Ear Related Issues

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9
Ear-Related Issues in Patients

with Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
Wong–Kein Christopher Low and Mahalakshmi Rangabashyam
Department of Otolaryngology, Singapore General Hospital
Singapore
1. Introduction
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is the sixth most common cancer in Singapore amongst
males. Each year, there are 300-400 new cases diagnosed (Singapore cancer registry 2005-
2009). NPC is endemic in Southeast Asia, North Africa, and parts of the Mediterranean
basin, with the highest prevalence in Southern China where an average of 80 cases per
100,000 populations is reported each year (Loong et al., 2008).
The nasopharynx is at a point where the ear, nose and upper pharynx converge. NPC is
relevant to the Otologist although the nasopharynx is located outside the precincts of the
anatomical confines of the ear, since it frequently manifests itself in the form of ear-related
symptoms. The ear deserves special attention not only during diagnosis, but also in
treatment and follow-up of patients with NPC. NPC is extremely radiosensitive and
potentially curable provided the diagnosis is made early. As ear structures are often
included in the radiation fields, ear-related complications of radiotherapy are common as
well.
Early diagnosis is important as it has better treatment outcomes. Patients with early stages
of the disease may present with ear-related complaints. In advanced disease, adjuvant
chemotherapy may become necessary. Chemotherapy usually involves using Cisplatin
(CDDP), which is potentially ototoxic. It is of concern that only 10% of patients are
diagnosed early at stage I (van Hasselt and Woo, 2008). According to Leong et al.(1999),
patient factors identified which contributed to delayed diagnosis included deferment in
seeking medical help, defaulting follow up visits and refusing investigations. Other factors
contributing to further delay in diagnosis were Clinicians not considering a diagnosis of
NPC and Clinicians suspecting NPC but misled by the results of investigations. These
factors contributed to nearly a fifth of patients with NPC having delayed diagnosis. Many of
the factors responsible for the delays appear to be preventable by better patient education
and counseling, doctors having sharper clinical acumen and skills in NPC diagnosis and the
hospital administration having a system of tracking down high risk patients who default.
Therefore, Clinicians should be familiar with the ear-related manifestations of NPC, which
may help in its early diagnosis
This review aims to highlight ear-related issues in NPC patients from 2 perspectives: 1) as a
manifestation of the disease itself and 2) ear-related complications arising from treatment of
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156 Carcinogenesis, Diagnosis, and Molecular Targeted Treatment for Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
NPC namely, radiotherapy with and without chemotherapy. There is a relative paucity of
world literature focusing on the impact of NPC on the Otologist. A major part of this review
is from the principal author’s previous work spanning 2 decades and review of other
relevant literature.
2. Otological manifestations of NPC

Middle ear effusion resulting from NPC is a well-known presenting feature. However, there
are other less common otological presentations including otalgia, giddiness,
heamotympanum, barotrauma and periauricular mass which one should be mindful of
(Low and Goh 1999).
2.1 Middle ear involvement

The link between the middle ear and nasopharynx by the Eustachian tube is one of the
important reasons why the middle ear is frequently involved in patients with NPC.
A small tumor in the Fossa of Rosenmüller of the nasopharynx does not necessarily impair
the Eustachian tubal function, but involvement of the Fossa by NPC seems necessary for
Eustachian tube dysfunction to occur (Su et al., 1993). Tumour may spread outward via the
mucosa and submucosa, or along the muscle bundles within the fibro-fatty tissue planes
that surround the muscles or along the neuro-vascular planes (Miura et al., 1990).
2.1.1 Middle ear effusion

Middle ear effusion (MEE) is a common otological manifestation of NPC and may be the
only presenting symptom of the disease. The resulting conductive hearing loss is usually
unilateral and is due to the tumour causing Eustachian tube dysfunction.
Sham et al. (1992) evaluated the relationship between the paranasopharyngeal extension of
tumor and the presence of MEE using CT scans (1992). The Eustachian tube traverses the
paranasopharyngeal space and the presence of tumor in this region was likely to have an
impact on tubal function, either mechanical or functional. The degree of
paranasopharyngeal extension of tumor, erosion of petrous temporal bone and the
obliteration of pharyngeal recess were found to be significantly related to the development
of MEE, but not sex and age. Erosion of the petrous temporal bone was not as strong a risk
factor for MEE as paranasopharyngeal involvement. The functional derangement of the
cartilaginous part of the Eustachian tube was more important than its bony part in the
development of MEE.
Despite numerous studies, uncertainty exists with regards to the exact patho-physiological
process culminating in MEE. Although Eustachian tube dysfunction can be caused by
inflammation within the lumen and invasion of the tubal orifice, there is mounting evidence
pointing towards functional pathology rather than true mechanical obstruction of the tubal
lumen (Bluestone 1983; Choa, 1981). More recent studies showed that in patients with NPC-
associated MEE; the Eustachian tube was actually patent (Young & Hsieh, 1992). This led to
the evolution of various theories to explain the observed functional rather than mechanical
obstruction.
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Ear-Related Issues in Patients with Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma 157
2.1.1.1 Muscle infiltration theory

