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cccccThe textile industry by processing raw materials, product variety and product
processing and use of different, mainly divided into upstream, midstream,
downstream three types of industries, the textile industry mainly refers to upstream
production and processing of various types of fibers, such as natural fibers of
cotton, wool and all kinds of chemical fibers and other production areas;
midstream industry refers to spinning, weaving, dyeing and other production areas;
downstream industries such as garment processing, mainly referring to production
fields.

Pc The Dyestuff industry constitutes three sub-segments, namely dyes, pigment

and intermediates.
Pc The dye intermediates are petroleum downstream products which are further
processed into finished dyes and pigments.
Pc These are essential inputs in major industries like textiles,plastics, paints,
paper and printing inks

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a dye can generally be described as a colored substance that has an affinity to the
substrate to which it is being applied. The dye is generally applied in an aqueous
solution, and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber.

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Direct dyes:
In most of the small dyeing houses, direct dyes are used as they are easy to apply
and no auxillary chemicals such as mordants are needed.

Basic dyes:
This class of dyes give bright colours.
They are applied along with weak organic acids (such as tannic acid)

Sulfur dyes:
For dark colours, these dyes are employed.
These are sulfur compounds applied usually with sodium sulfide.
Effluent from this dyeing consists of considerable amount of sulfide.
Vat Dyes:
These are water insoluble and fast dyes applied along with strong reducing agents
(sodium hydrosulfite) and alkali to make the dye soluble. The cloth is then exposed
to air foroxidation. The excess alkali remaining on the cloth is neutralized by
scouring i.etreatment with dilute solution of acid. This types of dyeing generates
more volume ofeffluents, as at the end of each step, the clothes are warmed

Naphthol dyes :
Beta-naphthol is first applied to the fabric, dried and treated with a developer for
coupling and diazotization after which the colour is formed. This is followed be
soaping andalkali treatment.

Developing dyes :
In this dyeing, the dyes are applied, dried and treated with sodium nitrite and acid
and finally with
beta-naphthol. Effluents from this dyeing contain no. of chemicals.

 
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The precursors of dyes are called dye intermediates. They are obtained from simple
raw materials, such as benzene and naphthalene, by a variety of chemical reactions.
Usually, the raw materials are cyclic aromatic compounds, but acyclic precursors
are used to synthesize heterocyclic intermediates. The intermediates are derived
from two principal sources, coal tar and petroleum .

Sources of Raw Materials:

Coal tar results from the pyrolysis of coal and is obtained chieÀy as a by-product in
the manufacture of coke for the steel industry .Products recovered from the
fractional distillation of coal tar have been the traditional organic raw material for
the dye industry. among the most important are benzene , toluene , xylene
naphthalene , anthracene, acenaphthene, pyrene, pyridine , car- bazole, phenol ,
and cresol .

Intermediates Classi¿cation.

Intermediates may be conveniently divided into primary intermediates (primaries)

and dye intermediates. Large amounts of inorganic materials are consumed in both
intermediates and dyes manufacture.
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The principal air pollutants from dye manufacturing are volatile organic
compounds (VOCs),nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrogen chloride (HCl),and sulfur
oxides (SOx).

Liquid effluents resulting from equipment cleaning after batch operation can
contain toxic organic residues. Cooling waters are normally recirculated.
Wastewater generation rates are of the order of 1±700 liters per kg (l/kg) of
product except for vat dyes. The wastewater generation rate for vat dyes can be of
the order of 8,000 l/kg of product. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and
chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels of reactive and azo dyes can be of the
order of 25kg/kg of product and 80 kg/ kg of product, respectively.Values for other
dyes are, for example,BOD5, 6 kg/kg; COD, 25 kg/kg; suspending solids,6 kg/kg;
and oil and grease, 30 kg/kg ofproduct.

Major solid wastes of concern include filtration sludges, process and effluent
treatment sludges,
and container residues. Examples of wastes considered toxic include wastewater
treatment sludges, spent acids, and process residues from the manufacture of
chrome yellow and orange pigments, molybdate orange pigments, zinc yellow
pigments, chrome and chrome oxide greenpigments, iron blue pigments, and azo
dyes.

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Pc

c   The major air pollutants from dye manufacturing units
include:
•c Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
•c Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
•c Hydrogen chloride (Hcl)
•c Sulphur oxides (Sox)

Pc   c  They are the effluents results from batch operation as the
equipment is cleaned and they usually contain toxic organic residues. The
following table illustrates the parameters of liquid effluents.

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PH 6-9
BOD 30
COD 150
TSS 50
Oil and Grease 10
Phenol 0.5
 Copper 0.5
Zinc 2
aox 1

Pc  c$cThey include iron sludge, gypsum and sludge from treatment

facilities.

