ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY 1
AIM
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter (0-5V ), battery, one way key,
rheostat, sand paper, connecting wires.

P ROCEDURE
1. Connect the components
as shown in Fig. A 1.1.
2. After closing the key K,
check that the voltmeter
and ammeter show
deflections on the right
hand side.
3. Check the continuity of the
assembled circuit using a
multimeter (see Activity 4).
Fig. A 1.1 Assembling of given components

R ESULT
The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

P RECAUTIONS
1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the
positive terminal of ammeter and positive terminal of the voltmeter.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and
the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the resistor.
3. Sand paper should be used to clean the ends of connecting wires
and leads of the component terminals. Grease/oil or oxide layer

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on their surfaces is insulating in nature and needs to be removed.

However, do not clean the plugs and keys with sand paper.
Excessive use of sand paper in such a case will make the plug
unfit to be used with the key.

D ISCUSSION
1. Draw the circuit diagram of the experiment before you start
connecting apparatus and keep infront of you.
2. The values of the resistances and the current carraying capacity
of the rheostat are given on a plate fixed on the body of rheostat.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. What do you mean by emf of a cell?
2. Does the current drawn from the cell remain constant? If
not, why?
3. Why is an ammeter always connected in series with the circuit?
4. Why is a voltmeter always connected in parallel to the component
across which voltage is to be measured?

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Design different kinds of circuits that you will study in your class and
assemble them using the relevant components, for example (i) circuit to
measure the value of an unknown resistance using a meter bridge (ii) circuit
to compare e.m.f. of two cells using a potentiometer, etc.
2. Measure the voltmeter and ammeter readings for different rheostat settings
and verify if the ratio of potential difference across the resistor to the current
through it is constant.
3. Modify the circuit using two resistors which may either be connected in
series or in parallel.

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ACTIVITY 2
AIM
To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components
that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and
also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A given open circuit comprising atleast a cell or a battery, plug
key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and
sand paper.

P RINCIPLE
An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of the
circuit are connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit
components/devices are in working condition and key is closed.
An open circuit means a break in some part of a circuit which could
be deliberate such as a key in open position or a fault such as broken
wire or burnt out component(s) or loose connection. Some of such
circuits are given in Figs. A 2.1 (a), (b), (c) and (d).

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Fig. A 2.1 (a),(b),(c),(d) Open circuits

Note to teachers: In this activity, students are expected to draw

the diagram of a given open circuit comprising a few circuit
components e.g. a key, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, rheostat etc.
After drawing the given circuit, students would be marking the
components which are not connected in proper order. Then a
correct circuit diagram is to be drawn and accordingly the circuit
components are to be connected in proper order.
Teachers are therefore advised to set up a few open circuits in
which some of the components are not arranged in proper order.

P ROCEDURE
1. Draw the circuit diagrams in your notebook as given by your
teacher [Fig. A 2.1(a), (b), (c) and (d)].
2. Consider one circuit and mark in Table A 2.1, the various
components which have not been connected in proper order.
3. Draw the correct circuit diagram.
4. Connect the electrical components according to corrected circuit
diagram.
5. Close the key in the circuit to verify if the corrected circuit is
functional.

Note: Rheostat can be used both as a variable resistance and potential

divider.
Rheostat as a variable resistance
1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (a) showing use of a rheostat
as a variable resistor.
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2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn below using one end

terminal and the other variable terminal.

Variable resistance

Rh

End terminal End terminal

(1) (2)

(a)

Fig. A 2.2 (a) Rheostat as a variable resistor

(b) Rheostat as a potential divider giving variable voltage

Rheostat as a potential divider

1. Draw a diagram as given in Fig. A 2.2 (b) showing use of a rheostat
as a potential divider.
2. Connect the terminals of rheostat as drawn above using (i) the
end terminals (1) and (2) connected to input potential (battery)
and (ii) one end terminal and the other variable terminal for
variable voltage.

O
BSERVATIONS

Table A 2.1: Mark a (P ) in appropriate column

Sl. No. Circuit Correct Incorrect

Component Connection Connection
1 Battery/cell
2 Resistor
3 Rheostat
4 Key
5 Ammeter
6 Voltmeter

R
ESULT
The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram
is functional.