Sadé (1994) argued that MEE in NPC was usually the consequence of faulty middle ear
aeration, due to the inability to introduce air through the Eustachian tube. This was because
of its muscles being affected and not because of it’s opening in the nasopharynx being
blocked by a tumor. He observed that in animal studies, MEE could be produced
experimentally by damaging the tensor veli palatini muscles in monkeys (Casselbrandt et al,
1988 as cited in Sadé 1994). In post-mortem studies, histological examination of the
Eustachian tube in patients with NPC revealed that while sometimes the tumour infiltrated
the Eustachian tube submucosa and cause obstruction (Cundy et al., 1973 as cited in Sadé
1994); it usually infiltrated the Eustachian tube muscles and did not involve the Eustachian
tube opening or its lumen at all (Cundy et al., 1973; Takahara et al., 1986 as cited in Sadé
1994). In various clinical studies, (Honjo, 1988 as cited in Sadé 1994; Sham et al., 1992)
demonstrated a direct relationship between the frequency of MEE in NPC and the extent of
its infiltration to the parapharyngeal region where the Eustachian tube muscles were
probably infiltrated. Myers et al., (1984) also pointed to the presence of MEE in cases of other
head or neck tumours such as maxillary sinus carcinoma and its surgery. They showed that
in these cases, damage to the Eustachian tube muscles rather than obstruction of the
Eustachian opening or lumen led to the effusion.
2.1.1.2 Neurogenic theory
Su et al., (1993) conducted an electromyogenic (EMG) study of the tensor veli palatini (TVP)
and levator veli palatini (LVP) muscles in NPC patients. An abnormal TVP wave pattern
coincided with a symptomatic ear whereas the non-symptomatic ear had a normal wave
pattern. A paralyzed LVP with intact TVP did not result in effusion. NPC invasion generally
did not demonstrate a myopathic EMG finding in both muscles. This led to the conclusion
that neurogenic paralysis of TVP muscle on the lesion side played an important role in the
pathogenesis of functional obstruction of the Eustachian tube leading to MEE. The tough
pharyngobasilar fascia not only separated the TVP and LP, but also kept the tensor lateral to
it. Anatomically the nerve to TVP was placed in a more vulnerable position and hence, a
neurogenic cause of TVP paralysis was more likely (Su et al., 1993; Miura et al 1990).
2.1.1.3 Cartilage erosion theory
Low et al. (1997) found in a MRI study that NPC patients who had associated MEE had a
tendency for the Eustachian tube cartilage to be eroded by tumour. Based on these findings
and other observations relating to MEE, the authors postulated that the effect of tumour on
Eustachian tube cartilage played an important role in the genesis of MEE in NPC.
The authors argued that MEE could not be explained by simple mechanical obstruction of
the Eustachian tube alone. The 'hydrops-ex-vacuo' theory of MEE based on the concept that
continuous gaseous absorption occurs in a closed biological air pocket until very high
negative pressures capable of inducing MEEs develop, had largely been discredited
(Grontved et al., 1990). More recent studies had shown that in an unventilated middle-ear
cavity, bidirectional gaseous exchange took place between the middle ear and the
circulatory system of the local tissues until an equilibrium was reached, resulting in middle-
ear pressures which were only slightly negative or even positive (Hergils and Magnuson,
1990; Sadé and Luntz, 1991). It had been postulated that pressure-regulatory mechanisms in
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the middle ear, prevent the formation of excessively high negative middle-ear pressure from
gaseous absorption through the middle-ear mucosa (Grontved et al., 1990). This had been
supported by animal studies where the prevention of middle ear ventilation by ligating the
Eustachian tube led to maximum middle-ear pressures of only 116 mm water (Proud et al.,
1971). In humans, it had been observed that inadequate middle ear ventilation from organic
obstruction by antro-choanal polyps and some other nasopharyngeal tumors seldom led to
MEE formation (Sadé, 1994).
However, for many years, the compliance of the Eustachian tube had been thought to be a
factor causing MEE in children (Bluestone, 1985). More recently, the MEE’s associated with
cleft palate and Down's syndrome was believed to be the result of poorly developed
Eustachian cartilages with abnormal compliances (Shibahara and Sando, 1989).
It is therefore reasonable to postulate that abnormal compliance of the Eustachian tube
could also result from tumor erosion of the cartilaginous part of the tube and this may also
play a role in the pathogenesis of NPC-associated MEE. Low et al. (1997) suggested that
when tumour has affected the lamina and the hinge portion of the cartilage, it could lead to
a change of tubal compliance, resulting in MEE formation.
2.1.2 Ear blockage and negative middle ear pressures

NPC-induced Eustachian tube dysfunction could present as a sensation of ear blockage.
Low and Goh (1999) illustrated this with a case study:
A 50-year-old Chinese man presented with the complaint of a sensation of blockage in his
left ear lasting for two weeks. He had no preceding upper respiratory tract infection.
Examination of the ears was normal. Examination of his nasopharynx with the flexible
nasal-endoscope was unremarkable. Epstein-Barr viral serology (as an NPC screen) was
positive for both viral capsid and early antigens. Random nasopharyngeal biopsies revealed
undifferentiated carcinoma on the left side. Magnetic resonance scan showed a small T 1
submucosal lesion on the left side of the nasopharynx
Ear blockage is the result of negative middle ear pressures (MEPs) without actually
developing MEE. Low (1995) carried out a prospective study to investigate MEPs in patients
with NPC. Newly diagnosed patients with NPC were studied before and at three to 12
months (mean 7.5 months) after radiotherapy. MEPs were measured by tympanometry. The
mean MEP before and after radiotherapy was -55.2 mm water (range -250 to 45 mm water)
and -73.1 mm water (range -215 to 35 mm water) respectively. About two-thirds of
assessable ears had an increase in negative MEPs after irradiation and the rest had less
negative MEPs after irradiation. Those ears that developed post-irradiation middle ear
effusions were found to have pre-irradiation negative middle ear pressures of at least -45
mm water. It was concluded that tympanometry before radiotherapy may prove to be useful
in identifying ears with a high risk of developing post-irradiation MEE.
2.1.3 Barotrauma
Sub-clinical Eustachian tube dysfunction caused by NPC might present clinically as
barotrauma. Low & Goh (1999) illustrated this in a case report of a 40-year-old Chinese
female complaining of right earache and blockage after descending from an air-flight. She
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did not have history of rhinitis prior to nor during the flight. She was diagnosed by her
general practitioner to have sustained barotrauma and was treated medically with partial
improvement of symptoms. The blockage in her right ear however, deteriorated a month
later and was diagnosed by an Otolaryngologist as due to middle-ear effusion. Post-nasal
space examination revealed a tumor on the right side, which was histologically proven to be
NPC.
2.1.4 Tumor invading the middle ear

NPC may spread and occupy the middle ear space. It has been proposed that the routes of
spread of NPC to the middle ear are via the eustachian tube, direct invasion from the
parapharyngeal space and spread from the cavernous sinus through the carotid canal and
into the middle ear (Low, 2002).
The incidence of middle ear invasion of NPC is probably higher than what has been
reported, considering the anatomic communication and close proximity. Diagnosis may not
necessarily be straightforward. Low (2002) reported a case where middle ear invasion by
nasopharyngeal carcinoma was misdiagnosed as simple post-radiotherapy middle ear
effusion for which myringotomy and ventilation tube insertion were performed. In a patient
who had been previously irradiated, a recurrent tumour in the ear can be confused with
other related conditions such as osteo-radionecrosis (Figure 1).
2.2 Cerebello-pontine angle involvement

