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Revisiting English As A Global Language

Article · July 2017

DOI: 10.15642/ijet2.2017.6.1.137-148

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 REVISITING ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE

Silfia Asningtias
Email: [email protected]
Universitas Negeri Surabaya

Abstract. As English has become a powerful tool to ‘conquer’ the world,

the needs to consider the issues arise English as an International language
has become paramount. The arguments of who ‘own’ English sparks other
related matters, such as the native speaker and non native speakers as well
as native speakerism. In addition, it also standard and non standard
English, that come up as the varieties of English blooming is unstopable.
On Norton’s statement of the issues of English in a global world provoke
debate on whether the aforementioned is for better or for worse. This
essay analyze the perspective of experts in the dichotomy globally,
meanwhile seeking the enlightment of the situation in Indonesia locally.
The discussion lead to awareness that English and the learner’s agency. As
the needs of English in the global era is indispensable, English would be
for better than for worse.

Keywords: English, ownership of English, varieties.

INTRODUCTION
Language is a means of communication that play an important
role in shaping the world today. Looking at the history of language, it
evolved from time to time, from Greek to Latin in the ancient time,
from French to English today. Anderman,G & Rogers,M (2005)
describe chronologically the development of languages in Europe. They
stated that for over a millennium, Greek was widely spoken. It was the
language that carried knowledge and culture, thereby Alexander the
Great gave a special position as an official language in the Macedonian
Empire. It continued until the Roman Empire established in 753 BC in
which Latin became the lingua franca. Much later in 17th century, as
France gained power in politic and culture, French was used as a
medium of communication in French Colony and European countries
in general. Starting from the early 20th century, English serves as a
Revisiting English

lingua franca, since it gains special acknowledgement in many countries,

and even an official one.
From the journey of language, we can draw a red line as to
why and how a language becomes an international one. According to
Chrystal (2003, p.7),’ it is simply because of power’. In the ancient
time, it was the spears and swords which established the Macedonian
andthe Roman Empires to enlarge their territory and spread the
language at the same time. Meanwhile, during the colonial era, it was
canon of the British colonist which impose English to its colonies.
Whereas, throughout the 20th century, the spread of English is even
more extensive since America, as a super power country in politic,
economy, media as well as military force, became very influential.
Chrystal asserts, ‘without a strong power-base, of whatever kind, no
language can make progress as an international medium of
communication’.(ibid :p.7)
The changes of language as an international language over the
timewere influenced by many factors. In this era, English as the
linguistic vehicle of America has dispersed around the world through
technology and culture, which caused the speakers in non-English
speaking countries, outnumbered those in the countries where the
language is originally from (Graddol, 2000, p.10). It has been a
phenomenon, which later tied with the term ‘Globalization’.
English and globalization are two words which closely
attached. With its development as a lingua franca, English has become
indispensible. The spread of English as a global language, however not
as smooth as it is may seen. Debates over issues related to English
amongst experts are still carrying on until now, such as: to what extent
does Phillipson’s proposition onthe spread of English as part of linguistic
imperialism can be justified and disregarding the agency of leaner?.
Does the term native speaker and non-native speakerstill effective to
show the ‘ownership’ of English?. Does issueon identity and
intelligibility in ESL/EFL context relevant?, Does standardized English
necessary after all?.

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 Asningtias

Referring to Norton’s (1997) statement ‘ If English belongs to

the people who speak it, whether native or non-native, whether ESL or
EFL, whether standard or non-standard, then the expansion of English
in this era of rapid globalization may possibly be for the better than the
worse’ (p.427), the discussion in this paper will mainly affirm that the
spread of English in the world is assuredly be better than worse by
looking at the several issues mentioned.

