0 11.0
DOC Change, % -0.03 -0.04

5.4.6 727 Installation Weight Reduction

Several independent concepts were considered in order to reduce the weight of the JT8D
installation in the Boeing 727 as shown in Figures 5-52 and 5-53. Concepts based on current
materials technology (Figure 5-57) include: replacing the aluminum center inlet duct and
its anti-ice reinforcing patch with a fiberglass duct; shortening the inlet and tailpipe of the
side nacelles; and substituting titanium for Hastelloy in the construction of the thrust re­
verser frames for all three engines. The use of advanced composite materials, which are
unproven in aircraft nacelle environments, was considered in selected areas of the two side
nacelles, as shown in Figure 5-53. The results of the weight evaluation of these concepts
are summarized in Table 5-74. None of the concepts were recommended for further con­
sideration in the subject program because of their small fuel saving potential (0.1% or less
in each case). However, several of the concepts are under development by the airframe
manufacturer for their weight and/or cost saving potential.

128
 "S" DUCT
FinER GLASS
CHANGE REMOVE
AND TO

ANTI ICE PATCH

HASTLOY
~REPLACE

THRUST REVERSER FRAME

WITH TITANI M FRAME

SHORTENED INLET SHORTENED TAIL PIPE

RCAC I P&WA

to Reduce the Engine Installation

Figure 5-52 Application of Current Technology
Weight in the Boeing 727.
THRUST REVERSER
COWL
. . .

UPPER COW
ENGINE

CHANGE TO KEVLAR t

'-N­

-/.. SKN CLAD 2024-T3

FINE 02
SFIRESHIELD CRES AISI-3
FIXED COWL -CONO 2D ANNEALED

FIRE:SHIELD EACH
SIDE OF LOWER PANE

.
ENGINE L OWER COWL
.
NOSE COWL U>

CHANGE TO KEVLAR

(R- OPPOSITE)
LH NACELLE SHOWN -

Materialsin Selected Areas of the

of Advanced Composite
Figure5-53
Application
Boeing 72 7 Nacelles

129
 TABLE 5-74

WEIGHT EVALUATION SUMMARY

727/JT8D INSTALLATION

Weight Equivalent
Concept Saving, Kg (lb)/aircraft Fuel Saving, %

Fiberglass "S"duct 61(135) <0.1

25.5 cm reduction of inlet and 70(154) <0.1
tailpipe length

Titanium thrust reverser frames 108 (240) 0.1

Advanced composites in nacelles 87(191) < 0.1

5.4.7 DC-9 Improved Cabin Air System

The addition of a recirdulation system to the DC-9 environmental control system, as shown
in Figure 5-54, was considered to reduce the quantity of bleed air flow required from the
JT8D engines by 50%. This bleed flow reduction will improve the engine thrust specific fuel
consumption by 1%at cruise conditions; however, the effective TSFC improvement for the
installed propulsion system is reduced to the values shown on Table 5-75 because the thrust
recovery at the cabin air outflow nozzle is reduced. The added recirculation system adds
weight, price, and maintenance materials cost to the airplane, as shown on Table 5-75.

ADDED SYSTEM

PRESSURE BULKHEAD
I ~RECIRC
CHECK -AIR FRCM
ENGINE -- PACK NO. I r VALVES CHECK FAN TUNNEL
BLEED AIR 4 PLACES VANE FILTER

PACKTEMP
CONTROL VALVES
I MIXING
CHAMBE
TO COCKPIT
TO CABIN

OUTFLOW

ENGINE -N4 PACK NO.2

BLEED AIR

SHUTOFF TRIMAIR
VALVES VALVES I

Figure 5-54 Engine Air Bleed Reduced by 50 Percentfor Cabin Air Conditioning

130
The airline cost evaluation showed the payback period to be unacceptably long for the new
buy case as shown on Table 5-76. The retrofit case was not evaluated, but it would result in
system kit.
an even longer payback period because of the cost of installing the recirculation
of its unacceptable
This concept was not recommended for further consideration because
payback period. TABLE 5-75
DC-9 IMPROVED CABIN AIR SYSTEM
SYSTEM DATA

TSFC EGT

Performance Reduction, % Reduction, °C

Takeoff
0 0
Climb 0 0

Cruise, Avg. 0.43

Hold 0.35
Weight Change, Kg (lb)/Aircraft 80 (+177)
Price Change, S/Aircraft +51,200
Kit Price, $ +51,200
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials
+0.26
Labor @$30 Per Man-Hr. 0

TABLE 5-76

DC-9 IMPROVED CABIN AIR SYSTEM

AIRLINE COSTS.

Per Aircraft

Airplane Model DC9-50

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year

Fuel
-3325

Maintenance
+1136
Block Speed Effect 75

Total -2264

Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit

Required Airline Investment

Changes, $ Not
Evaluated
Installed Systems
+51,200
Spare Engines
0

Spare Parts
0

Total +51,200

Payback Period, Years 22.6

DOC Change, % Small increase

131
 5.4.8 JT9D-70/59 Increased Fan Diameter

If the fan airflow of the JT9D-70/59 were increased, the propulsive efficiency and con­
sequently the TSFC of the engine would be improved, especially at the higher power settings.
A study was made of an increased diameter fan to obtain an airflow increase that would
provide near-minimum TSFC at the cruise thrust condition of the engine. The fan modifica­
tion is shown on Figure 5-55, along with the other engine modifications made necessary by
the larger fan. One additional stage is needed on the turbine to drive the fan, and a larger
turbine exhaust case is needed to match up with the new turbine. A beefed-up shaft is
needed to transmit the increased torque from the turbine to the fan. The fan hub, blades,
containment case, and exit case must all be increased in size. The estimated performance,
weight, price, and maintenance cost effects on the engine are summarized on Table 5-77.
No kit price is shown since the concept was judged to be impractical for retrofit.

Evaluation of the modified engine in the Boeing 747 installation showed the need for nacelle
and strut modifications as described in Appendix A. The resulting airplane weight, price,
and drag increases are summarized on Table 5-78.

The airline cost impact of the concept is summarized on Table 5-79. The new buy payback
period is well within the 6 year limit. The cumulative fuel savings that would result if the
concept were developed and put into service by 1985 are shown on Table 5-80.

The JTSD-70/59 Increased Fan Diameter concept was deleted from further consideration
for the subject program because of its high development cost and time period.

NEW LPT SHAFT

- .J -. J, ).. J1 j' :_ ,L,

-IT Iu1 LJT9D-70 HIGH SPOOL

D-70

(BIM)
+NEW 5 STAGE LPT

D-7 (RIM) PROPOSED

NEW FAN &
FAN EXIT CASE WAT, Kg/sec (Ib/sec) 755 (1660) 830 (1825)

BPR 5.0 5.6

FAN DIA., cm (in.) 237.87 (93.66) 247 77 (97.55)

NO. TURB. STAGES 4 5

Figure5-55 EngineModificationsRequired to IncorporateLargerFan Diameter

132
 TABLE 5-77
JT9D-70/59 INCREASED FAN DIAMETER
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

Performance: TSFC EGT

Reduction, % Reduction, °C
Takeoff 4.2 25
Climb 3.0 25
Cruise, Avg. 2.4
Hold 0.6
Weight Change, Kg (lb) +374 (+825.)
Price Change, $ +96,430
Kit Price, $ No Kit
Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials +1.20
Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. -7.40

TABLE 5-78
JT9D-70/59 INCREASED FAN DIAMETER
AIRPLANE EFFECTS

Airplane Weight, Kg (lb) +2320 (+5120)

Engines +1495 (+3300)
Installations + 825 (+1820)

Airplane Price, $ + 870,000

Engines + 385,700
Installations + 485,000

Airplane Drag, % + 0.12

133
 TABLE 5-79
JT9D-70/59 INCREASED FAN DIAMETER
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Changes in Annual Cash Cost

-$/Aircraft Year 747-200
Fuel -165,300
Maintenance -113,460
Speed Effect - 1,100
Total -279,860
Required Change in Airline Investment-
Installed Systems +870,700 (485,000 Nacelle, 385,700 Engine)

Spares +229,000 (82,450 Nacelle, 146,550 Engine)

Total 1,099,700
Payback Period 3.9 Years
DOC Change, % -1.3

TABLE 5-80
JT9D-70/59 INCREASED FAN DIAMETER
FUEL SAVINGS

% Fleet Fuel Saved 2.0%

Start of Service Date 1-85
Investment Type New Buy Total
No. of Engines Affected 360 360
Cumulative Fuel Saved
106 Liters 1241 1241
(106 Gallons) (328) (328)

134
5.4.9 JT9D Revised HPC

The interstage seals of the JT9D high pressure compressor (HPC) are submerged somewhat
inside the flowpath boundary, as shown in Figure 5-56. This arrangement creates cavities
which communicate aerodynamically with the main flow and create losses due to disk pump­
ing, recirculation, and windage. Experience with a three stage research rig indicates that these
losses can be reduced significantly by increasing the seal diameter so that the cavity volumes
are reduced as shown in Figure 5-56. This idea was applied to all eleven stages of the HPC
and combined with the trenched blade tip rubstrip idea (described under JT9D Trenched
Tip HPC in Section 5.2) to make the JT9D Revised HPC concept. The effects of these mod­
ifications on compressor efficiency are summarized in Table 5-81.

Reduced cavity Increased inner

RIOR1

Self-trenching
abradable tip seal

Current JT9D Improved JT9D

Figure5-56 The inter-stage seal cavity volume is reduced by moving the knife-edge assembly
closerto the flow path.

. TABLE 5-81

REVISED HPC EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS

Stages An
Feature Affected D-7 D-70

Reduced Cavity Volume 11 0.8% 0.8%

Trenched Tip 5 0.9% 0.7%

Total - 1.7 1.5

135
The compressor efficiency improvement translates conservative to 0.6 and 0.55 percent engine
TSFC improvement for the two models, as shown in Table 5-82. The engine weight and
price are increased primarily by the more complex interstage seal arrangement. Retrofit is
assumed to be done on an attrition basis, so that the kit price reflects only the difference in
price between the current and improved parts.

The airline cost evaluation shows the payback period to be acceptable in all cases, as shown
on Table 5-83. Applying the concept to all applicable engines starting in 1981 would result
in a cumulative fuel saving of nearly 3.3 billion liters (Table 5-84). Despite these favorable
evaluation results, this concept package was not recommended for further consideration in
the ECI program because of the high development risk and cost associated with the structural
modifications of the rotor. Instead, the trenched tip portion of the package was evaluated
as a separate concept titled, "JT9D Trenched Tip HPC". This concept was recommended
for development under the ECI program and is discussed in Section 5.2.

TABLE 5-82
JT9D REVISED HPC
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction. % Reduction, 'C
-7 -59/70
Takeoff 0.60 0.55 6
Climb 0.60 0.55 6
Cruise, Avg. 0.60 0.55
Hold 0.60 0.55
Weight Change, Kg (lb) 20 (+45) 20 (+45)
Price Change. S +24,900 +13,400
Kit Price, $ 76,000 69.500 (Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Change, S/Oper. Hr.
Materials + 0.65 + 0.65
Labor @ $30 per Man-Hr. - 3.89 - 3.52

136
 TABLE 5-83
JT9D REVISED HPC
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Airplane

Airplane Model 747-200 DC 10-40

-7 -70/59 -70/59

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year

Fuel - 54,600 - 53.400 -20,420
Maintenance - 59.100 - 58,000 -32,630
Block Speed Effect - 350 - 100 - 525
Total -114,050 -111,500 -53,575
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
-7 -70/59 -7 -70/59 -70/59 -70/59
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $
Installed Engines + 99,600 +53,600 +303,800 +277,700 +40,200 +208,600
Spare Engines + 27,200 +14,600 + 83,000 + 75,900 + 9,200 + 47,750
Spare Parts + 4,500 + 2,420 + 13,700 + 12,500 + 1,800 + 9,340
Total +131,300 +70,620 +400,500 +366,100 +51,200 +265,690
Payback Period,
Years 1.2 0.6 3.5 3.3 0.9 4.9
DOC Change, % -0.5 -0.5 -0.4

TABLE 5-84
JT9D REVISED HPC
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.7

Start of Service Date 3-81 (-7), 6-81 (-70/59)
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total

No. of Engines Affected -7 910 1010 1920

-70/59 825 400

1225

Gum. Fuel Saved, 106 Liters (Gal) -7 1086 (287) 757 (200)
1843 (487)

-70/59 1060 (280) 386 (102) 1446 (382)

3289 (869)

137
 5.4.10 JT9D HPC Active Clearance Control

The principle of active clearance control, which has been applied successfully to the high
pressure turbine of the JT9D, was considered for the high pressure compressor (HPC).
The blade tip clearances at cruise conditions in the bill-of-materials HPC are dictated by the
relative thermal expansions and structural deflections of the case and rotor structures, which
are critical at high power, fast transient, and high "g" load conditions. Both thermal and
mechanical clearance control systems were considered to reduce the blade tip clearances at
cruise. A mechanical system shown in Figure 5-57, was found to be especially compatible
with the unique double case structural arrangement of the aft portion of the JT9D HPC.
The inner case forms the air flow path wall and carries only nominal pressure loads. The
outer case, which is significantly larger in diameter, carries the major structural loads. The
annular space between the inner and outer cases is ideal for locating the actuating mechan­
isms of the mechanical system. Conversely, the double case arrangement makes a thermal
clearance control system, which depends on heating or cooling the outer case, very ineffective.