In the work-up of a space occupying lesion cerebello-pontine angle (CPA), metastatic NPC
is normally not considered. Although it is a rare complication, NPC should be kept in mind
in a population where NPC is endemic (Yuh et al., 1993). It was observed in a study that
when NPC involved the cerebello-pontine, it occurred in patients with advanced or
recurrent disease (Low et al., 2000).
Involvement of the CPA can present a varied clinical picture. NPC manifesting as
sensorineural hearing loss is rare (Bergstrom et al., 1977). It can be the result of the tumor
affecting the cochlear nerve but it seldom affects the cochlea because of the tough otic
capsule (Pringle et al., 1993). Although the resulting hearing loss is usually insidious in
nature, it may occasionally present as sudden hearing loss (Low and Goh, 1999; Young,
2001). NPC involving the CPA can also affect the vestibular component of the 8th cranial
nerve causing vestibular symptoms. This usually occurs insidiously and results in imbalance
rather than true vertigo (Ramsden, 1987). NPC in the CPA can also affect the facial nerve
resulting in facial palsy (Low, 2002).
Clinical diagnosis of NPC involvement at the CPA can be difficult. A patient who has
received irradiation for NPC in the past may come to the Otologist with sensorineural
deafness caused by recurrent NPC in the CPA. The attending physician may miss the
diagnosis if he/she simply assumes the deafness to be radiation-induced (Low and Fong,
1998). Similarly, dizziness may be assumed to be the result of metabolic abnormalities and
other post irradiation effects (Singh and Slevin 1991). Even facial palsy as the presenting
symptom of NPC involvement of the CPA can be misleading because doctors are ever eager
to attribute it to Bell’s palsy, given that facial palsy as a consequence of NPC is rare (Skinner
et al., 1991). The maxim, "All that palsies is not Bell's," is particularly relevant with respect to
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Fig. 1. Axial CT Scan of the right temporal bone ear showing tumor recurrence of the middle
ear and mastoid.
This 50 year old Chinese man who had radiotherapy for NPC 2 years ago presented with
chronic right ear discharge. Examination of the right ear showed narrowed edematous
external ear canal. The eardrum could not be seen from auroscopy. The CT scan showed
bony involvement. The list of differential diagnoses included tumour recurrence, osteo-
radionecrosis and malignant otitis externa. He underwent surgical exploration and biopsy,
which confirmed tumour recurrence. He was treated with palliative chemotherapy.
patients who have previously been treated for advanced NPC. In these patients, recurrent or
persistent NPC involving the CPA, temporal bone, or parotid should be excluded (Low
2002). A factor that makes the diagnosis even more elusive is that postnasal space was often
free of disease (Gouliamos et al, 1996).
Low et al (2000) reported the following case report, which illustrated the typical features of
CPA involvement by NPC. A 53-year-old man was found to have NPC (stage T4N2, UICC
1997) when he experienced left vocal cord palsy (CN 10) and left CN 12 palsy. He was
treated with radical radiotherapy. Two years later, he experienced left facial palsy (CN 7),
giddiness, and left sensorineural hearing loss (CN 8). The giddiness was described as a
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sense of imbalance and light-headedness but not vertigo. The postnasal space was clinically
free of tumor, and biopsy did not show malignancy. A CT scan showed a deep submucosal
recurrent NPC with bony erosion of the left jugular foramen and extending to the left
posterior cranial fossa. He was subsequently treated with gamma knife radio-surgery.
There are a few possible mechanisms by which NPC can involve the CPA. Isolated lesions in
the CPA that did not have tumor involvement of the skull base can involve the CPA,
suggesting spread from the hematogenous route (Gouliamos et al. 1996). Yuh et al. (1993)
suggested that metastatic cancers to the CPA could also arise from direct leptomeningeal
spread or from dissemination through cerebrospinal fluid. The jugular foramen also offers a
route of communication between the region of the para-nasopharynx and the posterior
cranial fossa (Low et al 2000). Goh and Lim et al. (2009) suggested it could be as a result of
perineural tumor spread.
According to Low et al. (2000), CPA manifestations of NPC can be as a result of
inadequacies of standard radiotherapy techniques in the treatment of advanced NPC. The
design of radiotherapy fields is based on the principle of maximal dose delivery to tumor-
bearing tissues and maximal sparing of normal structures. A normal tissue or organ is
considered to be “dose limiting” if its tolerance to radiation is so poor that it affects the
maximum dose deliverable to the adjacent tumor-bearing tissues. Such structures around
the postnasal space include the contents of the orbits, the optic nerves and chiasm, the
hypothalamic-pituitary axis, the inner ear, the spinal cord, the temporal lobes of the brain,
and the brainstem. Encephalomyelopathy is a feared complication in NPC treatment. To
minimize the dose to the brainstem, standard radiotherapy techniques to the postnasal
space mandate a brainstem shield. Thus, even microscopic disease in this area is under-
treated. Geographic under treatment of an initially advanced cancer may result in a patient's
returning for treatment at a later stage with clinical manifestations of tumor involving the
CPA. Low et al (2000) concluded that this might represent progression of persistent tumor
than a true relapse.
Treatment of NPC in the CPA is clinically challenging because when the standard
radiotherapy techniques for NPC are applied to this region, the brainstem is at great risk.
Gross disease extension into the CPA evident on CT scan is probably not radio-curable for
this reason. In our center, such patients would be treated with initial chemotherapy in the
hope that the tumor would shrink sufficiently to be encompassed by standard radiotherapy
fields. Unfortunately, as illustrated by Low et al. (2000), NPC in the CPA may not respond
well to chemotherapy.
Where a tumor is localized in the CPA, focal means of delivering radiotherapy in the form of
radiosurgery as delivered by the gamma knife or fractionated stereotactic Linac
radiotherapy, may be considered. Such focal means of delivering radiotherapy have the
advantage of depositing a high dose to a well-defined volume of tumor-bearing tissues,
with rapid dose fall off to the surrounding structures. The disadvantage is that there is a 4-
cm upper limit in diameter of tumor size beyond which the dose-sparing feature of this
modality is rapidly lost. Where the tumor is larger than is feasible for stereotactic
radiotherapy, a standard wedge pair technique may be feasible. The caveat, which cannot be
overemphasized, is that the larger the tumor volume, the higher the likelihood of incurring
critical damage to surrounding structures (Low et. al., 2000)
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2.3 Referred otalgia

