2 Dr. B. C. Punmia _ | Ashok Kumar Jain ay ene Kumar Jain1 1.2. Blasticity 1 1.3. Plasticity 2 1.4. Duciility 2 15.___Brittleness 3 16. Malicability 3 1.7. Toughness 3 ‘L8.__Hardness 3 1.9. Strength 4 1.10. Mechanics (or Surengih)_of Matera 4 2.6. Principle of Superposition 18 2.7, Bars of Varying Sections 9 28. Bars of Varying Sections of Different Materials 20 29. Uniformly Tapering Circular Bars 31 2.10. Uniformly Tapering Rectangular Bars 31 2.11. Elongation of Bar of Uniform Section due to Self Weight 32 2.12. Elongation of Bar of Uniformly Tapering Section 33 2.13._ Elongation of Truncated Cone Shaped Bar 34 2.14. Deformation of Bar of Uniform Strength 35 2.15. Compound Bars : Sais Sections 2.16. Equivalent Modulus of a Compound Bar 2.18 Temperature Stresses in Uniform Bars 219. Temperature Stresses in Bars of Tapering Section 2.20. Temperature Stresses in Composite Bar 221. Statically Indeterminate Problems ele er Biles 233. Stress due to Shrinking oo 22a, Additional Tiustrative Examples ale ar ne ae Blastic Constants i rome ene Modulus of Elasticity 3.4. Volumetric Strain due to Single Direct Stress 35. Volumetric Strain due to Three Mutually Perpendicular Stress System (2) ‘Blerigte& 3.6. Upper Limit of Poisson’s Ratio 100 3.7. Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity 103 3.8. Complimentary Shear Stress = 104 3.9. State of Simple Shear 104 3.10. Linear Strain of Diagonal due to Shear 105 B12 Bulk Mogulus 3.13. Relation between E and K 108 3.14,_Relation between E, N, K and m 108 .15, Additional Iusraive Examples Te 4.1. Introduction 123 43. Stresses Induced by State of Simple Shear 126 45, ‘Two Perpendicular Normal Stresses accompanied with State_of Simple Shear 129 4.6, ‘Transformation Equations for Plane Stress 130 4.7. Gireular Diagram for Stresses : Mohr Circle 37 48, Ellipse of Stress 147 49. Principal Stresses and Princizal Planes 148 4.10. Marimum Shear Stresses 0S 4.11. Additional Illustrative Examples 161 5.1, Longitudinal and Lateral Strains. A717 5.2. Principal Strains in Three Dimensions 17 5.3. Computation of Principal Stresses from Principal Strains 180° $4 Plane Strain 180 5.5. Strain Components in an Inclined Direction 181 5.6. Principal Strains _ 183 S.Z__Maximum Shear Strains ‘5.9.__Strain Rosettes __ 139 5.10. Additional Tustrative Examples 193 CHAPTER 6. STRAIN ENERGY, RESILIENCE AND IMPACT LOADING 6.1.__Introduction_ = 201 62 Load-deflection Diagram : Strain Energy _ 201 203 6.4. Inelastic Strain Energy 203 65. Strain Energy of Prismatic Bars with Varying Sections 203 66. Strain Energy of Non-prismatic Bar with Varying Axial Force 204 6:7. Strain Energy of Prismatic Bar Hanging Under its Own Weight 204 68. Strain Energy of Freely Hanging Prismatic Bar with an Axial Load 7204 6.9. Stresses Due to Gradual, Sudden and Impact Loadings 208 6.11. Strain Energy in Terms of Principal Stresses 219 6.12. Relation Between Elastic Moduli from Strain Energy Consideration 21 Copyrightedwi) 6.13. Additional Illustrative Examples 222 ‘Z1.__Introduction. 233 2. Theories of Failure (or | Theories) 23 73. Maximum Principal Stress Theory : Rankine’s Theory Ba 7.4 Maximum Principal Strain Theory : St. Venant’s Theory 235 7.5.___Maximum Shear Stress Theory : Guest's Theory 236 7.6. Maximum Strain Energy Theory or Haigh’s Theory 237 7:___Maximom Shear Strain Energy (or Distortion Energy) Theory : ‘Mises - Henky Theory 238 78 Graphical tion of various Failure “Theories for imensional Stress Sysiem 240 79. Ociahedral Shear Stress Theory 2 242 7.10._Comparison of the Failure Theories : 243 7.11. Additional Ilustrative Examples 27 B.1Tawoduction + Ceatre of Gravity and Centrold 251 82__Centroid of Plane Areas 8 83.__Centroid of Composite Areas 253, i 8.6. Proposition 1 : Paraliel_Axis Theorem 263 8.7. Proposition 2 : Polar Moment of Inertia 263 88 Propostion 3 : Moment of Inertia of Composie Section 265 89, Moment of Inertia of Simple Common Sections 255 267 259 8.10, Radius of Gyration 8.11. Products of Inertia 8.12._Graphical Method for First_and Second Moments of Area 216, CHAPTER 9. SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT f 9.2. Types of Loads 281 93. Types of Supports 282 9.4. Types of Beams 282 9.5. Shear Force and Bending Moment 234 9.6. Shear Force_and Bending Moment Diagrams 285 97. Relationships Between Bending Moment, Shear. Force and Load 304 98. Freely Supported Beam Subjected to Couple 311 99. Beams with Inclined Loading 318 9.10, Loading and B.M. (or SF.) Diagrams from SF. (or BM.) Diagrams 325 9.11. Additional Mlustrative Examples 38 CHAPTER 10, BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS 10.1. Introduetion + 345, 102. Effect of Bending of a Beam 345 103. Theory of Simple Bending Me 10.4. Assumptions in the Simple Theory of Bending 349 105. Ordinary Bending 349 Copyrighted mat106. 