1.

0 Classification, Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Classifications of Matter

Chemistry is the he study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything

that occupies space and has mass. Chemists distinguish among several subcategories of

matter based on composition and properties. The classifications of matter include

substances, mixtures, elements, and compounds.

A substance is a form of matter that has a definite (constant) composition and distinct

properties. Examples are water, ammonia, table sugar (sucrose), gold, and oxygen. While,

mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their

distinct identities. Some familiar examples are air, soft drinks, milk, and cement. Mixtures do

not have constant composition.

Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous. When a spoonful of sugar

dissolves in water homogeneous mixture is obtain in which the composition of the mixture

is the same throughout. If sand is mixed with iron filings, however, the sand grains and the

iron filings remain separate. This type of mixture is called a heterogeneous mixture because

the composition is not uniform. Any mixture, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, can

be created and then separated by physical means into pure components without changing

the identities of the components. After separation, the components of the mixture will have

the same composition and properties as they did to start with.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Classify matter and distinguish between physical and chemical

properties/changes.

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Elements and Compounds

Substances can be either elements or compounds. An element is a substance that

use symbols of one or two letters to represent the elements. Atoms of most elements can

interact with one another to form compounds. Compound is composed of atoms of two or

more elements chemically united in fixed proportions. Unlike mixtures, compounds can be

separated only by chemical means into their pure components.

The relationships among elements, compounds, and other categories of matter are

summarized in the figure below.

Substances can exist in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Distances between

molecules distinguish them from one another. Solid, molecules are held close together in

an orderly fashion with little freedom of motion. Molecules in a liquid are close together

but are not held so rigidly in position and can move past one another. In a gas, the

molecules are separated by distances that are large compared with the size of the

molecules.

The diagram below shows the molecular arrangement of the three states of matter.

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SCI 401 –GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Refer to this simulation link to explore more understanding on the three

states of matter

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/states-of-matter/latest/states-of-matter_en.html

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Substances are identified by their properties as well as by their composition. A

physical property can be measured and observed without changing the composition or
identity of a substance. Color, melting point, and boiling point are physical properties.

On the other hand, chemical property is the characteristic of a substance that is

observed during a reaction in which the chemical composition or identity of the substance is

changed. After such change, the original chemical substance vanished, and all that will be left

is a different chemical substance

All measurable properties of matter fall into one of two additional categories:

extensive properties and intensive properties. The measured value of an extensive property

depends on how much matter is being considered. The value of an extensive quantity

depends on the amount of matter. Mass, length, and volume are examples of extensive

properties. On the other hand, intensive property does not depend on how much matter is

being considered. Color, odor, taste, density, and temperature such as boiling point and

melting point are examples of intensive properties.

LEARNING ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

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2.0 Changes of Matter

Chemical reaction is a process in which a substance (or substances) is changed into

one or more new substances. To represent chemical reaction chemical equation is used. A

chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens during a chemical reaction.

A chemical equation is a shorthand method of representing chemical reaction using chemical

symbols and formulas to indicate the reactants and the products. Reactants are the starting

materials in a chemical reaction and product is the substance formed as a result of a chemical

reaction. In a chemical equation, the reactants are conventionally written on the left and the

products on the right of the arrow. To provide additional information, chemists often

indicate the physical states of the reactants and products by using the letters g for gas, l for

liquid, s for solid, and aq for aqueous.

For example, when potassium bromide (KBr) and silver nitrate (AgNO3) react in an aqueous

environment, a solid, silver bromide (AgBr), is formed. This reaction can be represented by

the equation:

KBr(aq) + AgNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + AgBr(s)

If the physical states of reactants and products are not given, an uninformed person

might try to bring about the reaction by mixing solid KBr with solid AgNO3. These solids

would react very slowly or not at all.

The important principles to remember about chemical equations is that every

compound has a formula which cannot be altered and a chemical reaction must account for

every atom that is used. This is an application of the Law of Conservation of Mass which

states that in chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed.

Completing and Balancing Chemical Equations

In order to be able to predict the products in a reaction we shall consider the simple

types of reaction such as combination, decomposition, replacement (displacement),

metathesis (double displacement) and the neutralization reaction.