Referred otalgia is pain felt in the ear but originating from a non-otologic source. Ear pain is
a diagnostic dilemma when otoscopy reveals normal external ear and tympanic membrane.
As the ear is innervated by sensory contributions of the the 5th, 7th, 9th and 10th cranial nerves
as well as spinal nerves C2 and C3, lesions arising from areas supplied by these nerves may
result in pain referred to the ear.
Theoretically, NPC can present as referred otalgia by involving the 9th cranial nerve. We
concur with the observation by van Hasselt & Gibb (1991) that otalgia is less common than
one might expect. We agree with the view that the most common description of pain is not
“sharp” but “aching, dull or pressing” (Epstein and Jones, 1993). This is illustrated by a case
report by Low & Goh (1999):
A 48 year old man complained of a sensation of fullness in the left peri-auricular region, just
antero-inferior to the tragus lasting for a month. Examination by manual palpation failed to
reveal any mass in the region. CT scan of the parotid was normal. Nasal-endoscopy
however, revealed a discrete mass in the left side of the post-nasal space. Biopsy of this
nasopharyngeal mass showed undifferentiated nasopharyngeal carcinoma. His symptom
resolved after radiation therapy.
2.4 Tinnitus
It is common for patients to consult the Otologist for the complaint of tinnitus in the absence
of other ear symptoms or signs. If unilateral, the Otologist often considers the possibility of
an early acoustic neuroma and investigates as such. It is however, highly unlikely that NPC
presents as tinnitus as an isolated symptom in the absence of other features relating to the
ear, a view shared by van Hasselt & Gibb (1991). If present, it is normally a result of
Eustachian tube, middle ear or auditory nerve involvement with the resulting associated
aural manifestations as well.
2.5 Peri-auricular mass

Although NPC metastasizing to the parotid is rare with only 14 cases reported in the
literature (Wanamaker et al., 1994), this possibility should be considered in high-risk
patients presenting with parotid masses. Batsakis and Bautina (1990) cautioned that some
cases of 'primary undifferentiated carcinoma of nasopharyngeal type' in the major salivary
glands might in fact be metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Low (2002) reported a case of
metastatic NPC to the parotid and presenting with facial palsy as follows.
A 50-year-old man was treated for nasopharyngeal carcinoma overseas. Two years later, he
exhibited complete left lower motor neuron facial nerve palsy. Examination revealed a hard
mass in the left parotid over the region of the facial trunk in addition to multiple swollen
cervical nodes (figure 3). The postnasal space was clinically free of tumor, and the
appearance of the ears was unremarkable. Chest x-ray showed multiple metastases.
Analysis of a fine-needle aspiration sample of the parotid mass identified an
undifferentiated carcinoma consistent with metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The
patient refused further treatment and died 3 months later.
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Parotid metastasis is most commonly due to lymphatic spread (Wanamaker et al., 1994). The
parotid is made up of a rich network of lymphatic vessels and interconnecting intra-
glandular and peri-glandular lymph nodes. NPC can affect the retropharyngeal lymph
nodes, which can drain into the parotid nodes. From the parotid nodes, the tumor has access
to the lymphatic plexus, parotid parenchyma, facial nerve, and even the parapharyngeal
space (Batsakis & Bautina 1990).
3. Otologic complications arising from treatment of NPC

As NPC is highly radiosensitive, radiation treatment stands as the primary modality of
management. The aim of treatment is eradication of tumor through targeted delivery of
radiation to the tumor bed, at tolerable doses to minimize acute and late complications. It is a
challenge to balance cure on one hand, and prevention of complications from treatment on the
other. The focus in this section is to highlight the impact of treatment of NPC on ear structures.
3.1 Radiation therapy

Megavoltage external beam radiotherapy is the primary treatment of choice. There are two
lateral opposing and one anterior field beams. This is meant to cover the sides of the neck
and entire nasopharynx. Radiotherapy is given prophylactically to the neck assuming there
is occult disease.
A typical convention technique used by us involves patients treated with six megavolt
(6MV) X-rays from linear accelerators. Chemotherapy was not part of the protocol for any
patient. The primary volume covered the nasopharynx including the Eustachian tube,
adjacent parapharynx to the level of the inferior border of C2, and posterior third to half of
the nasal cavity and maxillary antra (Figures 2 and 3). As shown, the brainstem was
shielded throughout on the lateral fields and the inner ear would be at the edge of this
shield. A total dose of 66 – 70 Gys in 2 Gy daily increments was prescribed. The neck
received 60 Gy electively, with palpable nodes boosted to 70 Gy.
3.1.1 Post-irradiation otitis media

3.1.1.1 Middle ear effusion
MEE is a common finding among patients who have been irradiated for NPC patients and is
generally attributed to Eustachian tube dysfunction. Post-irradiated ultra-structural findings
of the Eustachian tubal mucosa showed ciliary loss, intercellular and intracellular
vacuolation and ciliary dysmorphism (Lou et al., 1999). Most of these pathologic findings
were observed to be persistent and did not resolve with time suggesting that radiation had
caused long-term damage to the Eustachian tube epithelium. The Eustachian tube could
grossly manifest in differing ways ranging from patulous Eustachian tube, adhesion,
incomplete and complete obstruction (Zhou et al., 2003).
MEE could be present in the early post-radiotherapy period and some persist in the long-
term. Low & Fong (1998) studied the factors, which could possibly influence the
development of long-term middle ear effusion in patients irradiated for NPC. Thirty-five
patients (70 ears) were studied for 2-8 years (mean 5.5 years) post-radiotherapy. The factors
studied were (a) sex (b) age (c) tumour size and (d) presence of pre-radiotherapy MEE. Only
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Fig. 2. Beam's Eye View (BEV) of lateral post-nasal space field.

