80 CHAPTER 3 Digital Signals and Systems

5. The unit-impulse response can be used to fully describe a linear, time-invariant system. Given the
impulse response, the system output is the sum of the products of the impulse response coefficients
and corresponding input samples, called the digital convolution sum.
6. BIBO is a type of stability in which a bounded input will produce a bounded output. A BIBO
system requires that the sum of the absolute impulse response coefficients be a finite number.
7. The digital convolution sum, which represents a DSP system, is evaluated in three ways: the
graphical method, evaluation of the formula, and the table method. The table method is found to
be most effective.

3.7 PROBLEMS
3.1. Sketch each of the following special digital sequences:
a. 5dðnÞ
b. 2dðn  5Þ
c. 5uðnÞ
d. 5uðn  2Þ
3.2. Calculate the first eight sample values and sketch each of the following sequences:
a. xðnÞ ¼ 0:5n uðnÞ
b. xðnÞ ¼ 5sinð0:2pnÞuðnÞ
c. xðnÞ ¼ 5cosð0:1pn þ 300 ÞuðnÞ
d. xðnÞ ¼ 5ð0:75Þn sinð0:1pnÞuðnÞ
3.3. Sketch each of the following special digital sequences:
a. 8dðnÞ
b. 3:5dðn  4Þ
c. 4:5uðnÞ
d. 6uðn  3Þ
3.4. Calculate the first eight sample values and sketch each of the following sequences:
a. xðnÞ ¼ 0:25n uðnÞ
b. xðnÞ ¼ 3sinð0:4pnÞuðnÞ
c. xðnÞ ¼ 6cosð0:2pn þ 300 ÞuðnÞ
d. xðnÞ ¼ 4ð0:5Þn sinð0:1pnÞuðnÞ
3.5. Sketch the following sequences:
a. xðnÞ ¼ 3dðn þ 2Þ  0:5dðnÞ þ 5dðn  1Þ  4dðn  5Þ
b. xðnÞ ¼ dðn þ 1Þ  2dðn  1Þ þ 5uðn  4Þ
 3.6 Summary 81

3.6. Given the digital signals xðnÞ in Figures 3.24 and 3.25, write an expression for each digital
signal using the unit-impulse sequence and its shifted sequences.

x ( n)

4
3 2
2 1 1
1
1
n
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
FIGURE 3.24
The first digital signal in Problem 3.6.

x ( n)

n
1 0 1 2 3 4 5

1
FIGURE 3.25
The second digital signal in Problem 3.6.

3.7. Sketch the following sequences:

a. xðnÞ ¼ 2dðn þ 3Þ  0:5dðn þ 1Þ  5dðn  2Þ  4dðn  5Þ
b. xðnÞ ¼ 2dðn þ 2Þ  2dðn þ 1Þ þ 5uðn  3Þ
3.8. Given the digital signals xðnÞ in Figures 3.26 and 3.27, write an expression for each digital
signal using the unit-impulse sequence and its shifted sequences.

x ( n)

4
3
2
1
n
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
FIGURE 3.26
The first digital signal in Problem 3.8.
82 CHAPTER 3 Digital Signals and Systems

x(n)

n
1 0 1 2 3 4 5

1
FIGURE 3.27
The second digital signal in Problem 3.8.

3.9. Assume that a DS processor with a sampling time interval of 0.01 second converts the
following analog signals xðtÞ to a digital signal xðnÞ; determine the digital sequence for each
of the analog signals.
a. xðtÞ ¼ e50t uðtÞ
b. xðtÞ ¼ 5sinð20ptÞuðtÞ
c. xðtÞ ¼ 10cosð40pt þ 300 ÞuðtÞ
d. xðtÞ ¼ 10e100t sinð15ptÞuðtÞ
3.10. Determine which of the following systems is a linear system.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 5xðnÞ þ 2x2 ðnÞ
b. yðnÞ ¼ xðn  1Þ þ 4xðnÞ
c. yðnÞ ¼ 4x3 ðn  1Þ  2xðnÞ
3.11. Assume that a DS processor with a sampling time interval of 0.005 second converts each of
the following analog signals xðtÞ to a digital signal xðnÞ; determine the digital sequence for
each of the analog signals.
a. xðtÞ ¼ e100t uðtÞ
b. xðtÞ ¼ 4sinð60ptÞuðtÞ
c. xðtÞ ¼ 7:5cosð20pt þ 600 ÞuðtÞ
d. xðtÞ ¼ 20e200t sinð60ptÞuðtÞ
3.12. Determine which of the following systems is a linear system.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 4xðnÞ þ 8x3 ðnÞ
b. yðnÞ ¼ xðn  3Þ þ 3xðnÞ
c. yðnÞ ¼ 5x2 ðn  1Þ  3xðnÞ
3.13. Determine which of the following linear systems is time invariant.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 5xðn  10Þ
b. yðnÞ ¼ 4xðn2 Þ
 3.6 Summary 83