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P RECAUTIONS
1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper
before making connections.
2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the
positive terminal of the voltmeter and positive terminal of the
ammeter.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and
the voltmeter should be connected in parallel with it.

D ISCUSSION
1. (a) Rheostat can be used in series as a variable resistance. In
this case, the end terminal (1) and the other variable terminal
is to be used [Fig. A 2.2(a)].
(b) When rheostat has to be used as a potential divider across
the cell, the variable voltage is derived using any one end-
terminal and the variable terminal of the rheostat [Fig. A
2.2(b)].
Justify how the discussion points 1(a) and 1(b) are possible?
2. Key is to be kept “OPEN” so that no damage to the components
occur.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Interpret the function of each component in the circuit.
2. Draw a circuit diagram of a rheostat as a variable resistance
showing the position of sliding contact for (i) maximum resistance
(ii) minimum resistance.
3. What is the function of sand paper in setting up the electric circuit?
4. A rheostat and a resistance box can change the resistance in a
circuit, yet their functions are different. Discuss it.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Draw a circuit diagram using rheostat as a potential divider. Make actual

connection and determine the voltage range it provides.
2. Study the different kinds of keys available in the laboratory and identify
their functions in the electric circuit.
3. Make a detailed study of different types of resistances available in the
laboratory (carbon resistor, wire wound resistance box).
4. Compare the connecting wires used in household circuits and those used in
the laboratory.
5. Make a study of different battery eliminators, dc sources (cells, batteries) in
the laboratories. How are they different as compared to car batteries?
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ACTIVITY 3
AIM
To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or
without iron core.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Inductor coil (diameter about 2 cm and 2000 turns), soft iron core
(cylindrical rod of diameter about1.75 cm and length equal to that of
inductor), resistance box (0 to 10,000 ohm), battery eliminator
(0-2-4-6 volt), a step down transformer with tappings (0-2-4-6 volt,
50 Hz), dc milliammeter (range 0 - 500 mA), ac milliammeter (range
0 - 500 mA), dc voltmeter (range 0 - 5 V), ac voltmeter (range 0 - 5 V),
one way key, connecting wires.

P RINCIPLE
An inductor is a cylindrical coil of very large number of turns of copper
wire usually wound on a hollow cylinder. The resistance of such coil
is given as

V
R= (A 3.1)
I

where V is the potential difference across the coil and I is the dc

current through that coil. On introducing the core of soft iron, the
new values of potential difference across the coil, V ′and the current,
I ′ through it are measured again. The resistance of the coil with
iron core becomes

V′
R′ = (A 3.2)
I′
The resistance offered by the coil to the flow of alternating
current is known as impedance Z . If V ac and I ac respectively
be the alternating voltage and alternating current through
the coil, without iron core, then the impedance of the coil, is
given as
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Vac
(A 3.3) Z =
I ac

On introducing the iron core inside the coil, the value of the impedance
Z′ becomes

V ′ ac
(A 3.4) Z′ =
I ′ ac

where, V′ac is the alternating voltage across the inductor with core
inside and I′ac is the alternating current through the inductor with
core inside.

Fig. A 3.1 Inductor in a dc circuit: measurement Fig. A 3.2 I n d u c t o r i n a n ac c i r c u i t :

of resistance with (a) an air core measurement of impedance with
(b) a soft iron core (a) air core (b) soft iron core.

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P
ROCEDURE
1. For resistance of inductor without iron core, arrange the
apparatus as per the circuit diagram Fig. A 3.1 (a) by keeping
the key K open.
2. Connect the dc source and dc milliammeter in series with inductor
and voltmeter in parallel with it.
3. Adjust the battery eliminator to the lowest setting and switch
on the eliminator. Plug in the key. Adjust R so that the readings
are within scale. Measure the dc current and dc voltage across
the inductor.
4. Set the eliminator to higher voltages in succession and record the
dc current and dc voltage across the inductor.
5. For resistance of inductor with soft iron core, introduce the
iron core such that it is fully inside the coil. [Fig. A 3.1(b)].
6. Repeat steps 3 and 4 and record the current and voltage across
the inductor.
7. For measurement of impedance of inductor without iron
core, use step down transformer with various tappings (2V, 4V,
6V), ac voltmeter (0-5V) and ac ammeter (0-0.3A) and connect
them as shown in Fig. A 3.2(a).
8. Repeat steps 3 and 4 and for alternating current and alternating
voltage. Record the current and voltage across the inductor.
9. For measurement of impedance of inductor with soft iron
core, introduce the core of the soft iron inside the coil such that
the core is fully inside the coil. [Fig. A 3.2(b)].
10. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for alternating current and alternating
voltage. Record the current and voltage across the inductor.