2 PIECE

BLADE

VANE

RETURN SPRING SECTION A-A

2 PIECE RING SEAL
o D.STOP

SUPPORT CASE
I.D. STOP
ACTUATING

TYPICAL SEAL IN PISTON VENT PRESSURE

OPEN POSITION

Figure5-57 Proposed -P1O Active Clearance ControlSystem

138
The selected system shown in the figure was applied to the last 8 stages of the 11 stage HPC.
Each stage has a two-piece ring seal trapped in annular grooves in the inner case. The two­
pieces are forced outward against O.D. stops by springs during takeoff, climb, and landing,
where large clearances are needed. At cruise conditions, valves are opened to apply compres­
sor discharge air to pistons which push the ring halves inward against I.D. stops, reducing
the blade tip clearances.

The amount of clearance reduction that could be attained at cruise in each stage was estimated
analytically based on x-ray clearance measurements made on an engine running at sea level
static conditions. The estimated clearance reductions, which are shown on Table 5-85, will
increase compressor efficiency to improve cruise TSFC by 0.5%, as shown in Table 5-86.

TABLE 5-85

JT9D HPC CLEARANCE REDUCTION

Stage No. Estimated Clearance Reduction, cm (in.)

8 0.020 (0.008)
9 0.015 (0.006)
10 0.012 (0.005)
11 0.036 (0.014)
12 0.043 (0.017)
13 0.053 (0.021)
14 0.025 (0.010)
15 0.074 (0.029)

TABLE 5-86

JT9D HPC ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL

ENGINE DATA

Per Engine

TSFC EGT

Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C

Takeoff 0 0

Climb 0 0

Cruise, Avg. 0.5

Hold 0

-7 -70/59

Weight Change, Kg (lb) +34 (+75) +34 (+75)

Price'Change, $ +31,710 +31,150

Kit Price, $ not estimated

Maintenance Cost Change, $/Oper. Hr.

Materials +0.10 +0.10

Labor @ $30 Per Man-Hr. +1.10 +1.10

139
 Also shown are the engine weight, price, and maintenance cost increases estimated for the
system. Akit price was not estimated because the concept was not expected to be acceptable
for retrofit. Airline retrofit costs also were not estimated.

The results of the airline cost evaluation are shown on Table 5-87. Because the payback
period exceeds the 6 year limit in all cases, the concept was dropped from further considera­
tion in the program.
TABLE 5-87
JT9D HPC ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft
Airplane Model 747-200 DC10-40

Operating Cost Changes, $/Year

-7 -70 -59

Fuel -39,400 -43,600 -16,430

Maintenance +21,900 +21,900 +12,350

Block Speed Effect -1,500 -1,600 1,400

Total -19,000 -23,300 -5,480

Type of Investment New Buy New Buy New Buy

Required Airline Invest­

ment Changes, $

Installed Engines +126,800 124,600 +93,450

Spare Engines +34,600

34,000 +21,500

Spare Parts +5,700 5,600 +4,200

Total +167,100 164,200 +119,150

Payback Period, Years 8.8 7.1 22.7

DOC Change, % -0.1

-0.1 Negligible Increase

5.4.11 JT9D-70159 LPT Active Clearance Control

An active clearance control system for the low pressure turbine (LPT) of the JT9D-70/59,
shown in Figure 5-58, was also considered in addition to the improved active clearance con­
trol system for the high pressure turbine. The existing JT9D-70/59 LPT case includes an in­
ternal cooling system which utilizes 9th stage compressor bleed air to cool the case structure
and protect it from over-temperature during high power operation. The active clearance con­
trol system considered makes use of this existing cooling system to minimize the modifica­
tion impact. A valve is installed in the existing 9th stage bleed air pipe so the air supply can
be turned off at takeoff and climb conditions, and turned on at cruise conditions. With this
arrangement the LPT clearances can be set tighter at assembly and will run tighter at cruise,
improving turbine efficiency at cruise. The increased clearances required to accommodate
transients and "g" loads during takeoff, climb, and landing operations are obtained when

140
the case temperature increases with the cooling air turned off. To prevent overtemperatur­
ing of the critical vane support hooks in the case the existing 13th stage cooling system to
the HPT is vented to the LPT. The estimated effect is a cruise TSFC improvement of 0.8%
as shown on Table 5-88. Engine weight and price are increased only slightly as shown on
Table-5-89, resulting in very acceptable payback periods for both new buy and retrofit cases.
The estimated cumulative fuel saving, assuming that all JT9D-70/59 engines are equipped
with the system after mid-1979, is nearly 1.7 billion liters (see Table 5-90).

Despite the good evaluation results, the LPT active clearance control system was not recom­
mended for further consideration because tests indicated that a major portion of the LPT
clearance control benefit is being obtained from cooling of the LPT case by flow from the
bill-of-material high pressure turbine active clearance control system. Use of the recommended
improved system on the high pressure turbine is expected to reduce even further the im­
provement of a separate LPT system.

Figure 5-58 LPT Active ClearanceControl System Requires Only PlumbingModifications

and Adds a Valve to the Existing 9th Stage CoolingAir Supply

141
 TABLE 5-88
JT9D-70/59 LPT ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine

TSFC EGT
Performance: Reduction, % Reduction, 'C
Takeoff
0 0
Climb
0 0
Cruise, Avg.
0.8
Hold
0
Weight Change, Kg (lb)
+2 (+5)
Price Change, $
+5,200
Kit Price, $
10,300 (Non-Attrition)
Maintenance Cost Changes, $/Oper. Hr. 0
Materials 0
Labor @$30 Per Man-Hr. 0

TABLE 5-89
JT9D-70/59 LPT ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
AIRLINE COSTS
Per Aircraft

Airplane Model 747-200 DCIO-40

Operating Cost Changes, S/Year
Fuel
-69,600 -23,800
Maintenance
0 0
Block Speed Effect
-1,800 -1,100
Total -71,400 -24,900
Type of Investment New Buy Retrofit New Buy Retrofit
Required Airline Investment
Changes, $

Installed Engines
+20,800 +41,200 +15,600 +30,900
Spare Engines
+5,670 +11,200 +3,600 +7,100
Spare Parts
+3,100 +5,600 +2,300 +4,300
Total +29,570 +58,000 +21,500 +42,300
Payback Period, Years 0.4 0.8 0.9 1.7
DOC Change, % -0.3 -0.2

142
 TABLE 5-90
JT9D-70/59 LPT ACTIVE CLEARANCE CONTROL
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 0.8

Start of Service Date 6-79
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit Total
No. of Engines Affected 1150 150 1300
Cum. Fuel Saved, 106 liters (gal.) 1559 (412) 140 (37) 1699(449)

5.4.12 JT9D-70/59 CNS Short Aftbody

Simulated altitude testing indicates that the specific fuel consumption of the JT9D-70/59
engine installed in the Common Nacelle System can be improved by an aerodynamic refine­
ment of the nacelle as shown in Figure 5-59. This refinement shortens and steepens the
afterbody of the primary cowl and steepens the trailing edge angle of the aft fan cowl. The
performance of the isolated nacelle without free stream flow is improved, as shown by the
first column of Table 5-91, because of the reduction in area scrubbed by the fan nozzle
discharge flow. EGT is not improved by this modification because it is external to the basic
engine.

AFT COWL ANGLE

8' CU'RRENT
1PROPOSED
-'----0
AFTBOOY ANGLE
150PROPOSED

-.-. CURRENT

Figure5-59 Modification of the PrimaryNacelle Afterbody Reduces the Area Scrubbed

by the FanDischargeNozzle Flow

143

 TABLE 5-91
JT9D-70/59 CNS SHORT AFTERBODY
ENGINE DATA
Per Engine
Performance Effects, % ATSFC ADrag Net
DC-10 747 DC-10 747

Takeoff -0.18 0 - -0.18 -

Climb -0.46 0 - -0.46 -
Cruise -0.5 -2.0 +1.0 -2.50 +0.5
Hold -0.22 0 -
Weight Change, Kg (lb) -60 (-130)
Price Change, $ 0
Kit Price, $ 120,000
Maintenance Cost, $/Oper. Hr.
Materials 0
Labor 0

The effects of the modification on free stream drag and interference drag were estimated by
the airplane companies based on wind tunnel tests and are shown in the second and third
columns of Table 5-91. These effects differ dramatically between the Boeing 747 and
Douglas DC-10 installations because of differences in the location and configuration of the
pylon, wing, and fuselage relative to the nacelle. As a result of these differences, the net
effect of the modification is a substantial performance improvement forthe DC-10., but a
performance penalty for the 747 (see the last two columns of Table 5-91.

The nacelle modification results in a weight reduction of 60 kg (130 lb) per nacelle, without
affecting the price of a new nacelle. However, retrofit of an existing nacelle requires a sub­
stantial investment in parts that are not normally replaced by attrition, as indicated by the
kit price on Table 5-91.

The airline economics evaluation of the concept in the DC-10 showed payback periods of
less than one year for the new buy case and 4.8 years for retrofit, as shown on Table 5-92.
The relatively long payback period for the retrofit case implies that engines should be less
than 6 years old to economically justify the modification. The economics of the 747 were
not evaluated because of the performance penalty resulting from the concept. The cumula­
tive fuel saving possible with the DC-10 application only is approximately 1.1 billion liters,
as shown on Table 5-93.

The short aftbody concept was not recommended for further consideration under the subject
program because its development for the DC- 0 application was nearly completed and
because its application to the 747 is undesirable.

144
 TABLE 5-92

JT9D-70/59 CNS SHORT AFTERBODY

AIRLINE COSTS

Per Aircraft

Airplane Model DC-10-40

Operating Cost Changes, $/year
Fuel -86,800
Maintenance 0
Block Speed Effect - 5,200
Total -92,000
Required Changes in Investments New Buy Retrofit
Installed Engines +11,000 +371,000
Spares & Spare Parts +2,000 +71,800
Total +13,000 +442,800
Payback Period - Years 0.1 4.8
DOC Change, % -0.7%

TABLE 5-93
JT9D-70/59 CNS SHORT AFTERBODY
FUEL SAVINGS

Fleet Fuel Saved, % 2.6 (DC-10 Only)

Start of Service Date 1/79
Investment Type New Buy Retrofit (6 Yrs.) Total
No. of Engines Affected 240 20 260
Cumulative Fuel Saved, 106 liters 1059 39 1098
(gal.) (280) (10) (290)

.145/146

 APPENDIX A

ENGINE PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM

BOEING COMMERCIAL AIRPLANE COMPANY

147
 JT8D and JT9D

ENGINE PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM

CONTRACT NO. 20630-1

PREPARED FOR:

PRATT & WHITNEY AIRCRAFT GROUP

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS DIVISION

EAST HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT

BY:

BOEING COMMERCIAL AIRPLANE COMPANY

P. 0. BOX 3707

SEATTLE, WASHINGTON 98124

148
 BOEING COMMERCIAL AIRPLANE COMPANY ANALYSIS

OF JT8D AND JT9D PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT CONCEPTS

Technical Analysis Procedure

All proposed Performance Improvement Concepts were reviewed by the Boeing

Commercial Airplane Company Program Manager and forwarded to the various

technical organizations for analysis and evaluation. The evaluating

organizations were the same as those evaluating Boeing internal preliminary

design studies and utilized procedures based on established Boeing

preliminary design evaluation methods. These procedures make maximum

use of existing data, much of which is proprietary. Sources of this data

include previous analyses, model tests, full scale tests, flight tests and

certification tests. These data were used to develop sensitivity factors,

where possible, to assess changes from the baseline airplane performance.

The impact of engine design changes on the nacelle configuration were

assessed by the Propulsion Design organization. Where necessary,

layout studies were made to define required changes to the nacelle and

strut. These changes were iterated with the Structures, Weights, Noise

and Aerodynamics Staffs to ensure that possible impact on aircraft

structure, flutter, weight, noise and aerodynamics were checked. Work

statements were also prepared, where necessary, for cost estimates.

The Propulsion Staff organization evaluated the component improvement

performance data supplied by Pratt & Whitney relative to baseline engine

installed performance. Existing data on similar engine improvements

were used to evaluate the impact of performance changes and provide

installed performance estimates.

Estimated changes in baseline airplane weight were provided by the Weights

Staff for those concepts where the nacelle and strut were impacted.

These weight change estimates were based on previous detailed design

studies where possible. For those items not covered by past studies,

preliminary design weight estimation methods were used. These methods

utilize analytical and parametric studies along with geometry, loading,

mass flow and noise level information provided by Pratt & Whitney and

149
 the Propulsion Design organization. The effects of all weight changes

on airplane loadability and balance were then evaluated.

The Structures Staff reviewed each concept for its potential impact

on the airplane structure. Those concepts with minor weight increases

(less than 45 kg (100 Ibs) per nacelle) and engine center of gravity

changes were considered to have no effect on existing airplane structure

and did not undergo the full structural analysis. Other concepts, such

as the Long Duct Mixed Flow Nacelle, underwent a more detailed structural

analysis. Where necessary, the airframe structural weight was increased

to carry the additional loads. A preliminary design flutter assessment

was also made for those concepts where weight increases and engine center

of gravity changes were significant.