107. 108. 109. 1010. 1011. 1012, 10.13. euusseut 133. 13.4. 135. 136. 137. BE (vill) Location of Centroid and Computation of I Design Criterion : Strength of Section Bending of Unsymmetrical Sections Bending of Built-up Section Beam of Uniform Strength Beam of Composite Section : Flitched Beam Strain Energy Due to Bending Force on a Partial Area of a Beam Section and its Moment about NA. ‘Additional Illustrative Examples SHEARING STRESSES IN BEAMS Introduction SRReReS 8 83 Shear Stress Distribution over Rectangular Section 297 Shear Stress Distribution over Solid Circular Section 398 ‘ 3 sesaar rene hence ee" an Sie Dace cai i Principal Stresses and Principal Planes at a Point in a Beam Section 09 Curves of Principal Stresses 412 Composite and Built Up Beams 413 |. Additional Mustrative Examples 416 DEFLECTION OF BEAMS : I DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD Introduction a5, Methods of Determining Deflection of Beams 425 Differential Equation of the Deflection Curve of Beam 426 Doubie Integration Method 428 Use_of Discontinuity Function : Macaulay's Method a1 Propped Cantilevers and Propped Beams 454 Variable Loading on Beam of Uniform Section 464 Beam of Variable Cross-section 9.9944 GT Deflection of Composite Beams 470 ‘Additional Iustrative Examples — DI ICTION OF BI 2 | Deviation. Deflectance Deflection Mohr’s Theorems : Area Moment Equations Sign Conventions Geometrical Properties of M/EI Diagram Slope and Deflection From Mohr's Theorems Use of Moment Diagrams By Parts Geoeral Proceture fr Fading loys snd Defectin at_any imply Supported ‘Additional Titustrative Examples 2 gales 2 8BREF EERRRERER EERREBREF a SEEERESEBEE BE BEBBRE 3 3 Propped Cantilevers 532 334 535 BFLEC BEAMS STRAIN ENERGY METH Strain Energy of Bending 543 Defection of Beams from Strain Energy Consideration 544 Defiection by Unit Load Method 546 Deflection by Fictitious Load Method Using Castigiiano’s First Theorem 550 Strain Energy due to Shear 554 Impact Loading on Beams 556 ‘Additional Illustrative Examples 558 EIXED BEAMS Statically Indeterminate Beams 565 Additonal [usrative_ Examples 37 CONTINUOUS BEAMS Introduction 609 's Theorem of Three Moments : Derivation 610 Case I: EI Constant : General Loading oil Case II : EI Constant : No Settlement : “General Loading ou Case III : EI Constant : No Seitlement : U-D.L. Throughout ou Case IV :® 178. Application of Clapeyron's Theorem for Fied Beam 2 o 18.2. Combined Direct and Bending Stresses 183, Becentric Loading 18.4. Rectangular Section : Middle Third Rule 185. Circular Section : Middle Fourth Rule SBRBRBB B 186. The Core of a Section 18.7. Additional Iustrative Examples CHAPTER 19. MASONRY STRUCTURES (RETAINING WALLS, DAMS AND CHIMNEYS) 19.1.__Introduction 19.2.__General Conditions of Strength and Stability of Masonry Structures 193. Lateral Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls 19.4. Design of Gravity Retaining Wall 19.5._Masonry Dams 19.6. Masonry Chimneys CHAPTER 20, _ COLUMNS SRSaBR 20.1. Introduction 20.2._ Modes of Failure of a Column : Elastic Instability 20.3. Buckling Failure : Euler’s Theory 204. Ideal End Conditions and Effective Length 20.5. Practical End Conditions and Effective Length Factors 20.6. Radius of Gyration and Slendemness Ratio 20.7 Intermediate Columns : Empirical Formulae 20.8. Long Column Under Eccentric Loading : Secant Formula 20.9. Long Column Under Eccentric Loading : Perry's Formula 20.10. Design Formula : IS Code Formula 20.11. Comparison of Various Formulae 20.12. Common Shapes of Compression Members 20.13. Strength of Compression Members 20.14. Unsymmetrical Sections as Strut 20.15. Additional Mlustrative Examples CHAPTER 21. TORSION OF SHAFTS 21.1._Intrnduction 21.2. Torsion of Cirewlar Bars or Shafts 21.3. Assumptions : 21.4, Resisting Torque 21.5. Power Transmitted : 21.6. Design of Shaft 21.7. Strain Energy in Torsion 21.8. Shafts of Varying Dimeter 21.9. Non-uniform or Varying Torsion 21.10. Statically Indeterminate Torsional Members 21.11. Compound Shaft : Shafts in Series and Parallel BREERSIaBRBE RESERERResSSBBRa) 21.12. Shaft_of Two Materials : Composite Shaft 751 21.13. Keys and Couplings 757 21.14. Combined ‘Bending and Torsion 159 21.16. Hypotheses of Elastic Failure 761 21.17, Additional Mustrative Examples CHAPTER 22. SPRINGS z 22.2. Close-Coiled Helical Spring : Axial Pull 223. Closed-Coiled Helical Springs : Axial Couple or Torque 22.4. Open-Coiled Helical Spring : Axial Force 225. Open-Coiled Helical Spring : Axial Torque 22.6. Series and Parallel Arrangement of Springs 22.7, Leaf or Carriage Springs. : Semi-Eliptic Spring 228. Quarter Elliptic Springs 229, Flat Spiral Springs 22.10. Additional Tlustrative Exampics B8ugEseee & 23.2. Projected Area Theorem : 233. Thin Cylindrical Shell Subject to Internal Pressure * 234 Maximum Shear Stress in Cylindrical Shell 23.5. Volumetric Strain of Thin Cylindrical Shett 23.6. Design of Thin Cylindrical Shell 23.7. Thin Spherical Shells Subject 10 Internal Pressure 23.8. Volumetric Strain in a Thin Spherical Shell 23.9. Cylindrical Shell with Hemispherical Ends 23.10. Wire Winding of Thin Cylinders or Tubes 23.11. Additional Ilustrative Examples CHAPTER 24. THICK CYLINDERS AND SPHERES %4,1._Introduction 242. Thick Cylindrical Shells : Lame's Theory 243. Case 1; Internal Pressure pr and External Pressure Zero 24.4. Case 2: Internal Pressure Zero and Extmal Pressure pr ‘24.5. Case 3: Internal Pressure p, and External Pressure pr AG. Case 4: Solid Cireular Shaft Subjected to External Radial Pressure 24.7. Graphical Solution : Lame’s Lines 248, Strain Components and Radial Displacements 249. Design of Thick Cylindrical Shells 24.10. Compound Cylinders 24.11. Shrink Fit Allowance 24.12. Thick Spherical Shells 24.13. Additional Iiustrative Examples segreiceee SSSSSRRRIRBSE BRR(ii) 25.2__Perfect Frames 253. Types of Supports and Reactions Components 25.4. Analysis of Perfect Frames 25.6. Method of Sections 25.7. Pratt Truss with Parallel Chords BE \ | 25.9. Pratt Truss with Inclined Chords 25.11. Warren Type Cantilever Truss 25.12. Triangular Type Cantilever Truss 25.13. Adaitional Iusirative Exampies CHAPTER 26. _RIVETED CONNECTIONS 26.1... Types of Connections 262° Rivet_and Riveting £263. Rivet Size, Rivet Hole and Conventional Symbols ' 264. Common Definitions 26.5. Working Stresses in Rivets 26.6. Types of Riveted Joints BER qf 268, Strength of Riveted Joint 26.9. Design of Riveted Joint : Axial Load 26.11. Riveted Joints in Cylindrical and Spherical Shetls 26.12. Riveted Joint Subjected to Moment Acting in the Plane of the Joint 26.13. Riveted Joint Subjected to Moment Acting Perpendicular to the Plane of Joint 8 88 27.2._Advantages of Welding 27.3. Disadvantages of Welding 27.4. Types of Welds and Welded Joints 27.5. Butt Weld or Groove Weld 276. Fillet Welds 27.7. Defects in Welding 278. Working Stresses in Welds Design of Fillet Welds for Arial Loads 27.10. Fillet Welding of Unsymmetrical Sections : Axial Load 27.11. Design of Butt Welds 27.12. Design of Plug and Slot Welds 27.13. Eccentrically Loaded Fillet Welded Joints 27.14. Eccentrically Loaded Butt \\ ded Joints £388 2828 8 SiisisMechanical Properties of Materials 1.1, IMPORTANT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES The following are the most important mechanical properties of engineering materials: (i) Elasticity (ii) Plasticity (iii) Ductility (iv) Brittleness (%) Malleability (vi) Toughness (vii) Hardness, and (viii) Strength Some of the above properties can not be mutually reconciled; hence no material can possess them all simultaneously. The criteria of suitability (or otherwise) of an engineering material, forming part of either a machine or a structure, is dependent upon the possession of one or more of the above propertis. The above properties are assessed, with a fair degree of accuracy, by resorting to mechanical tests. 1.2. ELASTICITY . When external forces are applied on 2 body, made of engineering materials, the external forces tend to deform the body while the molecular forces acting between the molecules offer resistance against deformation. The deformation or displacement of the particles continues till, full resistance to the external forces is setup. If the forces are now gradually diminished, the body will return, wholly or partly to its original shape. Elasticity is the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is removed. If a body regains completely its original shape, it is said to be perfectly elastic. For any particular material, a critical value of the load, known as the elastic limit marks the partial break down of elasticity beyond which removal of load results in a degree