Epic Flight Academy

Instrument Rating Review

Day 1
 Disclaimer
• This course is designed to expose
students to potential questions they
may experience on their FAA
Instrument Practical Exam.

• Epic is not capable of knowing the exact

questions that will be asked. However,
the material presented may be covered.
 “Safe and Legal”
• Be totally prepared for the flight. Apply DECIDE, PAVE and
TEAM to your preflight planning.

• Review the 3 P’s and 5 P’s

• IFR flight can be very tiring. Get plenty of rest. Know your
medications: Are they legal? Known side effects?

• Expect the unexpected: What’s your Plan B ???

– Know where you would land if engine fails and you’re in
IMC
– What happens if Alternate Airport unavailable when you
get there?
– Who can you talk to in-flight if you need help?
3 P’s Aeronautical
Decision
Making

5 P’s
Personal Minimums vs Regs
Part 91 IFR Takeoff Minimums
• Aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part 91 do not have takeoff minimums
for visibility
• Legally, a zero/ zero departure may be made, but it’s NOT SMART!
• You still have to comply with DP’s

Personal Takeoff Minimums

• Be conservative; what if you have to return and land?

• You’re a new IFR pilot
• Examiners like to hear 1000/3
 The Go/No-Go Decision

Personal Weather Aircraft

Distractions Use higher Mins Rough mags
Tired X winds Prop nick
Apprehensive Don’t try to beat the wx Inop equip
Medications Available approaches Seat doesn’t lock
 Pilot Currency
• 61.57c Instrument Experience

To act as PIC in IFR Conditions you must have logged actual or

simulated instrument conditions in the appropriate category
of aircraft or approved flight simulator:

Within previous 6 calendar months:

• 6 Approaches
• Holding Procedures
• Intercepting/Tracking courses

• Count backwards from the date in

your logbook!
What if IFR Currency Lapsed?
 6 Month grace period to meet the experience requirements with a
safety pilot

 After the 6 month grace period you must take an Instrument

Proficiency Check (IPC)

o Safety Pilot = Private pilot with category

and class appropriate to aircraft flown.
Must have medical certificate. Can log
PIC (not XC). You must write name of
safety pilot in logbook.

o IPC = CFII or DE
 Instrument Proficiency Check (IPC)
• Must show you’re safe and proficient in the knowledge
and maneuvers that you were tested on during the
initial instrument checkride

• You don’t have to do all maneuvers from initial

checkride

• Endorsement only; you can’t fail

• AC 61.98

•FAR 61.57d
 Aircraft Requirements
Aircraft Documents

A Air Worthiness
R Registration
R Radio License (FCC)
O Operating Limitations
W Weight and Balance

*** Annual and 100 hour inspections on Airframe,

Engine, Propeller ***
 Aircraft Requirements
Recurring Items:
24 Calendar Months 30 Days
 Pitot-Static system VOR (Date, place, error, sign)
 Altimeter Ground (+/-) 4 degrees
 Transponder Airborne (+/-) 6 degrees
 Encoder Dual VOR’s (w/in) 4 degrees
VOT (+/-) 4 degrees
Radio Repair Station (+/-) 4 degrees

28 Days ELT
 GPS Database Replace or recharge batteries after
1 hour cumulative use or when
50% of useful life has expired
56 Days
 Approach Plates & Charts
 Aircraft Requirements
• 91.205 Equipment

• Day / Night VFR (TOMATOE-A- FLAMES / FLAPS)

(Do you have a mp gauge? What is it?)

• PLUS: GRABCARD
 G Generator or alternator – what do you have?
 R Rate of turn indicator (gyroscopic) – how is it powered?
 A Attitude indicator (gyroscopic) – how does AHRS get hdg info?
 B Ball (slip and skid indicator)
 C Clock with hours, minutes, seconds. Digital ok
 A Altimeter (sensitive, set to barometric pressure)
 R Radios/Nav equipment suitable for route to be flown
 D Directional indicator (gyroscopic)
 D DME above FL240 (Suitable RNAV may substitute)
 KOEL/Inop Equip

If it’s listed in the KOEL, it’s mandatory

Inoperative Equipment (that’s not required) must be Removed OR

Disengaged and always PLACARDED!! (autopilot)

What do you do if something becomes Inop in-flight?

What’s a MEL? Who uses it?

91.187
Operation under IFR in controlled airspace:
Malfunction Reports
• The PIC shall report (as soon as practical) to ATC any malfunctions of
navigational, approach, or communication equipment occurring in
flight.

Include:

(1) Aircraft identification

(2) Equipment affected
(3) Degree to which the capability of the pilot to operate under
IFR in the ATC system is impaired
(4) Nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC
Pre-Flight Planning Items…

FAR 91.103 says:

"Each pilot in command must be
familiar with all available information
concerning that flight.”

(a) For a flight under IFR or a flight not in the vicinity of an airport:

• Weather reports and forecasts

• Fuel requirements
• Alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed
• Any known traffic delays of which the pilot in command has been
advised by ATC
(b) For any flight:

• Runway lengths
• Takeoff and landing distance
• Aircraft performance for airport elevation and runway slope
• Aircraft gross weight
• Wind
• Temperature
• Other reliable information appropriate to the aircraft
• NOTAMS
IFR Flight Plan

• File IFR Flight Plan with the nearest FSS or Air Traffic Control Tower

• File IFR Flight Plan at least 15 min prior to ETD

• Can be canceled in VFR and out of class A airspace

IFR Flight Plan

x
 AIM TBL 5-1-2
Aircraft Suffixes
PA-23-250/U? G?

X N6170Y PA-23-250/U TAS

 TAS
• True measure of aircraft performance
in cruise. Doesn’t consider winds!

• How can you calculate TAS at 5000?

•Using CX2:
•Enter CAS
•OAT (PFD)
•Enter the altitude
Back to the IFR Flight Plan…

X N6170Y PA-23-250/U 170 KEVB 0000Z

How do you determine your flight altitude?
There are several things you should consider….

1) OROCA
2) MEA
3) Winds Aloft
4) Freezing Level/Clouds
5) Performance Numbers ( Fly at fastest speed with lowest fuel
consumption)
6) Climb Capability (able to climb at 500 fpm to cruise?)
7) Uncontrolled Airspace = Even or Odd altitudes
8) Controlled Airspace = Altitude assigned by ATC
 IFR Cruising Altitudes 91.179

Controlled Airspace:
Altitude assigned by ATC

Uncontrolled Airspace:

Below 18,000 feet MSL:

0 -179 degrees, any odd thousand foot MSL altitude

180 - 359 degrees, any even thousand foot MSL altitude

 Altitude Review
1. True: Actual altitude above mean sea level
• Warmer temperatures and higher pressures will make the
altimeter read lower than the actual aircraft.
“From HIGH to LOW watch out below”

• As the temperature cools down, the altimeter will slowly rise and
read higher than actual. “From HOT to COLD watch out below”

2. Indicated: Altitude above mean sea level when set to local altimeter

• When set to local altimeter setting, your altimeter indicates true

altitude at field elevation
3. Corrected Altitude: Indicated altitude corrected for temperature

- Approximately true altitude

- Used when temps are colder than -15c

4. Pressure Altitude: Height above standard datum plane (where 29.92 is found)

- Standard pressure at sea level is 29.92

- Pressure decreases 1 inch/1000’

- Determine PA by setting 29.92 and reading altimeter or using flight computer

-Used to find DA

29.92 (FL230) HIGH to LOW Pressure

29.22 (10,000’)
= .70 (x100) = 700’
18,000 (29.92)

10,000 (29.92)
Actual (29.22) = 9,300 MSL
5. Density Altitude is not found on an altimeter!

DA = PA corrected for non-standard temperature

“High Density Altitude” decreases aircraft performance:

o Reduces engine output

o Reduces thrust from propeller
o Reduces lift

As density altitude increases:

Longer takeoff and landing rolls

Reduced rate of climb
Land at faster groundspeed = more runway needed
More shallow angle of climb = more distance covered
At cruise your service ceiling is lowered
Back to the IFR Flight Plan…
Route of Flight...FAR 91.181

X N6170Y PA-23-250 170 KEVB 0000Z 6,000

Course to be flown: (a) Along the centerline of that airway (b) Or along the direct
course between the navigational aids or fixes defining that route. SIDs/ STARS.
Preferred Routes. Plan to the IAF or Feeder Route to Destination Airport*

KTPA 1 15
* Plan to a point where you connect the
enroute chart to the approach plate. PIE is a
feeder route.
 Preferred Routes
Why use them? They minimize route changes and help with ATC
What are they? Preferred IFR routes between major terminals

Where do you find them? In the back of the AFD/Chart Supplement

•Preferred routes beginning/ending with an airway number are
cleared directly to the airway

•Preferred routes beginning/ending with a fix are routed via a SID’s,

radar vectors, or STAR’s
Back to the IFR Flight Plan…
Route of Flight...FAR 91.181

X N6170Y PA-23-250 170 KEVB 0000Z 5,000

Course to be flown: (a) Along the centerline of that airway (b) Or along
the direct course between the navigational aids or fixes defining that route. SIDs and STARS.
Preferred Routes. File to a IAF or Feeder Route that connects enroute chart to approach.

KJAX 1 15 VFR-On-Top; No SID or STAR; ODP

 IFR to VFR “On Top” Clearance
IFR to VFR on Top
 IFR clearance required
 Expected to follow both VFR and IFR rules
 Maintain your own altitude in VFR conditions above the clouds
 VFR altitude must be higher then MEA
 IFR usually cancelled once “on top”

VFR over the Top

 Just a VFR flight where you overfly clouds
 You maintain VFR at all times (including the climb) to get on top of
the clouds, and descend VFR to land at your destination

Example: You want to overfly a stratus layer in a valley to a destination

in the mountains, where both the
departure airport and destination
airport are in the clear. You are
VFR all the way, and never on an
IFR flight plan
IFR Fuel Requirement
91.167

If Alternate NOT required:

Destination + 45 minutes at normal cruise speed

This means there is a standard instrument approach available and
that the weather is forecast to be: (1-2-3 Rule)

If Alternate Required:

(1) Destination
(2) Planned alternate
(3) Plus 45 minutes at normal cruise speed
Back to the IFR Flight Plan…

X N6170Y PA-23-250 170 KEVB 0000Z 5,000

91.181 Course to be flown: (a) Along the centerline of that airway

(b) On any other route, along the direct course between the navigational
aids or fixes defining that route. Include DP’s and STARS, and IAF

KJAX 1 15

Do you need one?