3.14. Determine which of the following linear systems is causal.

a. yðnÞ ¼ 0:5xðnÞ þ 100xðn  2Þ  20xðn  10Þ
b. yðnÞ ¼ xðn þ 4Þ þ 0:5xðnÞ  2xðn  2Þ
3.15. Determine the causality for each of the following linear systems.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 0:5xðnÞ þ 20xðn  2Þ  0:1yðn  1Þ
b. yðnÞ ¼ xðn þ 2Þ  0:4yðn  1Þ
c. yðnÞ ¼ xðn  1Þ þ 0:5yðn þ 2Þ
3.16. Find the unit-impulse response for each of the following linear systems.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 0:5xðnÞ  0:5xðn  2Þ ; for n  0, xð2Þ ¼ 0, xð1Þ ¼ 0
b. yðnÞ ¼ 0:75yðn  1Þ þ xðnÞ ; for n  0, yð1Þ ¼ 0
c. yðnÞ ¼ 0:8yðn  1Þ þ xðn  1Þ ; for n  0, xð1Þ ¼ 0, yð1Þ ¼ 0
3.17. Determine the causality for each of the following linear systems.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 5xðnÞ þ 10xðn  4Þ  0:1yðn  5Þ
b. yðnÞ ¼ 2xðn þ 2Þ  0:2yðn  2Þ
c. yðnÞ ¼ 0:1xðn þ 1Þ þ 0:5yðn þ 2Þ
3.18. Find the unit-impulse response for each of the following linear systems.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 0:2xðnÞ  0:3xðn  2Þ ; for n  0, xð2Þ ¼ 0, xð1Þ ¼ 0
b. yðnÞ ¼ 0:5yðn  1Þ þ 0:5xðnÞ ; for n  0, yð1Þ ¼ 0
c. yðnÞ ¼ 0:6yðn  1Þ  xðn  1Þ ; for n  0, xð1Þ ¼ 0, yð1Þ ¼ 0
3.19. For each of the following linear systems, find the unit-impulse response, and draw the block
diagram.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 5xðn  10Þ
b. yðnÞ ¼ xðnÞ þ 0:5xðn  1Þ
3.20. Determine the stability of the following linear system.
yðnÞ ¼ 0:5xðnÞ þ 100xðn  2Þ  20xðn  10Þ
3.21. For each of the following linear systems, find the unit-impulse response, and draw the block
diagram.
a. yðnÞ ¼ 2:5xðn  5Þ
b. yðnÞ ¼ 2xðnÞ þ 1:2xðn  1Þ
3.22. Determine the stability for the following linear system.
yðnÞ ¼ 5xðnÞ þ 30xðn  3Þ  10xðn  20Þ
3.23. Determine the stability for each of the following linear systems.
PN k
a. yðnÞ ¼ k ¼ 0 0:75 xðn  kÞ
PN k
b. yðnÞ ¼ k ¼ 0 2 xðn  kÞ
84 CHAPTER 3 Digital Signals and Systems

3.24. Determine the stability for each of the following linear systems.
PN k
a. yðnÞ ¼ k ¼ 0 ð1:5Þ xðn  kÞ
PN k
b. yðnÞ ¼ k ¼ 0 ð0:5Þ xðn  kÞ