O
BSERVATIONS
1. Range of dc voltmeter = 0 to...V
2. Least count of dc voltmeter = ...V
3. Range of dc ammeter = 0 to...mA
4. Least count of dc ammeter = ...mA
5. Range of ac voltmeter = 0 to...V
6. Least count of ac voltmeter =...V
7. Range of ac ammeter = 0 to...mA
8. Least count of ac ammeter =...mA
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Table A 3.1: Resistance of the inductor without

and with iron core
Sl. Battery Without iron core With iron core
No. Eliminator
Setting Voltage Current V Voltage Current V′
R= R′ =
I I′

V V (V) I (mA) R (Ω) V′ (V) I′ (mA) R′ (Ω)

1
2
3
4

Mean Mean

Table A 3.2: Impedance of the coil without and with iron core

Sl. Setting of Without iron core With iron core

No. ac voltage ac voltage
source V V′
Voltage Current Z= Voltage Current Z ′ =
I I′
V (V) I (mA) Z (Ω) V′ (V) I′ (mA) Z′ (Ω)

1
2
3
4

Mean Mean

C ALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the ratio of voltage and current for each observation to
get resistance and impedance.
2. Calculate the mean values of the resistance and impedance in
each case, i.e., without and with iron core.

R ESULT
1. The dc resistance of the inductor coil without iron core =...Ω
2. The dc resistance of the inductor coil with iron core =...Ω
3. The impedance of the inductor coil without iron core =...Ω
4. The impedance of the inductor coil with iron core =...Ω
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P RECAUTIONS
1. The ammeter should be connected in series with the coil and the
voltmeter in parallel with it.
2. The iron core should be inserted completely within the coil.
3. The ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand
paper before making the connections.

S
OURCES OF ERROR
The least count of the ac milliammeter and ac voltmeter may not
be small enough to accurately record the difference in impedance
on inserting the iron core.

S
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is meant by impedance of a circuit?
2. What differences do you observe in dc and ac ammeters and
voltmeters?
3. If iron core of the inductor coil is taken out, what effect will it have
on the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter and why?

D ISCUSSION
1. Compare the dc resistance of the coil with and without iron core.
It will be found that there is no change in the resistance of the
coil on introduction of iron core. Explain the result.
2. Compare the impedance of the coil with and without iron core. It
will be observed that the impedance increases on introduction of
iron core. Explain the result.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Repeat the ac measurement with wooden, plastic or copper cores (which

may have any length), Do you see any change in impedance on introduction
of such cores?

2. If the iron core is not fully inside, do you get the same change in imped-
ance?

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ACTIVITY 4
AIM
To measure resistance, voltage (dc/ac), current (dc) and check
continuity of a given circuit using a multimeter.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A multimeter with its test leads, a resistance box, a key, a cell, a step-
down transformer of 6 V output voltage, a rheostat, connecting wires
and a piece of sand paper.
(Note to teachers: Do not allow students to handle alternating current
sources of 220 V for safety considerations.)
Description of multimeter: A multimeter is an instrument that can
work as a current meter (ammeter) or a voltage meter (voltmeter) or a
resistance meter (ohmmeter). Sometimes it is also referred to as AVO
(ampere, volt and ohm) meter. It may measure resistance and potential
difference in both ac and dc circuits and current in dc circuit over several
ranges. The function and the range can be selected by means of either
a rotary selector knob or a combination of switches and sockets.
Multimeters are of two kinds : analog and digital.
Analog multimeter : Analog multimeter Fig. A 4.1 (a) is a dc
galvanometer which can be converted into an ammeter or a
voltmeter of different ranges to measure current or voltage or
resistance. For ac measurement, the root mean square (rms)
values of current and voltage are measured.
When using a multimeter to measure current, it must be
connected in series with the circuit. For measuring the voltage
difference between two points in a circuit, the two leads of the
multimeter are connected across them. For example, to measure
the voltage across a resistor, the multimeter is connected in
parallel with the resistor.
When the multimeter is in the resistance measuring mode, a
cell within the multimeter automatically gets connected, which
makes the current flow through the externally connected resistor
Fig. A 4.1(a) Analog multimeter whose resistance is being measured. The multimeter only senses
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this current with its dial calibrated in terms of the resistance. It is

essentially nonlinear in calibration.