4 0
 FAR 91.169 Alternate Airports

An alternate airport is always required UNLESS…

(1) Destination airport has a standard instrument approach

procedure
(2) Weather reports or forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate
the following: 1-2-3 RULE

For at least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the estimated
time of arrival, the ceiling will be at least 2,000 feet above the
airport elevation and the visibility will be at least 3 sm.
Does destination airport have an instrument approach?

 No? Then an alternate is always required

 Yes? Then apply the 1-2-3 Rule

Does the alternate need an instrument approach?

 Not if the weather allows a descent from MEA under basic VFR

Can’t descend under VFR to the alternate? Then apply:

 600-2 for a Precision Approach

 800-2 for a non-Precision Approach

The METAR and TAF are both controlling. For flights less than an hour
check both. Use FA if no TAF
RNAV Approach Questions…..
What type of navaids do you have to have at your destination airport and at
the alternate?

Non-WAAS Airplane:
Destination: Can be RNAV approach
Alternate: Has to be land-based (VOR, ILS, NDB…)

WAAS:
Destination: RNAV
Alternate: RNAV
Planning the alternate airport is for filing
purposes ONLY…
The 600-2 and 800-2 rules only apply to flight
PLANNING purposes. Published landing
minimums apply to the actual approach at the
alternate.

You can start the instrument approach at

the alternate if the weather conditions
are below the filing minimums. You must
have the minimums on the chart to fly
the approach.
 Non-Standard Alternate Minimums

A = Non-std alternate minimums

exist. Look in front of approach
book

A NA = Not
authorized or no
weather reporting
service. Must
descend and land
VFR
X N6170Y PA-23-250 170 KEVB 0000Z 5,000

91.181 Course to be flown: (a) Along the centerline of that airway

(b) On any other route, along the direct course between the navigational
aids or fixes defining that route. Include DP’s and STARS.

KJAX 1 15

4 0 KDAB

• How is an IFR flight plan closed?

• Controlled vs uncontrolled airport? RCO? GCO?
• In Deland?
Take a 5 minute break….
 C172
Instrument Systems
Old School/6-Pack

• Pitot-Static System
Altimeter
Airspeed indicator
Vertical speed indicator

• Magnetic Compass

• Gyroscopic System
Attitude Indicator
Heading Indicator
Turn Indicator
 Pitot-Static Instruments
Airspeed Indicator Altimeter VSI
•Compares ram air •Shows vertical height MSL •Shows ROC or descent in
pressure to static air FPM
pressure in the case •Compares static pressure
inside sealed wafers to air •Compares static pressure
•Ram air expands expanding or contracting inside expandable wafers to
diaphragm inside case around it (In a climb, case static pressure in the case
pressure decreases and
wafers expand) •Outside pressure changes
•Use local setting for slowly due to metered leak
•Shows IAS corrected for takeoff & landing (slows pressure change in the
temp & density (Change every 100nm) case)
 Gyroscopic Instruments

Attitude Indicator It is important to monitor vacuum pressure

during flight, because the attitude and
Heading Indicator heading indicators may not provide reliable
information when suction pressure is low
Attitude Indicator Heading Indicator Turn Coordinator
•Most Important •Basic tool for navigation • Gyro or electric
Instrument
•Not “North-Seeking” •Shows rate of turn
•Shows climbs,
descents, turns •Always align with compass •Tick marks = standard rate
or S & L
•3 degrees/second
•Artificial horizon
senses movement •180 degree turn = 1 min
from gyroscope
•Ball = slip or skid
Rigidity

Rigidity in Space

Principle that a gyroscope

remains in a fixed position in the
plane in which it is spinning.

If the gimbal rings are tilted the

gyro remains in the plane in
which it was originally.

Think of the gyro as being aligned

with the horizon, and the
airplane rotates around it.
Precession

Precession

The case is what moves and the instrument

adjusts for precession (90 degree force in the
direction of the spinning object).

1) Caused by aircraft maneuvering and by the internal friction of attitude and directional
gyros.
2) Causes slow "drifting" and thus erroneous readings.
3) When deflective forces are too strong or are applied very rapidly, most older gyro
rotors topple over, rather than merely precess (tumbling)
4) The gyro needs to be erected again.
5) Some of the older gyros have caging devices to hold the gimbals in place. Older gyros
should be caged during aerobatic maneuvers to avoid damage to the instrument.
6) The gyro may be erected or reset by a caging knob.
 Gyroscopic Tumbling
When deflective forces are too strong or
are applied very rapidly, most older gyro
rotors topple over.

1) Many gyro instruments manufactured today have higher

attitude limitations than the older types. Modern A/I have a
2) These instruments do not "tumble" when the gyro limits limitation of 60˚
are exceeded. But, the newer gyros give incorrect pitch and 110˚ roll
readings when limits are reached.
3) Newer gyros have a self-erecting mechanism that
eliminates the need for caging.

Once tumbled, an instrument without a caging mechanism may not be able to

re-erect itself until power is removed, or if the aircraft is in a level pitch and roll
attitude for a long enough period that the gyro rotor comes to a stop.
Turn Coordinator vs Turn & Slip
Indicator (gyro or electric)
Turn & Slip Indicator:

Shows quality of turn, but NOT Rate

Turn coordinator:

• Gyro portion shows the aircraft's

rate of turn—how fast it's changing
direction.

• Gimbal in TC is canted 30˚ so gyro

senses both rate of roll and rate of
turn

Inclinometer
• Shows coordinated flight via a "ball in a tube”
• If the ball is on the inside (wing down side) of a turn, the aircraft is slipping
• When the ball is on the outside (wing up side) of the turn, the aircraft is skidding
G1000
 G1000 - ADC

• ADC receives inputs from pitot-static system and OAT.

•ADC provides TAS

• ADC performs most E6B calculations (density altitude, true airspeed…)

• Pitot-static signals are sent to the ADC which converts the info into digital
form for the PFD

• OAT probe failure = a red “X” appears both on the TAS box and the OAT box
 G1000 - AHRS

AHRS = attitude and turn-rate on the PFD. Shows slip/skid

• Interfaced with the magnetometer.

Magnetometer = Measures both the horizontal and vertical components of the

earth’s magnetic field. Sends heading info to the directional indicator.

 AHRS can still operate if inputs from the GPS receiver, ADC, or magnetometer
are lost

 If Magnetometer fails, only the heading data is lost

Failure Mode: If AHRS is not operating properly when compared to other

aircraft sensors (GPS receiver, ADC, or magnetometer) all attitude presentations
are removed from the PFD and are replaced with a large, red “X” and “Attitude
Fail”
If you lose
AHRS, you lose If you lose
the Magnetometer,
magnetometer only heading
data lost
 C172S Systems
Engine

Textron-Lycoming IO-360-L2A (I = fuel Injected; O = Opposed cylinders; 360 cu. Inch

displacement)
180 rated Brakes Horse Power (BHP) at 2700 RPM.
Reciprocating engine.
Four Cylinders.
Normally aspirated – The air intake is not boosted with devices such as turbo or super
chargers.
Direct drive – No gear reduction box is used. Direct connection from the crank shaft to
the prop.
Air cooled (Engine has cooling fins on it but no liquid cooling – no radiator)
Horizontally opposed cylinders.
Engine accessories (devices driven by the engine):
1 vacuum pump – supply suction to heading and attitude indicator.
Alternator
2 magnetos – powers two separate ignition systems..
Engine-driven oil pump with oil filter
Fuel
Approved fuel grades:
100LL aviation Fuel (Blue) (100 octane Low Lead AVGAS)
100 Grade aviation fuel (green) (also known as 100/130 AVGAS)
Total fuel capacity: 56 U.S. Gallons (Each tank:28 U.S. Gallons)
Total usable fuel: 53 U.S. Gallons (26.5 each tank)
Fuel filled up to the bottom of the filler caps indicates 17.5 gallons usable in that
tank.
13 Fuel drains (5 each wing; 3 below the cowling for fuel reservoir tank, fuel
selector and fuel strainer)
Fuel shutoff valve. Cuts the supply of fuel from the fuel tanks. (in case of an
engine fire, for example. Refer to emergency section in POH)
Engine driven fuel pump
Auxiliary fuel pump– used as a back up if the engine driven fuel pump fails. Also
aids in priming the engine before starting
Fuel/air control unit – regulates the air / fuel mixture by metering the fuel.
Fuel distribution valve (manifold).
Fuel injection nozzles – one to each cylinder in the engine
Fuel (con’t)

Two float type fuel quantity transmitters (one in each main fuel tank)
measure amount of fuel.
Fuel quantity gauge for each tank on left side of the instrument panel
receives signal from the fuel quantity transmitters. Never trust their
accuracy, always visually check fuel in tanks before flight!
Fuel flow gauge – Electrically connected to a transducer in the fuel
manifold. Indicates gallons per hour.
Low fuel warnings on annunciator panel:
‘L LOW FUEL’ – illuminates when quantity in left tank less than 5
gallons for more than 60 seconds.
‘LOW FUEL R’ – illuminates when quantity in right tank less than 5
gallons for more than 60 seconds.
‘L LOW FUEL R’ – illuminates when both tanks are low on fuel.
Low fuel quantity will also illuminate if the quantity transmitter has
failed.
Can you fly with the left fuel indicator inop?
Electrical system