ISSUES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE GLOBALLY

Linguistic imperialism versus the agency of learner Phillipson
(1992b) introduced the term Linguistic Imperialism in his influential
book under the same title ‘Linguistic Imperialism’, in which triggered
various responsesaround the world. It was hotly debated which led to
different reaction from receptive (Pennycook 1994, Mufwene 2010)
toaversive (Canagarajah 1999).Phillipson argues, that during the
colonial time, English was ‘imposed’ to the colonies of British Empire,
whereas in post-colonial era, it was America which spread the
hegemony of English through technology and culture to the world.
Nonetheless, question that arises, will that subsequently neglect the
agency of learner to pursue and reject to learn the language?
In his book, Phillipson contends,it is linguistic
imperialism/linguicims if the English language is imposed (by stick,
carrots, or ideas), conscious or unconscious, overt or covert. It may be
of an abstract kind (regulation for the use of particular languages) or
more concrete (resource allocation to one language but not others)
(p.55). From the exposition, however, Phillipson appears to be
neglecting the agency of learner who opts to learn and oppose. While
in the contrary,the statistic shows the number of people pursuing to
learn the English language is escalating (see Graddol, 2000 p.10 and
60). In fact, there are several case studies proposed by Canagarajah
(1999), Chew (1999) and Bisong (1995) to show the role of English in
their countries, Sri Lanka, Singapore and Nigeria respectively.
During the British occupancy, according to Canagarajah
(1999) Sri Lankanwas exposed to English since the British uphold

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Revisiting English

English as the official language. However, through the time, the reason
to gain prosperity through the language acquisition, which then
motivate them to learn. He also convincingly elaborates the standpoint
of learners by mentioning that it was social and cultural conditionwhich
later on shaping the community to take part in the hegemony of English
(p.62).In the meantime, Chew (1999) as an example of Singapore,
asserts that the spread of English in postcolonial era is predominantly
the result of globalization instead of linguistic or cultural imperialism.
It was more by choice rather than by force when Singaporean opt
English as their official language among other languages spoken in
Singapore. She mentions the force is more a ‘bottom-up’ as opposed to
‘top-down (p.40).In the case of Nigerian, as Bisong (1995) claims, they
decided to improve their language repertoire by attending English
classes and go to English medium of instruction school in order to
enable them to interact in multilingual and multicultural society, in
hoping for future success.From several instances above, we can
conclude that it is a matter of consciousness to learn or to leave the
language. Thereby, this is to verify that learning English is for better
than for worse, for any reason which might entail.

Native versus Non-Native

The concept of native speaker and non-native speaker is multi
interpretative. As the term itself tiesclosely with identity and how one
perceived themselves in a group of society. Debates emerge on whether
the term is to some extent useful after all. Especially, when the
discussion touches the issue of English language teaching. Who would
be more effective in teaching?. Is it native speaker or non-native
speaker?. Who might the students’ prefer to have as their teacher?.
To understand better, we should define what native speaker
(NS) is and what it is not. Davies (2003),in his book about Native
Speaker: Myth or Realityargues that ‘everyone is a native speaker of
his/her own unique code’(p.208).Thus, the label native speaker and
non-native speaker are still helpful as it links to ‘membership’. It is
similar to a native term in relation to region in which a person was born,

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whether subsequently resident or not. He, further,classifies NS into

several categories: by birth,by virtue of being a native user,by being an
exceptional learner, through education andthrough long residence in
the adopted country. (p.214). By following the schemes, we can
conclude that corresponding to Davies’ concept,NS is not fictional at
all. Therefore, it is undisputable that there are differences between NS
and NNSin respect of linguistic, discourse and cultural repertoire.
In regards to the first related questions, Phillipson (1992b,
pp.193-9) challenges the second principle in Makarere conference in
1961 thatNS would be a better teacher, by calling it ‘native speaker
fallacy’. While he acknowledges that native speaker has better intuition
in grammar, he contests their aptness onexplaining the theory behind
the use of forms and patterns. Second, based on the research by Benke
& Medgyes (2005, pp.195-216) over student’s perceptions on
nonnative speaker English teacher, they found out that NNSETs are
desirable for their competency in explaining grammar rules and
pedagogical strategies, whereas, NSETs are preferable on giving the
model of imitation and cultural immersion.Regarding who might be
more effective, Phillipson (1992a, p. 14) contends that ‘teachers are
made rather than born’. In other words, teachers, either NSET or
NNSET, should undergo an extensive and rigorous training to be an
effective English teacher. As English belong to people who speak it, the
most effective English teacher would be those who master a high
linguistic proficiency and pedagogical competence, regardless the status
of native speaker or non-native speaker.