The field (yellow box) is superimposed on a digitally reconstructed radiograph (DRR) by the
planning computer. The solid red area represents the target volume where a uniform high
dose is deposited. Critical structures are shielded to reduce exposure. These structures
include the brain stem and spinal cord, optic chiasma (blue), and the inner ear as much as is
feasible.
the presence of pre-radiotherapy MEE was found to be statistically significant (P = 0.004,

Fisher's exact test). Stepwise multiple regression analysis showed the presence of pre-
radiotherapy MEE was a predictor of post-radiotherapy MEE with an odds ratio of 0.67.
Hence, an ear with pre-irradiation MEE was almost seven times more likely to have long-
term post-irradiation MEE than an ear without pre-irradiation MEE. It was postulated that
irreversible Eustachian tube dysfunction occurred only when the tube that had been
damaged by tumour was further damaged by irradiation. It may well be that tumour and
irradiation had induced change in the compliance of the Eustachian tube resulting in the
development of long-term post-radiotherapy MEE.
As the mechanism of post-radiotherapy MEE is likely to be different from MEE commonly
found in children, its principles of management are also different. Unlike in children, the use
of ventilation tubes has the tendency to result in chronic infection, which was are often
persistent and troublesome. They also tend to be associated with persistent perforations.
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Fig. 3. Axial CT scan of the nasopharynx showing a computer generated isodose plan. This
shows the distribution of radiation dose as determined by the specific beam arrangement.
The dose to the target volume and various structures of interest can be assessed.
Therefore, hearing loss resulting from post-radiotherapy MEE should preferably be

addressed by amplification with hearing aids rather than drainage with ventilation tubes
(Skinner & van Hasselt, 1991).
3.1.1.2 Chronic suppurative otitis media
Chronic Suppurative Otitis Media (CSOM) was found in 24.5% of NPC patients who
developed otological complications after radiotherapy (Yuen and Wei, 1994). Perforation of
the eardrum may occur after ventilation tube insertion for MEE or spontaneously as a result
of radiotherapy-induced spontaneous Eustachian tube dysfunction (Wei et al, 1988).
Some Otologists in managing CSOM in post-irradiated NPC patients prefer a conservative
approach, presumably because of the belief that impaired healing is more likely in irradiated
tissues and radiation-induced Eustachian tube dysfunction may lead to lesser chance of
successful repair. Yuen and Wei (1994) however, recommended tympanomastoidectomy for
NPC patients with active CSOM who fail to respond to conservative treatment, citing a
nearly 70% chance of success after surgery.
3.1.2 Post-irradiation sensorineural hearing loss