Each concept was evaluated to quantify its effect on the external drag

of the airplane. Incremental changes in weight, thrust specific

fuel consumption (TSFC) and thrust of each concept were identified by

the Weights and Propulsion Staffs. Improvements in cruise TSFC assessed

for the 35585 N (8,000 lbs) to 40034 N (9,000 Ibs) thrust level at

10,668 M (35,000 ft), 0.85 Mach number were used for the JT9D-70

Increased Diameter Fan concept at all cruise altitude/Mach number mission

conditions. A curve of percent change in TSFC versus percent of maximum

cruise thrust was used at cruise conditions for the JTSD-7 mixed flow

nacelle. This was based on Boeing's assessment of performance improve­

ments with the mixer. These deltas were applied to the baseline airplane,

and new airplane data were estimated for the basic mission. The climb,

cruise and holding performance changes were integrated in the mission

analysis. The analysis provided the block fuel as a function of range

from 926 km (500 NMi) to 8334 km (4500 NMi).

None of the concepts analyzed involved a thrust change; thus, the takeoff

field length for the concepts which also had no drag increment remained

unchanged from the baseline. Those concepts which involved changes in

external drag were evaluated to determine the change in the airplane's

performance at takeoff, for enroute climb and at FAR Part 36 conditions for

noise. The change in noise performance for the concepts involving a drag

150
change was estimated and transmitted to the noise staff. This information,

together with estimated changes to the engine source noise characteristics,

was used to calculate changes to the FAR Part 36 certified noise levels

when data were available.

The baseline airplane and basic mission profile were reviewed for potential

noise impact by the Noise Staff. Those items that showed potentially

significant changes were evaluated using preliminary design noise

evaluation procedures. The primary items considered with this procedure

are the component parameters, mixing rate exit profile, velocity, density

and nozzle sizes.

Results of the technical evaluation were forwarded to Trans World

Airlines along with aircraft price changes and maintenance cost changes

for economic analysis.

Results

Screening of the following concepts confirmed that there were no performance

or economic impacts other than those stated by Pratt & Whitney.

Fan Aero Refinements

Sealed HPT Vane Platforms

Revised HPT Blade Cooling Discharge

Closed HPT Blade Shroud Notches

3.8 AR Fan

4.2 AR Fan

LPT Active Clearance Control

HPT Active Clearance Control

No additional inputs were made by Boeing regarding these concepts.

151
Concepts that required Boeing input were the 727 Installation Weight

Reduction, 727 Composite Nacelle, CNS Short Aft-Body, Increased Diameter

Fan (JT9D-70), JT9D-7 Mixer Nacelle, and Electronic Control. Discussion on

each of these concepts are presented on the following pages.

152
 NASA
ECI-RI
727 WEIGHT REDUCTION
CHANGE '"3DUCT TO

THRUST REVERSER FRAME

WITH TITANIUM FRAME
S&4CRTENED INLET SHORTENED TAIL PIPE

BCAC IP&WA

The "S" duct, anti-ice patch, test hardware is complete and a test scheduled

to certify the change. Results of the fiber glass "S"duct study shows

that when it is combined with the anti-ice patch removal, the total

weight reduction of 61 kg (135 lb.) would give less than 0.1% fuel burn

reduction.

The weight saving gained by an acceptable shortening of the inlet and/or

the tailpipe does not save sufficient fuel to justify the costs of

accomplishing the change. For instance, a 25.4 cm (10 in.) reduction of

both the inlet and exhaust pipe is only 35 kg (77 lbs.), and the fuel

saving is below 0.1%.

Changing the thrust reverser frame from hasteloy to titanium saves 0.1%

fuel. The high cost of development and certification cannot be justified

by the potential fuel-saved.

All the above weight saving concepts are suggested for elimination from

the ECI-PI program.

153
 ECI-PI 727 COMPOSITE NACELLE

CI-P- SIXWN
CLAO M442
*3

FIRESHIELO
CARSA111.10

FIC.0 OWl
A.EAC

FIRI[ED C

QLLr

Z IG'NI LOWVER
COWL

op BCAC I P&WA
LH NACELL9 SHOWC- IRK OPPOSI~TE)

Boeing has an existing program for replacing the 727 JT8D nacelle side

cowls with composite material. Currently the side cowls are being

fabricated and the service evaluation program established.

Secondly, the efficiency of the original structural design is such that

the change to Kevlar material saves relatively little weight and the

fuel burn reduction is less than 0.1%.

The concept-is suggested for deletion.

154
 NASA
ECI-Pt CONCEPT 3A10 CNS SHORT AFTBODY

16o ORIG N L PAG,

60op POOR QUABIr
cTr T
120
40. 150 (PROPOSED)/- CURRENT CNS
CM so RADIUS - IN30: ... ....... PROPOSED 150
C.,,RADUS
nN - SHORT AFTBODY

40
10

.0 0

130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270

NACELLE STATION

BC= IPAWA

Wind tunnel tests of a short aftbody nacelle show an aircraft drag increase

of 1% over a production 747 3/4 length fan duct nacelle. The estimated

thrust specific fuel consumption improvement is 0.5% and the weight

reduction is 59 kg (130 lbs.) per nacelle.

The weight saving of 59 kg (130 lbs.) does not include deletion of the

primary thrust reverser which is independent of this concept and has

already been accomplished.

Sensitivity factors indicated a fuel burn increase of 0.5%. Therefore,

the concept is suggested for deletion.

155
 NASA
ECIPI INCREASED DIAMETER FAN

---------------- -----
~---------­

MO9-70 ENGINE
-JT90-70 NACELLE AND STRUT
- ---- - - VISED CONFIGURATION
---
BCAC/P&WA

The major changes to the engine which affect the engine installation are:

1) the fan front flange is moved 1.27 cm (0.5 in.) forward and increased

9.91 cm (3.9 in.) in diameter, 2) the fan duct outer wall flange is

increased in diameter, 3) the turbine exhaust flange is moved 14.48 cm

(5.7 in.) aft and increased 9.91 cm (3.9 in.) in diameter, 4) the rear

mount is moved aft and up, and 5) the engine weight is increased approximately

374 kg (825 lbs.) with an engine center of gravity shift to the rear of

approximately 2.54 cm (1 in.).

The above engine changes require the following changes to the nacelle

and strut: 1) larger diameter and longer flight inlet, 2) larger diameter

fan cowl, 3) larger diameter fan duct cowls and fan reverser, 4) larger

diameter and slightly longer primary nozzle, 5) relocate the rear mount

14.48 cm (5.7 in.) aft and approximately 4.70 cm (1.85 in.) up, 6) modify

the forward strut fairing to match the larger diameter fan cowl and fan

duct cowl, 7) a new rear strut fairing to accommodate the new configuration

at the aft end of the engine, 8) relocate the hinge center lines for the

fan cowls and fan duct cowls, and 9) a slight increase in the size of the

structural members of the strut. Since the engine driven gearbox is

moved down approximately 3.81 cm (1.5 in.) to accommodate the larger fan

case, slight changes are required to the following: 1) fuel inlet line

to the fuel pump, 2) hydraulic pressure and return lines to the hydraulic

pump, 3) constant speed drive oil cooler lines, and 4) the pneumatic duct

to the starter.

156

The above changes result in a total airplane weight increase of 2320 kg

(5120 lbs.) including the engine weight increase. This weight increase

is broken down as follows:

Weight

Item kg/nacelle lbs/nacelle

Engine +374 + 825

Inlet + 54 + 120

Fan Cowl + 9 + 20

Fan Duct and Thrust Reverser + 99 + 218

Nozzle + 12 + 27

Plug + 0 0

Strut + 32 + 70

Total +580 +1280

It has been assumed that no wing weight increase will be required as a result

of this increased nacelle weight and the accompanying center of gravity shift.

If this concept is pursued further, wing strength and detailed flutter

investigations will be required to confirm this.

The drag increment on the 747 for the increased diameter fan was assessed

at +0.12% relative to the standard production 747 equipped with JT9D-70A

engines. This assumes that the inlet lip geometry and throat diameter of

the current JT9D-70 nacelle is not increased. This assumption is based

on the growth capability of the current design and on the fact that this

evaluation is done at no thrust increase.

A total airplane price increase of $870,700 was projected. This consists

of an engine price increase of $385,700 per shipset as quoted by Pratt &

Whitney Aircraft and a nacelle price increase of $485,00 per shipset.

Fuel savings were computed for a baseline 747-200B airplane with JT9D-70A

engines, ATA International Reserve Requirements and Operating Empty

Weight plus Payload equal to 217,466 kg (479,430 lbs.) utilizing step

cruise.at Mach 0.85. The effects of the Operating Empty Weight increase

and the fuel weight were included in the TWA analyses. Percent reduction

in block fuel as a function of range is presented below.

- - -
....
!.2.4--­
.... .... ....... ---.......
... . . .- - -.... ....

.....-.....

. ........... R .-

RANGE I 1000 NMI

1;4

These reductions in block fuel are based on the TSFC reductions provided

by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft since installation effects do not penalize

these performance gains.

158
 NASA
ECI-PI JT9D7 MIXER NACELLE

BCAC/P&WA

Three JT9D-7 mixer nacelle configurations were analyzed; however,

only one basic design was defined with layouts. The configuration

defined with layouts was a mixer nacelle of an advanced design structure

to reduce weight. For comparison purposes, weight.estimates were

prepared for a mixer nacelle of conventional design structure and a

mixer nacelle of advanced design structure utilizing composites. The

performance gains were assumed to be the same for all three configurations.

Installation of a forced mixer on the JT9D-7 will require extensive

modifications to the existing installation. The inlet and fan cowl

forward of nacelle station 100 are unchanged from the current JT9D-7

installation. The nacelle lines are unchanged forward of nacelle

station 135. The changes defined below represent an advanced design

structure without composites.

A completely new thrust reverser design will be required, and for the

purpose of this study, it was assumed to be designed by Boeing. The

fan duct between the fan frame and turbine frame would consist of two

"D" sections hinged to the strut. The primary structure would be an

aluminum-brazed titanium inner wall and bifurcation and a bonded aluminum

outer wall. The axial loads in the nacelle would be carried from the

exhaust nozzle to the fan frame through the fan duct by the use of

vee-groove flanges.

159
The strut structure would be revised to carry the additional nacelle

weight, and the fairings would be revised to match the nacelle contour.

The core cowl would be eliminated since the inner wall of the fan duct

will perform this function.

A new exhaust nozzle sized for the combined flow would be required. The

nozzle would be constructed of aluminum brazed titanium honeycomb.

This will require the mixer to be designed to avoid hot gas impingement

on the nozzle such that the normal operating temperature is less than

427 0 C (800 0 F), and the reverse thrust operating temperature is less than

538 0 C (1000 0 F).

The estimated weight increase for the three configurations and the

associated price increases are listed below in Table I.

TABLE I

WEIGHT AND PRICE INCREASES

*Weight Nacelle Engine

kg/Airplane lbs/Airplane Cost Cost

$/Airplane S/Airplane

Conventional Design +4935 +10,880 +435,000 +113,600

Mixer Nacelle

Advanced Design +2585 + 5,700 +435,000 +113,600

Mixer Nacelle

Advanced Design +1972 + 4,348 +450,000 +113,600

Mixer Nacelle

with Composites

*Weight increases include the increased engine weight.

Engine performance changes were based on Boeing's assessment of duct pressure

losses, nozzle coefficients and mixing effectiveness which are defined in

Figure 1.

PFAN A-0.S

FIGURE I PRESSURE LOSS ASSESSMENT

160
No thrust increment was assumed and all performance gains were taken as

TSFC improvements. The TSFC improvement was assessed as a 2% reduction

at takeoff, a 5.2% reduction during climb and a 2.5% reduction during

hold. Performance gains during cruise conditions are shown in Figure 2.

-----------... ..................

.
"

"''
."--{ .. .
.-- ......
:. , '
-Qt- : :z-- -'-::' z

-5 ............. .

-4

L-3

--
... - "---
.---'i' -
'- --" -"--- --... -- ----
_ _
-------- ----
- _

-2

2-- ,. --- .--....-­

50 60 70 80 90 100
% OF MAXIMUM CRUISE-THRUST

FIGURE 2 TSFC IMPROVEMENT

The change in airplane performance was defined as a reduction In block

fuel versus range for a 747-200B airplane with JT9D-7AN engines, ATA

International Fuel Reserves, and an Operating Empty Weight plus Payload

equal to 213,792 kg (471,330 lbs.). The changes in block fuel are shown

in Figure 3 and do not include the increased Operating Empty Weight effects.

-3.8 rzrt .