3.25. Given the sequence

8
< 2; k ¼ 0; 1; 2
>
hðkÞ ¼ 1; k ¼ 3; 4
>
:
0 elsewhere;
where k is the time index or sample number,
a. sketch the sequence hðkÞ and the reverse sequence hðkÞ ;
b. sketch the shifted sequences hðk þ 2Þ and hðk  3Þ.
3.26. Given the sequence
8
>
> 1 k ¼ 0; 1
>
>
< 2 k ¼ 2; 3
hðkÞ ¼
>
> 2 k ¼ 4
>
>
:
0 elsewhere

where k is the time index or sample number,

a. sketch the sequence hðkÞ and the reverse sequence hðkÞ ;
b. sketch the shifted sequences hðk þ 1Þ and hðk  2Þ.
3.27. Using the sequence definitions
8 8
< 2; k ¼ 0; 1; 2
> < 2; k ¼ 0
>
hðkÞ ¼ 1; k ¼ 3; 4 and xðkÞ ¼ 1; k ¼ 1; 2
>
: >
:
0 elsewhere 0 elsewhere
evaluate the digital convolution
X
N
yðnÞ ¼ xðkÞhðn  kÞ
k ¼ N
a. using the graphical method;
b. using the table method;
c. applying the convolution formula directly.
3.28. Using the sequence definitions
8 8
< 2; k ¼ 0; 1; 2
> >
< 2; k ¼ 0
xðkÞ ¼ 1; k ¼ 3; 4 and hðkÞ ¼ 1; k ¼ 1; 2
>
: >
:
0 elsewhere 0 elsewhere
 3.6 Summary 85

evaluate the digital convolution

X
N
yðnÞ ¼ xðkÞhðn  kÞ
k ¼ N

a. using the graphical method;

b. using the table method;
c. applying the convolution formula directly.
3.29. Convolve the two rectangular sequences
8
(
1 n ¼ 0; 1 <0 n ¼ 0
>
xðnÞ ¼ and hðnÞ ¼ 1 n ¼ 1; 2
0 otherwise >
:
0 otherwise
using the table method.
 Problems 53

IIR filter If the impulse response of an LTI system is of infinite dura-

tion, then the system is called an infinite-duration impulse response (or
IIR) filter. The following part of the difference equation (2.21):


N
ak y(n − k) = x(n) (2.26)
k=0

describes a recursive filter in which the output y(n) is recursively com-

puted from its previously computed values and is called an autoregressive
(AR) filter. The impulse response of such filter is of infinite duration and
hence it represents an IIR filter. The general equation (2.21) also describes
an IIR filter. It has two parts: an AR part and an MA part. Such an IIR
filter is called an autoregressive moving average, or an ARMA, filter. In
MATLAB, IIR filters are described by the difference equation coefficients
{bm } and {ak } and are implemented by the filter(b,a,x) function.

2.5 PROBLEMS

P2.1 Generate the following sequences using the basic MATLAB signal functions and the basic
MATLAB signal operations discussed in this chapter. Plot signal samples using the stem
function.
1. x1 (n) = 3δ(n + 2) + 2δ(n) − δ(n − 3) + 5δ(n − 7), −5 ≤ n ≤ 15.

5
2. x2 (n) = k=−5
e−|k| δ(n − 2k), −10 ≤ n ≤ 10.
3. x3 (n) = 10u(n) − 5u(n − 5) − 10u(n − 10) + 5u(n − 15).
4. x4 (n) = e0.1n [u(n + 20) − u(n − 10)].
5. x5 (n) = 5[cos(0.49πn) + cos(0.51πn)], −200 ≤ n ≤ 200. Comment on the waveform
shape.
6. x6 (n) = 2 sin(0.01πn) cos(0.5πn), −200 ≤ n ≤ 200. Comment on the waveform shape.
7. x7 (n) = e−0.05n sin(0.1πn + π/3), 0 ≤ n ≤ 100. Comment on the waveform shape.
8. x8 (n) = e0.01n sin(0.1πn), 0 ≤ n ≤ 100. Comment on the waveform shape.