28 volt system
Direct current (DC)
Engine-driven 60-amp alternator
24 volt battery
Circuit breakers
Protect the various electrical equipment from over-voltage conditions and
power surges
Push-to-reset and switch/breaker types
Do not reset a circuit breaker after it tripped twice
Fuses
Spare fuses are located inside the power distribution module
One glass type fuse for the clock
Not accessible to the pilot in flight
(1) Essential bus
(2) Primary electrical busses
(2) Avionics busses
Split rocker type master switch
Right half controls battery power to the airplane; Left half controls the
alternator.
The battery, alternator and starter are connected to the cockpit switches via
contactors.
Ammeter. Indicates current from/to the battery.
In the event the alternator is not functioning the ammeter will indicate a
discharge. (-)
Ammeter needle should indicate less than two needle widths of charging
current (+) after about 30 minutes of cruising flight. If the charging rate were
to remain above this value, the battery would overheat.
Voltmeter is provided on a combined voltmeter/clock/outside air temperature
indicator on the top left side of the panel.
Low voltage is annunciated by the red annunciation “VOLTS” on the annunciator
panel when voltage falls below 24.5V.
Ground service plug receptacle. Located left side of the airplane near the firewall;
it allows to connect an external power source.
Main Battery Standby Battery
Essential Bus…
Fuel Pump
Beacon PFD
Landing Light ADC
Cabin Lights AHRS
Flaps NAV 1
AVN 1 (PFD, ADC, AHRS, Nav 1) COMM 1
AVN 2 (MFD, XPNDR, NAV 2, COMM2, Audio, AP) Standby Indicator Lights
Pitot Heat
Nav Lights
Taxi Light
Strobe
Panel Lights
Electrical System: Cessna 172S
• Standby Battery
– Electrical power supply system malfunction
– Main battery failure or alternator failure
– How do you know when alternator fails?
– Should main or standby battery (“M bus E”)
drop below 24.5 volts
• a “VOLTS” warning turns red
• numeric value is indicated
– When operating off the standby battery, the
essential bus is active
– Reversionary Mode when at 20.0 volts
Here’s one they LOVE
to ask…
You’re flying into a new airport and will
be landing at dusk. You’re on an IFR flight
plan and are in the clear above the cloud
layer…

About 1 hour and 20 minutes prior to

landing your alternator fails. What
should you do?
Answer:

• Write down the time of the failure

• Load shed to conserve main and stand by battery
power (turn off non-essential equipment)
• Report the malfunction to ATC
• Stay VFR as long as possible
• Land VFR if you can
 G1000 Stand-By Instruments

Airspeed Attitude Indicator Altimeter

Remember, the stand-by battery only supplies background lighting to these instruments
 Magnetic
Compass

Two magnets attached to card.

Magnets attracted and point
towards magnetic north.

What is a compass filled with? An aviation approved liquid that won’t freeze or harm internal
parts. Purified kerosene, lamp oil, or Wild Turkey will work. Only an A&P is legal to fill a compass.
Compass Errors
Magnetic lines of force surround the Earth, flowing from the
North to South Magnetic poles.

The magnetic field strength is greatest near the magnetic

poles and weakest at the equator.

Several compass errors can occur……

VDMONA
Variation- true north varies from magnetic north
Deviation- interference from electronics
Magnetic Dip- Magnet dips at the poles
Oscillation- Diff RPMs cause card to oscillate
Northerly turning errors
Acceleration error- Accelerate north, decelerate south
 Magnetic Variation
• Magnetic North Pole and the True North Pole are not at the same location
on the surface of the earth

• Magnetic Variation is the difference between the Compass

North and True North

• MC = TC + Variation
 Compass Deviation

The compass magnets are influenced by magnetic fields within

the aircraft due to electronic equipment and other factors

(Be careful of an iPad too close to the compass!!)

 Magnetic Dip
Any time the compass card is not perfectly level,
the magnets dip downward toward the earth

During turns TO the North and South

(from an East or West heading) Compass leads
so overshoot
“UNOS”

• In a turn toward the north, the compass

“lags” behind the aircraft’s actual heading

• In a turn toward the south,

the compass “leads” the actual heading of
the aircraft

• If you’re flying north and accelerate, what

Compass lags
happens? so undershoot
Acceleration or deceleration errors while on an East or West heading…
“ANDS”

• Acceleration causes a swing toward north

• Deceleration causes a swing toward south

Oscillation Error
Is caused by turbulence or rough control movements and results in
erratic movement of the compass card. Use average indication
between swings
Enroute Navigation
VOR
NDB
GPS
 VOR
Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Range

 VOR = Used to be the primary NAVAID used in the National Airspace

System

 Ground station oriented to Magnetic North

 Provides 360 courses TO or FROM the station

 RADIALS are always FROM the station

 DME = Distance Measuring Equipment

 TACAN = Military equipment installed with

VOR (VORTAC)

 Know your VOR chart symbols!

 VOR Classification
A VOR station is classified according to its range:

(T) Terminal VORs

25 nautical miles from the station
1,000 feet AGL through 12,000 feet AGL

(L) Low-altitude VORs

Distances up to 40 nm from the station
1,000 feet AGL through 18,000 feet AGL

(H) High altitude VORs

1,000 – 14,500 40 nm
14,500-60,000 100nm (above 45,000’ signals could overlap)
18,000-45,000 130 nm

All VORs can only be received line-of-sight. So, if there's a mountain between you
and the VOR, you will not receive a reliable signal even though you are within the
station's range.
 • As you get closer to the
station the more sensitive the
needle gets

• The further away, the less

sensitive. If you don’t consider
VOR error you could be in
trouble

Needle Deflection
Each dot = 2˚
½ scale = 5˚
Full scale = 10˚ (each side)
 DME
Distance Measuring Equipment

Determines SLANT RANGE distance from a ground DME transmitter

 When used with a VOR, helps determine accurate position of A/C

 Used for DME/DME fix or VOR/DME fix

 Shows distance TO or FROM the station

 Operates on the line-of-site principle

 DME requires a separate receiver/transmitter (or G1000)

DME Slant Range Error:
 Greatest if you’re directly over the facility!

 Distance errors are greater the higher you are and the closer
you are to the facility
 NDB - Non-directional Beacon

• The NDB transmits an omni-directional signal that is received by the ADF

(Automatic Direction Finder) onboard the aircraft.

• The pilot uses the ADF or RMI to determine the direction to the NDB relative
to the aircraft.

• NDBs are also used as Locator Outer Markers (LOM) for Instrument landing
Systems (ILS)

ADF RMI

NDB Errors
• Caused by lightning, precipitation static, etc.
• At night, radio beacons are vulnerable to interference from distant stations
• Some ADFs have movable cards and some have fixed cards

• The needle on a movable-card ADF (when heading is at the top of the

instrument) points to the Magnetic Bearing TO the station.

With a movable card ADF: MB = 120

- MH = 270
= RB = -150 + 360 = 210 RB

MH=270

Fixed-Card ADF = MH + RB = MB
MH = 270
+ RB = 210
= MB = 270 +210 = 480 (-360) = 120 MB
RB MB

RB + MH = MB
“Rain Boots + Muddy Hole = Muddy Boots”
Can you select a VOR 1 and a VOR 2
needle on the G1000?

Yes, along with the CDI set for GPS

 GPS
• Satellite-based radio navigation system

• Broadcasts signals to receivers to determine precise position

• The receiver tracks multiple satellites to determine range and triangulation

• Uses RAIM to determine if satellite is sending corrupted information

• Unaffected by weather

• Receives power from aircraft electrical busses

•Power-On tests
•Built-In tests
•Test annunciations on power-up should disappear within 1 minute
 RAIM
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

Performs a consistency check on all tracked satellites

Specific to non-WAAS GPS

Loss of Integrity (LOI) = Alerts the pilot that GPS signals are not
acceptable for IFR

If RAIM capability is lost, you must have another form of

navigation

Loss of RAIM or WAAS = Loss of GPS DME

RAIM predicts coverage within +/- 15 minutes of arrival time

No-RAIM

•3 satellites = 2D (no altitude reporting )

• 3 satellites plus a barometric altimeter = 3D (reports location & altitude)

• 4 satellites = 3D (use for situational awareness only; not IFR)

RAIM

• 5 satellites = RAIM fault detection only

• 6 satellites = RAIM to detect AND exclude the corrupted satellite (FDE)

GPS NAV LOST advisory can mean that there are insufficient
satellites, a simple on-board GPS failure, or excessive position error
 WAAS
1) GPS Satellites around the earth send info to WRS
2) WRS (ref stations) check integrity and send info to both WMS
3) WMS (master stations) make corrections for position & clock drift, and signal
delays caused by atmosphere and ionosphere. Send corrected (augmented)
signals to GUS
4) GUS (ground uplink stations) then send the signals to geostationary satellites
5) Geostationary satellites are fixed at the equator. Info is then sent to the
aircraft GPS/WAAS receiver
6) A/C receives corrected signal
 GPS Sensitivity

Enroute Full Scale Deflection =

(+/-) 5 NM for a non WAAS GPS

(+/-) 2 NM for a WAAS GPS

Terminal (+/-) 1 NM (both WAAS and non WAAS)

Approach (+/-) 0.3 NM

GPS Questions

1. What’s the difference in DME and GPS distance?

DME = slant-range; GPS = actual

2. When using the G1000, can you list an alternate

airport that only has RNAV approaches on your flight
plan? Non-WAAS? WAAS?
Non-WAAS, No. WAAS, yes, both destination and alternate can be RNAV

3. Why switch from En Route mode to Terminal mode

for GPS approaches?
Terminal mode is much more sensitive and more accurate for approaches
That’s it for Day 1
Day 2 we’ll talk about:

Weather, Weather Reports, Weather, Weather

Forecasts, Weather, and more Weather
Epic Flight Academy

Instrument Rating Review

Day 2
 Disclaimer

This course is designed to expose students

to potential questions they may
experience on their FAA Instrument
Practical Exam.

Epic is not capable of knowing the exact

questions that will be asked. However, the
material presented may be covered.
Weather
 Temperature variation affects every aspect of our weather

 Heat rises from the hot ground and the earth cools
 Temps decreases at 2˚c/1000’
 At night, the land cools the earth’s surface
 Coldest part of the day occurs 1 hour after sunrise
 Cooling of the earth after sunrise is a reason FOG sometimes forms

 What are characteristics of a warm air mass? Cold air mass?

Pressure patterns are clues to what causes weather & how weather
systems move

•The sun heats the atmosphere unequally

•Warm air rises
•Creates low pressure at surface
•High pressure replaces areas of low pressure
•Creates winds

L H
Land & Sea Breeze

DAY:
•Land heats faster than the sea
•The air above the land is heated,
L H
expands, and rises
•Cool air above the sea is denser
Sea Breeze
and moves in to replace the
warmer land air

NIGHT:
•Land cools faster than the sea
•The air above the land is now
cooler than the air above the sea
•Cool air above the land moves H L
out to sea to replace the warmer
Land Breeze
less dense air
Air is more dense closer to the earth’s surface

Air pressure decreases with altitude…so, oxygen

intake also decreases with altitude
 Oxygen
• With each Normal Breath you take, approximately 20% of it is
Oxygen.