of permanent deformation ot permanent set (Fig. 1.1). Steel, aluminium, copper, stone, concrete etc. may be considered to be perfectly elastic, within certain limits. Stress-Strain relationship : The load per unit area, normal to the applied load is known as stress (p). Similarly, the deformation per unit length in the direction of deformation is known as strain (c). The elastic properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on small specimens of material. The tesis are conducted in materials-testing-laboratories ‘equipped with testing machines capable of loading the specimens in gradually applied increments, and the resulting stresses and strains are measured at all such load increments, till the specimen fails. Fig. 11 shows one such stress-strain diagram (schematic). In Fig. 1.1(a), the specimen is loaded only upto point A, well within the elastic limit £. When the load, correspqnding to point A, is gradually removed the curve follows the same path AO and the strain completely disappears. Such a behaviour is known as the elastic behaviour. In Fig. 1.1(6), the specimen Q)2 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS. & ag 2 8 ee ¢ g e # oth euastic | puastic © OFEFRAIN' |, ELASTIC RECOVERY —> STRAIN (€) = STRAIN (€) ) to) FIG. 1.1, ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY is loaded upto point B, beyond the elastic limit E. When the specimen is gradually unloaded, the curve follows path BC, resulting in a residual strain (OC) or permanent strain. Such a behaviour of the material, loaded beyond the elastic Limit, is known as partially clastic behaviour. A more detailed discussion of stress-strain curve is given in § 2.4. Homogeneity and Isotropy : A material is homogeneous if it has same composition throughout the body. For such a material, the elastic properties are the same at each and every point in the body. It is imteresting to note that for a homogeneous material, the elastic properties need not be the same in all the directions. If a material is equally elastic in all the directions, it is said to be isowopic. If, however, it is not equally elastic in all directions, ie. it possesses different elastic properties in different directions, it is called anisotropic. A theoretically ideal ‘material couid be equally elastic in ali directions, ie. isotropic. Many structural materials meet the requirements of homogencity and isotropy. We shall be dealing with only the homogencous and isotropic materials in this book. 1.3. PLASTICITY Plasticity is the converse of elasticity. A material in plastic state is permanently deformed by the application of load, and it has no tendency to recover. Every elastic material possesses the property of plasticity. Under the action of large forces, most engineering materials become plastic and behave in a manner similar to a viscous liquid. The characteristic of the material by which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond those at the elastic limit is known as plasticity. When large deformations occur in a ductile material loaded in the plastic region, the material is said to undergo plastic flow. The property is particularly useful in the operations of pressing and forging. ‘Plasticity’ is also useful in the design of structural members, utilising its ultimate strengih. 1.4. DUCTILITY Ductility is the characteristic which permits 2 material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section, under the action of a tensile force. In a ductile material, therefore, large deformation is possible before absolute failure ot rupture takes place. A ductile material must, of necessity, possess a high degree of plasticity and strength, During ductile extension, a material shows a certain degree of elasticity, together with a considerable degree of plasticity. Ductility is measured in the tensile test of specimen of the material, cither in terms of percentage elongationMECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS or in terms of percentage reduction in the cross-sectional area of the test specimen. The property of ductility is utilised in wire drawing. 