P2.2 Generate the following random sequences and obtain their histogram using the hist
function with 100 bins. Use the bar function to plot each histogram.
1. x1 (n) is a random sequence whose samples are independent and uniformly distributed
over [0, 2] interval. Generate 100,000 samples.
2. x2 (n) is a Gaussian random sequence whose samples are independent with mean 10 and
variance 10. Generate 10,000 samples.
3. x3 (n) = x1 (n) + x1 (n − 1) where x1 (n) is the random sequence given in part 1 above.
Comment
on the shape of this histogram and explain the shape.
4
4. x4 (n) = k=1 yk (n) where each random sequence yk (n) is independent of others with
samples uniformly distributed over [−0.5, 0.5]. Comment on the shape of this histogram.

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 54 Chapter 2 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

P2.3 Generate the following periodic sequences and plot their samples (using the stem function)
over the indicated number of periods.
1. x̃1 (n) = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}periodic . Plot 5 periods.
↑
2. x̃2 (n) = e0.1n [u(n) − u(n − 20]periodic . Plot 3 periods.
3. x̃3 (n) = sin(0.1πn)[u(n) − u(n − 10)]. Plot 4 periods.
4. x̃4 (n) = {. . . , 1, 2, 3, . . .}periodic + {. . . , 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .}periodic , 0 ≤ n ≤ 24. What is the
↑ ↑
period of x̃4 (n)?

P2.4 Let x(n) = {2, 4, −3, 1, −5, 4, 7}. Generate and plot the samples (use the stem function) of
↑
the following sequences.
1. x1 (n) = 2x(n − 3) + 3x(n + 4) − x(n)
2. x2 (n) = 4x(4 + n) + 5x(n + 5) + 2x(n)
3. x3 (n) = x(n + 3)x(n − 2) + x(1 − n)x(n + 1)
4. x4 (n) = 2e0.5n x(n) + cos (0.1πn) x (n + 2) , −10 ≤ n ≤ 10

P2.5 The complex exponential sequence ejω0 n or the sinusoidal sequence cos (ω0 n) are periodic if
 ω0 K
the normalized frequency f0 = is a rational number; that is, f0 = , where K and N
2π N
are integers.
1. Prove the above result.
2. Generate exp(0.1πn), −100 ≤ n ≤ 100. Plot its real and imaginary parts using the stem
function. Is this sequence periodic? If it is, what is its fundamental period? From the
examination of the plot what interpretation can you give to the integers K and N above?
3. Generate and plot cos(0.1n), −20 ≤ n ≤ 20. Is this sequence periodic? What do you
conclude from the plot? If necessary examine the values of the sequence in MATLAB to
arrive at your answer.
P2.6 Using the evenodd function, decompose the following sequences into their even and odd
components. Plot these components using the stem function.
1. x1 (n) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
↑
2. x2 (n) = e0.1n [u(n + 5) − u(n − 10)].
3. x3 (n) = cos(0.2πn + π/4), −20 ≤ n ≤ 20.
4. x4 (n) = e−0.05n sin(0.1πn + π/3), 0 ≤ n ≤ 100.
P2.7 A complex-valued sequence xe (n) is called conjugate-symmetric if xe (n) = x∗e (−n) and a
complex-valued sequence xo (n) is called conjugate-antisymmetric if xo (n) = −x∗o (−n).
Then, any arbitrary complex-valued sequence x(n) can be decomposed into
x(n) = xe (n) + xo (n) where xe (n) and xo (n) are given by
1 1
xe (n) = [x(n) + x∗ (−n)] and xo (n) = [x(n) − x∗ (−n)] (2.27)
2 2
respectively.

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 Problems 55

1. Modify the evenodd function discussed in the text so that it accepts an arbitrary
sequence and decomposes it into its conjugate-symmetric and conjugate-antisymmetric
components by implementing (2.27).
2. Decompose the following sequence:

x(n) = 10 exp([−0.1 + 0.2π]n), 0 ≤ n ≤ 10

into its conjugate-symmetric and conjugate-antisymmetric components. Plot their real

and imaginary parts to verify the decomposition. (Use the subplot function.)
P2.8 The operation of signal dilation (or decimation or down-sampling) is defined by

y(n) = x(nM )

in which the sequence x(n) is down-sampled by an integer factor M . For example, if

x(n) = {. . . , −2, 4, 3, −6, 5, −1, 8, . . .}

↑

then the down-sampled sequences by a factor 2 are given by

y(n) = {. . . , −2, 3, 5, 8, . . .}
↑

1. Develop a MATLAB function dnsample that has the form

function [y,m] = dnsample(x,n,M)