1 OWEI ----- TN-I-..-, 7 -=

L.. --- =- ----..... .......

s 3.0 - :- .m ...
----
------ - --. - - ._......-
.--
....
-- 2.6--- - - -­

0 1 2345
RANGE "-1000 NMI

FIGURE 3 CHANGE IN BLOCK FUEL

161
 JT9D-7 MIXED FLOW NACELLE (JT9D-7)

The mixed flow long duct nacelle concept requires extensive modifications

to existing hardware. However, in order to best understand the

comparison of the mixed flow long-duct nacelle configuration relative

to the baseline configuration, only the changes necessary to incorporate

the forced mixer were evaluated. The engine is modified by the replacement

of the primary exhaust nozzle with a forced mixer and the modification of the

flanges, bulkheads and seals that interface with the fan duct. Changes to

the Boeing supplied hardware would consist of a new fan thrust reverser, a

new fan duct, and a new exhaust nozzle. The strut would be modified to carry

the additional weight and fair to the long-duct contour. The existing core

engine cowl would be replaced by the inner wall of the fan duct. An aircraft

certification test with the new nacelle would be required.

The attached drawing, Figure 1-1, provides the basic layout of a long-duct

nacelle with improved TSFC obtained by forced mixing of the primary and

fan exhaust streams. The base nacelle for comparison is the current

JT9D-7 installation on the 747 airplane without the turbine thrust reverser.

The nacelle external lines were established by utilizing the existing inlet

and fan cowls and providing an acceptable aerodynamic contour to an exhaust

nozzle with a 10 boat tail angle. The external lines were also influenced

by the requirements of the fan thrust reverser. The inner duct wall was

placed with minimum desired clearance to the engine. The resulting duct

area was judged to be satisfactory at this time. If future detail design

-shows the duct area to be overexpanded, the inner wall can be moved outward

with little effect on the mechanical design.

Loading - To prevent an unacceptable increase in the engine mount loads

in the long nacelle, it is necessary to carry the exhaust nozzle axial

forces back to the fan frame. This is accomplished by coupling the fan

duct between the exhaust nozzle and fan frame with "V' groove flanges.

The fan duct is attached-to the strut with hinges which must carry hoop

loads. At the same time the hinges will provide a redundant load path

along with the engine mounts for nacelle loads in the vertical and

transverse directions. By providing a flange at the turbine rear frame

to transfer radial loads between the fan duct and engine, the fan duct

can be used to help support the core engine case in bending.

Fan Duct - The fan duct is made of two "D"sections hinged to the strut

at tNe top and latched together at the bottom. The complete fan duct

and thrust reverser assembly is opened by an installed drive motor to

provide access to the core engine for maintenance or inspection. A

manual system is also provided for those instances where power is not

available for the drive motor or the drive motor malfunctions.

The inner wall of the "D" duct replaces existing core cowls. The upper

and lower duct bifurcations are formed by end walls of the "D"duct.

The duct walls are made of bonded-aluminum honeycomb sandwich structure to

provide a lightweight stiff structure and maximum duct flow area. The walls

adjacent to the fan flow area are perforated to absorb noise. The fan duct

flow area progression is shown in Figure 1-2.

162
 Fan Duct
Aluminum Brazed Titaniun l aat Weld
.063 Thick ThickTehi0korgae
.040,..25
Zefrtd ,
Openil
(Inner Wall and Bifurcationl 9%~~~~~~~ Lnk I- 'Th,

.063 Outer Skin - .038 Inner Skin

9% Open Perforated - .952 Cell .005 Corrugated
Bonded Aluminum Honeycomb Outer Wall) T S
Perforated Inner Sheet SttcSupport Lien (3) roum r..040 Thick

,Honeycom Hinge Line (4)ol - 1 -- 4 T-k

Load Path StatiRedundant

alui Sheet Vee Groove Couplin -

(Typical Outside)an Duct to an Frame

ijt
...-- -

-. up..

DIMENSIONS IN CM.

Ex haust Mixer
P&WA Supplied - Support to
Turbine Frame 12 LobesSpaced
I Mixer Spport Apart to Allow for the Pylon 4 -j
Mfixed Flow Nozzle
-xistngT9D-7 Support Fld
Radial Support Axial Slide Al Brazed Titan um
ThrustReverser Joint - Allows Fan D.063 Outer Skin - Chem Mill to .040
New Geometry -Fee Groove Coupling Except Flange
Skin Ends
- 9% Open Perforated
oving Outer Sleeve Blcker Bending Loads with
nShare Nozzle to Outer Fan Duct ..038 Inner

Doors and Inner Sleeve Fan Duct .952 Cell - .005 Corrugated Ribbon ­ 2.5 Thick
"D" Section Perforated Aluminum
Inner Walls - Bonded Honeycomb eore
Aluminum Outer Wall

FIGURE I-I LONG DUCT MIXED FLOW NACELLE 747 INBOARD INSTALLATION
L3

C\
WI
 ,
.- , .

a1.
.
. , .
. ..
,

I t....,
14.

50-

... X\

I.

i*... 4

4 4 30
' ' . .' COMBINED FLOW AREA
45........... ..
2/-•
-

,
• I . , '/
l%~
i%~ l
' "
-n . .• '•
/ 1 '## . .. .. .., .7 , 4 C...
. frj% ..
"I . /...

- 40...'.,
aL I
.,

I"
'
S" ;FAN DUCT
. .!, FLOW AR
4
A O, .,
m

'4 -20

''24r4

1704 :,9 . 421 43:-'- 450 27 , 2&41 3

INACEL44 STATI4ON4
Fan Thrust Reverser - The thrust reverser is located at the forward end

of the fan duct and is made in two halves that swing open with the fan

duct. Although the operating principle of blocker doors and cascades

are the same as the existing design, a completely new design is

required to satisfy the geometry of the long-duct nacelle. The thrust

reverser actuators move an outer sleeve that has slides in the upper

and lower bifurcations. An inner sleeve containing the blocker doors is

attached to the outer sleeve by struts that pass through slots in the

cascades and moves together with the outer sleeve. The remainder of

the fan duct containing the inner wall, bifurcation and cascades does

not move during actuation of the thrust reverser. The axial nozzle

load and duct loads are transmitted to the fan frame through this

stationary structure.

Exhaust Nozzle - The exhaust nozzle is fabricated of aluminum-brazed

titanium honeycomb. The use of this material places a requirement on

the mixer to prevent impingement of hot gas during normal opeSation.

The allowable temperature for forward thrust operation is 427 C (8000 F).

In the reverse thrust mode, when the fan air is not being mixed with the

exhaust gas, the allowable temperature is 538 0 C (10000 F) for 36,000 cycles

of 30 seconds duration each. If these temperature limitations cannot be

met, the nozzle will have to be made of inconel instead of titanium which

would result in an additional weight penalty.

Flutter - A "preliminary design" flutter assessment of the advanced

structure design defined in Figure I-1 indicates the installation on the

nominal 747-200B airplane would exhibit adequate and acceptable damping

characteristics. Therefore, flutter required design changes to the base­

line airplane would not be required. Two 747-200B configurations were

analyzed. These were the two nominal flutter critical conditions revealed

through previous experience and analyses. The nacelles were assumed to

be located with the inlets the same distance ahead of the wing leading

edge as current 747-200B installations, and-the current strut stiffness

was assumed to be applicable.

Weights - Weight estimates are provided for three mixed flow nacelle

designs. The first is a lightweight design utilizing advanced structure

that was developed for this contract and discussed above. The second is

a '"conventional" design which is provided to show the amount of weight

reduction achieved by the advanced structure design. The third is an

advanced structure design utilizing composites where possible. The

advanced structure design reduces the weight penalty for incorporating

a forced mixer from 4935 kg (10,880 lbs.) per airplane to 2585 kg (5700

lbs.) per airplane. The design utilizing composites reduces the weight

penalty to 1972 kg (4348 lbs.) per airplane.

The weight shown for the advanced structure design is based on the

incorporation of several design features involving a high technical

risk. These features need to be investigated in more detail before a

165
 great deal of confidence can be placed in this weight estimate. The

following is a partial list of the items that need to be looked at in

greater detail to substantiate the weight shown for the advanced structure

nacelle.

o The advanced structure nacelle uses titanium sandwich construction

for the mixed flow nozzle. The metal temperature aft of the

mixer and during reverse thrust operation may be too high to

allow use of this material. Further analysis and testing are

required to substantiate the use of this material.

o The mixed flow nozzle and aft portion of the fan duct do not

have an outer cowling (i.e., they are constructed from a single,

1/2" thick, titanium sandwich panel). This severely limits the

structural depth available for frames and for the nozzle to fan

duct joint.

o The thrust reverser design presents unique problems on the mixed

flow nacelle because the fan duct cannot be translated aft to

expose the cascades. The thrust reverser design developed to

overcome this problem needs to be investigated in more detail

to confirm that it is feasible and can be built for the weight

allowed.

o It has been assumed in developing the weight estimates that the

engine can be placed in the same position relative to the wing

as the current JTSD-7/747 engines. Analysis and testing are

required to confirm this.

o It was also assumed that no wing weight increase will be

required as a result of the increased weight, revised geometry,

and center of gravity shift caused by the mixed flow nacelle.

Until these investigations are completed, the weight increase for the

mixed flow nacelle should be considered as being within the range

defined by the advanced structure nacelle with composites (+1972 kg

(4348 lbs.) per airplane) and the conventional nacelle (+4935 kg

(10,880 lbs.) per airplane).

Propulsion System Performance - Propulsion system performance improvements

were assessed by Boeing based on the information supplied by Pratt &

Whitney Aircraft. The estimated duct pressure losses and nozzle coefficients

used in the analysis are shown in Figure 1-3. The 70% mixing effectiveness

used is considered optimistic since it is on the high side of Boeing's

model test experience. These cycle assumptions were then used to calculate

the cruise TSFC improvements shown in Figure 1-4. This curve was used

along with the specified percent change in TSFC for the takeoff, climb,

and hold conditions to calculate block fuel savings.

Aerodynamics - The increase-in wetted area and its associated roughness due

to the nacelle extension to accommodate the mixer results in 1.2% increase

in friction and excrescence drag. Interference drag was assumed to be the

same as the current JTSD-7 installation.