Radiotherapy of head and neck cancers including NPC is well known to result in sensori-
neural hearing loss (SNHL), when the ear structures are included in the radiation fields. The
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reported post-radiation therapy hearing loss rates based on audiometric evaluation varied
between 0% and 54% (Ho et al., 1999; Kwong et al., 1996; Raajmakers et al., 2002). This is
attributed to radiation-induced damage to the sensorineural auditory pathways.
It is important to know whether the auditory nerve, the central nervous pathways or both,
are damaged by radiotherapy. This is important in the context of treating profound hearing
loss in post-irradiated ears using the cochlear implant. The cochlear implant works by
stimulating the auditory nerve fibres directly, without the need for functioning cochlear hair
cells. Its success therefore, depends largely on a functional auditory nerve and its central
nervous pathways.
If the auditory nerve and central nervous structures are indeed spared and that damage
occurs primarily in the cochlea, it will then be useful to understand the cellular and
molecular processes involved in radiation-induced cochlear hair-cell damage. This is
because it has relevance in preventive measures where medications are used to target the
cellular and molecular pathways involved.
3.1.2.1 Pathogenesis
It was demonstrated in chinchillas that cochlear nerve fiber degeneration occurred after
exposure to high radiation doses. In ears exposed to 40 to 50Gy and 60 to 90Gy of radiation,
the incidence rates were 31% and 62% respectively, (Bohne et al., 1985) confirming that
radiation induced damage is dose dependent.
To find out if radiation damages retro-cochlear auditory pathways, we prospectively
studied newly diagnosed NPC patients treated by radiotherapy alone (Low et al., 2005).
Audiograms including evoked response audiometry which could assess the integrity of
retro-cochlear auditory pathways, were carried out prior to and after radiotherapy (at 3, 18
and 48 months). There was no statistically significant difference in inter-waves latencies
recorded before and after RT (p >0.05, Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test), suggesting that the
retro-cochlear auditory pathways were functionally intact. Analysis of dose-volume
histograms confirmed that the cochlea and internal auditory meatus received significant
doses of radiation, ranging from 24.1-62.2 and 14.4 – 43.4 Gy respectively.
It is believed that etiologies of SNHL such as ageing and drug toxicity, share similar cell
death mechanisms leading to a final common apoptotic pathway (Atar et al., 2005).
Radiation-induced apoptosis has been well demonstrated in non-cochlear cell systems and
is generally accepted as an important mechanism of radiation-induced cell death in vivo
(Shinomiya 2001; Verheij & Bartelink 2000) Therefore, by relating our findings to what is
already known, it is not unreasonable to expect radiation-induced apoptosis occurring in
cochlear hair-cells in vivo.
It is well accepted that radiation-induced SNHL is progressive in nature. The integrity of
normal tissues or organs depends on the maintenance of a certain number of normally
functioning mature cells. When the depletion of functioning cells reaches a critical level, a
clinically detectable effect becomes apparent (Awwad 1990). In the case of radiation-
induced SNHL the cochlea consists of a finite number of post-mitotic non-regenerating hair
cells. A patient may experience hearing loss when a critical mass of hair cells is lost and it
may take several months or years after radiation exposure before this stage is reached.
Radiation-induced SNHL has been described to have either early or late-onset. Early-onset
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SNHL occur within hours or days after completion of RT, whereas late-onset radiation-
induced SNHL may manifest months or years after exposure. Hence, “late”-onset radiation-
induced SNHL may possibly represent the later stages of the progression in hair cell
degeneration initiated by direct cellular injury during irradiation. Alternatively, the initial
radiation-induced injury could have rendered the cells more susceptible to apoptosis
following subsequent exposure to insults such as noise and ototoxic medications (Low et al.,
2009).
There has been compelling evidence in animal models, implicating reactive oxygen species
(ROS) in the damage associated with non-radiation causes such as cochlear ischemia, noise
trauma, presbycusis, meningitis-associated hearing loss and aminoglycoside and cisplatin
ototoxicity (Seidman and Vivek, 2004).
In radiation-induced apoptosis in the OC-k3 inner ear cell line, Low et al., (2006a),
demonstrated dose-dependant intracellular generation of ROS at 1 hour post-irradiation and
was believed to be an important triggering factor in the apoptotic process. ROS could
explain the observation that high frequency hearing is preferentially damaged by radiation
(Rybak & Whitworth 2005). In an animal study on aminoglycoside ototoxicity, outer hair-
cell death in the Organ of Corti was observed to follow a base-to-apex gradient, which was
eliminated by the addition of antioxidants (Sha et al., 2001). This was attributed to the outer
hair cells in the basal coil (respond to higher frequency sounds) having much lower levels of
glutathione than those in the apical region (respond to lower frequency sounds) and
therefore, a lower antioxidant capacity (Rybak & Whitworth 2005).
In the OC-k3 inner ear cell line, Low et al., (2006a) found up- regulation of p53 related genes
from micro-array studies. Western blotting confirmed up-regulation of p53 at 72 hours and
phosphorylation at 3, 24, 48 and 72 hours after irradiation. It is well known that p53 can
induce apoptosis.
Nevertheless, a number of different mechanisms leading to cell deaths may also be involved
in radiation-induced ototoxicity. These include necrotic cell death, p53-independent
mechanisms and caspase-independent programmed cell death. Multiple cellular organelles
may trigger several pathways that may act independently or in concert (Leist & Jaattela
2003).
3.2 Prevention
For NPC and other tumours that are treated mainly by radiation, improved radiotherapy
techniques such as intensity modulated RT help to reduce unnecessary radiation exposure
to the ear. This may be facilitated by early detection when the tumours are still small and
situated away from ear structures.
Accurate delineation of the middle and inner ear is a prerequisite to achieve dose constraint
to those structures. The size and proximity of the middle and inner ear to the tumor, renders
it susceptible to damage. As deviation during contouring can have a profound impact on
post treatment sequelae (Wang et al., 2011), Pacholke et al. (2005) established guidelines for
contouring the middle ear and the two major components of the inner ear. These guidelines
have been of practical help to radiation oncologists.
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Improving tumor control rate is the aim, but another important goal is to reduce radiation-
induced complications and to improve the quality of life of survivors. The application of 3D
conformal radiation therapy (3D-CRT) and intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT)
signified a major improvement over conventional 2D radiation therapy. A randomized
controlled clinical study showed that at 12 months post-radiation therapy, quality of life
scores were significantly higher in the IMRT group than the conventional radiation therapy
group for patients with NPC (86.5 versus 58.3; P <0.001) (Pow et al., 2006). The incidence of
chronic otitis media and abnormal vestibular evoked myogenic potentials in NPC patients
treated by IMRT were significantly lower when compared with those treated by 2DRT,
demonstrating the superiority of IMRT in decreasing unwanted otologic complications.
However, occurrence of MEE, which was related with advanced T stage, cannot be reduced
by IMRT (Hsin et al., 2010).
Clinically effective preventive measures can potentially be applied based on the above
proposed ROS-linked p-53 dependent apoptotic model of radiation-induced ototoxicity. It
also provides a basis for the use of anti-oxidants and anti-apoptotic factors in its prevention.
Antioxidants look promising as effective agents to prevent radiation-induced ototoxicity;
they target upstream processes leading to different cell death mechanisms that may co-exist
in the population of damaged cells (Low et al., 2009). An anti-oxidant, L-N-Acetylcysteine
(L-NAC), was demonstrated in the same cell line to have a protective effect (Low et al.,
2008). With its track record of safety in humans and efficacy as an anti-oxidant, L-NAC
appears promising as an agent to prevent radiation-induced SNHL in the near future. High
doses can potentially be delivered trans-tympanically into the middle ear with minimal
systematic side effects, and entry to the inner ear is facilitated by its low molecular weight.
3.3 Treatment
Efforts to regenerate hair cells represent a large and important field of research and appear
promising in animal studies. However, integrating transplanted stem cells into damaged
epithelium and generating the correct number of cells in the correct parts of the Organ of
Corti will be a challenge. Given that much of cochlear function depends on the precise
mechanical properties of the Organ of Corti, excess or inappropriately placed cells are likely
to cause problems. Moreover, the possible effects of radiation on the supporting and
vascular structures of the Organ of Corti, may also complicate regenerative efforts.
For now, the best therapeutic strategy would be effective rehabilitation of SNHL after RT.
3.3.1 Cochlear implantation

In patients with profound SNHL, cochlear implants may be effective if the retro-cochlear
auditory pathways remained intact. To substantiate that the retro-cochlear auditory
pathways remained intact after RT (Low et al., 2005), a case-control study of cochlear
implant recipients who had prior irradiation for NPC was conducted in our clinic (Low et al
2006b). They received their RT 11-28 years prior to cochlear implantation and the post-
implant follow-up period ranged from 9 to 46 months. The implanted ear of each patient
had favourable pre-operative promontory stimulation results. Post-implant, all patients
were satisfied with their hearing outcomes and the improvement in speech discrimination
scores was comparable to the controls.
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There are specific issues related to cochlear implantation in post-irradiated ears that one
should consider:
3.3.1.1 Surgery
Adhesions in middle ear could complicate surgery, including posing difficulties during
identification of the round window niche. Post radiation obliteration of the cochlea lumen is
possible, which could compromise smooth insertion of electrode array during implantation
(Formanek et al., 1998).
In cochlear implantation of patients who had been irradiated for NPC, two aspects ought to
be highlighted. Firstly, these patients not infrequently have perforated eardrums and
middle ear infections, with the Eustachian tube openings in the nasopharynx completely
obliterated. For these patients, conventional techniques of cochlear implantation do not
apply and modified techniques such as subtotal petrosectomy, fat obliteration and blind sac
closure become necessary. Secondly, NPC has a racial predilection and is common in the
Chinese. Racial differences in mastoid morphology exist and such differences had even been
used in race identification during forensic and anthropology investigations. Indeed, a study
of Chinese temporal bones had revealed differences in the course of the facial nerve in the
mastoid and in the origin of the chorda tympani, as compared to those described in Western
textbooks (Low, 1999). Knowledge of such racial anatomical variations may reduce the risk
of facial nerve injury during mastoid surgery, especially in irradiated ears where the bone is
usually more friable than normal.
3.3.1.2 Surveillance imaging
A part of the internal component of the cochlear implant is a small magnet, which is
required to secure the external component to the skin of the patient. In an NPC patient who
had been treated previously, magnetic resonance imaging is sometimes required to exclude
the possibility of tumor recurrence. Should magnetic resonance imaging be indicated in a
patient who is already a cochlear implant recipient, there may be a need to remove the
magnet from the internal device before the scan.
3.3.1.3 Re-irradiation
In recurrent tumors, further radiotherapy may be indicated. Fortunately, the internal device
had been shown to be resistant to damage by radiation (Ralston et al., 1999). However,
cumulative radiation doses from further radiotherapy could inflict severe damage to the
auditory nerve, which could compromise the post-implant hearing outcome.
3.3.2 Bone-anchored hearing aids