% Downsample sequence x(n) by a factor M to obtain y(m)

to implement the above operation. Use the indexing mechanism of MATLAB with
careful attention to the origin of the time axis n = 0.
2. Generate x(n) = sin(0.125πn), − 50 ≤ n ≤ 50. Decimate x(n) by a factor of 4 to
generate y(n). Plot both x(n) and y(n) using subplot and comment on the results.
3. Repeat the above using x(n) = sin(0.5πn), − 50 ≤ n ≤ 50. Qualitatively discuss the
effect of down-sampling on signals.
P2.9 Using the conv_m function, determine the autocorrelation sequence rxx () and the
crosscorrelation sequence rxy () for the following sequences.

x(n) = (0.9)n , 0 ≤ n ≤ 20; y(n) = (0.8)−n , − 20 ≤ n ≤ 0

Describe your observations of these results.

P2.10 In a certain concert hall, echoes of the original audio signal x(n) are generated due to the
reflections at the walls and ceiling. The audio signal experienced by the listener y(n) is a
combination of x(n) and its echoes. Let

y(n) = x(n) + αx(n − k)

where k is the amount of delay in samples and α is its relative strength. We want to
estimate the delay using the correlation analysis.

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 56 Chapter 2 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

1. Determine analytically the crosscorrelation ryx () in terms of the autocorrelation rxx ().
2. Let x(n) = cos(0.2πn) + 0.5 cos(0.6πn), α = 0.1, and k = 50. Generate 200 samples of
y(n) and determine its crosscorrelation. Can you obtain α and k by observing ryx ()?

P2.11 Consider the following discrete-time systems:

T1 [x(n)] = x(n)u(n) T2 [x(n)] = x(n) + n x(n + 1)

1 1
n+5
T3 [x(n)] = x(n) + x(n − 2) − x(n − 3)x(2n) T4 [x(n)] = k=−∞
2x(k)
2 3
T5 [x(n)] = x(2n) T6 [x(n)] = round[x(n)]

where round[·] denotes rounding to the nearest integer.

1. Use (2.10) to determine analytically whether these systems are linear.
2. Let x1 (n) be a uniformly distributed random sequence between [0, 1] over 0 ≤ n ≤ 100,
and let x2 (n) be a Gaussian random sequence with mean 0 and variance 10 over
0 ≤ n ≤ 100. Using these sequences, verify the linearity of these systems. Choose any
values for constants a1 and a2 in (2.10). You should use several realizations of the above
sequences to arrive at your answers.

P2.12 Consider the discrete-time systems given in Problem P2.11.

1. Use (2.12) to determine analytically whether these systems are time-invariant.
2. Let x(n) be a Gaussian random sequence with mean 0 and variance 10 over 0 ≤ n ≤ 100.
Using this sequence, verify the time invariance of the above systems. Choose any values
for sample shift k in (2.12). You should use several realizations of the above sequence to
arrive at your answers.
P2.13 For the systems given in Problem P2.11, determine analytically their stability and causality.
P2.14 The linear convolution defined in (2.14) has several properties:

x1 (n) ∗ x2 (n) = x1 (n) ∗ x2 (n) : Commutation

[x1 (n) ∗ x2 (n)] ∗ x3 (n) = x1 (n) ∗ [x2 (n) ∗ x3 (n)] : Association
(2.28)
x1 (n) ∗ [x2 (n) + x3 (n)] = x1 (n) ∗ x2 (n) + x1 (n) ∗ x3 (n) : Distribution
x(n) ∗ δ(n − n0 ) = x(n − n0 ) : Identity

1. Analytically prove these properties.

2. Using the following three sequences, verify the above properties.

x1 (n) = cos(πn/4)[u(n + 5) − u(n − 25)]

x2 (n) = (0.9)−n [u(n) − u(n − 20)]
x3 (n) = round[5w(n)], −10 ≤ n ≤ 10; where w(n) is uniform over [−1, 1]

Use the conv m function.