When writing equations we follow these steps:

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SCI 401 –GENERAL CHEMISTRY

a. Write the correct formulas of the reactants, if necessary.

b. Decide what type of reaction it is and thus what the products are.

c. Write the correct formula (s) for the product (s)

d. Balance the equation

1. Combination Reactions – two or more substances combine to form one product.

General Form: A + B AB

Patterns for Combination Reactions:

a. Metal + Nonmetal Binary compound

Example: 4AI(s) + 3O2(g) 2AI2O3(s)

Note: For metals with variable oxidation number, the final product depends

on the reaction condition.

b. Nonmetal + oxygen Nonmetal oxide

Example: 2C(s) + O2 (limited) 2CO(g)

C(s) + O2 (unlimited) CO2(g)

c. Metal oxide + water metal hydroxide (base)

Note: Metal oxide is sometimes called basic oxide or basic anhydride

Example: CaO(s) + H2O(I) Ca(OH)2(aq)

d. Nonmetal oxide + H2O oxyacid (acid)

Note: Nonmetal oxide is sometimes called acid oxide or acid anhydride

Example: SO2(g) + H2O(I) H2SO3(aq)

SO3(g) + H2O(I) H2SO4(aq)

e. Metal oxide + Nonmetal oxide salt

Example: CaO(s) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s)

2. Decomposition Reaction– a compound decomposed to form two or more substances

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General Form: AB Δ A + B

Patterns for Decomposition Reactions:

a. Hydrates Δ salt + water

Example: CuSO4.5H2O Δ CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)

b. IA bicarbonates Δ Carbonates + H2O + CO2

Example: 2 KHCO3 Δ Cu2CO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

c. IIA bicarbonates Δ Metal oxide + H2O + CO2

Example: Mg(HCO3)2(s) Δ Mg0(s) + H2O + CO2

d. Carbonates Δ Metal oxide + CO2

Example: Na2CO3(s) Δ Na2O (s) + CO2(g)

e. Chlorates Δ Chloride + Oxygen

Example: 2KCIO3(s) Δ 2KCI(I) +302(g)

f. Metal oxide Δ Metal + oxygen

Example: CaO(s) Δ Ca(s) + O2(g)

g. H2O(I) Δ H2 (g) + O2 (g)

3. Displacement Reaction– more active metal can displace a less active metal, while a

less active one can’t displace the more active.

General Form: AY + B BY + A

Where: A & B are metals (refer to activity series)

Zn(s) + MgSO4(aq) no reaction

Below is a list of metals arranged in the order of decreasing activity, called

electromotive or activity series.

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SCI 401 –GENERAL CHEMISTRY

• Metals above hydrogen displace hydrogen gas from an acid.

Example: 2AI(s) + 6HCI(aq) 2AICI3(aq) + 3H2(g)

• There are also replacement reactions involving non-metals. For example,

for the halogens, the series would be fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.

Example: Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

I2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) no reaction

4. Metathesis (Double Displacement Reaction) – the positive ions exchange

partners with the negative ions to form two new compounds.

General Form: AX + BY AY + BX

• All neutralization reaction involving acids and bases are actually

metathesis reaction.

Example: AgNO3(aq) + HCI(aq) AgCl(aq) +HNO3(aq)

Na2SO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq 2 NaNO39aq) + PbSO4(aq)

• Any carbonate, either in the solid state or aqueous solution, react with acid

to form water, carbon dioxide gas, and salt.

Example: CaCo3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g)

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5. Neutralization Reaction

Types of neutralization reaction:

a. Acid + base salt + water

Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(I)

b. Metal oxide + acid salt + water

Example: CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(I)

c. Nonmetal oxide + base salt +water

Example: SO2(g) + 2NaOH Na2SO3 + H2O

d. Ammonia + Acid ammonium salt

Example: NH3 + HCl NH4Cl

6. Combustion Reaction – reaction of elements and compounds with oxygen.

Example: C(s) + O2 (limited) CO

C(s) + O2 (excess) CO2

C2H4 + O2 (limited) CO + H2O

C2H4 + O2 (excess) CO2 + H2O

Stoichiometric Calculations

Stoichiometry is a term used to describe quantitative relationships in chemistry. It is

the quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction. Whether the units

given for reactants (or products) are moles, grams, liters (for gases), or some other units,

moles is used to calculate the amount of product formed in a reaction. This approach is called

the mole method, which means simply that the stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical
equation can be interpreted as the number of moles of each substance.

To perform the calculations involved in stoichiometry, it is necessary to understand

the mole and how to calculate the number of moles from the mass of a substance and its

molar mass. The molar mass of a substance is the mass in grams of one mole of the substance.