• 18,000' MSL = Half the Sea Level Air Pressure = Only Half the Oxygen

• Oxygen Starvation First Affects the brain & judgment is impaired

• So, You May Not Know You Are in Trouble

• What are some symptoms of HYPOXIA and what should you do?
 FAR 91.211 Supplemental Oxygen
Oxygen required when Cabin Pressure Altitude:

12,500-14,000 for more than 30

minutes (crew)

14,001-15,000 required crew

members

Above 15,000 must be available

to passengers
Hypoxia: condition of the body in which the tissues are starved of oxygen
1. Hypoxic (lungs) as altitude increases, the partial pressure of oxygen gets
lower and the lungs cannot effectively transfer oxygen from the ambient air
to the blood to be carried to all tissues in the body (altitude, asthma)

2. Hypemic: even though there is an adequate supply of oxygen to breathe, the

blood's capacity to carry the oxygen to the cells has been impaired (Carbon
monoxide; medications)

3. Stagnant (circulatory): even though there is an adequate supply of oxygen to

breathe, it is not getting to the cells of the body tissues to support their
metabolism(G-forces)

4. Histoxic (cells): even though there is an adequate supply of oxygen to breathe

and that oxygen is being circulated by the blood, the cells are unable to
accept or use the oxygen (the tissue cells are poisoned) (alcohol, narcotics)
 Clouds

(1)Low
(2)Middle
(3)High
(4)Extensive Vertical Development
High Clouds
Cirriform (cirrus, cirrocumulus, cirrostratus)
o Composed of ice crystals
o Bases from 16,500 – 45,000 ft

Middle Clouds
Altostratus, altocumulus, nimbostratus
o Primarily made of water, much of it
supercooled
o Bases from 6,500 - 23,000 ft

Low Clouds
Stratus, stratocumulus, fair weather cumulus
o Almost entirely water but may contain
snow & ice
o Surface – 6,500 ft
Clouds with Extensive Vertical Development

•Towering Cumulus
•Cumulonimbus

•Bases 1,000 – above 10,000 ft

•Contain supercooled water above freezing level

•When a cumulus grows to great heights, the tops

freeze into ice crystals (Cumulonimbus)
Mammatus: When occurring in cumulonimbus, these are often
indicative of a particularly strong storm or perhaps even a tornadic
storm.
Lenticular Cloud: a stationary lens-shaped cloud that normally develops on
the downwind side of a mountain or mountain range. Forms when waves of
moist, fast-moving air are pushed upward by winds and ascend over high
mountains.
“Cleared the cloud about
2000ft vertically so it was
smooth, but as we
approached we saw our VSI
roughly double and on the
backside it was cut in half.
Similar to a long mountain
wave encounter, albeit
smooth”.
Waterspouts fall into two categories:
fair weather waterspouts and
tornadic waterspouts.

•Despite its name, a waterspout is

not filled with water from
the ocean or lake. A
waterspout descends from
a cumulus cloud. It does not "spout"
from the water. The water inside a
waterspout is formed
by condensation in the cloud.

•Tornadic waterspouts generally

begin as true tornadoes over land in
association with a thunderstorm, and
then move out over the water.
Tornadic waterspouts are the most
powerful and destructive type of
waterspout. Lightening, hail…
Fair weather waterspouts, on the other hand,
form only over open water.

•Fair-weather waterspouts are much more

common & are rarely dangerous. The clouds
from which they descend are not fast-moving,
so fair-weather waterspouts are often static.

•Fair-weather waterspouts are associated with

developing storm systems, but not storms
themselves.
 FOG: Clouds near the ground
• Surface based cloud made up of water droplets or ice crystals

• Small temperature/dew point must be present for fog to form

•Dew point is temperature at which water vapor condenses into liquid

• Fog = visibility less than 5/8; Mist = visibility greater than 5/8

FOG is classified by how it forms:

There are 5 Types of fog:

1. Radiation
2. Advection
3. Upslope
4. Precipitation-Induced
5. Steam Fog
Radiation Fog (Ground Fog)
Heat is released from the earth and cools the ground, then the ground
cools the air. When the air is cooled to it’s dew point, fog forms

• Calm, clear nights with small temp/dew point spread

• Forms at night or near daybreak
• Ground fog usually burns off after sunrise

Radiation fog doesn’t form over water because water doesn’t

cool down at night like land does
Advection Fog

•Most common along coastal areas (sea fog)

•Needs a light breeze to form, up to 15 kts

•Forms when warm moist air moves over colder ground or water

•Much thicker than radiation fog and can

hang around for days

•From the air, radiation fog and

advection fog can look the same
Upslope Fog

• Forms as air is cooled by blowing up sloping terrain

• Clouds may form along with fog
• Like advection fog, upslope fog can form with moderate winds
• Rising air cools to condensation temp
Precipitation-Induced Fog

• Warm rain or drizzle falls through cooler air

• Evaporation from the precipitation saturates the cool air
• Quite dense and lasts a long time
• Most commonly associated with Warm Fronts
• Can be associated with icing, turbulence, thunderstorms
Steam Fog
(sea smoke, frost smoke, water smoke, sea mist, steam mist)

• Forms when warm water vapor is added to colder air

• Warmer air over the water rises

and evaporates

• Mixes with cooler air above

• Condenses and water vapor

turns into fog

• Hot Tub!
Question:

What chart do you find fog on?

 Fronts
Front: the temperature boundary between air masses

All fronts come from an area of LOW pressure cold warm

Wind: Always changes with a front. Both speed & direction can change

Temperature: The most easily recognized change after passage

Dew Point: The temp/dew pt spread changes and can indicate clouds
or fog
Cold Fronts
• A front that brings in a cold air mass which pushes the warm air mass up
and out of the way

• Cold fronts move along the ground where they encounter friction
For this reason, cold fronts tend to be more sloped than warm fronts.

• Typically, cold fronts move faster than warm fronts. Because of this the
warm air being displaced cools quickly & becomes turbulent, causing
extremely violent weather
Cold Fronts:

• Thunderstorms

•Squall Lines/Tornados

• Large temp/dew point

difference = greater storms

• Fast moving
 Squall Line

• Found ahead of fast moving cold

fronts.

• Seen on radar images as discrete

areas of intense rainfall

•Rainy area found along and just in

front of a cold front
WARM FRONTS
• Slow Moving

• IFR weather and low visibilities can last

a couple of days; continuous precipitation

• Surface clouds/fog

• Stable Air (smooth to fly through)

• Lifting action along this frontal surface creates stratus clouds that give advance
notice of the warm front

Warm air overtakes colder air

and has to climb over it
Warm Fronts can be Dangerous!

•Rain or other precipitation from warm front clouds fall into the
colder air below.

•Be careful of freezing rain and supercooled droplets. Can also

cause precip-fog near the ground
Temperature Inversion – Warmer air aloft
When a layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of
warmer air. (Under normal conditions air temperature usually
decreases with height.)
 Causes:(1)Warm air moves over cold air (2) cold water decreases
surface temps and cold air stays under warmer air (3)cold air flows
down mountain slopes and moves under warmer air
Traps smoke, haze, fog below inversion layer
OCCLUDED FRONTS
Now here’s a mess…
• Occluded fronts: when cold fronts
catch up to and overtake the warm
fronts ahead of them

• The end product is two fronts in

one:
One at the surface, and one aloft.

• Widespread cloudiness,
precipitation, and thunderstorms
are possible

• As with warm and stationary fronts,

thunderstorms may be embedded
STATIONARY FRONTS… don’t
move much
• Occur when either a cold or warm front
slows so much that it loses its original
energy

• Like a tug of war between colder and

warmer air masses

• They have the characteristics of both

the cold front and warm front

• Thunderstorms are possible

• Large areas of IMC

•38 mph or less

•39-73 mph

•74-95 mph Cat 1

 Know for EOC:
• Frontogenesis is a meteorological process of tightening of horizontal
temperature gradients to produce fronts

• Frontolysis is the dissipation or weakening of an atmospheric front

• A Dry Line separates a moist air mass from a dry air mass. Not a front!

- Sharp changes in dew point temperature can be observed across a

dry line
- Drier air behind lifts the moist air ahead of it, triggering the
development of thunderstorms along and ahead of the dry line
(similar to cold fronts)
- It is not uncommon for tornados to develop along a dry line
Dry Line

Drier
Air
 Thunderstorms…
3 Stages:
Cumulus
Mature
Dissipating

Must Have:
Moisture
Unstable air
Lifting component

Thunderstorms are the source of hail, thunder,

lightning, torrential rain, strong-gusty winds, and
tornadoes.
WIND SHEAR: A difference in wind speed and
direction over a relatively short
distance in the atmosphere
 Microburst Small-scale intense downdraft

• Downdrafts up to 6,000 FPM

• Wind speeds up to 90 kts (sheer)
• Each microburst last approximately 15 minutes
• Worst LLWS 150’ AGL
• Usually 1 mile wide
• Cause of major destruction on ground
• Deadly to airplanes
• At first indication GO AROUND
 Air Traffic Controllers relay LLWAS alerts to pilots via:

 ATC frequencies
 ATIS
 AIRMET TANGO

LLWAS wind shear alerts are issued when:

(1) Wind speed gain or loss of between 20 and 30 knots
aligned with the active runway direction

(2) "Low level" refers to altitudes of 2,000 ft or less AGL

QUESTION: What should you do if pilot ahead of you on approach

reports LLWS?
 Large tropical storms that form off the coast of Africa

 Rotate counter-clockwise in northern hemisphere

 Form in warm ocean water (80 F) and above

 Hurricanes contain torrential rains and storm surge

 Warm water gives it it’s strength (74 MPH = CAT 1)

 Land weakens the hurricane

 Wind shear weakens the hurricane

Photo taken from
a B737 flying well
above the cirrus
shield of the
hurricane.