P2.15 Determine analytically the convolution y(n) = x(n) ∗ h(n) of the following sequences, and
verify your answers using the conv_m function.
1. x(n) = {2, −4, 5, 3, −1, −2, 6}, h(n) = {1, −1, 1, −1, 1}
↑ ↑

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 Problems 57

2. x(n) = {1, 1, 0, 1, 1}, h(n) = {1, −2, −3, 4}

↑ ↑
3. x(n) = (1/4)−n [u(n + 1) − u(n − 4)], h(n) = u(n) − u(n − 5)
4. x(n) = n/4[u(n) − u(n − 6)], h(n) = 2[u(n + 2) − u(n − 3)]
P2.16 Let x(n) = (0.8)n u(n), h(n) = (−0.9)n u(n), and y(n) = h(n) ∗ x(n). Use 3 columns and 1
row of subplots for the following parts.
1. Determine y(n) analytically. Plot first 51 samples of y(n) using the stem function.
2. Truncate x(n) and h(n) to 26 samples. Use conv function to compute y(n). Plot y(n)
using the stem function. Compare your results with those of part 1.
3. Using the filter function, determine the first 51 samples of x(n) ∗ h(n). Plot y(n) using
the stem function. Compare your results with those of parts 1 and 2.
P2.17 When the sequences x(n) and h(n) are of finite duration Nx and Nh , respectively, then
their linear convolution (2.13) can also be implemented using matrix-vector multiplication.
If elements of y(n) and x(n) are arranged in column vectors x and y respectively, then from
(2.13) we obtain

y = Hx

where linear shifts in h(n − k) for n = 0, . . . , Nh − 1 are arranged as rows in the matrix H.
This matrix has an interesting structure and is called a Toeplitz matrix. To investigate this
matrix, consider the sequences

x(n) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and h(n) = {6, 7, 8, 9}

↑ ↑

1. Determine the linear convolution y(n) = h(n) ∗ x(n).

2. Express x(n) as a 5 × 1 column vector x and y(n) as a 8 × 1 column vector y. Now
determine the 8 × 5 matrix H so that y = Hx.
3. Characterize the matrix H. From this characterization can you give a definition of a
Toeplitz matrix? How does this definition compare with that of time invariance?
4. What can you say about the first column and the first row of H?
P2.18 MATLAB provides a function called toeplitz to generate a Toeplitz matrix, given the first
row and the first column.
1. Using this function and your answer to Problem P2.17, part 4, develop another MATLAB
function to implement linear convolution. The format of the function should be

function [y,H]=conv_tp(h,x)
% Linear Convolution using Toeplitz Matrix
% ----------------------------------------
% [y,H] = conv_tp(h,x)
% y = output sequence in column vector form
% H = Toeplitz matrix corresponding to sequence h so that y = Hx
% h = Impulse response sequence in column vector form
% x = input sequence in column vector form

2. Verify your function on the sequences given in Problem P2.17.

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 58 Chapter 2 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

P2.19 A linear and time-invariant system is described by the difference equation

y(n) − 0.5y(n − 1) + 0.25y(n − 2) = x(n) + 2x(n − 1) + x(n − 3)

1. Using the filter function, compute and plot the impulse response of the system over
0 ≤ n ≤ 100.
2. Determine the stability of the system from this impulse response.
3. If the input to this system is x(n) = [5 + 3 cos(0.2πn) + 4 sin(0.6πn)] u(n), determine the
response y(n) over 0 ≤ n ≤ 200 using the filter function.
P2.20 A “simple” digital differentiator is given by

y(n) = x(n) − x(n − 1)

which computes a backward first-order difference of the input sequence. Implement this
differentiator on the following sequences, and plot the results. Comment on the
appropriateness of this simple differentiator.
1. x(n) = 5 [u(n) − u(n − 20)]: a rectangular pulse
2. x(n) = n [u(n) − u(n − 10)] + (20 − n) [u(n − 10) − u(n − 20)]: a triangular pulse
 
πn
3. x(n) = sin [u(n) − u(n − 100)]: a sinusoidal pulse
25

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