Digital multimeter : Fig. A 4.1(b)

shows a digital multimeter.

To measure voltage and current

it uses a digital circuit called
ADC (analog to digital converter).
Since the ADC can accept a very
small input voltage, a sampling
of the input voltage/ current
is necessary.
Voltage is measured directly,
whereas current is converted into
proportional voltage using standard
resistors built in the instrument.
For resistance measurement, Fig. A 4.1(b) Digital multimeter
constant current sources are used.
It creates voltage proportional to resistance values which is then
digitised by the ADC.
The resolution of such meters depends on the range as well as the
number of digits in the display panel.

P
RINCIPLE
When the resistance R is connected in a circuit, for example as shown
in Fig. A 4.2, the potential difference across the two end points of the
resistor can be measured by connecting the multimeter (with proper
voltage setting) in parallel with the resistor.
The coil of the multimeter shows a deflection proportional to the direct
current (dc) passing through it.
Measurement of alternating Resistance Box
current is based on the
principle of heating effect of
current.
The current flowing through
the resistor can be measured by
connecting the multimeter (with To multimeter in resistance
proper current setting) in series measuring mode
as shown in Fig. A 4.5.
Fig. A 4.2 Use of multimeter as a resistance meter
The continuity of any electrical
component can be checked by measuring the resistance of the
component. An infinite resistance across the two ends of a component
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T
X Z

ac mains
Y To multimeter
in ac
RBOX measuring mode

Step down K
transformer
(6V)

Fig. A 4.3 Use of multimeter as a dc voltmeter Fig. A 4.4 Use of multimeter as ac voltmeter

Fig. A 4.5 Use of multimeter as an ammeter

indicates a discontinuity. A very low resistance (≤ 0.1 Ω) between the

two ends of a component indicates that the component under test has
a short circuit. (Fig. A 4.2).

P ROCEDURE
Analog multimeter
1. Clean the ends of connecting wires by a sand paper till they shine.
Preferably, use fresh connecting wires, as wires not in use for
long may have some insulating layer deposited on them. Also
check that the metallic ends of the multimeter test leads are not
having any rust or any insulating layer deposited on them.
2. For measurement of resistance: set the multimeter in resistance
measuring mode. Connect the red and black probes to the
multimeter.
3. Connect open end of the red probe directly to the black probe
and adjust the zero adjustment knob to read zero ohm on the
resistance scale (extreme right).
4. Separate the two metallic ends of the test probes and connect the
resistance box with the multimeter as shown in Fig. A 4.2.
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5. Insert a resistor of known resistance R in the circuit by taking