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Pc  

Stack gas scrubbing and/or carbon adsorption (for toxic organics) are applicable
and effective technologies for minimizing the release of significant pollutants to
air. Combustion is used to destroy toxic organics. Combustion devices should be
operated at temperatures above 1,100°C (when required for the effective estruction
of toxic organics), with a residence time of at least 0.5 second.

Pc  

Effluent treatment normally includes neutralization,flocculation, coagulation,
settling, carbon adsorption,
detoxification of organics by oxidation (using ultraviolet systems or peroxide
solutions),and biological treatment. Exhausted carbon from adsorption processes
may be sent for regeneration or combustion. Reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration,and
other filtration techniques are used to recover and concentrate process
intermediates.

Pc 

Contaminated solid wastes are generally incinerated,and the flue gases, when
acidic, are scrubbed.

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Sources of wastewater in the textile industry are generated from wet processes,
which include sizing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing and
printing. Each process produces a waste with different characteristics and varies in
strength, flow, and composition.

Sizing wastewater results from the cleaning of sizing boxes, rolls, size mixer,
sizing area and the drainage of sizing solution. Their volume is low but, depending
on the recipe used, can contain high levels of BOD, COD and TSS.

Desizing effluent results from additives used in the size technique, surfactants,
enzymes, and acids or alkaline as well as the sizes themselves. The generated
wastewater can be the largest contributor to the BOD and TSS.

Scouring wastewater characteristic is an organic and alkaline, contain fabric

fragment starch and sizing materials, caustic soda and chemicals used. It generates
very high BOD concentrations.

Bleaching wastewater usually has high solids content with low to moderate BOD
levels include alkaline and contain bleaching agents.

Mercerizing wastewater has low BOD and total solids levels but are highly
alkaline prior to neutralization. The low BOD content arises from surfactants and
penetrating agents used as auxiliary chemicals.

Dyeing wastewater depend upon the dyes used. It contributes high volume, color,
low BOD, high COD, high temperature and is sometimes toxic .

Many types of materials and chemicals are used for dyeing. When the wastes of
these materials are discharged, they can produce polluted wastewater of various
forms,such as stain, pH, BOD, and COD as well as contents of nitrogen,
phosphorus and hazardous substances. Organic materials used to process textiles
are biochemical hard to decompose as they are used to prevent discoloration of
finished products. Therefore, wastewater is often non-degradable

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*Primary treatment
Screening
Equalization
Neutralization
Chemical coagulation
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Screening is the first treatment station, both for surface and wastewater. It's
purpose to:

ҏ Protect the structure downstream against large objects which could create
obstructions in some of the facility's units,
ҏ Easily separate and remove large matter carried along by the raw water, which
might negatively affect the efficiency of later treatment procedures or make their
implementation more difficult.
The efficiency of the screening operation depends of the spacing between screen
bars:

ҏFine screening, for a spacing under 10 mm

ҏMedium screening, for spacing of 10 to 40 mm
ҏCoarse screening, for spacing of over 40 mm

Usually the fine screening is preceded by a preliminary screening operation for

purposes of protection.

Screening is carried to out by a manually cleaned bar screen (large in size, in order
to reduce the frequency of screenings collection operations) or, preferably, by an
automatically cleaned bar screen (essential in cases of high flow rates of for water
with a high solids content). The automatic bar screen is usually protected by a
sturdy preliminary bar screen, which should also be provided with an automatic
cleaning systems in large facilities and incase of raw water containing a high
volume of coarse matter.

To reduce manual operations as much as possible, screening procedures have

become increasingly automated, even in small facilities. automation is essential in
situations where large amounts of plant matter are carried by the water and arrive
all at once at the bar screen, tending to mat the bars and completely clogging the
screen in a few minutes. Fine screens must be automated.

The collected refuse is stored in a container of given capacity, calculated according

the acceptable frequency of refuse disposal operations.

Usual spacing are:

ҏ For surface waters, between 20 and 40 mm (upstream the strainer)
ҏ For municipal wastewater: for raw water, from 15 to 30 mm (but upstream from
a straining and/ or lamellae settling process, fine screening is necessary); for sludge
(if necessary), 10 mm or less
ҏ For some industrial effluents, especially agri-food effluents, fine bar screening (
or at times, medium screening followed by straining)
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Under normal circumstances, the crossing velocity through the bar screen should
be sufficient for matter to attach itself to the screen without producing an excessive
loss of head or a complete clogging of the bars, or allowing matter to be carried by
the flow; normally acceptable crossing velocities between bars average between
0.6 and 1.0 m.s-1 and 1.2 to 1.4 m.s-1 at the maximum water flow.

These velocities apply to the area of the clogged bar screen that is still clear. The
degree screen that is still clear. The degree of clogging depends on the water
quality and on the system used to recover waste from the bar screen. For automatic
bar screens it can be anywhere between 10% (surface water) and 30% wastewater
with a high solids content). For manually cleaned bar screens, the area of immersed
bar screen must be larger, so as to avoid frequent cleanings.
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