ESL versus EFL

Following the three concentric circles by Kachru (1985, p.
12), the terms associated to the role of English in those countries
respectively are ENL, ESL and EFL. In the same chapter as well, he
indicates the type of which associate with speech fellowship among this
circles. He mentions that ENL is the norm-providing, while ESL is the
norm-developing, and EFL as the norm-dependant. The last two
mentionedwill be further discussed in relation to the varieties which are

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Revisiting English

blossoming, in regards to ‘the ownership’ of English and how do they

cope with the identity and intelligibility?.
Phillipson (1992b) pinpoints the fuzziness of the distinction
between EFL and ESL learnersby deriving from his interview with
Strevens, regarding the situation of EFL/ESL in England. He argues that
adult immigrants learner who took classes in Britain should be called
ESL instead EFL since they are in the ESL situation (p.242). Moreover,
Bruff-Giffler supports Phillipson’s conceptions by emphasizing two
different situations which ESL would probably be, in outer circle
countries such as, people in Malaysia and in inner circle countries, like
immigrants in Australia (2002,p.134).Therefore, in the following the
discussion on ESL will be mainly focuses on learners in outer circle
country and the EFL in general.
In a research by Georgieva (2010, p.131) aboutIdentity and
Intelligibility to Bulgarian students as EFL learners, the result shows that
they perceive themselves as one who adhere to the norm and standard
as prescribe in the codified grammar book and dictionaries, not merely
following inner circle norms or any varieties which exist. In addition,
related to intelligibility they are more focus on getting the message
across, instead of working on native-like competence. Meanwhile, if we
pay attention closely to ESL learners in general such as in India and
Singapore, their views about native-like competence is even less. They
also do not attach themselves to follow any standard, of whatever it is.
Furthermore, they develop varieties of English which nowadays gain
acknowledgement as some of them are now codified and
institutionalized. Those two illustrations are to show that English
belongs to the people who speak it, regardless the dichotomy of ENL,
ESL and EFL.

Standard versus Non-Standard

It is widely known that majority recognizes three most famous
kind of dialects from inner circle country, namely; American, British
and Australian English. In addition, there are also varieties which come
from outer circle countries which recently under research too, such as;

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Singlish and Indian English. Acknowledging these varieties exist, we

will get an impression that there must be a Standard English. If there is
any, would that be any of those mentioned?. And, if one model were
employed, would that be automatically eradicating the breakdown of
intelligibility?
The discussion over Standard English has heated for over a
decade. Undeniably, it is a complex issue with many aspects to be
considered. We can witness the battle between two prominent figures
in linguistic world, Quirk and Kachru, as it is well documented in ‘
English in the World, teaching and learning the language and
Literature’ -a compilation of papers of an International Conference in
1984– on whether or not it is necessary to uphold standard in English.
Before accepting the false conception about Standard English (SE), we
had better to understand the context related.Furthermore, Strevens
(1983 p.87) in an attempt to clarify what SE is,draws several points of
what SE is NOT:
1. It cannot be defined towards any specific reference for instance;
BBC or Oxford English.
2. It is not specify to any particular group of English-users
3. It does not refer to the most commonly used English
4. It is not establish by a particular group which put forward to
another group.
In other words, based on his explanation, if English remains
following any particular group norms, or be seen as the dialect which
mostly spoken or heard, then it could not be categorized as SE.
In correspond with varieties and innovation emerges in OCC
and ECC, which is famous for World Englishes, concern about
intelligibility becomes apparent. We recognize for instance ‘Indian
English’ and ‘Singlish’ which is based on the idiosyncrasies of lexis,
syntax and style(Strevens, 1982, p.24).What comes next in our mind,
who actually judge what is intelligible and what is not?. What are the
parameters then?. In regards to the ownership of English globally, is it
relevantstill to uphold SE ?.

