Design Feature

CHRIS DeMARTINO | Technology Editor

IF
addition, direct-conversion receivers lend themselves well to
LNA Mixer Amplifier
integrated-circuit (IC) designs.
Demodulator Direct-conversion receivers typically filter and amplify a

The Differences Between

RF Filter RF Filter IF Filter received RF input signal. The signal then enters a mixer along
#1 #2 with a local-oscillator (LO) signal that is identical in frequency
to the RF input signal. Thus, the input signal is converted to a
LO

Receiver Types, Part 1

0-Hz signal that appears at the output of the mixer. Demodu-
2. The traditional superheterodyne receiver has been used for lation occurs during the frequency conversion process, as
many years. well. Although the sum of the RF and LO signal frequencies
also appears at the mixer’s output, this product is removed
where: by means of low-pass filtering that follows the mixer. The
Si = the P = kTB
input signal power; demodulated baseband output is, of course, then processed.
This article, the first in a two-part series, examines various receiver implementations Ni = the input noise power; Often, direct-conversion receivers are implemented with
along with the characteristics that describe receiver performance. So = the kTB = (1.38
output 10-23 Joules/K)(290° K)(1 Hz)
signalxpower; two mixers to create an in-phase/quadrature (I/Q) demodula-

R
No = the output x 10-21
= 4noise power.
W/Hz = -174 dBm/Hz tor. The same LO drives both mixers. However, the LO signals
eceivers undoubtedly play a critical role in any select a desired signal despite the presence of other unwanted to each mixer differ in phase by 90 deg. The I/Q signals can
communications system. They perform the signals. A receiver with good selectivity will process desired Noise factor (Siis
/Ntherefore
i) dependent on the source noise tem- then be processed following the demodulation stage.
F=
tasks of receiving an incoming transmitted sig- signals while sufficiently rejecting unwanted spurious and perature as follows:
(So/No)
nal and then recovering the information con- interference signals. P = kTB THE SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
tained in those signals. Given the massive amount of informa- Sensitivity describes how well a receiver can process very (Si/Ni) No No (GkToB + NR) The superheterodyne receiver is a common receiver configu-
F= = = = Joules/K)(290° K)(1 Hz)
-23
tion that is wirelessly communicated today, it is worthwhile to weak input signals. It can be quantified as the weakest signal (So/No) kTB GNi= (1.38GkTx 10
o B GkT oB ration that has been used for many years (Fig. 2). Superhetero-
have a clear understanding of this subject. level that a receiver can detect to meet a given requirement, = 4 x 10-21 W/Hz = -174 dBm/Hz dyne receivers basically translate an RF input signal to a lower-
This article, Part 1 of the series, provides a general overview such as a specified signal-to-noise and distortion (SINAD) P = kTB
where: frequency intermediate-frequency (IF) signal. The IF signal is
NF = 10 x log (F) (S /N )
of receivers. The direct-conversion receiver and the widely ratio or bit error rate (BER). To = standard noise source temperature i i (290°K); then demodulated to allow the modulation data to be processed.
F=
= (1.38 x 10-23 Joules/K)(290°
used superheterodyne receiver are both discussed here. Part 2, NkTB
R = noise added by the receiver; (So/No)K)(1 Hz) The entire process can be explained by analyzing the basic
which will appear in the April issue of Microwaves & RF, will G = gain= 4ofx 10 -21 W/Hz = -174 dBm/Hz
the receiver. F –1 F3 – 1 Fn – 1receiver shown in Fig. 2 (this receiver is only an example; many
SENSITIVITY AND NOISE NFTotal = 10log F + 2 + ... +
1 ...G
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of both implemen- Thermal noise represents the fundamental limit on achiev- (Si/Ni)G1 No G1G2No 1G2 oB
G(GkT + NR) can be implemented). A received signal first enters a
variations
n–1
(Si/Ni) F = = = =
tations. The newer direct RF-sampling technique will also be able signal sensitivity. It is a result of the vibrations of conduc- FThe
= noise figure (NF) is simply (So/No)the noise
GNi factor expressed in GkT bandpass filter. This filter, often called a pre-select filter, rejects
(S /N )
GkT oB oB
discussed in the second installment. tion electrons and holes due to their finite temperature. The decibels:o o out-of-band signals. Next, a low-noise amplifier (LNA) per-