out the corresponding resistor key from the resistance box and
read multimeter reading R M for the value of resistance of the
resistor used in the circuit. Repeat this step for four more resistors.
6. Carefully observe the reading in the non-linear scale noting that
its zero lies at the extreme right of the scale. Use the multiplication
factor appropriately to the range selected.
For example: 4 divisions of deflection in R × 100 scale means
resistance measured is 4 × 100Ω = 400Ω.
7. For measurement of dc voltage: select the suitable position of
the function switch (ac/dc) and then select the highest range
available. Ensure that the test probes are inserted/ connected in
sockets with proper polarity. It is a convention to use red probe
for positive and black probe for negative polarity.
8. Connect the multimeter in the circuit as shown in Fig. A 4.3.
9. Set the multimeter to measure the dc voltage. Select a suitable
range. For example, if a cell of 1.5V emf (say) is used in the circuit,
keep the range at 2.5V.
10. To measure the emf of the cell, connect the positive terminal of
the multimeter to the positive terminal of the cell and negative
terminal to negative terminal of the cell, through a plug key K.
Do not insert any resistor of resistance R in the circuit from the
resistance box. Insert the key in the plug K of the circuit and
read the multimeter reading. (A continuous flow of current in the
circuit will heat the connecting wires). Record your observations
in Table A 4.2. Then open the key K.
11. Now insert a resistance R of known value (10 Ω say) by taking
out the resistance key from the resistance box in the circuit. Insert
the key in the plug K. Read the multimeter reading for measuring
the potential difference across the two ends of the resistor. Do
you find any change in the reading as observed in step 10 when
there was no resistance in the circuit (i.e. R = 0)?
12. Repeat step 11 for three more values of resistance in the circuit.
Record your observations in Table A 4.2.
13. For measurement of ac voltage: connect an ac step down
transformer of 6 V output voltage, a rheostat XY as voltage divider,
resistance box RBOX, a plug key K, and the multimeter as shown
in Fig. A 4.4. Fix the value of R to be 5 ohm (say).
14. Set the multimeter to act as an ac voltmeter at 10V range.
15. Bring the variable connector Z of the rheostat close to point X. In
this situation the resistance of rheostat coil would be minimum.
Close the key in the plug K and record the multimeter reading
for ac voltage drop across the resistor of resistance R in Table A
4.3. Repeat the observations for atleast four positions of the
variable connection (Z) of the rheostat on coil XY (Table A 4.3).

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Note to students: Please do not handle alternating current

sources of 220 V for safety considerations.
16. For measurement of dc current: select the function switch
and the range switch/sockets suitable for proper dc current
measurement. For example, if one cell of 1.5 V emf is used in
the circuit as a source and the value of resistance to be used
during the experiment varies from 2 Ω to 10 Ω, a range of 1A
(or 1000 mA) would be appropriate.
17. Insert the probes of the multimeter in series with the cell so that
the positive terminal of the multimeter is connected to the positive
terminal of the cell and negative terminal of the multimeter with
the negative terminal of the cell as shown in Fig. A 4.5.
18. Read the multimeter reading for measuring the dc current flowing
through the multimeter.
19. Bring a resistance (R) in the circuit and read multimeter reading
for measuring the current flowing in the circuit after closing the
key in plug K. Repeat it for four more values of resistance (R) in
the circuit. Record the observations in Table A 4.4.
Digital multimeter
Procedure for measuring voltage, current and resistances is very
similar to that of the analog measurement. The notable difference is
that digital multimeter is not vulnerable to damage as easily as their
analog counterparts. They can accept voltage with reversed polarities
(shown by positive and negative sign), and display the number as
and when the magnitude of the measured quantity crosses the upper
limit of the range used.
There are no adjustments required (on any of the ranges) for
measuring R.

O BSERVATIONS
1. Range of resistance scale on the multimeter panel =... Ω
2. Least count of the scale =... Ω
Table A 4.1 : Measurement of resistance

Sl. No. Resistance R as Multimeter reading Difference

indicated in RM
R – RM = [ R–RM ]
resistance box
(Ω) (Ω) (Ω)
1
2
--
5

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 ACTIVITY 4 13

Range of dc voltage scale selected on the multimeter panel = ... V

Least count of the scale = ... V
Table A 4.2 : Measurement of dc voltage

Sl. No. Resistance R in Multimeter reading

the circuit (Ω) for voltage (V)
1
2
--
5

Range of ac voltage scale selected on the multimeter panel = ...V

Least count of the scale = ...V
Table A 4.3 : Measurement of ac voltage drop across a resistor
of resistance R = ...Ω

Sl. No. Position of variable connection Multimeter reading (V)

Z of the rheostat on coil XY
1 Close to point X
2
--
5 Close to point Y

Range of dc current scale selected on the multimeter panel = ... mA

Least count of the scale = ... mA

Table A 4.4 : Measurement of dc current

Sl. No. Resistance R in Multimeter reading

the circuit (Ω) for current (mA)
1
2
--
5

R
ESULT
1. The dc/ac voltage, dc current and resistance have been measured
using a multimeter.

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2. The values of resistance measured by the multimeter is nearly

the same as the decoded values of resistors.

P RECAUTIONS
1. Appropriate selection of function switch and range switch for a
given measurement of voltage or current and resistance should
be made.
2. The polarity probe leads should be connected to the proper
polarities in measuring dc voltage and current.