Radar was tilted

down and ride was
smooth.
 General Rules for Pilots
1) Avoid all thunderstorms

2) Never go closer than 5 miles to any visible storm cloud

3) Suggest flying 20 miles or more around cumulus clouds

4) Hail/violent turbulence can be found w/in 20 miles of very strong thunderstorms

5) Don’t fly beneath thunderstorms, even with good visibility, because of wind shear
in those areas

6) At the first sign of turbulence, reduce airspeed to maneuvering speed (Va)

7) If the aircraft inadvertently enters the thunderstorm, maintain a straight and level
attitude on a heading that will take you through the storm area in the minimum
time
 Unstable Air Stable Air
Cumuliform clouds Stratiform clouds and fog

Showery precipitation Continuous precipitation

Rough air (turbulence) Smooth air

Good visibility, except in Fair to poor visibility in haze

blowing obstructions and smoke
Feeling like this yet? Take a 3-4 min break
 Why is it bad?
• Destroys smooth airflow
• Decreases lift
• Increases weight
• Decreases thrust
• Increases drag

What effect does it have on

stall speed?
•Plane can stall at higher speeds
and lower AOA

Ice can form on aircraft surfaces between +2 and -10 degrees

Celsius when visible moisture is present
91.527 Operating in Icing Conditions

 No pilot may Take-Off an airplane that has:

• Frost
• Ice
• Snow

Adhering to any:

• Prop
• Windshield
• Control Surface
• Powerplant
• Wing
• Flight Instrument
System
 Structural Ice
Rime (temps below -20c)
Rough, milky white appearance
Follows contours of the airplane surface
Much of it can be removed by deice systems or prevented by anti-ice
Formed by instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets

Clear (0 to -20c)
Clear and smooth, but may have air pockets that result in a lumpy
translucent appearance.
Denser, harder, and more transparent than rime ice
Harder to break off
Formed by relatively slow freezing large supercooled water droplets

Mixed ice is a combination of rime and clear ice

Clear

Rime

Mixed Frost
 Picking Up Ice In-Flight
• 180˚ turn
• Land ASAP
• Don’t use flaps until you stop accumulating ice – may cause a
tail stall. Best to do no flap landing
• Maintain a higher speed on approach & landing
• Turn on your pitot heat, windshield defrost
• If your air filter ices up, you may need to use carb heat and/or
alternate air
Induction Icing
• Ice can cause engine stoppage by either icing up the
carburetor or, in the case of a fuel-injected engine, blocking the
engine's air source

• Use carb heat or the alternate air source

• If the air intake is blocked, an alternate air intake door is

automatically opened by engine suction

• Alternate air is unfiltered and when used will cause about 10%
power loss at full throttle.

• If using alternate air

expect 10% loss of power
 Carburetor Ice
May occur when OAT is:

•Below 70F (21C)

•Relative humidity of 80%

Detection:
Loss of RPM (tach)

Correction:

Pull on carburetor heat

If ice is in carburetor, you will first get a slight loss in RPM followed by
an increase of RPM as ice melts

Note
When flying carburetor aircraft, always pull on carburetor heat before
lowering the RPM of the green arc
Instrument Icing
Pitot-Static System

Ice Ice
Errors and Abnormal Readings
ALTERNATE STATIC SOURCE: pulls static air from inside the cabin (underneath the
instrument panel). Flight deck pressure is lower than the outside static pressure
SO…

Airspeed will read higher than normal

Altimeter will indicate higher than normal
VSI will show a climb when the alt. static source is pulled
Cabin Heat/Defrost
Danger
Should the exhaust muffler crack,
Carbon Monoxide would mix with
the cold fresh air and be ducted into
the cabin. Potential hypoxia (CO
poisoning).

CO is a tasteless, odorless gas that

causes sleepiness, confusion,
headaches, blue lips and fingernails
(cyanosis). Lack of oxygen in the
human system will eventually lead to
death
Cure
Shut off heat.
Open windows and fresh air vents.
Obtain as much fresh air as you can.
It takes the human body days to
remove all CO2
 “WEEPING WING”

Chemical anti-icing is used in some aircraft to anti-ice the leading

edges of the wing, stabilizers, windshields, and propellers
• Based upon the freezing point depressant concept

• Antifreeze solution is pumped from a reservoir to the leading edges of the wings and
stabilizers

• The liquid flows over the wing and tail surfaces, preventing the formation of ice

• The solution mixes with the supercooled water, depresses its freezing point, and allows
the mixture to flow off of the aircraft without freezing

• Designed to anti-ice, but it is also capable of deicing an aircraft as well

• After ice has accumulated on the leading edges, the antifreeze solution chemically
breaks down the bond between the ice and airframe
 What does the C172 have?

• De-Ice • Anti-Ice
– Use after ice forms – Prevents ice from
– Removes the ice forming
– Carburetor Heat – Carburetor Heat
– Pitot heat – Pitot heat
– Wing “Boots” – Cabin Heat/Defroster
(turboprop) – Hot wing (jet a/c)
- Weeping Wing
Weather Reports and Forecasts
• METAR
• TAF
• FA
• PIREPS
• Radar Summary Chart (SD)
• Weather Depiction Chart
• Satellite Imagery
• Surface Analysis Chart
• Low-Level Prog Chart
• Convective Activity
• Icing
 METAR VS TAF
METAR Terminal Area Forecast (TAF)

• Observed weather report • Expected weather at an airport

of the meteorological during a specified period
elements at an airport at a
specific time • 24-30 hour outlook

Routine = every 1 hour • Best prediction of future weather

4 times daily (0000z, 0600z, 1200z,
Speci = non-routine 1800z)

Reported as:

From (FM)
Becoming (BECMG)
Temporary (TEMPO)
 KDEN METAR
KDEN 221748Z 01005KT 1/2SM VCTS SN FZFG BRK003 OVC010 M1/M1 A3003 RMK AO2
TSB40 SLP169 T10171017 P0005$
(1=below freezing); AO2 = precipitation discriminator (rain or snow)

KDEN TAF (range = 5sm)

KDEN 221740Z 2218/2324 35007KT 5SM -RA BR BKN006 BKN012 OVC040

TEMPO 2218/2220 3SM -RA BR OVC020

VV may be listed for indefinite ceiling
FM222000 VRB05KT P6SM VCSH SCT028 BKN045 such as "VV004" for Vertical Visibility
400 feet. There is not a definitive CIG,
TEMPO 2220/2222 -SHRA SCT022 OVC040 it may blend from the clouds to the
ground (smoke, fog, haze…)
FM222200 16006KT P6SM VCSH SCT040 BKN060

FM230200 22008KT P6SM SCT050 BKN070 $ = Self-test. Determines if station

needs maintenance
FM230800 30007KT P6SM BKN060 BKN100
 Area
Forecast
 Area Forecast (FA)
An area forecast (FA) is a forecast of Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

• Clouds and weather conditions

• Area the size of several states
• Use in conjunction with the AIRMET Sierra (IFR conditions)
bulletin for the same area in order to get a complete picture of
the weather
• FAs are issued 3 times a day
• 18 hour outlook (12 hour forecast, 6 hour outlook)

The area forecast, together with the AIRMET Sierra bulletin are used
Update: The area forecast is going to be replaced with online
graphical weather resources sometime in 2017
• 12 hour forecast plus a 6 hour outlook

• Synopsis: 18 hr forecast of fronts &

pressure systems

• VFR clouds and weather: 12 hr forecast

of clouds and weather plus 6 hour outlook

Look at the
whole area. Not
just local
conditions
 Winds/Temp Aloft Forecast (FB)
•Winds reported as TRUE

Uses: Best altitude; icing;

turbulence; air stability

Unstable lapse
rate=greater than 6⁰

9900 = Light & Variable

•Winds reported 1,500’

above station elevation

•Temp reported 2,500’

above station elevation

770047 = 77/00/47
77 00
-50 +100
27 100
= 270 @ 100 kts -47
 Winds & Temps Aloft Chart
Issued 4x/day

Notes:
•Winds +100 kts = wind direction shown between 51 and 86.
•Apply (-50,+100) to get the new direction and speed
•Winds +200kts = 239912 = 230/+200/12˚
•Altitudes: 3000 to 15,000’ = MSL; Above 18,000 = pressure altitudes
CURRENT RADAR CHART
• Hourly +35
Radar Summary Chart (SD)
•Shows areas of precipitation
(liquid or frozen)

• Signals reflected back to aircraft

antenna are called echoes

• Shows echo tops; top of cloud

could be higher

• Echoes show intensity and

movement of cells

• Doesn’t show fog or clouds

 Weather Depiction Chart
Issued every 3 hours

Includes: Sky cover, Cloud height or ceiling,

Weather, Obstructions to visibility,
Fronts, Pressure areas, IFR, MVFR
Does not include: winds or pressure
readings like the surface analysis chart.
IFR = hatched area
outlined by a smooth
line.
MVFR = non-hatched
area outlined by a
smooth line.
Weather Depiction Chart Symbols
 Satellite Imagery
• Issued every 30 minutes
• Shows presence of clouds: Doesn’t show cloud heights
• Could be fog
Surface Analysis Chart
• Issued every 3 hours
• Shows conditions at valid
time

•Pressure systems
1010 mb/hPa

•Frontal systems

•Squall lines

•Trough _____

•Isobars = wind
 Low-Level Prog Chart

• 12 and 24 hour Forecast of aviation weather hazards, primarily intended to be used as

guidance for the VFR pilot
• Freezing levels, turbulence, and low cloud ceilings and/or restrictions to visibility (shown as
contoured areas of MVFR and IFR conditions. USE WITH A TAF!
 Where can you find
convective activity?

Convective SIGMET Chart

and

DAY 1 CONVECTIVE OUTLOOK CHART

NWS STORM PREDICTION CENTER NORMAN
OK 0157 PM CST TUE FEB 16 2016 VALID
162000Z - 171200Z ...NO SVR TSTM
AREAS FORECAST... ...SUMMARY...
SPORADIC LIGHTNING MAY ACCOMPANY THE
NORTHERN END OF A BAND OF SHOWERS
CROSSING SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND AND
ISOLATED THUNDER MAY DEVELOP OVER
THE TENNESSEE VALLEY/SOUTHERN
APPALACHIANS THROUGH THIS EVENING.
 Icing Graphics

What do
the colors
on this
chart
represent?

http://aviationweather.gov/icing
Airmets: Airman's Meteorological Information
For weather other than thunderstorms that could be dangerous to light
aircraft and to pilots flying VFR. Know your identifiers
(airport =4 letters; VOR = 3 letters; Intersections = 5 letters)

• Airmet Sierra (IFR)

• Ceilings less than 1,000 feet or visibility less than three miles
affecting more than 50 percent of the area at one time
• Extensive mountain obscuration
• Airmet Tango (turbulence)
• Moderate turbulence or sustained surface winds of 30 kt or more
at the surface
• Airmet Zulu (icing)
• Moderate icing
• Freezing-level heights
• G- Airmets (graphical)
• Snap shots at 3 hour intervals valid for up to 12 hrs. Routinely
issued every 6 hrs. 00 hour = initial conditions.
G-Airmet
 PIREPS
Unscheduled Pilot Reports

Example of a PIREP and Element Decoder

Routine PIREP, 64 NM east (090 radial) of the Oklahoma City VOR at 1522 UTC,
flight level 8,000 ft. MSL. The pilot of a Cessna 172 reported a scattered cloud
layer with bases at 9,000 ft. MSL and top height unknown. Flight visibility is 5
SM in haze, outside air temperature is –04°C, wind is 245° at 40 kt., light
turbulence, and the airplane is in clear skies.