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SCI 401 –GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Molar masses are calculated by summing the atomic masses of all the elements appearing in

a chemical formula

To understand this clearly, first consider the significance of a chemical equation. For

example, the balances equation in a combination reaction of aluminum oxide and water is

Al2O3 + 3H2O 2Al(OH)3

Quantitatively, this means that 1 mole of aluminum oxide reacts with 3 moles of

water yield 2 moles of aluminum hydroxide. Also from the coefficients in the balanced

equation you can derive the following relationships:

1 mole Al2O3 = 2 moles Al(OH)3

1 mole Al203 = 3 moles H2O

Then you are going to consider the mole concept to find the mass of a mole of each

of the substances involve.

The following are the general approach for solving stoichiometry problems:

1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

2. Convert the given amount of the reactant (in grams or other units) to number of moles.

3. Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to calculate the number of moles of

product formed.

5. Convert the moles of product to grams (or other units) of product.

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Stoichiometry parang test

http://web.mst.edu/~gbert/Aj2.HTML?JAVA/stoic1a.HTM

Example 1

What mass of AgNO3 (169.9 g/mol) is needed to convert 2.33 g of Na2CO3

(106.0 g/mol) to Ag2CO3? What mass of Ag2CO3 (275.7 g/mol) will be

formed?

Na2CO3(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) Ag2CO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Solution

To solve for the mass of AgNO3:

2.33 � ��!��+ �

1 ��� ��!��+

106 � ��!��+

2 ��� ����+

1 ��� ��!��+

170� ����+

1 ��� ����+

= 7.47 � ����+

To solve for the mass of Ag2CO3 formed:

2.33 � ��!��+ �

1 ��� ��!��+

106 � ��!��+

�
1 ��� ��!��+

1 ��� ��!��+

275.7 � ��!��+

1 ��� ��!��+

= 6.06 � ��!��+

Example 2

Calculate the number of grams of aluminum sulfate that could be obtained by

the action of 12.5 grams of aluminum on an excess of sulfuric acid.

2 Al + 3H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2

Solution

To solve for the mass of aluminum sulfate, we need to get first the molar mass

of aluminum sulfate which is 342 g.

12.5 � �� �

1 ��� ��

27 � �� �

1 ��� ��!(��$)+

1 ��� �� �

342� ��!(��$)+

1 ��� ��!(��$)+

= 79.2 � ��!(��$)+

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SCI 401 –GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Practice your knowledge in solving stoichiometric problem using the following

link:

http://web.mst.edu/~gbert/Aj2.HTML?JAVA/stoic1a.HTM

https://teachchemistry.org/classroom-resources/chemical-reactions-stoichiometry-simulation

References:

Chang, R. and Goldsby, K. A. (2017). Chemistry, (12th International Edition), New York:

McGraw-Hill.

Brown, L., Brown, L. S., & Holme, T. (2011). Chemistry for engineering students. Nelson

Education.

Silberberg, M. (2012). Principles of general chemistry. McGraw-Hill Education.

LEARNING ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES

Example 3

Given the equation:

3 Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

Calculate the number of grams of copper (II) nitrate that could be produced

from 5.25 moles of copper.

Solution

To solve for the mass of copper (II) nitrate we need to get first the molar mass

of copper (II) nitrate which is 188 g.

5.25 ��� �� �

3 ��� ��(��+)!

3 ��� �� �
188� ��(��+)!

1 ��� ��(��+)!

= 987 � ��(��+)!

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ASSESSMENT TASK

I. Given the reactants below, complete, balance and give the type of chemical reaction.

1. Calcium carbonate + heat

2. Ethane + Oxygen

3. Silver nitrate + Hydrogen sulfide

4. Manganese oxide + Hydrochloric acid

5. Sodium bicarbonate + heat

II. Solve the following problems analytically.

1. In the reaction 2Cu2S + 3O2 2 Cu2O + 2SO2

How many grams of sulfur dioxide are formed when 10.0 mol of copper (I) sulfide is

roasted? (Atomic mass: S-32, O-16)

2. How many moles of oxygen can be obtained by the decomposition of 7.5 mol of

reactant in the reaction given below?

3. If sodium sulfate reacts with aluminum nitrate, calculate

a. Number of moles of sodium sulfate that would react with 15 grams of aluminum

nitrate.

b. Number of moles of aluminum nitrate that could be formed from 2.75 moles of

sodium sulfate.

c. Number of grams of sodium sulfate that would be required to produce 120

grams of aluminum sulfate.