1.5. BRITTLENESS ; Brittleness implies lack of ductility. A material is said to be brittle when it can not be drawn out by tension to smaller section. In a brittle material, failure takes place under load without significant deformation. Brittle fractures take place without warning and the property is generally highly un- desirable. Examples of brittle materials are (i) cast iron (ii) high carbon steel, (fii) concrete (iv) stone, (v) glass, (vi) ceramic materials, and (vii) many com- mon metallic alloys. Fig. 2.2 shows a typical siress- strain curve for a typical brittle material which fail with only little elongation after proportional limit (point A ) is exceeded, and the fracture stress (point F) is the same as ultimate stress. Ordinary glass is a nearly ideal brittle material in which the stress- PI STRESS (P) °, —> STRAIN (€) © FIG. 12. STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR A BRITTLE MATERIAL, strain curve in tension is essentially a straight line, with failure occurring before any yielding takes place. Thus, glass exhibits almost no ductility whatsoever. 1.6. MALLEABILITY Malleability is a property of a material which permits the materials to be extended in all directions without rupture. A malleable material possesses a high degree of plasticity, but not necessarily great strength. This property is utilised in many operations such as forging, hot rolling, drop-stamping etc. 1.7. TOUGHNESS: Toughness is the property of a material which enables it to absorb energy without fracture. This property is very desirable in components subject 10 cyclic or shock loading. Toughness is measured in terms of energy required per unit volume of the material, to cause rupture under the action of gradually increasing tensile load. This energy includes the work done upto the elastic limit which is small in comparison with the energy subsequently expanded. Fig, 1.3 shows the stress-strain curves, both for mild steel as well as high carbon steel. The toughness fs rep- resented by the arca under the stress-strain curve for the material. A common comparative test for toughness is the bend test in which a material HIGH CARBON STEEL, UNIT STRESS —+ UNIT STRAIN > FIG. 13. MEASURE OF TOUGHNESS. is expected to sustain angular bending without failure. 1.8. HARDNESS Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation or surface abrasion. Since these resistances are not necessarily synonymous, it is usual to base the estimation of the hardness4 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS of a material on resistance to indentation only. Tests on hardness may be classified into (@ scratch test, and (ii) indentation test. The scratch test consists of pressing a loaded diamond into the surface of the specimen, and then pulling the diamond so as to make a scratch. The hardness number is then determined on the basis of (i) load required to make a scratch of a given width, or (ii) the width of the scratch made with a given load. The indentation test consists of pressing a body of standard shape into the surface of the test specimen. In the commonly used Brinnell hardness test a hardened steel ball of a given diameter is squeezed into the surface of test specimen, under a fixed standard load and then surface arca of the indent is measured. Brinell’s hardness number (B.H.N.) is then given by : B.HN, = ———-—— — =Pp- v= F where P= Standard load (N) ; D= diameter of steel ball (mm) d= diameter of the indent (mm) 1.9. STRENGTH This is the most important property of a material, from design point of view. The strength of a material enables it 10 resist fracture under load. The load required to cause fracture, divided by the arca of the test specimen, is termed as the ultimate strength of the material, and is expressed in the unit of stress, An important consideration in engineering design is the capacity of the object (such as building structure, machine, air craft, vehicle, ship etc), usually referred to as structure, to support or transmit loads. If structural failure is to be avoided, the loads that a structure actually can support must be greater than the loads it will be required to sustain when in service. Since che ability of a structure to resist loads is called strength, the governing criterion is that the actual strength of a structure must exceed the required strength. The ratio of the actual strength to the required strength is called the factor of safety. However, failure may occur under the action of tensile load, compressive load or shear load. Hence it is essential to know the ultimate strength of the material in each of these three conditions, and the three ultimate strengths are separately determined experimentally. 