KOKC UA/OV KOKC090064/TM 1522/FL080/TP C172/SK SCT090-TOPUNKN/WX

FV05SM HZ/TA M04/WV 24540KT/TB LGT/RM IN CLR.

UUA/UA Type of report; OV Location; TM Time; FL Altitude/Flight level; TP Aircraft type;

SK Sky cover; WX Flight visibility and weather: Flight visibility (FV); TA Temperature; WV
Wind; TB Turbulence; RM Remarks: Use free form to clarify the report putting hazardous
elements first
URGENT PIREP: The following weather phenomena shall be classified as an
URGENT (UUA) PIREP:

1. Tornadoes, funnel clouds, or waterspouts.

2. Severe or extreme turbulence (including clear air turbulence).
3. Severe icing.
4. Hail.
5. Low level wind shear. Classify LLWS PIREPs as UUA if the pilot reports air speed
fluctuations of 10 knots or more. Classify reports of LLWS with air speed
fluctuations less than 10 knots as routine. If air speed fluctuation is not reported,
classify PIREP as UUA.
NOTE-
LLWS defined as windshear within 2,000 feet of the surface.
6. Volcanic ash clouds.
7. Any other weather phenomena reported which are considered by the specialist
as being hazardous, or potentially hazardous, to flight operations.
AIM CH. 7
Defines how in-flight icing should be reported when filing a PIREP:

• Trace: Ice can be seen

• Light: The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is

continued in this environment (over one hour). It does not present a
problem if the deicing/anti-icing equipment is used.

• Moderate: The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters

become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or
flight diversion is necessary.

• Severe: The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti-icing

equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. An immediate flight
diversion is necessary.

A pilot can expect icing when flying in visible precipitation, such as rain or cloud droplets,
and the temperature is between +02 and −10 degrees Celsius
 FSS Weather Briefings
Standard Briefing: Request a Standard Briefing any time you have not
received a previous briefing.
Abbreviated Briefing: Used to supplement mass disseminated data,
update a previous briefing, or when you need only one or two specific
items.
Outlook Briefing: Use whenever your proposed time of departure is
six or more hours from the time of the briefing

*** Remember to print the NOTAMS for the examiner***

AWC Disclaimer: The “standard briefing” on the homepage is a tool only, it does
not meet FAA requirements and should not replace a briefing from FSS.
In addition to FSS, you may get weather information from the following:

National Weather Service’s Aviation Weather Center

(http://aviationweather.gov/) is another useful source of initial weather
information. A look at the AIRMET and SIGMET watch boxes can quickly give you
an idea of areas of marginal or instrument weather.

Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS): Free and accessible to all pilots via
the Internet at www.duat.com (DTC) or www.duats.com (CSC), this resource
provides weather information in an FAA-approved format and records the
transaction as an official weather briefing

Aviation Digital Data Service (ADDS): Weather information and resources

available online. Available at http://adds.aviationweather.noaa.gov, ADDS
combines information from National Weather Service (NWS) aviation
observations and forecasts and makes them available on the Internet along with
visualization tools to help pilots use this information for practical flight planning.
 Whew, got all that?

Remember…always look at the BIG picture first:

FA, LOW-LEVEL SIG WX, RADAR, SURFACE ANALYSIS CHARTS, WX DEPICTION

…Then take a look at the Local Weather: TAF, METARS, PIREPS

Ask yourself…
What charts show turbulence?
Icing?
Low Visibility?
Convection?
Winds?

Finally, talk to Flight Service and get the appropriate WEATHER BRIEFING
That’s it for Day 2 ATC Clearances
Day 3 we’ll talk about: Departure Procedures

Enroute Procedures

Charts

Arrivals

Approaches

Runway Markings/Lights

MAP
Epic Flight Academy

Instrument Rating Review

Day 3
Not
 IFR Clearances

• Flight plan and clearance is required to operate IFR in controlled

airspace

• Flight plans get deleted if not activated within 2 hours of the

proposed departure time

• When ATC issues a clearance, do not deviate from it unless:

• Emergency
• Could violate a FAR
• It’s unsafe
Clearance from non-towered airports:

• If you can reach ATC they can issue a clearance

• GCO/RCO/Cell phone
• Call FSS and get a void time (usually w/in 10 minutes)
• Be ready to depart PRIOR to calling for a void time
• You can also pick up a clearance once you are airborne

Clearance void time:

• You must notify ATC if you did not depart prior to the
clearance void time

• Failure to contact ATC within 30 minutes after the clearance

void time will result in the aircraft being considered overdue
and search and rescue procedures initiated

•Airport is now closed to other IFR traffic

Copy clearances using shorthand
C - clearance limit
R - route of flight
A - altitudes and holding
F - frequency
T - transponder code

Review all clearances received

Does it make sense?
Can it be complied with?

• Notify ATC or delivery immediately if issues exist

• Abbreviated IFR departure clearances – route will be “as filed”

Now you have the clearance and you’re ready to look at the departure
Instrument Departure Procedures (DP) AIM 5-2-8

• Preplanned routes preferred by ATC; not mandatory

• Provide obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the

en route structure

• Increase efficiency at busier airports

•Support noise abatement programs

Types of Departure Procedures:

Standard Instrument Departures (SID)

Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP)

Required obstacle clearance for ALL IFR departures :
1) Crossing the departure end of the runway (DER) at 35 feet

2) Climbing to 400 feet above the DER elevation before making the initial turn

3) Maintaining a minimum climb gradient of 200 FPNM

 Standard Instrument Departure Procedures
(SIDs)

• Ensure a safe and expeditious climb out

• Provide separation between aircraft

• Provide obstruction clearance & reduce controller workload

• ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID

• Pilots operating under Part 91 are strongly encouraged to file and fly
a DP at night, during MVFR and (IMC), when one is available
 Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs)
• Provides obstacle clearance (1000’ non-mountainous; 2000’ mountainous)

• The FAA creates an ODP if obstacles require that a climb of more than 200 FPNM
be maintained for acceptable terrain separation. Based on 40:1 ratio (152 FPNM)

• Not assigned by ATC. Obstacle clearance is not provided by ATC until the
controller begins to provide navigational guidance in the form of radar vectors

• Provides least restrictive route to the en route structure

• Notes = location of obstacles

• Considered the default IFR departure procedure. Use when no departure radar
or no SID. Not required but highly recommended you fly the ODP

• Uses ground based NAVAIDS or RNAV

• ODP procedures are listed in the front of the approach chart booklets under
the heading “Takeoff Minimums and Obstacle Departure Procedures”
ODP (for your review)
1) ODPs may be flown without ATC clearance unless a specific other clearance
was issued

2) If an obstacle penetrates what is called the 40:1 obstacle identification

surface (OIS), then the procedure will either have:
1) A steeper climb gradient
2) Increased takeoff minima
3) Design or published a specific route
4) A combination of all

3) The 40:1 OIS begins at the departure end of the runway and slopes upward
at 152' per NM until reaching minimum IFR altitude or entering the en-route
structure
1) The area is limited to 25 NM in non-mountainous areas
2) The area is limited to 46 NM in mountainous areas
3) The pilot is then responsible for his own navigation on an assigned
altitude or MEA/MOCA

4) Obstacle that cannot be cleared due to excessive climb gradient requirements

will be depicted with a note about them
T Non-Standard takeoff minimums (visibility) for Parts 135,
121 and/or ODP’s
 Notes ONLY:

40:1
AIM 764

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
Review everything if you’re at new or unusual airport…
Lindz Eight Departure
Aspen, Colorado
Elevation 7,820 feet
TDZE Elevation
7680 Field Elevation
7838
Communication

Hotspots

Date

Runway Slope

Displaced Threshold

TDZE Elevation
7838
TT (Most ODP’s not named)

ODP with diagram

460 FPNM Required to 14,000 MSL Per the SARDD 3 ODP

Example:

460 FPNM
Required to
14,000 MSL
Per the
SARDD 3
ODP
How to convert FPM to FPNM:
If a climb gradient table is not available, the rate of climb can be
calculated manually:

Example:

If a climb gradient of 460 per nautical mile is required and our

ground speed in the climb is 90 knots we will need a rate of
climb of feet per minute.

GS x FPNM = FPM
60

90 nm/hr = 1.5 nm x 460 FPNM = 690 FPM (VSI)

60 min/hr min
 SID
Must put “No SID” in
remarks
T section on
flight plan if you
won’t or can’t
comply

Transitions:
Takeoff Minimums:

Takeoff Obstacles:
 En Route Procedures

Mandatory Reporting Points:

S – safety of flight
W – weather (unforecast)
A – altitude (deviation)
M – missed approach
P – performance errors (speed changes, rate-of-climb)
I – instrument errors
E – enter/exit holds
C – compulsory reporting points
 Position Reports
MUST INCLUDE…

1) I – Aircraft Identification
2) P – Position
3) T – Time
4) A – Altitude (including VFR -on-Top)
5) T – Type of flight plan (not when talking to Center or Approach)
6) E – Estimated time of arrival and name of next reporting point
7) N – Name of next reporting point
Additional Reports…
(Radar Contact)
• Leaving assigned altitude
• Altitude change while VFR-on-Top
• Unable to climb/descend 500 FPM
• Missed Approach
• Change in TAS by 5% or 10kts (whichever is greater)
• Time & altitude upon reaching a holding fix
• Loss of VOR, ADF, GPS anomalies
• Partial or complete loss of ILS
• Communication capability
• Information related to safety of flight
(Non-Radar) Must give reports over compulsory reporting points

• Leaving FAF inbound on nonprecision approach

• Or, leaving the OM or fix used in lieu of OM inbound
• Change in ETA of 2 minutes (unless over the Atlantic: 3 min)
I Can’t Hear You!

91.185 Two-Way Radio Failure

 IFR Lost Communications

• Trouble shoot radio problem BUT don’t forget to

fly the plane!

Check Volume
Stuck microphone
Unplug mic and adjust squelch
Check audio selector
Confirm frequency
Try another radio or VOR
Check power / circuit breaker / avionics switch
Reduce electrical load, if appropriate
Squawk 7600
If in VMC…
If the failure occurs in VFR conditions, or if VFR conditions are
encountered after the failure you must continue the flight
under VFR and land as soon as practicable.