166
 JT9D-7 MIXER NACELLE

Cv=.97

PMARY

FAN

FIGURE 1-3 MIXED FLOW CYCLE ASSUMPTIONS

0 0.85 MN/35,0.0 FT. 10668 m

'5.0 ..: ' ' . , "CRUISE THRUST'
Q.5 uquuu r. i uu

04.
00.ka ,,n n rr fCr
~~~~.........
.. "..I.. .. ''
. . , . . ,. I CRU .
RUSETHUS
. . ... . .. .

'4.0 .... . . . . .
in I
-4c'

CD

to-4 , SETING'

r - n ,: . : . . . . .

.. . •FMXMM ',i' .i ,•qUS "CLIMB

THRUST.UIS , -5.2
• " '; :.: .3 , .. , 1 .''. .. ,: HOLD. -2 5

- '; I ,1

L :':" '...
I ' . . . . ......

'.' .,.;....2.5 I 'IMUs'UISE.THRUSTp.;.

,I :. . .. I ,' I ..
Results - The incremental changes in drag and TSFC were applied to the

base airplane and analyzed over the mission profile.

The mission analysis provided the block fuel changes shown in Figure 1-5.

The airplane performance analysis was made for a 747-200B airplane equipped

with JT9D-7AW engines. This combination was selected, in conjunction

with TWA, to be the most representative of the anticipated 747 fleet over

the next five years. This performance information was forwarded to

Trans World Airlines along with the Operating Empty Weight Changes for

use in their analysis.

The successful application of a forced mixer on the JT9D-7/747-200B

will require significant development efforts in three specific areas.

1. A considerable amount of development testing of the mixer itself

should be conducted to develop an efficient, lightweight mixer

design for a high-bypass ratio engine. To date, most mixer

development testing has been accomplished with low-bypass ratio

designs. Achievement of a 70% or better mixer effectiveness with

a high-bypass ratio engine will require a significant amount of

development. Boeing data for low-bypass ratio mixer designs indicate

that a 70% mixer effectiveness is on the high side of the confidence

band of what could reasonably be achieved. In order to get the penetra­

tion and mixing required to achieve a 70% effectiveness with a high-bypass

design, the lobes will have to be long and relatively narrow in addition

to preventing the hot gas from impinging on the outer walls. This will

not only increase the pressure loss in the mixer, it will cause structural

and durability problems that must be overcome. Therefore, in addition

to the aerodynamic/thermodynamic testing required, a considerable amount

of hardware development will be required to produce a lightweight

mixer with the durability and repairability required for commercial service.

2. Success of the mixer will also be dependent upon the development of a

lightweight nacelle. As with the mixer, considerable development

work must be done on the nacelle itself. The advanced structure

design is dependent upon the use of aluminum-brazed titanium honeycomb

which has some temperature limitations. In addition, the

thickness limits the structural depth available for frames and the

nozzle-to-fan duct joint.

3. One of the assumptions made in this evaluation was that the mixed

flow long-duct nacelle could be incorporated with no change in

interference drag. This is dependent upon correct placement/location

of the strut and nacelle on the wing. Additional analysis and testing

is required to validate this assumption. If changes in placement

are required, additional investigations of wing strength and

flutter will also be required.

169

 747-200B W/JT9D-7AW ENGINES

ATA INTERNATIONAL RESERVES
DEW + P/L = 213,792 kg ( 471,330 LB
STEP CRUISE, M=.85

NO AOEW EFFECTS INCLUDED

-3.8

BLOCK
FUEL
% -3.0a ...

...
. ......-. ... €"- -
...2.6.

SI I -J_

-RANGE-loo1 NMI

-II I I I1
2 .4 6 -8 10

RANGE 1000 km.-

FIGURE I-5 BLOCK FUEL IMPROVEMENT

WITH
JTgD-7 MIXER NACELLE

170
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL

1. SUMMARY

This discussion supports the effort within the NASA ECI-PI Program to

analyze the expected economic impact of digital electronics on engine

performance improvement. It would be a mistake to view the results of

this effort as a useful justification for introduction into service of

such controls; however, many share the belief that electronic engine

controls are inevitable. The basic forcing function is the perceived

need for further control sophistication (beyond the limitations of hydro­

mechanical controls and simple electronic augmentation) to make advanced

engines work properly in the hands of pilots, whose primary task is to

fly airplanes rather than worry about the stability, response and life

cycle costs of power plants.

Thus, the question must be raised: what should these "inevitable systems"

be used for and what are the best modes of utilization in terms of economics,

safety, human factors, engine performance and other such concerns? Also, one

must acknowledge the fact that there will be great variety among digital

electronic systems and unlimited growth in sophistication. Therefore, this

report is based on an imagined electronic control system that could be im­

plemented using contemporary state-of-the-art. In order to add realism to

the study, we have assumed that the control system is similar to the EPCS

(Electronic Propulsion Control System) that was recently tested in a coop­

erative program between Boeing and United Aircraft.

This system, although it serves as baseline for this study, is not merely a

translation of a contemporary hydromechanical control system into the domain

of digital electronics. EPCS was tailored for a good pilot interface ("rat­
ing command control"), included many advanced monitoring and self-healing

features, and utilized control laws superior to those obtainable in mechanical

implementations (Ref. 1).

171

This report identifies fuel savings and other economic benefits from such

an EPCS-like baseline system. The savings fall in the "1%fuel" category;

i.e., they are not negligible. However, other aspects of the EPCS type

system are not attractive. For instance, the use of electrical wires for

control links induces a significant weight penalty and, at least in the

eyes of some, carries the threat from lightning induced transients. Fibre­
optics should, therefore, be considered for the follow-on generation of

digital electronic controls. Fibre-optics are light, reliable and immune

from induced transients. A follow-on study is suggested to address the

benefits from and installation problems with fibre-optics for data links

and compatible sensors and equipments.

In.the preparation for the advent of electronic engine controls, serious

consideration should be given to the best utilization of the inherent

potential of advanced electronics. Two more follow-on study items are,

therefore, suggested that should address the use of electronics for

advanced control laws (using currently available variable geometries) and

new control loops (e.g., variable nozzle area, active clearance control, etc.)

that were never seriously considered because of the inherent limitations of

available controllers.

172
II. BENEFITS OF DIGITAL ELECTRONIC CONTROL (EPCS TYPE)

The potential benefits of digital electronic controls on engine performance

improvement are considered. The subject headings are Direct Fuel Savings,

Engine Maintenance and Control System Maintenance. Also included are

references and bibliography.

A. Direct Fuel Savings

1. Engine Trim

Fuel usage and cost for an engine trim on the 747 airplane

using the current hydromechanical control system trim

procedure is as follows:

a. Fuel usage during a full engine ground trim is on the

order of 2271 liters (600 gal.) to 3785 liters (1000 gal.)

per engine.

b. Airlines using this trim procedure averages 3-4 trims

per engine per year.

c. The labor cost for such a trim procedure is $100 - $125

per trim.

Several airlines use a "fuel economy" trim procedure when an

engine is squawked by the crew. This procedure consists of

adjusting the fuel control slightly (with little or no

ground running) and then checking engine operation during

the next in-service flight.

The major expense for this simplified trim procedure is labor

(approx. $50/trim). The frequency of trim is as needed to

resolve the problem.

For airlines using the full engine control system trim, a fuel

saving of about 0.2% is expected by changing from hydromechanical

to electronic controls. For those airlines using the "fuel

economy" trim, a fuel saving of about 0.1% is expected.

173

 2. Elimination of Overboost
Engine overboost during climb is primarily an engine life
problem. However, in order to minimize maintenance cost,
most operators use derated takeoff and climb procedures.
The end result is thus a longer time to climb to the
desired cruise altitude and additional climb fuel usage. For
example, the 747 with JT9D-7 engines operated at 10% climb
derate burns about 91 kg (200 lbs.) to 227 kg (500 lbs.)
more fuel to optimum altitudes than at the full climb
rating. Similar penalties would be incurred by the other
engines certified for use on the 747.

With the autothrottle and TAT/EPRL* computer operating, the

lead engine will operate at climb rating and the others will
track through the autothrottle. Due to engine differences
across the wing, there may still be a slight fuel burn
penalty (say 45 kg (100 lbs.) - 68 kg (150 lbs.) compared
to all engines operated at climb rating (as would occur
with individual electronic engine controls).

3. Accurate Setting and Maintaining of Required Engine Thrust

The electronic control, in conjunction with "fly-by-wire"
links from cockpit to engine and appropriate flight deck
instrumentation, offers the opportunity for:

a. Rapid and accurate setting of desired thrust (N1 ).

b. Maintaining climb rating (or a percentage thereof)
at a fixed throttle position. This permits engine
operation at climb rating without engine overboost,
thereby minimizing climb fuel with no attendant
maintenance penalty.

*"TAT/EPRL" is a digital electronic computer on the 747

airplane that computes total air temperature and stores,
for display to the pilot or use by other systems, the
engine ratings (interms of engine pressure ratio)
contained in the flight manual.
174
In addition, the use of a "command" control system (i.e.,

thrust setting display responds directly to throttle position

with engine response following) provides the means for rapid

setting of the required thrust and thrust equilization across

the wing.

The ability to implement such an advanced control procedure

is beyond the capabilities of a hydromechanical control system.

It is virtually impossible to allocate an economic benefit

to this capability of an electronic control system; however,

ease of engine operation is likely to be the single most

important step forward. Those who were privileged to operate

the EPCS system in a simulated go-around engine acceleration

were convinced that the rapidity of commanding and obtaining

rated go-around power without over-boost (merely pushing

all throttle levers to the forward stop) represented a very

significant improvement toward increased aircraft safety.

During periods of high stress, such as those leading up to

and during go-around maneuvers, the pilot's flying task

should not be burdened with concerns for engine stability,

acceleration and performance.

175

 B. Engine Maintenance

1. Effects of Benign Engine Operation

Derated engine operation in climb will directly result in

some fuel inefficiency. This is economically offset by

the parallel reduction in engine maintenance costs from

derating. Further reductions in maintenance cost can be

obtained from more accurate control and the elimination of

overboost episodes by using "smarter" (e.g., electronic)

controls. It is not known,at this time, what the best

derating strategy should be for a given fuel price that

would result in overall optimal economy.

Perhaps more importantly, there are indirect fuel economy

benefits to be gained from benign engine operation, i.e.,

from extension of overhaul periods. The premise for this

is the fact that overhauls are often not performed to the

degree that would fully restore TSFC to the initial values.

Over the years of operation, there is a gradual decrease in

fuel efficiency, underlying the shorter term deterioration

and restoration functions. It can be shown that this

underlying fuel efficiency curve can be influenced by

benign engine control to yield fuel savings, particularly

in the later years of an engine's useful life. Assuming

that electronic controls can extend the time by 10% for

an engine to deteriorate to an overhaul condition, we

estimate fuel savings on the order of 0.3 - 0.5%.

2. Degree of Performance Restoration at Overhaul

The degree of performance restoration at each overhaul is

a critical item; past efforts have tended to minimize total

maintenance cost. Sallee, et.al., (Ref. 2) pointed out

the benefit of doing compressor maintenance more frequently

when the engine is already in the shop for hot section

maintenance. Epstein (Ref. 3) also noted the benefit of

176
 refurbishing the low pressure system in addition to the

core when the engine is overhauled. This philosophy will

result in more of the engine performance loss being restored

at each overhaul, thus reducing the net performance loss

over the long term. The airlines are tending toward this

type of maintenance philosophy as engine removal and repair

costs (as well as fuel costs) increase.

3. Engine Performance Monitor

Boeing has done extensive studies on engine performance

monitoring. These studies show that a performance monitor

is compatible with a digital electronic control concept

and should be included as a part of each engine controller.

It would be useful in tracking and predicting performance

trends, thereby indicating when certain engine maintenance

actions should be taken.

177
 C. Control System Maintenance

Fuel and engine maintenance savings, brought about by advanced

controls, could possibly be negated by adverse operating costs

of these devices. The following examines failure rates and

control system maintenance.

Electronic controls are expected to meet the high operational

reliability levels of current conventional controls (interms

of In-Flight Shut-Downs, IFSD) and to substantially reduce the

number of delays arising from control failures prior to takeoff.

While electronic controls will cause more frequent maintenance

actions, they lend themselves to definitive fault identification

and, being compatible with automatic electronic test equipment,

should ultimately realize an overall saving in maintenance costs.

From an overall view, it is concluded that advanced propulsion

controls will realize savings in the fuel and maintenance areas

to a degree that is not offset by the operational costs of the

advanced controls themselves. This picture could be affected,

particularly in the introductory phase, by higher initial

costs for electronic controls. Over the long term, however,

the price of electronics (particularly digital electronics) is

expected to decrease; thus, operational costs for a mature

system should not be excessive.

The following comments compare control system maintenance features

of hydromechanical and electronic systems.

1. Failure rates

a. Hydromechanical Controls

The delay and cancellation rate chargeable to the JT9D

controls and accessories is l.2 per 1000 departures

for the 747 installation. Of these, the fuel and

stator vane control account for 0.3 per 1000

departures.

178
 The number of in-flight shutdowns (IFSD) chargeable

to the JT9D controls and accessories is-7 per million

engine hours. Of these, the fuel and stator vane

control account for 2 to 3 per million engine hours.