power delivered by a thermal source into a load is defined as: (GkT forms the task of boosting the signal amplitude. This LNA is
(Si/Ni) No NF N =o10 x log (F)oB + NR)
THE ROLE OF A RECEIVER F= = = = an extremely important component, as the overall noise figure
P = kTB (So/No) GNi GkToB GkToB
The input signal to a receiver is obtained from a receiving The noise figure of a receiver can be determined by the gain of a superheterodyne receiver is highly dependent on the noise
antenna. These received signals, which are typically very weak, where: and noise figure of its individual components. It F2can
– 1 be calcu- Fn LNA.
F3 – 1 figure of the – 1 Another bandpass filter, known as an image-
kTB = (1.38 x 10 -23 Joules/K)(290° K)(1 Hz) NFTotal = 10log F + + ... +
can be described as modulated RF carrier signals. The modu- k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 Joules/K); NF =by10the
lated x log (F)
well-known 1
equation for cascaded noise G1 figure: G1G2 reject filter, ...Gn–1 the LNA. The purpose of this filter is to
G1G2follows
= 4 x 10 -21 W/Hz = -174 dBm/Hz
lation carries the actual information, which can be audio, T = temperature in degrees Kelvin (K); reject the unwanted image frequency band.
F2 – 1 F3 – 1 Fn – 1
video, or data. A receiver must perform a number of actions B = noise bandwidth. NF = 10log F + + ... +
A mixer then converts the RF signal to a lower-frequency
(Si/Ni) Total 1
on a received signal so that the modulation information can F= G1 G1G2 G1G2 ...Gn–1 IF signal. Both the RF signal and an LO signal enter the mixer,
ultimately be deciphered and processed. The standard (So/No)
P = kTBsource noise temperature, or To, is 290°K. Thus, thereby generating the IF signal that appears at the mixer’s out-
Receivers are required to perform effectively despite the the thermal noise generated in a 1-Hz bandwidth is: where: put. The frequency of this IF signal is equal to the difference of
(Si/Ni) No No (GkToB + NR)
presence of noise and other interfering signals. Therefore, F
-23= =
kTB = (1.38 x 10 Joules/K)(290° K)(1 Hz) = = F 1 = noise factor of stage 1; the RF input signal’s frequency and the LO signal’s frequency.
selectivity and sensitivity are important characteristics of one. (So/No) GNi GkToB GkToB F2 = noise factor of stage 2; Following frequency downconversion, bandpass filtering is
-21
= 4 x 10 W/Hz = -174 dBm/Hz
Selectivity describes the capability of a receiver to identify and Fn = noise factor of the nth stage; implemented in the IF stage to remove any unwanted signals.
The noise(S floor sets the
NFlimit
= 10on the(F)
x log minimum detectable G1 = gain of stage 1; Next, an IF amplifier provides a significant amount of gain to
i/Ni)
signal level.
F = A noiseless receiver would therefore have a noise G2 = gain of stage 2; the IF signal. Multiple amplifiers may be employed as well. The
LNA Mixer (S /No)
floor of −174 odBm/Hz. P However,
= kTB every receiverF adds – 1 someF – 1 F –G1n-1 = gain of stage n-1. amplified IF signal is then demodulated, allowing the informa-
Demodulated 2 3 n
baseband output amount of noise, further NF Total =its
limiting 10log F1 + A receiver+can
sensitivity. ... + tion to be processed.
fRF (Si/Ni) No No (GkToBG+1 NR) G1G2 G1G2 ...Gn–1
LPF
be characterized
F= by its=noise
kTBfactor (F),
==(1.38 x which is a measure of the
= Joules/K)(290°
10-23 K)(1 Hz) DIRECT-CONVERSION RECEIVER Superheterodyne receivers are often implemented with two
fLO
degradation (S /Nosignal-to-noise
inothe ) GNi GkT oB(SNR) asGkT
ratio
-21 oB passes
a signal A direct-conversion receiver, also known as a homodyne frequency-conversion stages. This configuration is particularly
= 4 x 10 W/Hz = -174 dBm/Hz
fLO = fRF through a network. It can be defined by the following equation: or zero-IF receiver, is one type of receiver architecture (Fig. beneficial for higher-frequency applications. Part 2 of this series
LO
NF = 10 x log (F) (S /N ) 1). Direct-conversion receivers convert an RF signal to a 0-Hz will further examine dual-conversion superheterodyne receiv-
i i
1. Direct-conversion receivers translate an RF input signal to a F= signal in one stage. They are generally considered low-cost ers. It will also explain the pros and cons of direct-conversion
(So/No)
baseband output in one stage. F2 – 1 F3 – 1 Fn – 1 solutions, mostly because they require few components. In and superheterodyne receivers.
NFTotal = 10log F + + ... +
1(S /NG G(GkT B+N )
...G
i i) 1 No G1G2No 1G2 o n–1 R
F= = = =
(So/No) GNi GkToB GkToB
60 MARCH 2016 MICROWAVES & RF GO TO MWRF.COM 61

NF = 10 x log (F)