S OURCES OF ERROR
1. The scale used in reading of voltage/ current may be improper.
2. Zero adjustment in measuring R with analog multimeter may not
be accurate.

D ISCUSSION
1. If in place of a resistance box, carbon resistors are used, the
heating of carbon resistor should be avoided. Heating of resistors
may change the resistance value of the resistor.
2. The percentage error in the measurement is more for smaller
values of the measured quantity.
3. If the two test leads of the multimeter are not identical, and also
there is significant resistance across the junctions of the
multimeter (test leads and the test resistance), how is your
measurement going to be affected?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
Can the measurement of dc voltage/ current be done using ac
voltage/ current function switch? Justify your answer.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

A collection of assorted colour coded resistors are provided to you. Verify the
decoded values using multimeter within the tolerance limit specified by the code
on the resistor.

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ACTIVITY 5
AIM
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three
(on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three (on/off) switches, socket, a fuse
of 1.0 A, plug, flexible connecting wire, main switch.

P RINCIPLE
If P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, ... be the power consumed by different domestic
electrical appliances in a circuit then the total power consumption, P
at any instant is given by

P = P1+ P2+ P3+ P4+ P5+ ... (A 5.1)

If electric potential is V, then current I drawn from the mains is given by

P (A 5.2)
I =
V

where P is in watt, V in volt

and I in ampere.
In order to protect the
appliances from damage,
when accidentally a high
current is drawn (e.g. when
the terminals of the appliance
get accidentally connected), a
fuse of rating little higher (10
to 20 per cent higher than the
current normally drawn) is
connected in series with the
set of appliances (Fig. A 5.1).
Fig. A 5.1

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P ROCEDURE
1. Take the bulbs B1, B2, B3 and connect them in series with switches
S1, S2 and S3 respectively. Connect B1, B2, B3 alongwith S1, S2, S3
in parallel with each other as shown in Fig. A 5.1.
2. Connect fuse F in series with the set up as shown in Fig. A 5.1.
Connect a plug and the socket at the end of two leads. Connect a
wire from the earth pin of the plug.
3. Insert the plug in socket provided in the main electric board.
4. Press the switches S1, S2, S3 one by one and observe the bulb
that is switched on and off independently of the other bulb.
5. Press all the switches simultaneously and observe what happens.
Record your observations.

R ESULT
Household circuit assembly is complete and installed with safety.

P RECAUTIONS
1. Care should be taken while working with mains.
2. Carefully determine the rating of the fuse by calculating the
maximum current drawn by the circuit.

D ISCUSSION
1. Fuse is a safety device. Never use fuse of much higher rating
than the recommended value.
2. The rating of the main electricity in our houses is determined by the
total power requirements. In general it is 220 V, 30 A and
50 Hz. The supply is connected to a distribution board which divides
the power into different circuits; some having a rating of 220 V,
15 A meant for heavy duty appliances like room heater,
airconditioner, geysers, hot plates etc., others have a rating of 220
V, 5 A meant for light appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans etc.
Let us consider one electrical circuit with 220 V, 5 A supply. In
such a circuit all appliances are connected in parallel with a switch.
This switch is in series with each appliance in supply live line.

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Calculate the maximum current drawn for three bulbs used in
the circuit.
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES
1. Draw a circuit diagram consisting of two light points, one fan point
and one plug point.
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ACTIVITY 6
AIM
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
steady current.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Potentiometer, battery eliminator of constant voltage, dc power
supply or lead accumulator, voltmeter and ammeter of suitable
range, plug key, jockey, rheostat, connecting wires, etc.

P RINCIPLE
If a steady current is flowing through a wire of uniform area of cross
section and having its resistance per unit length constant, potential
drop V across two points of the wire is directly proportional to the
length l between those two points.