Similar numbers apply to the other engines certified

for use on the 747.

b. Digital Avionics

When electronic propulsion control systems are used,

they will be required to meet or better current

hydromechanical control system failure rates with

regard to in-flight shut-downs and dispatch delays.

Based on available failure rates for contemporary

aircraft electronics, a Mean Time Between Failure

(MTBF) of 3000 hours (mature value) is feasible

for each channel of an engine-mounted digital control

computer. Thus, the need for parallel redundant

electronic computers (primary + secondary) operating

in conjunction with hydromechanical flow valves and
variable geometry. actuators is apparent.

In a dual-redundant control system (with identical

parallel electronic lanes) the currently achievable

electronic reliability levels are more than adequate

to meet or better the current IFSD rate chargeable

to controls. As a matter of fact, the case can be

made for allowing the occasional dispatch with one of

the two redundant systems inoperative and still meet

(when viewed over a sufficiently long time span)

the current IFSD rates. The capability to dispatch

occasionally with one system lane out is economically

attractive, since it would reduce dispatch delays

chargeable to controls practically to zero and permit

repair at the first opportune time following failure

rather than prior to next dispatch.

179
 Reliability of electronics during the first 3 to 5

years of introduction into airline operation is expected

to be poorer than "mature" electronics, just as new

engine reliability has characteristically been low

during the first years, reaching a stable mature level

after 3 or more years. Thus, initial MTBF of each

controller channel may be- 1000 hours. This will still

be satisfactory for early service with parallel re­

dundant channels.

C. Self-test for Digital System

Reference 4 presented data for electronic flight

controls, showing the effect of built-in test equipment

(BITE) on premature removal rate. The mature value

for the DC-1O system (with BITE) is approximately half

that of the DC-8 system (without BITE).

In addition, the primary electronic engine control

requires a high level of failure detection with switching

to the backup control prior to any significant thrust

change. With proper attention to design, we can be

assured that no failures will be allowed to drive an

engine beyond structural limits and in addition,

that most of the failures of the primary "ontrol

that can have any unacceptable effect on thrust can

-be detected and reacted prior to such a thrust change.

2. Removal Times

Reference 5 (p.28) gives typical power plant accessory

replacement times for the JT9D engines. The time given for

removal of the JT9D fuel control and pump is 240 minutes.

Replacement times for digital electronic controls are

expected to be on the order of 30-45 minutes (assuming a

clean installation with good access). This is compatible

with most airplane turn-arounds and will not impact airplane

departure.

180
 A significant opportunity obtained from the use of redundant

electronic control systems is that the airplane may be

dispatchable for a given number of flight hours after

failure of the "primary" control system. Assuming such a

concept is compatible with certification rules, control

removal can be deferred until the airplane is available at

a depot equipped with digital checkout equipment.

3. Failure Confirmation

A bench check of a hydromechanical control to confirm

failure could be on the order of 4-6 hours. Checkout of

a digital electronic control using a pre-programmed test

could be accomplished in minutes, on wing or bench, without

requiring the engine to run;

4. Repair, Test and Return to Service

Bench time required to repair and checkout a current

technology digital air data computer is about two hours.

Since the electronic engine control computer would be of

about the same complexity, it is expected the repair and

checkout time would be of the same magnitude as for the

digital air data computer.

The current hydromechanical control is a complex piece of

equipment. It is expected that a complete teardown, repair

and re-assembly of the control could easily consume 25-30

man hours. Thus, the time required is an order of magnitude

greater than that required for repair and checkout of a

digital electronic control. This does not represent the

total cost to an airline, since installation on the engine

and engine trim requires additional time.

181
 III. AREAS NEEDING FUTURE INVESTIGATION

The benefits of electronic propulsion controls over current hydro­

mechanical controls have been discussed in the material supporting

the current NASA ECI-PI program.

Table I lists the broad potential for fuel conservation through the

use of electronic propulsion control systems (EPCS). The areas

requiring additional investigation to further utilize the capability

of electronic controls to improve the performance of current high

bypass engine and airplane systems are:

A. Use of fiber-optics to reduce electronic propulsion control

system weight and provide improved signal integrity with respect

to induced electromagnetic interference (e.g., lightning strike).

B. TSFC improvement and retention by means of new control loops

(e.g., variable nozzle area, active clearance control).

C. Improved engine control laws to provide better airplane speed

stability at cruise (reduce throttle motion during cruise auto­

throttle operation, thereby decreasing fuel burn).

These items are beyond the scope of the current ECI-PI program;

thus, additional investigations are required to study the impact

of these features on current engine/airplane systems. A short

discussion for each study item is given below.

182
 A. USE OF FIBER-OPTICS

Discussion

Electronic propulsion control systems being studied will adequately

perform the necessary tasks; however, they do not take full advantage

of the emerging fiber-optic technology. Thus, we believe an improve­

ment in engine performance can be accomplished through the use of these

new concepts.

An electronic propulsion control system using fiber-optic data links

that will provide high-integrity data transmission and yields an engine

performance improvement by means of reduced system weight should be

configured and studied. The system should be evaluated with regard to

initial and maintenance costs, reliability and performance. Assuming

these factors are satisfactory, the system weight should be determined

and compared to an electronic system utilizing wiring for data transmission.

Fiber-optic data links offer several potential advantages over wires for

critical communication systems, such as the flight deck to engine link.

Large signal bandwidth and immunity to electromagnetic interference are

well known properties of fiber-optic cables. Other important attributes

are freedom from disabling short circuits and intermittent connections,

complete electrical isolation of interconnected redundant systems, no

ground loops, safe in explosive environments, light weight and potentially

low in cost.

Electronic engine control introduction may be impeded (ifnot stunted)

if mechanical control links between cockpit and engines are not replaced

by methods directly compatible with the digital data domain. Also,

sensors and instruments directly compatible with the digital data format

are being developed and should be used with the optical data link to

minimize the need for analog/digital and digital/analog converters.

183

 B. TSFC IMPROVEMENT AND RETENTION

Discussion

Decreasing the fuel usage of current high bypass ratio engines is of

extreme importance and is one of the primary objectives of the NASA

ECI-PI program. Variable geometry features that were discarded in the

initial engine design process may now have sufficient potential for

mission fuel saving that they should be reconsidered. In addition,

methods for maintaining blade tip/case clearances are important to engine

performance retention. Both of these features may be accommodated

with the flexibility of digital electronic controls.

The net fuel saving that could be obtained by incorporating additional

variable geometry components on current high bypass ratio engines should

be defined. In addition, the effect of clearance control schemes on

fuel burn by means of improved performance retention should be estimated.

A high bypass ratio engine design incorporating selected variable

geometry should be configured and studied over a typical airplane mission.

The configuration should be evaluated with regard to mission fuel burn,

weight, reliability and cost. Also, advanced concepts for blade tip

clearance control should be developed and evaluated for fuel savings

over an extended time period (e.g., 4000 engine hours).

With the flexibility of digital electronic controls, it is possible to

easily incorporate the algorithms for new control loops if these features

can be shown to reduce mission fuel flow (either directly or by means

of performance retention).

184
 C. IMPROVED AIRPLANE SPEED STABILITY AT CRUISE

Discussion

Figure II-I illustrates the typical relationship of thrust available

(Power Lever Angle (PLA) = constant) and thrust required (airplane gross

weight = constant). Two features are apparent:

a) A gradual decrease in PLA is needed to maintain constant Mach

number as fuel is burned off during cruise.

b) The desired cruise Mach number for maximum range is near the

bucket of he "thrust required" curve. Since the "thrust available"

curve is also quite flat, the natural restoring force on the

airplane following a slight Mach number change is small.

Both of these features can contribute to an airplane speed instability

condition following a disturbance, especially on current aircraft using

hydromechanical fuel controls and long cable runs from flight deck to

engine with the attendant inaccuracies.

A cruise control law for engine operation that would provide more

stable airplane/engine operation should be defined. An evaluation of the

fuel saving that could result (compared to current airplane/engine

systems) should be made.

Using the flexibility of electronic engine controls, a cruise control

law may be possible- to provide "thrust available" curves having a

steeper negative slope. This would improve the inherent airplane/engine

speed stability, since a larger restoring force would be provided when a

small change in Mach number occurs (e.g., due to air turbulence). Such

an improvement in inherent speed stability would greatly reduce the

autothrottle activity, thereby resulting in lower cruise fuel usage.

The magnitude of this saving should be estimated.

185
 Electronic controllers offer the potential for implementation of

improved control laws as well as elimination of input cable hysteresis

and lag through use of electrical or fiber-optic data links. Thus,

improved airplane stability and reduced fuel usage during cruise is

attainable using electronic controls. Progress to date in this area

has only been through development of improved autothrottle control

laws. These efforts can only be partially successful since they still

must contend with the inherent and seemingly unsurmountable inaccuracies

of cable links.

186
 TALI- J
NASA
EC!-PI FUEL CONSERVATION POTENTIAL - ELECTRONIC PROPULSION CONTROLS

* TSFC PRESERVATION IN SERVICE -- ENGINE PROTECTION, BENIGN CONTROL,

REDUCED DETERIORATION RATE
* * REDUCED OR ELIMINATED GROUND
-- IMPROVED CONTROL LINKS AND INTERFACES,

ENGINE TRIM REQUIREMENT

RATING COMMAND CONTROL

* AI RPLANE MINIMUM FUEL BURN AUTOMATED THRUST MANAGEMENT,

LOGIC INPROPULSION SYSTEM AIR CONDITIONING'BLEED LOADS OPTIMIZED,
MANAGEMENT
IMPROVED LOAD DISTRIBUTIONS

* MINIMUM FUEL BURN PROVIDED BY -- EASE-OF INTERFACING WITH AUTOMATED

AUTOMATED FLIGHT PATH CONTROL FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS (ALTITUDE VS.
SPEED)
* °ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM WEIGHT -- ELECTRONIC VS. MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
REDUCED
o MORE SOPHISTICATED CONTROL MODES "- COORDINATED CONTROL OF MANY ENGINE
PROVIDED
VARIABLES TO SAVE FUEL DIRECTLY OR IN-
DIRECTLY, INCLUD ING VARIABLES NOT
CURRENTLY CONTROLLED
° ASSOCIATED MAINTENANCE COST REDUCTION BENEFITS

 Neutral speed
Speed stability Speed
unstable stable Thrust required
(GW= constant)

Sar of/

Net
thrust

Power lever angle, PLA

__

cre
- / 'Thrustavailable
(PLA=constant)

Desired
Flight Mach number

THRUST/MACH STABILITY DURING CRUISF

FIGURE Mr-±

188
D. References

1. Kamber, P. W., Zimmerman, W. H., Ransom, R. D. and Sullivan,

J. T., "Progress in Electronic Propulsion Control for

Commercial Aircraft," AIAA Paper 76-655, July 1976.

2. Sallee, G. P., Kruckenberg, H. D. and Toomey, E. H.,

"Analysis of Turbofan Engine Performance Deterioration and

Proposed Follow-On Tests," NASA CR 134769, 1975.

3. Epstein, Norman and Hess, Paul J., "Improving Performance

Retention of High Bypass Engines," SAE Paper 750620,

May 1975.

4. Brecht, Marlowe W., "Factors to be Considered in Applying

New Technology to the Airline Environment," SAE Paper

760510, May 1976.

5. Sallee, G. Phillip, "An Airline Study of Advanced Technology

Requirements for Advanced High Speed Commercial Transport

Epgines II - Engine Preliminary Design Assessment," NASA

CR-121133 under NASA Contract NAS3-15572, March 1973.

E. Bibliography

1. Sallee, G. Phillip, "An Airline Study of Advanced Technology

Requirements for Advanced High Speed Commercial Transport

Engines," Parts I and III, NASA CR 121132 and 121134 under

NASA Contract NAS3-15572, March 1973.

2. Sallee, G. P., "Aircraft Economics and its Effects on

Propulsion System Design," AIAA Paper 73-808, August 1973.

3. Flanders, T. A., "The Architecture of a Turbine Engine Control,"

Presented at the Royal Aeronautical/IEE Symposium on the

Application of Electrical Control to Aircraft Propulsion

System,'London, February 1974.

4. Sallee, G. P., "Performance Versus Cost Tradeoffs - Initial

look at Alternatives," SAE Paper 740494, May 1974.

5. Sallee, G. Phillip, "Economic Effects of Propulsion System

Technology on Existing and Future Aircraft," NASA CR 134645

under NASA Contract NAS3-17326, July 1974.

6. Kamber, P. W., "An Airframe Manufacturer's Requirements for

Future Propulsion Controls," Presented at the 44th Meeting,

Propulsion and Energetics Panel (AGARD) on Power Plant

Controls for Aero-Gas Turbine Engines, September 1974.

7. Epstein, Norman, "Powerplant Energy Management," AIAA

Paper 74-1066, October 1974.

189

 8. Sevich, G. J., and Newirth, D. M., "Economic Benefits of

Digital Electronic Propulsion Controls for Advanced

Commercial Aircraft," SAE Paper 760508, May 1976.

9. Beyerly, W. R. and Sweeney, J. G., "Life Cycle Fuel Con­

sumption of Commercial Turbofan Engines," AIM Paper

76-645, July 1976.

190
 APPENDIX B

ENGINE PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM

DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT COMPANY

191
 JT8D and JT9D

ENGINE PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM

CONTRACT NO. 20630-2

PREPARED FOR:

PRATT & WHITNEY AIRCRAFT GROUP

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS DIVISION

EAST HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT

BY:

DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT COMPANY

3855 LAKEWOOD BOULEVARD

LONG BEACH, CALIFORNIA 90846

192
INTRODUCTION

The Douglas Aircraft Company participated in the NASA Engine Component

Improvement Program, Performance Improvement Studies as a subcontractor to