Conventional hearing aids may effectively address conductive hearing loss resulting from
MEE. However, they may aggravate otorrhea, and ear moulds traumatize
osteoradionecrosis ulcers in the ear canal. An alternative for patients is the bone-anchored
hearing aids (BAHA). BAHA has been shown to have successful osseointegration in post-
irradiated NPC patients (Soo et al., 2009). Improved subjective hearing clarity, reduced ear
discharge rates, and extended BAHA usage times accounted for high patient satisfaction
with the BAHA hearing system. Soo et al (2009) therefore, recommended the BAHA hearing
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system for the treatment of chronic suppurative otitis media-related hearing problems in
NPC patients.
3.3.3 Active middle ear implants

Compared to conventional hearing aids, active middle ear implants such as the Vibrant
Soundbridge provide more mechanical energy into the inner ear. However, they still rely on
viable cochlear hair cells in order to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy for
onward transmission through the auditory nerve to the brain. In radiation-induced SNHL,
there may be progressive cochlear hair cell loss. Patients with post-radiotherapy SNHL
affecting only the higher frequencies may initially be suitable for middle ear implants.
However, it’s use should be cautioned as the natural progressive nature of radiation-
induced SNHL might affect the effectiveness of these devices in the longer term.
3.3.4 Chemo-radiation and their combined ototoxic effects

Combined chemo-radiotherapy is increasingly being used clinically to treat advanced head
and neck cancers. In radiotherapy of tumours in the head and neck region, the auditory
pathways are often included in the radiation fields and radiation-induced SNHL may result.
Cisplatin (CDDP), widely used as an effective anti-neoplastic drug for these cancers, is also
well known to cause ototoxicity. Therefore, in combined therapy, the synergistic ototoxic
effects of CDDP and radiation could theoretically be catastrophic for the patient and is a
clinical issue that deserves more attention.
Skinner et al. (1990) remarked that previous or concurrent use of other ototoxic agents with
CDDP, may increase toxicity by more than simple algebric summation. Indeed, there have
been a number of reports that described enhanced radiatiation-induced ototoxicity when
used with CDDP. In a study by Schnell et al (1989) it was found that children and young
adults treated with CDDP suffered an additional 20-30dB SNHL if they had received prior
cranial RT. In a study on children and adolescents who had received CDDP for the
treatment of solid tumours, Skinner et al. (1990) reported more severe CDDP ototoxicity in
patients who had previously received RT encompassing the ear. Similarly, Merchant et at
(2004) observed enhanced ototoxicity in a study on children with brain tumours who were
treated by pre-RT ototoxic chemotherapy. Miettinen et al (1997) also found that
radiotherapy enhanced the ototoxicity of CDDP in the higher speech frequencies. The
results of these studies were consistent with those from case reports, which supported the
idea that RT should be considered cautiously in children treated with CDDP for intracranial
malignancies (Sweetow & Will, 1993; Walker et al, 1989)
We conducted a single blinded randomized trial to investigate the true differences in extent,
onset and clinical course of SNHL between newly diagnosed nasopharyngeal carcinoma
(NPC) patients treated by RT alone and by combined chemo-RT (Low et al 2006c). Bone
conduction thresholds were performed before treatment and at 1 week, 6 months, 1 year
and 2 years after completion of RT. Statistical analysis was performed using the Mann-
Whitney test. Hearing thresholds averaged over 0.5, 1 and 2kHz were found to be poorer in
the chemo-RT group (116 ears) compared to the radiotherapy group (114 ears), at 1 year
(p=0.001) and 2 years (p=0.03) post-treatment. Hearing thresholds at 4kHz were
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significantly worse for patients in the chemo-RT arm at all the post-treatment time points
studied and were more severely affected than those at lower frequencies.
3.4 Osteo-radionecrosis
Osteo-radionecrosis (ORN) is an uncommon complication of radiation treatment. In post-
irradiated NPC patients, it may occur in the temporal bone and presents as chronic or
recurrent ear discharge. To the unwary Clinician, this can potentially be misdiagnosed as
the symptoms of chronic suppurative otitis media and otitis externa, both of which are
common in post-irradiated NPC patients.
Radiation may result in hypoxia, hypovascularity and hypocellularity of canal skin. These
impair normal collagen synthesis and cell production and lead to tissue breakdown and
eventual ORN (Hao et al., 2007). Obliterative vasculitis also causes a direct radiation-induced
avascular necrosis of the bone (Schuknecht & Karmody, 1966). This is more likely to occur in
the presence of tumor involvement (Lederman, 1965). There is a positive relationship between
the size of the radiation dose and the degree of necrosis (Thornley et al., 1979).
Fig. 4. Endoscopic view of the left external and middle ear showing osteo-radionecrosis.
This 60 year old woman had radiotherapy for NPC 15 years ago and had remained disease
free since. She presented with chronic left ear discharge 12 years after radiotherapy.
Examination showed necrotic in the external ear canal and middle ear. CT scan showed that
the bony lesions did not involve the rest of the temporal bone. She was closely followed up
with regular aural toilet and topical antibiotics. She was not keen for other treatment options
like hyperbaric oxygen and sequestrectomy.
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Ramsden et al (1975) classified osteoradionecrosis of the temporal bone as either localized or