Mathematically, Vαl

P ROCEDURE
1. Set up the electrical
circuit as shown in
Fig. A 6.1.
2. Connect positive
terminal of the battery
to point A (zero length)
of the potentiometer.
3. Connect negative end
of the battery to the
other end B (point) of
the potentiometer wire
through an ammeter,
plug key and a Fig. A 6.1 Circuit to study variation in potential drop
rheostat. The ammeter
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should be connected in such a way that its negative terminal is

connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
4. Connect positive end of the voltmeter to point A and other end to
a jockey J.
5. Now close the key K and press the jockey at point B. Adjust the
rheostat to get full scale deflection in voltmeter.
6. When jockey is pressed at point A, you will get zero deflection in
the voltmeter.
7. Now press the jockey at 40 cm and note the corresponding
voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat your observation by pressing the jockey at various lengths
like 80 cm, 120 cm etc. which may extend upto, say 400 cm of
potentiometer wire. Record voltmeter reading in each case as
shown in Table A 6.1.

O BSERVATIONS
Range of the voltmeter = ... V
Least count of the voltmeter = ...V
Zero error = ... V

Table A 6.1: Variation in potential drop with length

Sl. No. Length of potential wire over Voltmeter reading φ = V/l

which potential drop is V (V) (V cm–1)
measured l (cm)

1
2
--
5

Mean
C ALCULATIONS

V
The ratio = φ is calculated. It is the potential gradient of the wire.
l
Its value is almost constant.

P LOTTING GRAPH
Plot a graph of V versus I, with V on y-axis and I on x-axis. Slope of
the line gives φ .
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R ESULT

V 
The ratio   = φ is found to be constant within the limits of
l
experimental error. Its mean value is... V cm–1.

The graph shows a linear relationship between V and l . The value of

V 
  = φ from the graph is ... V cm–1.
l

P RECAUTIONS
1. Zero error in the voltmeter and ammeter (if there is any) should
be corrected by adjusting the screw provided at the base of
the needle.
2. The current in the wire should remain constant throughout the
experiment. To ensure this, current should be drawn
intermittently for short duration of time. It should be monitored
by an ammeter and readjusted whenever necessary, with the help
of a rheostat.
3. Do not press the wire too hard with the jockey while noting down
the observations or else there is a possibility that the wire will
become non-uniform (diameter will change) at these points during
the course of time.
4. Check for uniformity of wire at its various points before the start
of the experiment. If wire is non-uniform, the potential gradient
will not be constant.

S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire must have a uniform cross section along its entire
length. This should be checked by measuring its diameter at
various points before the start of the experiment.
2. Voltmeter may not give accurate reading.

D ISCUSSION
1. The potentiometer wire is connected firmly to thick copper
strips after every 100 cm of its length of 400 or 1000 cm.
However, these small sections of wire do not contribute to the
total length of the potentiometer wire since electrical current
flows through the copper strips rather than the potentiometer
wire in these sections.

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2. Potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current from

the voltage source being measured. As such it is unaffected by
the internal resistance of the source.
3. If the graph is non-linear, what conclusion will you draw?

S ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A 100 cm wire of homogeneous material and uniform area of cross-
section form a square as shown in Fig. A 6.2. How can this
arrangement be used to select voltages 1/4, 1/2, 3/4 of the
voltage across AE.

2. A rheostat Rh used in laboratories along with a key K,

battery of emf E and internal resistance r is shown in
Fig. A 6.3. RL is some load resistance that represents
an auxiliary circuit which may be there in reality. If D
is the midpoint of the wire AB, what would be the
voltmeter reading? Does it depend on the value of RL or
Fig. A 6.2 RV, if RV represents the resistance of the voltmeter? Does
it depend on r ?

Fig. A 6.3

3. Consider a case in the above problem, wherein a potential

difference across ends A and B of the wire is 3 V. An experiment
requires a potential difference of 1.7 V as precise as possible.
Think of the possibilities of reducing emf of the source, using
another resistor in series or using a rheostat of the same resistance
but of greater length.
Is it possible to get negative potentials using the same circuit? If
yes, how?
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SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES

1. Connect a circuit as shown in Fig. A 6.3. Record potential difference at

various length l from end A. Plot a graph of V versus l. Obtain from the graph
the length that corresponds to 1.3 V. Draw a circuit diagram to show how
you can supply 1.3 V to an auxiliary circuit that works at 1.3 V.

2. A small circuit called the ‘level indicator’ (popularly known as dancing LED’s)
is available in the entertainment electronics market. It is often used in
stereophonic two-in-one recorders or graphic equalisers. Connect such a
circuit in place of a voltmeter in this activity and estimate the voltage levels
at which the LED’s in the array glow one after another.

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