Still try to transmit in the blind. Call FSS upon landing.

• If in IMC – Continue in the following order:
• Assigned
Route: in this order (AVEF) • Vectored
• Expected
• Filed

• By the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received

• If being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of

radio failure to the fix, route, or airway specified in the
vector clearance

• In the absence of an assigned route, by the route that ATC

has advised may be expected in a further clearance; or

• In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has

advised may be expected in a further clearance, by the route
filed in the flight plan
 Altitude: (MEA) • Minimum IFR Altitude
• Expected
• Assigned

At the highest of the following altitudes for the route segment

being flown:

• The minimum altitude for IFR operations

• The altitude or flight level ATC has advised may be

expected in a further clearance

• The altitude assigned in the last ATC clearance received

Lost Comms Off-Route….

Maintain:
• Last assigned altitude or the minimum safe/sector
altitude, whichever is higher

• Until established on a segment of the published

approach

203
(If clearance limit is a fix, then hold at the clearance limit and follow chart above)
Summary……….

1) Are you IFR or VFR?

If VFR, stay VFR and land as soon as practicable

2) Troubleshoot

3) Are you IFR?

Continue to destination following the lost comm
procedures for route & altitude

4) What if you arrive early at the clearance limit?

Hold at IAF until ETA. Don’t start approach early
C Cleared to PIE
R A/F
A Climb & maintain
1,500, Expt 6,000
10 min
F 125.35
T 4623

Destination = KPIE
Route = Direct KIZER
V152 PIE

After takeoff, when

told to contact
departure, the
radios are silent.

What do you do?

C Cleared to PIE
R A/F
A Clmb & maintain
1,500, Expt 6,000
10 min
F 125.35
T 4623

Destination = KPIE
Route = Direct KIZER
V152 PIE

What do you do?

•Continue heading to
KIZER to join V152
•Climb to 3,100
•Climb to 6,000 after
10 min
• sqk 7600

•If in VFR, land VFR

Instrument Approach Procedures

• Allow safe descent from enroute to visual point near runway

• Defines where approach Begins and Ends

• 2 Types of Approaches: Precision & Non-precision

• Defined approach segments

 Review of Approach Segments…
Feeder, Initial, Intermediate, Final, and Missed Approach

Traffic delays, Lose

altitude, Missed approach
Feeder/STARS

Aligns w/approach
course; ARC, PT,

If you lose visual contact

after MDA but before
landing you must go
missed
Final descent w/in
30˚ final app crs Approach to land or go missed
 When can you descend to the IAF altitude?

“When operating on an unpublished route or while being radar vectored, the pilot,
when an approach clearance is received, shall, in addition to complying with Sec.
91.177, maintain the last altitude assigned to that pilot until the aircraft is
established on a segment of a published route or instrument approach procedure
unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC.

After the aircraft is so established, published altitudes apply to descent within each
succeeding route or approach segment unless a different altitude is assigned by
ATC.”

Note that the aircraft must maintain the last assigned altitude “until the
aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or …” . An airway,
STAR, feeder route are all published routes.
Terminal Arrival Areas (TAA)
• Depicts boundaries of specific GPS arrival areas
and the MSA for those areas

•Provides an easy transition from the en route

structure to the terminal environment

•TAAs eliminate or reduce the need for feeder

routes, departure extensions, and procedure turns
or course reversal.

• Contains three parts that reflect the straight-in,

right-base, and left-base areas for the approach.

• When TAA is published it replaces the MSA for

that approach procedure
Standard Terminal Arrival Route
STAR
• Common method for leaving the en-
route structure and navigating to the
destination airport

• ATC-coded IFR arrival route

• Includes routes, altitudes and

airspeeds

Preplanned IFR arrival procedure

published for pilot use in graphic and
textual form that simplifies clearance
delivery procedures
 Holding Patterns
Standard holding pattern:

• Right turns (3 degrees/second or 25 degrees bank, whichever is less)

• 1 minute outbound leg (if below 14,000). Begins abeam the fix outbound

• Adjust time on the outbound leg to make inbound leg 1 minute

*** Always ask how long you can expect to hold ***

*** Ask for DME legs instead of timed legs ***

The 5 T’s Start Time

1) T – Turn
2) T – Time
3) T – Twist
4) T - Throttle
5) T - Talk
• Entries aren’t mandatory, they’re a recommendation

• Stay on protected side

Report: time and altitude upon reaching a holding fix or point

to which you’re cleared; and when leaving assigned
holding fix or point
Wind corrections in a
hold…

Once you know the

wind, TRIPLE the
correction on the
outbound leg
 Holding Speeds
Altitude (MSL) Airspeed (KIAS)
MHA - 6,000' 200
6,001' - 14,000' 230
14,001' and above 265

• Holding patterns may be restricted to a maximum speed

• The speed restriction is depicted in parenthesis inside the

holding pattern on the chart (175)

• The aircraft should slow to the holding speed when 3

minutes or less from the fix to avoid exiting the protected
airspace. WHY??
DME ARC
•Provides a transition to the
approach course

•DME arcs are initial approach

segments

•When established on a DME arc,

the aircraft has begun the
approach

•You’re maneuvering to enter an

intermediate or final segment of
the approach.

• Look for the lead-in radial

 Course Reversals
When an approach procedure doesn’t set you up for direct routing
to the approach, you’ll need to complete a course reversal within
10 nm of the navaid or fix used on the approach plate.

There are three types of course reversals:

1. Procedure Turn
2. Holding Pattern
3. Teardrop Procedure

Unless the PT indicates it must be flown as shown, the only restriction

is that it must be done within the limits specified on the profile view
and it must be done on the protected side of the course.
Procedure Turns
1) Barbed arrow indicates
the direction of outbound
course

2) PT altitude is a minimum
altitude until established 5 T’s
inbound
Don’t descend until established
3) Must complete the PT on inbound course
within specified distance

4) Max speed 200 kts

5) No barb arrow in the plan

view, or the letters "NoPT“
mean PT not authorized
Procedure turns not required or
expected when: SHARPTT

S straight-in
H hold
A arc
R radar vectored
P procedure turn “NoPT”
T teardrop
T timed
Holding Pattern – Course Reversal

1) Specified distance or
time is shown in the
PROFILE VIEW

2) Allows you to lose

altitude before starting
the approach

3) Remember to
“suspend” the approach
if told to make a couple
turns in the hold
If cleared for approach prior to returning to holding fix, and
you’re at the prescribed altitude, you are expected to begin
the approach, not do another turn
 Teardrop
1) Allows the pilot to lose
altitude

2) Must be flown unless

otherwise authorized
by ATC

3) Has to be completed
within specified
distance
 Instrument Approaches

Precision Approaches Non-Precision Approaches APV _____

ILS GPS RNAV w/Vertical
PAR RNAV Guidance
VOR
LOC
LDA
NDB

One runway may have several different types of approaches leading to it

• Y or Z will be listed when 2 or more straight-in approaches are to same
runway

• Lowest minimums will be published as the Z approach. May have non-

standard climb gradient (greater than 200 FPNM)

• Y approach has higher minimums and standard missed approach climb

out
 Pilot Briefing &
Procedure Notes

Plan View
MSA

Profile

Minimums
What does black
dot on top of
lighting circle
indicate?
Sequence Flashing
lights

What does a black

circle indicate?
Pilot-controlled
10 nm distance and reference ring (non-RNAV approaches)
• Precision Approach: Final approach segment begins at glide-slope intercept – at
minimum G/S intercept altitude on chart or intercept altitude authorized by ATC

• Non-Precision: Final approach segment begins at a designated FAF or at a point where

you’re established on final approach course.

•If no FAF (VOR on field) then this is called the FAP – final approach point.
(Approaches with Vertical
Guidance)

Why does approach category change when you fly the approach faster?
How do you know when to go missed?
1) Waypoint
2) DME Fix
3) Time/Speed Table
Visual Glide • The electronic glideslope and the VGSI glideslope
are not exactly coincident.
Slope
Indicator • The difference can be fairly small 0.2 angle
and/or 3 feet difference in TCH
VGSI and ILS
Glidepath not • Use as a caution that you might pop out of the
weather right at mins but you seem slightly high on
coincident a PAPI 4 bar system.
VDA Vertical Descent angle (non-precision approaches)
• Used to establish a stabilized descent from FAF or stepdown fix to the TCH

• Use the published angle (3.10) and aircraft groundspeed to find target rate
of descent (using descent table in back of TPP)
Find descent
rate for 3.1
glide path:

Example:

3.1 at 90 kts
= 494 FPM
Need some fresh air? Take 5
Instrument Landing System (ILS)

•Provides BOTH horizontal & vertical guidance

Brings the pilot within 200 feet above touch down zone
elevation and visibilities as low as ½ sm or 1800 RVR

There are three categories of ILS approaches: CAT I, CAT II,

and CAT III

•The Basic ILS is CAT I

•Both Cat II and III approaches require special ground and airborne
equipment and training
Minimums View
 Statute Miles vs RVR
 You can only descend below approach minimums if the flight
visibility is at or greater than the visibility prescribed in the approach.

 Visibility is listed as either statute miles or hundreds of feet

 Statute Miles (SM) = Prevailing visibility reported by an observer

 Hundreds of Feet (RVR) = Measured with a Transmissometer

Measures visibility, background luminance, and runway light

intensity to determine the distance a pilot should be able to see
down the runway

 If RVR is inoperative, you’ll need to convert RVR minimums to

ground visibility
•RVR determines what the ILS minimums will be for each landing
Category.