diffuse. In localized osteoradionecrosis, the disease is generally confined to the external
auditory canal, and symptoms manifest according to the site and stage of the disease. In
diffuse osteoradionecrosis it extends beyond the temporal bone to the base of the skull and
its surrounding structures. The affected patients presented with more severe symptoms of
profuse and pulsatile otorrhea and significant pain. The diffuse form is associated with a
greater likelihood of complications, including trismus, intracranial infection, facial nerve
palsy, labyrinthitis, chronic mastoiditis, CSF leak, and internal carotid artery aneurysm.
(John et al., 1993)
The type that is more commonly seen is the localized type where the ORN is heralded by
unhealed ulcer, foul discharge, exposed bone and accompanying granuloma. It is typically
seen in the lower external canal skin, an area predisposed to downward pressure-induced
trauma from wearing hearing aids or iatrogenically traumatized during aural toileting or
ear-picking. Sometimes, it involves the middle ear (Figure 4). As suggested by Hao et al,
treatment ranges from thorough aural toilet, otic drops, hyperbaric oxygen (Rudge 1993)
that reverses the ill effects of radiation induced skin changes, and finally sequestrectomy.
Most important though rare, high degree of suspicion and awareness is the key in detection
and early management of this condition before serious complication ensues. Lim et al (2005)
reported an interesting case of a 44-year-old Chinese man with a history of nasopharyngeal
carcinoma that was treated with radiotherapy presented with fluid in the middle ear. A
myringotomy was performed and subsequently a diagnosis of cerebrospinal fluid leakage
secondary to osteoradionecrosis of the temporal bone was made.
3.5 Radiation-associated tumors

Radiation-associated tumours (RATS) are rare complications of radiotherapy. Goh et al
(1999) studied RATs in the temporal bones of patients who were previously irradiated for
cancers of the nasopharynx. Of the 7 patients studied, 5 had squamous cell carcinomas, 1
osteogenic sarcoma and 1 chondrosarcoma. This distribution of the type of cancer is
interesting as radiation-induced cancers are more associated with sarcoma than with
squamous cell carcinoma. A possible reason for this observation may be related to the
chronic ear infections that are commonly present in post-irradiated ears. The combined
long-term effects of radiation and chronic infections may well predispose the ear to
squamous cell carcinoma. In another study of patients with malignant tumors of the external
auditory canal and temporal bone, the 1-year cumulative recurrence for the RAT group was
100%, but there was no recurrence in the non-RAT group (P = 0.001) suggesting a poorer
prognosis in RATS patients (Lim et al 2000)
Delayed diagnosis is not uncommon in this condition. Almost two thirds of the patients in
the series reported by Lim et al. (2000) had T3 disease at the time of presentation. One
reason could be that otorrhea, the most common presentation, was often mistaken to be due
to chronic otitis externa.
Another reason for misdiagnosis is difficulty in getting histological confirmation in the
Clinic. Lim et al (2000) gave the example of a patient with an initial diagnosis of
pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia. This was based on superficial small punch biopsy
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specimens obtained under local anesthesia. It was only upon larger and deeper specimens
obtained under general anesthesia from the mastoid that revealed the true diagnosis.
RATs may be uncommon, but with refinement in radiotherapy techniques and the resultant
increase in patient survival, there may be more patients with radiation-associated tumours
in the future. It remains imperative for clinicians to be vigilant when patients previously
irradiated for NPC present with otological symptoms as the key to the successful
management of this condition lies in the early detection and expedient treatment of this
difficult disease.
4. Conclusion
Because of the close relation between the nasopharynx and ear structures, NPC frequently
has Otological manifestations. Attending Physicians must be mindful of these
manifestations as they may aid early diagnosis with consequently better treatment
outcomes.
Treatment of NPC with radiotherapy or chemo-radiation also has great impact on the
practice of Otology. Improved RT techniques have reduced unnecessary radiation exposure
to ear structures, with lesser chances of developing ear complications. Nevertheless, it is
inevitable in many instances. With greater emphasis in the use of chemo-RT in advanced
head and neck cancers, chemo-radiation-induced SNHL has also assumed greater
significance. Although recent technology such as cochlear implants have been highly
successful in rehabilitating profound hearing loss, prevention is still the best practice in the
management of radiation-induced SNHL. A proposed ROS-dependent apoptotic model of
hair-cell damage offers the prospect of prevention at a molecular level in the near future.
5. Acknowledgement
We thank Dr Fong Kam Weng, Senior Consultant of the Therapeutic Radiology Department,
Singapore National Cancer Centre, for the illustrations
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Carcinogenesis, Diagnosis, and Molecular Targeted Treatment for
Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
Edited by Dr. Shih-Shun Chen
ISBN 978-953-307-867-0
Hard cover, 246 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 15, February, 2012
Published in print edition February, 2012
This book is a comprehensive treatise of the potential risk factors associated with NPC development, the tools
employed in the diagnosis and detection of NPC, the concepts behind NPC patients who develop neuro-
endocrine abnormalities and ear-related complications after radiotherapy and chemotherapy, the molecular
mechanisms leading to NPC carcinogenesis, and the potential therapeutic molecular targets for NPC.
How to reference
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Wong–Kein Christopher Low and Mahalakshmi Rangabashyam (2012). Ear-Related Issues in Patients with
Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma, Carcinogenesis, Diagnosis, and Molecular Targeted Treatment for
Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma, Dr. Shih-Shun Chen (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-867-0, InTech, Available from:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/carcinogenesis-diagnosis-and-molecular-targeted-treatment-for-
nasopharyngeal-carcinoma/ear-related-issues-in-patients-with-nasopharyngeal-carcinoma
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Ear-Related Issues in Patients

2. Otological manifestations of NPC

2.1 Middle ear involvement

2.1.1 Middle ear effusion

2.1.1.1 Muscle infiltration theory

2.1.2 Ear blockage and negative middle ear pressures

2.1.4 Tumor invading the middle ear

2.2 Cerebello-pontine angle involvement

2.3 Referred otalgia

2.5 Peri-auricular mass

3. Otologic complications arising from treatment of NPC

3.1 Radiation therapy

3.1.1 Post-irradiation otitis media

Fig. 2. Beam's Eye View (BEV) of lateral post-nasal space field.

the presence of pre-radiotherapy MEE was found to be statistically significant (P = 0.004,

Therefore, hearing loss resulting from post-radiotherapy MEE should preferably be

3.1.2 Post-irradiation sensorineural hearing loss

3.3.1 Cochlear implantation

3.3.2 Bone-anchored hearing aids

3.3.3 Active middle ear implants

3.3.4 Chemo-radiation and their combined ototoxic effects

Ramsden et al (1975) classified osteoradionecrosis of the temporal bone as either localized or

3.5 Radiation-associated tumors

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