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft. This participation was done from February

through December 1977 under P&W Purchase Order 20630-2.

The Douglas participation used numerous technical specialists in the

engineering department for technical evaluations and studies as well as

manufacturing and pricinq personnel for cost estimation.

The basic Douglas activities were:

o Conceived Performance Improvement Concepts

o Assisted in Establishing Screening Procedure

o Critiqued Concepts for Feasability

o Determined Airplane Performance, Weights and Costs on Selected Concepts

193
COCEPTS STUDIED

In addition to participatini in nualitiative assessments of the various concepts,

detailed studies were made on concepts that required airframe chanqes. The

study activities conducted on these concepts are summarized on Table 1.

The DC-S Nacelle Drag Reduction is a new fairing coverinn the reverser stanQ,.
There is no temperature measurement data on the current fairina but there is
limited data on the tUirust reverser arm durinn reverse thrust. These data
show the temperature on the fairinn will probably reach 230°C (450°F)
during reverse. A polyimide resin system would therefore be used in an advanced
composite fairing.

The DC-9 Improved Cabin Air concept, unlike that for the DC-Ic had unfavorable

economics. The DC-9 concept is more complex than required in the DC-IO

resulting in a hinher cost but lower fuel savings.

The CNS with mixer appears to be very promisinq. An in-depth study was made and

is reported in a separate document.

The Short A/B is very-promisinq and considerable activity has been underway

by Douqlas and P&W.

The DC-IO Cabin Air Concept would reduce the encine bleed flow renuired up to

50% and is actually expected to improve the cabin environmental quality by

improving humidity and reducino the ozone content.

Electronic controls appear to be evolvinq although siqnificant direct fuel

savings were not quantifiable. Electronic controls can simplify functions that

save fuel but can be done without electronic controls. Recent evaluation of

usino electronic enaine controls to reduce fuel consumption on current

commerical jet transport aircraft have resulted in the ceneral conclusion

that such a benefit is not likely before 1982. Studies have been made, utilizing
the experience gained from adaptinn partial off-enine electronic propulsion

194
 TABLE 1

CONCEPTS STUDIED

DC-9 NAC DRAG REDUCTION

o Preliminary Design

o Airplane Performance and Weight

o Retrofit Kit Costs

o Technology Planning

DC-9 IMP CABIN AIR

o Preliminary Design

o Airplane Performance and Weight

o Effect on Airplane Selling Price

CNS WITH MIXER AND COMPOSITES

o Preliminary Design Including

Incorporation of Additional Features

o Airplane Performance and Weights

o Noise at FAR 39 Measuring Points

o-Effect on.Airplane Selling Price

o Study Report

SHORT A/B

o Airplane Performance and Weights

o Effect on Airplane Selling Price

DC-10 IMP. CABIN AIR

o Preliminary Design

o Airplane Performance and Weights

o Effect on Airplane Selling Price

o Technology Planning

ELECTRONIC CONTROLS

o Evaluated use of Electronic Controls for

Direct Fuel Savings

o Evaluated use of Electronic Controls

to Improve Propulsion Control System

195
controls in the YC-15 aircraft. Discussions also have been held with the

engine companies and electronic component manufacturers.

Some of the current Douolas conclusions are:

o The widespread use of reduced takeoff thrust largely nenates benefits

from ability to prevent overboost at rated thrust.

o Significant fuel savinos have not yet been quantifiable.

o Electronic ennine controls are expected on future enines, particular­
ily to accomodate additional control functions recuired by the enoine.

o Proper integration of engine and airframe controls will reduce pilot

work load.

o Electronic controls will provide system benefits such as reduced ennine

maintenance cost, but requires increased engine/airframe system

integration.

196
RECOMENDATIONS

The Douglas Aircraft Company recommendations are summarized below:

o Proceed with Technology Development of Promisina Concepts

o Proceed with Several Concepts that include Airframe and Airline

Companies Participation

oo DC-9 Drag Reduction

00 DC-10 Imp. Cabin Air

o Pursue Technology Development of Concepts that may not specifically

fall within current Pl Program

oo Lono Duct Mixed Flow with Composites

oo Electronic Propulsion Contr6ls

A number of concepts should undergo technology development. Since Pratt &

Whitney is the manufacturer of the JT8D and JTSD engines, concepts that Pratt

& Whitney recommends be developed for these engines should be given priority

consideration.

In addition several concepts that do not require Pratt & Whitney involvement

have shown a high probability of helpinq achieve NASA's goal of reducing fuel

consumption by 5% by 1982. In addition to the fuel savings, they directly

benefit the engines because of the effective de-rate that results. These

are the DC-9 Drag Reduction and DC-10 Imp. Cabin Air.

The drag reduction concept will not only result in fuel savings, but because of

the advanced composite construction, will help maintain technological leader­

ship in nacelle composites in the U.S. There is little data and no service

experience using the polyimide resin matrix in a high noise level environment.

A technology procram would provide this.

The Cabin Air concept results in a major reduction in engine bleed flow at

take-off and climb out and will result in significant improvements in engine

hot section life.

197
Two concepts the lonq duct mixed flow and electronic propulsion controls may

not fit within current NASA PI prooram funding and qoals. They should,

however, be pursued by NASA because of their overall lono term payoff.

198
 APPENDIX C

ENGINE PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM

LONG DUCT MIXED FLOW NACELLE STUDY

DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT COMAPNY

199
 JT8D and JT9D

ENGINE PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT PROGRAM

LONG DUCT MIXED FLOW NACELLE STUDY

CONTRACT NO. 20630-2

PREPARED FOR:

PRATT & WHITNEY AIRCRAFT GROUP

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS DIVISION

EAST HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT

BY:

DOUGLAS AIRCRAFT COMPANY

3855 LAKEWOOD BOULEVARD

LONG BEACH, CALIFORNIA 90846

200
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages
1.0 Introduction 202

2.0 Long Duct Mixed Flow Description 204

2.1 Performance
204

2.2 Noise 204

2.2.1 Inlet Noise

204

2.2.2 Fan Discharge Noise 204

2.2.3 Turbine Noise 205

2.3 Weights 208

2.4 Long Duct Mixed Flow Installation Design 210

2.4.1 Materials 210

2.4.2 Construction 211

2.4.2.1 Nose Cowl 211

2.4.2.2 Fan Cowl Door

214

2.4.2.3 Fan Reverser 219

2.4.2.4 Mixed Nozzle 219

201
 1.0 INTRODUCTION

The results of design studies on the Common Nacelle System (CNS) mixer and

composites is presented. The long duct mixed flow nacelle was evaluated

using the Pratt & Whitney JT9D-59 engine. Incorporation of this concept

would require a major development program. This'effort would require sub­

stantial non-recurring expenditures for retooling and recertification. Since

the cost associated with adding other design features is nominal, they were

included in this study. Primary emphasis placed on these additional features

was directed toward the reduction of engine deterioration. The features of

the CNS concept and the additional design concepts are depicted in Figure 1.

202
 FIGURE I
ADVANCED INTEGRATED NACELLE

Pylon Mod

Improved
-­
------ -
Acoustic
..... .l
..
-.. . " -= . ... ..

. .....Forced

Mixer

-: -- "-
Long Duct

Compos ite

Inlet

FEATURES

o Composite long duct reduces drag & accomodates additional acoustic treatment

o. Pylon modification minimizes interference drag

o Forced mixer improves propulsive efficiency and reduces jet noise

o
o Load sharing composite core cowl reduces engine deterioration

Composite inlet reduces weight

o Improved acoustic treatment reduces noise

2.0 LONG DUCT MIXED FLOW DESCRIPTION

2.1 PERFORMANCE

The long duct mixed flow nacelle improves the performance of the aircraft by

reducing fuel consumption. The increased performance is accomplished by:

the reduction of high mach number scrubbing drag due to fan flow discharging

on the core cowling, internal thermal mixing of the primary flow with the

fan flow; and reduced interference drag. The additional area of the exterior

surfaces on the nacelle has increased external skin friction and drag. The

performance gains and losses in each phase of flight is shown in Table 1. A

2% interference drag improvement was assumed in these calculations based on

the estimated potential improvement possible by elimination of shock induced

flow separation that data shows currently exists.

2.2 NOISE

Jet noise is reduced below that of the short duct nacelle by reducing the

maximum exhaust velocities. This is accomplished by the mixing of fan and

turbine flows. The resultant achievable level reduction estimates are shown

in Table 2. To accomplish these noise reductions, improved and/or additional

acoustic treatment was needed in the inlet, fan discharge and turbine dis­
charge areas. The following paragraphs explain what steps were taken to

accomplish these noise reductions.

2.2.1 INLET NOISE. For inlet radiated fan noise, improved acoustic material

is used in the nose cowl because of its superior ability to absorb high fre­
quency noise.

2.2.2 FAN DISCHARGE NOISE. From the fan discharge ducts, there is a reduc­
tion in radiated noise. This is accomplished by using acoustical treatment

in the additional available area. The most appropriate lining design for

this increased area is a perforated face sheet, made from advanced fibers,

bonded to a composite, but impervious, honeycomb core.

204

2.2.3 TURBINE NOISE - For turbine noise reduction,, essentially all of the

nozzle wall is treated, and additional treatment is installed on the wall of

the centerbody. The current corrugated core design, would be changed to a

honeycomb core design to gain additional treated area. This requires that

high temperature titanium be milled to foil thicknesses.

205
 TABLE 1

LONG DUCT MIXED FLOW NACELLE: PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENTS

JTSD-59A ENGINE INSTALLED

(LSFC'\ (ASFC) A (ASFC~

-SFC)Internal\-SFC/ External Scrubbing (D Interference \ SFC) TOTAL
% % % %

TAKEOFF -3.6 NIL NIL -3.6

CLIMB -6.5 0.9 111L -5.6
HOLD -3.7 1.3 NIL -2.4
CRUISE
70% -4.6 1.2 -2.0 -5.4

80% -5.1 1.2 -2.0 -5.9

90% -5.6 1.2 -2.0 -6.4

100% -6.1 1.2 -2.0 -6.9

DESCENT NIL NIL NIL NIL

 TABLE 2

ESTIMATED NOISE REDUCTION (AEPNdB)

FOR
LONG DUCT NACELLE WITH MIXER NOZZLE AND BULK TREATMENT
IN THE INLET AT MAXIMUM CERTIFIED GROSS WEIGHT
TOG1 = 267,619 Kg LGW = 197,766 Kg

AIRPLANE CONFIG. TAKEOFF SIDELINE APPROACH @ MAX FLAPS

DC-1O-40/JT9D-59A 3-4 3-4 2-3

2.3 WEIGHTS

A weight estimate was made for the long duct mixed flow nacelle. The weight

estimate is broken down into the major nacelle components. (Fan cowl door,

Fan Reverser etc.) A separate weight estimate is made for the tail nacelle

due to a slight variation in dimensions. These estimated weights along with

the current pod weights are compared in Table 3. The purpose for comparing

these weights is to see if it is necessary to add structural strength to the

pylon. As shown in the Tables, the long duct mixed flow nacelle with com­
posites is approximately two percent lighter than current pods. This leaves

a 90 kg (200 lb) cushion which will absorb any changes between preliminary

and final design.

TABLE 3

NACELLE WEIGHT COMPARISON

JT9D-59, EBU of 478 kg and engine not included

LONG DUCT MIXED FLOW WITH

CURRENT PODS COMPOSITES

kg (lbs) kg (lbs) % CHANGE 1

WING 1571 (3463) i 1539 (3394) -1.99

TAIL 1487 (3279) 1457 (3213) -2.01

TOTAL A/C, 4629 (10205) 4536 (10001) -2.00

1. Percent change with respect to current pods

208
2.4 LONG DUCT MIXED FLON INSTALLATION DESIGN

2.4.1 MATERIALS:

To be able to incorporate the long duct mixed flow with minimum effect on air­
frame support structures, composite materials are used to keep the weight of

the long duct design to a minimum. The basic long duct nacelle construction

is a thin walled design concept using composite face skins bonded to a honey­
comb core.

The material chosen for a majority of the face skins is a Graphite/Kevlar

50/50 hybrid fabric. The material is comprised of fifty percent Graphite

(Thornel 300, Fibrite) and fifty percent Kevlar (Kevlar 49, E.I. DuPont).

The weave is an eight harness satin and the thread count is 24 X 24. The

fabric style is W-107 and has a density of .329 Kq/m The

reason for choosing this material is for its diversified characteristics.

The Graphite in the face skins enables the conduction of current due to

secondary lightning strikes. The Graphite has good tensile and compressive

strength to weight ratios which reduces the number of plies. The Graphite

alone has poor impact characteristics. This leads to the use of a second

material, Kevlar, which is chosen for its impact characteristics. The Kevlar

also has good tensile strength to weight ratio but has a poor compressive

strength to weight ratio. This weakness is compensated by the characteristics

of Graphite. Combining the Kevlar and Graphite in a bi-woven hybrid the weak

characteristics of one material is compensated for by the strength of the

other material.

The material is chosen in a fabric form over the conventional tape form due

to the dimensions of the nacelle. With the large shapes of the nacelle com­
ponents, the use of fabrics reduces lay-up time and labor costs. This cost

savings outweights the weight increase caused by using the heavier fabric.

A polyimide resin (matrix) system is used to fabricate the composite face

skins. The polyimide resin has not had as an extensive testing program in

industry as epoxy resins, but shows several advantages which make it worth

209

developing. An increase in impact resistance is accomplished when a polyi­

mide resin is substituted for an epoxy resin in the use of composite panels.

A polyimide resin has higher service temperature (232 0C) than that of an

epoxy (177C). The polyimide resin also has more resistance to fire than an

epoxy resin.

The core material chosen is a nylon phenolic or Nomex* honeycomb. The cell

size and core thickness varies in different areas of the nacelle. In areas

where acoustic treatment is needed the cell size is 9 mm and is between 19 mm to

25 mm deep. A similar aluminum core was considered but rejected because of the

possibility of Galvanic corrosion with Graphite fibers and the vulnerability

to secondary lightning strikes.

A proprietary approach was used in the protection of composite panels located

in fire zones. The fire zones of the nacelle are shown in Figure 1A. The

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that any material in a fire

zone be able to withstand 1094°C for fifteen minutes. To meet this require­
ment, tests conducted by Douglas show proper selection of materials and con­
struction will provide the necessary fire resistance.

2.4.2 CONSTRUCTION

The basic construction for the long duct mixed flow nacelle is shown below.

The wing and tail designs have similar construction.

2.4.2.1 Nose Cowl - The nose cowl is designed to provide smooth airflow into

the engine as shown in Figure 2. The current baseline design has three inlet