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Revisiting English

With English language disparity due to ‘nativization’ or

‘glocalization’, there is a great possibility for breakdown in
intelligibility. As Mckay (2002, p.52) emphasizes that among three
components of intelligibility, it is the interpretability aspect which play
an important role for a successful communication. In agreement with
Norton’s proposition,interpretability or understanding of sociocultural
context thatunderlie pragmatic between interlocutors is the key issue.
It depends on the users attitude to establish empathy towards varieties
of language. As long as one can raise their bars of tolerance, the
breakdown of intelligibility could possibly be avoided. As
Kachru’shighlights(1982)’ the acceptance of model depends on its
users: the users must demonstrate a solidarity, identity, and loyalty
towards a language variety’. (p.50)

English Language Teaching and Learning in Indonesia

After gaining independence in 1945, America had substantial
authority towards Indonesian economy. They provided services that
were hard to decline for a new-born country, from advisory and
consultancy to assigning Indonesian intellectual abroad to study in
American universities and colleges (Sneddon, 2003). These students
who then returned upon completion of their study, involuntary became
the agent of spreading the language by confirming that it is important to
master English in order to join the global community. English,
subsequently, obtain a special status in society, which is associated with
modern, sophisticated and successful.
In 1994, English has even reached a larger scope. It has been
taught as compulsory subject in secondary school since 1984
curriculum, and furthermore become one that serve as a local content
in primary school. It is confirmed by the decree
no.1702/104/M/1994, that English is taught as a local content starting
from the third year of primary school (GBPP,1994 as cited in Silfia,
2002). Along with the emergence of globalization, English,further,part
of curriculum starting from the first year of primary school.Now,
abiding the Education Policy Act 2003, English has become one major

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component in the teaching of Science and Math in several schools

assigned by local authority as a consequence for running a dual program
of national curriculum and international acknowledge standardized test
such as such as TOEFL and CIE.
This effort was made to meet the demand of global
competitiveness. The schools which are labeled as International
Standard School, operate dual programs by creating classes which use
English as medium of instructionand regular Indonesian based.
However, fundamental debates over the effectiveness of this model
were immense among many parties: the Indonesian linguist, education
observer, teacher and the student’s parents. They were questioning on
the rationale of using English as a medium of instruction for Math and
Science. In their perspective, if at the same time students are in
quandary about terms used in the language, how can critical analysis be
promoted?. Alongside the complex situation, another issue becomes
visible on a poor quality of teachers who delivered the lesson in English.
In general, it raises skepticism about the government’s goal and its
implementation in Indonesian education. All in all, English has been
playing in a ‘ love’ and ‘hate’ role in Indonesian education,
notwithstanding the enthusiasm to pursue English language education
remains high.

CONCLUSION
When you visit Brussell or Dar res Salaam’s urban area, it is
not necessary to learn the local language since English is widely spoken
as lingua franca. Speech from the Iranian President, Mahmoud Ahmad
Dinejad,or welcoming remarks from the UN Secretary General, Ban Ki
Moon, will be delivered in English. As Sharifan (2009) says, ‘for better
or worse, by choice or force, English has ‘traveled’ to many parts of the
world and has been used to serve various purposes’ (p.1). Thus, the line
becomes very thin on whether it is by choice of by force towards the
spread of English globally.
Native speaker may feel ‘owning’ the language. However,‘it
will be those who speak English as a second or foreign language who

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Revisiting English

will determine its world future’ (Graddol, 2000, p.10). This

prediction has come into reality since the ‘nativation’ and
‘glocalization’ is unstoppable. Therefore, standard and non-standard is
in question whether it is still a useful concept after all.
As in Indonesian case, English played an important role in the
society, not deliberately because of the government policy only, but
also the urge of people to embrace the future as if it is occurring
naturally.There is evidence of a small percentage of Indonesian
especially who live in the capital city andcategorize as economically
powerful, prefer to send their kids to school which use English only.
Even if the consequenceswill be struggling to learn their own national
language, in the name of globalization.
The whole discussion about English in global world can be
concluded as for better than for worse. It serves the need of people
across boundaries and culture. Moreover, it plays as the connecting
device from east to west, young to old to meet at one point. As language
evolves, and so does English, differences that people may found about
each other’s English, will up to the individual to overcome it.

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