1.10. MECHANICS (OR STRENGTH) OF MATERIALS Three fundamental arcas of engineering mechanics (or applicd mechanics) arc i) Statics Gi) Dynamics ii) Mechanics (or strength) of materials, Statics and dynamics are devoted primarily to the study of the extended effects of forces on rigid bodies, ie. the bodies for which the change in shape (or deformations) can be neglected, In contrast to this, mtechanics of materials, commonly known as strength of materials deals with the relation betwecn externally applied loads and their internal effects on solid bodies. The solid bodies include axially loaded members, shaft in torsion, thin and thick cylinders and shells, beams, and columns, as'well as structures that are assemblies of these components. These bodies are no longer assumed to be rigid ; the deformation, however small, are of major interest. In actual design, the engineer must consider both dimensions and material properties to satisly the requirements of strength and rigidiy. A machine part or structure should neither break nor deform excessively. The purpose of studying strength of materials is to ensure that the structure used will be safe against maximum internal effects that may be produced by any combination of loading. andSimple Stresses and Strains 2.1, SIMPLE STRESSES When a body (ie. structural element) is acted upon by external force or load, internal resisting force is set up. Such a body is then said to be in a state of stress, where stress is the resistance offered by the body todeformation, For further understanding of this internal resis- tance, consider a prismatic bar AB subjected to axial forces at the ends as shown in Fig. 2.1 (@). A prismatic bar is a straight structural member of uniform cross-section (4) throughout its length (L). In order to know the internal stresses produced in the prismatic ‘ 4 bar, take a section man normal to the longitudinal axis of the bar ; such a section is known as a cross-section. If we consider the equilibrium of either the left part or the right part at section mn, taken as a free body, the internal resistance or the stress (p) offered by the molecules against the external force may be assumed to he uniformly distributed over the whole area of cross-section. Then FIG! 21. STATE OF STRESS P ==> (21 BE (21) where p =Internal resistance = stress = intensity of force. A= Area of cross-section normal to the axis. As the stress p acts in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is referred to as a normal stress. Since the normal suress p is obtained by dividing the axial force by the cross-sectional arca, it has the units of force per unit area, such as kN/m’ or N/mm? Saint Venant’s principle We have assumed above that the distribution of stress over the crgss-section mn is uniform. ‘This assumption is based on Saint Venant’s principle. This principle states that except in the region of extreme ends of a bar carrying direct loading, the stress distribution over the cross-section is uniform. o6 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS. Consider 2 square bar (Fig. 2.22) of section bx b , subjected to axial force P. The stress distribution at section myn , distant 6/2 from the end is shown in Fig. 2.2 (6), where the maximum normal stress (Paw) iS found to be equal to 1.387 times the average stress (p.,) . The stress distribution at section distant 6 from the end is shown in Fig. 2.2 (c), where Pox is found to be 1.027 pws Lastly, at section msns , distant 36/2 from the end (Fig. 2.2 d), paw is found to be equal to py . This il- lustrates Saint Venant's famous principal of rapid dis- sipation of localised stresses, Hence in all practical cases of stress analysis, St. Venant’s principle can be safely fol- lowed, and the normal stress teniniba tery Ee ot FIG. 22 St. VENANT'S PRINCIPLE can be assumed. 2.2. KINDS OF STRESSES ‘There are the following kinds of stresses (1) Normal stresses (® Tensile stress (ii) Compressive stress (2) Shear stress or tangential stress @) Bending stress (4) Twisting or torsional stress (5) Bearing stress Normal stresses When a stress acts in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is known as normal stress ot direct stress. Normal stresses are of two types : (f} tensile stress, and (ii) compressive stress. Frox* Pov (b) STRESS (©) STRESS (6) STRESS DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION. DISTRIBUTION AT myn, AT meng AT myns Tensile stress When a body is stretched by the force P, as shown in Fig. 2.1, the resulting stresses are tensile stresses. Thus tensile stress exists between two parts of a body when each draws the other towards itself. Such a state of stress is shown in Fig. 2.1 where