panels which are acoustically treated aluminum honeycomb. The exterior skin

is comprised of aluminum skin and stringer. There are two titanium bulkheads

stationed forward and aft in the nose cowl assembly.

In an effort to reduce weight several sections of the nose cowl were changed

to composites. The anti-icing lip assembly and the titanium bulkheads were

not changed due to the high temperature environment in this area. The inlet

*Nomex is Du Pont's trademark for nylon phenolic honeycomb.

210
NACELLE ADVANCED COMPOSITES

FIRE RESISTANCE REQUIREMENT

0 ti
0

PRIMARY FIRE ZONES

a FIRE ZONES REQUIRE 194°C, 15-MINUTE FIRE CONTAINMENT CAPABILITY

FIGURE 1-A
 hel

FAN COWL DOOR FAN REVERSERQ

-------- ------ --- -

r - ctr~r---
- - - - - - ­ - - - -- ------- a --------­

-
-
-----------

MIXED NOZZLE

NOSE COWL (INLET)

FIGURE 2

barrel was changed to a composite design. The outer skin was changed from aluminum
skin and stringer design to a similar composite design.

The construction of the inner barrel is shown in Figure 3. The inlet barrel

is divided into three panels. Each panel is similar in design but not iden­
tical. The panels are designed in two parts. The aft end of the inner barrel

is a double honeycomb design. This is designed to absorb the buzz saw noise

emitted by the engine. The inner face skin is four plies of porous Kevlar

fabric. The high impact resistance of Kevlar meets the requirement that

maintenance personnel be able to walk in the inlet. The inner and outer

core is a Nomex honeycomb with 9 mm cells. The septum skin is five plies

of porous Graphite fabric. This intermediate face skin is designed to carry

a majority of the nose cowl loads. The outer face skin is two plies of

Graphite fabric.

The outer aerodynamic surface or outer barrel of the nose cowl is made of

seven plies of Graphite-Kevlar hybrid fabric strengthed by graphite stringers.

The structure is broken down into three similar but not identical panels.

This construction can be seen in Figure 4. The fabrication process takes

the outer face skin fabric and lays it up against a mold to create a smooth

aerodynamic surface. The stringers are fit to this double contour panel by

using B-staged unidirectional Graphite and rubber mandrels. The face skins

and stringers are then cocured together.

An alternative design is Graphite/Kevlar outer face skins with stiffeners de­

signed into hat sections. The hat sections are composed of a honeycomb core

with unidirectional Graphite fabric on three sides. The fourth side is co­
cured to the face skins. This concept adds to the cost of the manufacturing

process by requiring the honeycomb to be machined to the double contour of

the panel.

2.4.2.2 Fan Cowl Door - The fan cowl door, shown in Figure 2, is designed

to provide access to the engine accessories. There are two doors per nacelle.

The doors are similar but not identical. The door's current design is made

213
OUTER FACE SKIl - 2 Plies Graphite Fabric

OUTER CORE - Nomex Honeycomb, 9 mm cells

SEPTUM SKIN - 5 Plies Porous Graphite Fabric

INNER CORE - Nomex Honeycomb, 9 mm cells

INNER FACE SKIN - 4 Plies Porous Kevlar Fabric

F 19 mm

32 mm

FIGURE 3. NOSE COWL, INNER BARREL CONSTRUCTION

OUTER FACE SKIN - 7 Plies Graphite/Kevlar lHybrid Fabric

DOUBLER - 2 Plies Graphite Fabric

STRINGE -t6 Plies Graphite Fabric

STRINGER - 5 Plies Unidirectional Graphite Fabric

FIGURE 4. NOSE COWL, OUTER BARREL CONSTRUCTION

of aluminum honeycomb. Three hinges attach each fan cowl door to the side of

the pylon. The doors are connected by a series of three latches along the

bottom centerline of the engine. The right hand door has two small access

doors, a pressure relief door, and two duct installations. The left hand

door has three duct installations and an access door. Each door has incor­
porated two hold open rods to support the door during maintenance opertions.

In order to reduce the weight of the fan cowl door, composite materials were

chosen to replace the aluminum honeycomb panel in the baseline design. To

help keep the cost of the composite door down, existing latches, hinges, rub­
strips and hold open rods were retained in the new design. By converting to

the composite honeycomb design, a weight savings was accomplished of approx­

imately fifteen percent. The outer face skin, made of Kevlar/Graphite

hybrid was chosen because of its ability to improve impact resistance. The

core was changed from an aluminum honeycomb to a Iomex honeycomb to eliminate

corrosion and the possibility of an explosive reaction due to a secondary

lightning strike. A special thermal barrier was added to the inner skin en­
abling the door to resist fire penetration. The basic construction of the

composite fan cowl door is shown in Figure 5. This construction is similar

for both right and left handed doors. The outer face skin of the door is com­
posed of two plies of Kevlar/Graphite hybrid fabric. The core consists of a

Nomex honeycomb material. The core is approximately 25.4 nm thick and has a

cell size of 4.8 mm. The core was made this thick in order to provide

sufficient rigidity to handle torsional loads. The inner face skin is two

plies of unidirectional Graphite fabric. An additional ply of unidirectional

Graphite fabric was added in 15 cm strips from the hinges at the top of the

door to the latches at the bottom.

A titanium edge frame was incorporated in the perimeter of the fan cowl door.

Its purpose was to help reduce maintenance cost, increase rigidity and con­
duct currents from secondary lightning strikes. The material selection elim­
inated those materials which were lighter than titanium because of their in­
compatibility with composites so far as thermal expansion in a cocured pro­
cess.

216
 OUTER FACE SKIN - 2 Plies Graphite/Kqvlar Hybrid Fabric

CORE - florex Honeycomb, 4.8 mm cells

INTERMEDIATE FACE SKIN - 2 Plies Unidirectional Graphite Fabric

INNER FACE SKIN - Thermal Fire Barrier

i25.4mm

Figure 5. Fan Cowl Door Construction

2.4.2.3 Fan Reverser - The reverser, shown in Figure 2, is designed to provide reverse
thrust during the landing roll. The cascades and blocker doors are designed to direct the
reverse flow primarily forward and upward. The use of composite materials is to minimize
the weight of the fan reverser.

The basic construction of the reverser inner barrel wall is shown in Figure

6. The outer face skin is a Graphite/Kevlar hybrid fabric. The outer core

is composed of a Nomex honeycomb. The intermediate impervious face sheet is

Graphite fabric. The inner core is comprised of high temperature phenolic

honeycomb. The inner face sheet is made of a special thermal barrier. The

inner barrel of the fan reverser is in a fire zone (Figure 1A). The inner

core provides some spacing between the fire and the pressurized acoustic

panel.

The construction of the outer barrel and blocker doors in the fan reverser

is shown in Figure 7. The outer and inner face skins are of a Graphite/

Kevlar hybrid fabric. The core is Nlomex honeycomb. Since this is not a fire

zone there is no need for additional protection as in the inner barrel. The

frames between outer barrel panels are made of unidirectional Graphite fabric.

2.4.2.4 Mixed Nozzle - The mixed nozzle contains the flow from the mixing of fan and
turbine gases as shown in Figure 2. The nozzle is manufactured into two half panels which
are bolted to the pylon. The panel has a perforated inner face skin to provide for acoustic
treatment. The trailing edge is a formed converging diverging nozzle.

A high temperature titanium is required in this area because of the existence

of adverse environmental conditions. In mixing fan and turbine air, hot

streaks appear on the face skins. Hot streaks occur when turbine air (538 0 C)

isnot thoroughly mixed with fan air. The titanium used to withstand this

type of condition is Ti-6AL-2sn-4zr-2mo. This material is a near alpha and

218
 OUTER FACE SKIN - 2 Plies Graphite/Keviar Porous Hlybrid Fabric

OUTER CORE - Nomex Honeycomb, 9 mm cells

SEPTUM SKIN - 4 Plies Graphite Fabric

INNER CORE - Glass/Polyimide, 4,8 mm cells

INNER SKIN - Thermal Fire Barrier

19 mm

Figure 6. Fan Reverser, Inner Barrel Construction

 OUTER FACE SKIN - 3 Plies Graphite/Kevlar Hybrid Fabric

CORE - Iomex Honeycomb, 9 mm cells

INNER FACE SKIN -2

Plies Graphite/Keviar Hlybrid Fabric

4 25.4 mm

Figure 7. Fan Reverser, Outer Barrel and Blocker Door Construction

has a maximum service temperature of 5830 C.

Several alternative constructions were considered. Plastic forming was con­

sidered for its ability to provide a uniform structure. Plastic forming is

in the experimental stages and would require further development. If the

high temperature titanium is unable to withstand the environment, a stainless

steel material will be used in the panel. Actual environmental conditions

will not be known until full scale tests are conducted.

The basic construction of the mixed nozzle is shown in Figure 8. The inner

perforated titanium face skin has a thickness of .4mm. The outer impervious

titanium face skin has a thickness of .3mm. The core was developed to pro­
vide maximum acoustic treatment within the constraints of the high tempera­
ture titanium. Titanium 6-2-4-2 can be rolled into sheet form of a minimum

thickness of .3mm. This eliminates the possibility of using a honeycomb

design because of its nominal gauge thickness of .08 mm. The design developed

was a continuous trapezoidal hat section. The wall thickness is .3 mm. The

skins and the core will be brazed together in the sandwich construction.

221

 CORE -. 3 mm Titanium Sheet

INNER FACE SHEET - 4mm Perforated Titanium Sheet

OUTER FACE SHEET -. 3mm Titanium Sheet

mm
Fi u ei e
o z en s rn19

Figure 8. Mixed Nozzle Construction

 LIST OF SYMBOLS

AA American Airlines
A/B Aftbody
APES Aircraft Performance and Economic Simulation
AR Aspect Ratio
ATA Air Transport Association
BCAC Boeing Commercial Aircraft Company
B/M Bill of Material
CAB Civil Aeronautics Board
CNS Common Nacelle System
CRF Capital Recovery Factor
DAC Douglas Aircraft Company
DOC Direct Operating Cost
ECI Engine Component Improvement
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
EOH Engine Operating Hour
EPCS Electronic Propulsion Control System
EPRL Engine Pressure Ratio Limiter
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FEGV Fan Exit Guide Vane
HPC High Pressure Compressor
HPT High Pressure Turbine
IFSD In-Flight Shutdown
IGV Inlet Guide Vane
ITC Investment Tax Credit
LE Leading Edge (of Airfoil)
LPC Low Pressure Compressor
LPT Low Pressure Turbine
M Mach
MN Mach Number
MCA Multiple Circular Arc
MTBSV Mean Time Between Shop Visits
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
OAS Outer Air Seal
OEW Operating Empty Weight
OWE Operating Weight Empty
PBP Payback Period
PI Performance Improvement
PLA Power Lever Angle
P&WA Pratt & Whitney Aircraft
ROI Return on Investment
TE Trailing Edge (of Airfoil)
T/O Takeoff
TRC Thrust Rating Computer
TSFC Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption
TWA Trans World Airlines
UA United Airlines
WAE Gas Generator Airflow
WAT Total Engine Airflow
223
 REFERENCES

1. Contract NAS3-19132, "Study of Turbofan Engines Designed for Low Energy Con­
sumption", NASA CR-135002, April 1976.

2. "Study of Cost/Benefit Tradeoffs for Reducing the Energy Consumption of the Com­
mercial Air Transportation System," (United Airlines), NASA CR-137891, June 1977.

3. Contract NAS3-18565, "Continued Development of Abradable Gas Path Seals," NASA

CR-1 34879, November 1975.

4. Contract NAS3-19759, "Development of Plasma Sprayed Ceramic Gas Path Seals for
High Pressure Turbine Applications," NASA CR-135183, April 1977.

5. Contract NAS3-20590, "Development of Improved High Pressure Turbine Outer Gas

Path Seal Component, "in progress.

224
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National Aeronautics & Space Adm.

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(13 copies)

Frederick Povinelli/RJP-9 (3)

Robert W. Schroeder/MS 500-207

Dr. James Kramer/R-1

Chief, V/STOL & Noise Div.

Dr. John Klineberg/RJB-9

Ambrose Ginsburg/MS 5-3

Chief, Fluid Systems Div.

Harry Johnson/RL-5

William J. Anderson/MS 23-2

George Deutsch/RW-3
Chief, Mechanical Components Branch

G. G. Kayten/RX-4
Lawrence Ludwig/MS 23-2

F. E. Penaranda/RM-2
Melvin J. Hartmann/MS 5-9

Chief, Fan & Compressor Branch

L. P. Shomo/RMP-2

Harold E. Rohlik/MS 77-2

E. L. Sanchez/RMR-2
Chief, Turbine Branch

NASA Scientific and Technical

Robert W. Hall/MS 49-1

Information Facility
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Attn: Accessioning Department

P. 0. Box 8757
Tito T. Serafini/MS 49-1

Balt/Wash. Intenational Airport

MD 21240 (30 copies)

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National'Aeronautics & Space Adm.

Lewis Research-Center
Kenneth E. Skeels/MS 500-313

21000 Brookpark Road

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Cleveland, OH 44135

Warner L. Stewart/MS 3-5

Lewis Library/MS 60-3 (2 copies)

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Report Control Office/MS 5-5

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Naval Air Propuslion Center

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Dr. Robert Leonard

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Chief, Economic Analysis

Dr. James Albers

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National Aeronautics & Space Adm.

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1709 New York Avenue,.NW

Moffett Field, CA 94035

Washington, DC 20056

L. J. Williams
E. L. Thomas, Asst. V. P. Engineering

Arnold Engineering & Development Center

Pan American World Airways, Inc.

AEDC/XRFX
John F. Kennedy International Airport

Arnold AFS, TN 39389

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John G. Borger

Vice-President & Chief Engineer

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Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

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Dayton, OH 45433
Director Powerplant Engineering

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Robert-E. Clinton,
Jr.

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Department of Transportation

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Miami International Airport

2-280 MCI

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Delta Air Lines, Inc.

Power Plant Engineering-MIAEW

Hartsfield-Atlanta Int'l Airport

Bldg. 21
Altanta, GA 30320

Jim Goodrum

Max Dow, Director, Powerplant

Engineering-MIAEW, Bldg. 21
Seaboard World Airlines, Inc.

Seaboard World Bldg.

P. M. Johnstone
John F. Kennedy Int'l Airport

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The Flying Tiger Line, In6.

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Minneapolis-St. Paul Int'l. Airport

AVCO Lycoming Division

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Stratford, CN 06497

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A. Bright

Engine Performance

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San Francisco International Airport

Air Research Manufacturing

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Department 93-010/503-4B

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227

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Hamilton Standard Div., UTC

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Detroit Diesel Alliton Div.
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MS: 3-2-36
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Pratt and Whitney Aircraft Group

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228