•The lowest authorized CAT I ILS minimums are Decision Height (DH)
200 feet and Runway Visual Range (RVR) 2,400 feet
 ILS Approach Plate
Final approach segment begins at glide-
slope intercept at minimum G/S
intercept altitude on chart (1600) or
intercept altitude authorized by ATC
(radar vectors)

1) Where is FAF for LOC approach? Tomak

2) What should your G/S altitude be at
TOMOK? 1427
3) What is DA? 230
4) What is MDA? 400
5) What is HAT? 370
6) What is HAA? 506
Some ILS approaches have step down fixes before the final approach fix

Question: "If you receive the glideslope signal before descending to the
glideslope intercept altitude (or radar vectored altitude), can you just start
following the glideslope at that point?“ No, you could have false G/S

Remember: The gray feather shown on the profile view depicts where glideslope
signal is reliable
 ILS Components
Ground:

1. Localizer Antenna (LLZ) Provides horizontal guidance

2. Glide Path Antenna (GP) Provides Vertical guidance
3. LOC and G/S have different frequencies
4. Marker Beacons (OM, MM, IM) Used to cross check aircraft’s height
5. Compass Locator Outer Marker

Airborne:

1. Localizer and Glidepath antennas located on aircraft nose

2. ILS indicator inside the cockpit
3. Marker beacon lights and sounds
4. GPS DME
4 Components of ILS:
Guidance –
(1)Vertical (G/S)
(2)Horizontal (localizer)

Height/Range –
(3) Marker Beacons

Visual –
(4) Approach lights;
Touchdown zone and
centerline lights;
Runway lights
 ILS Marker Beacons

Outer marker (OM)

Located 4-7 miles from runway
Approximately where aircraft will intercept the glide slope
Signal -- continuous dashes (2 per second)
Purple (blue) light
Middle marker (MM)
Signal -- alternate dot/slash
3500' from landing threshold
MAP
Amber light
Back course marker (BCM)
Signal -- 2 dots
White light
Located at FAF of LOC BC approach

Inner marker (IM) – CAT II

White Light
 Locator Outer Marker
• An outer marker that has been
combined with an non-directional
beacon (NDB)

• Used on approach plates to show

location

"top view" The "black elongated

diamond" is the Marker itself. The
"dotted concentric circles" represent
the Locator (co-located NDB). The
"triangle" in the middle shows that
the facility is an intersection also
(usually the case).
 LOC Service Volume

ILS signal width at threshold = 700’.

Varies between 3-6 degrees further away
from threshold
 How does localizer work?

Ground signals create an

extended centerline.

The difference in depth of

these signals (90Hz vs 150 Hz)
indicate LEFT or RIGHT of
course

How does G/S work?

Paired with LOC frequency

Positioned to cross Threshold apx 50’

Manual glide path calculation:

ILS needle deflection: Groundspeed x 5
G/S full-scale = 1.4˚ 90kts x 5 = 450 FPM
LOC full-scale = 5˚
False Glide Slope

This can happen when you’re too high on

the glide slope

Indication of a false glide slope = very

steep rate of descent to stay on glide
path

The signals begin to mirror each other

Check ALTITUDE and Rate of Descent

at FAF
 KTPA ILS 1L

If you lose GPS can you fly this

approach?
Precision Approach Radar
• A type of radar guidance system designed to provide
lateral and vertical guidance to an aircraft until the
landing threshold is reached

• Used mostly at military bases

•“Descend 500 FPM. Stop! Left turn. Stop!”

Non-Precision Approaches
RNAV, VOR, LOC, NDB, LDA, SDF, ASR, APV

1. No vertical reference other than the altimeter

2. WAAS aircraft have vertical guidance (LPV; LNAV/VNAV)

3. Approach may not be aligned with the runway

4. May need to maneuver for landing

5. MDA may be relatively high depending on distance, terrain, and type

of approach

6. May have a VDP

 Visual Descent Point (VDP)
• Point on the final approach course of a non precision straight-in approach from which
normal descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be commenced

• Typically defined by a DME distance

• Dark “V” indicates the visual descent point is 6.5 DME from TUL

• Charted where VDA passes MDA

• VDP is point at which beyond this you’ll have a higher rate of descent (greater than 3˚)

VDA
 Calculating Visual Descent Point

VDP = HAT/300 ft = distance from runway

HAT = 600
= 600/300
= 2 miles from end of runway

Pull up Point = point from which a safe landing can’t be made, even if you
have runway in sight. Allows a small plane to go further to try to see
runway and descend at a 6˚ angle.

PUP = HAT/600
= 600/600
= 1 mile from end of runway
RNAV (GPS) Approaches

A non-precision approach that may

include both Vertical and Horizontal
Guidance:

• Lateral Navigation (LNAV only) = MDA

• Vertical Navigation
(LNAV/VNAV) = DA (requires WAAS)
(LPV) = DA (requires WAAS)

• Lateral navigation sensitivity

increases as you get closer to the
runway
 Jeppesen RNAV Approach
for your review….

•LNAV Approach
For training purposes only. Not for navigation.

•MDA = 440 or 460

 LPV
• Localizer performance with vertical guidance (LPV) are the
highest precision GPS (WAAS) instrument approach
procedures currently available

•Decision Altitude (DA)

• LPV approach incorporates angular guidance

with increasing sensitivity as an aircraft gets
closer to the runway

• Sensitivities are nearly identical to those of

the ILS at similar distances
LP
• Localizer Performance w/o vertical navigation

• Requires WAAS

• In locations where terrain or obstructions do not allow publication of

vertically guided LPV procedures.

• Lateral sensitivity increases as an aircraft gets closer to the runway

• LP is not a fail-down mode for an LPV

• LP and LPV are independent;

you’ll never see them on the same
approach plate

• Uses MDA
VOR Approaches
•Two Categories of VOR Approaches:
 On-airport or Off-airport
 When VOR is on the airport the FAP = FAF

•May have a course reversal

•DME or Timed

•VOR-A = Inbound course offset by 30 degrees or more from runway

•When cleared for approach descend promptly to published minimum altitude

•At MDA, only continue if you have the runway environment in sight

•VOR DME = DME required for approach

Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix
TIMED APPROACHES may be conducted when the following conditions are met:

1. Operating control tower

2. Maintain 2-way radio
3. If more than one missed approach procedure is available, none require a course reversal
4. If only one missed approach procedure is available, the following conditions are met:
(a) Course reversal is not required; and,
(b) Reported ceiling and visibility are equal to or greater than the highest
prescribed circling minimums for the IAP
5. When cleared for the approach, pilots must not execute a procedure turn
 LOC Approach

•Uses separate localizer frequency

•Provides horizontal guidance only

•Localizer is four times more sensitive

than a VOR signal

•CDI Deflection: Full scale = 2.5 each side

LOC BC
• A back course approach is depicted by
the left half of symbol being shaded

• Reverse sensing means that the CDI

indicates the opposite of what the pilot is
expecting on a standard localizer approach:

• The CDI indicates to fly left when the

aircraft in fact needs to fly right

•“Pull needle toward you”

• The G1000 Magnetometer corrects for

reverse sensing for you. Set the front
course heading.

• If AHRS inop then you’ll have reverse

sensing
BOGOTA NDB – Review with your CFI
What’s the difference between a NDB and Compass Locator?
Locator Outer Marker?

• When a radio beacon is used

in conjunction with the
Instrument Landing System
markers, it is called a Compass
Locator.

• In some places, outer markers

are being replaced by NDBs.
These are called Locator Outer
Markers (LOM).
LDA Localizer Direction Aid

• Localizer –Type Directional Aid

•Not aligned w/in 30˚ of rwy course

• Circling minimums are published

where course alignment exceeds
30 degrees

• Course width 3-6 degrees

• LDA with G/S = APV approach

• Used in places due to terrain

or other factors
SDF Approach
Simplified Directional Facility

• Feather is not shaded

• May be offset from runway

• Never has a glide slope

• Less precise than LOC or LDA

•Course width 6 or 12 degrees

(wider course so less precise than LOC
Airport Surveillance
Radar

• ASR is a non precision approach with

course guidance only

• No vertical guidance

• Typical PAR minimums are similar to

ILS Cat I mins, while an ASR is similar to
a VOR or loc only approach
APV
Non-precision Approach Procedures with Vertical Guidance (APV)

• Provide both lateral and vertical guidance, but do not meet all of
the accuracy requirements and navigation specifications to be
classified as CAT I precision approaches

• APV operations are conducted using decision altitude/height (DA/H)

Examples of APV approaches include:

RNAV
LPV
LNAV/VNAV
LDA with glideslope
Common approach question:

What’s the difference in

full-scale deflection on LOC vs VOR?

VOR = 10˚ each side

LOC = 2.5˚ each side

(4x more sensitive)
 Circle-to-Land Approaches
• The final approach course alignment with the runway centerline
exceeds 30°

• The descent gradient is greater than 400 feet per nautical mile
(FPNM) from the FAF to the threshold crossing height (TCH)

• A runway is not clearly defined on the airfield

MDA = 860 HAA = 539

Circling Approach – Landing Minimums
•Circling minimums change
with different approach
speeds. The faster the
aircraft, the wider the turn
radius.

•Faster aircraft will be further

away from the ends of the
runway and need higher
visibility limits

•Speed is based on Vso x 1.3

at max landing weight
 Circling Maneuvers

Have an idea of which maneuver you’re going

to do ahead of time

If visual contact with airport is

lost while circling (except when
view briefly blocked by
normally banked wing) then
missed approach must be
flown, starting with turn in
direction of the airport
Contact Approach

• IFR authorization to proceed to the airport visually

• Must have 1sm visibility and remain clear of clouds

• Pilots must request a contact approach. Then, ATC will

assign. ATC cannot initiate a contact approach

• Obstruction clearance and traffic avoidance is now

responsibility of pilot
Visual Approach
•IFR authorization to continue to airport visually

•The ATC or the pilot can initiate a visual approach

•You must have the airport or preceding aircraft in sight

•Weather must be VFR (ceiling 1,000’ AGL; vis 3sm)

•Not an IAP; No missed approach segment

•Pilot is responsible for obstacle clearance

•Most common approach used!

 Sidestep Maneuvers
•Used at airports with parallel runways separated by 1,200 feet or less

•Reasons you could be asked to SIDESTEP:

- Runway you will side step to has no approach
- Inoperative approach components
- Runway work going on
- An aircraft needs to use the runway you are approaching for
departure

So how does this work?

ATC assigns a Side-Step Maneuver or the pilot can request
• Approach minimums are higher than the straight in minimums
• Side step minimums that are slightly lower than a circling approach
• Begin to Side-Step as soon as possible after the runway environment is
in site
91.175 Regardless of the type of approach…
No pilot may operate an aircraft below the authorized MDA
or DH unless:

1) You can make descent to landing using normal maneuvers at a

normal rate of descent

2) The flight visibility (that you observe) meets or exceeds the

minimums published for that approach

3) You can identify one of the approved visual references for the
runway (the runway environment)
 At least one of the following visual
references must be distinctly visible to
operate below DH or MDA:

1. Approach Light System

2. Threshold
3. Threshold Markings or lights
4. REIL
5. VASI or PAPI
6. Touchdown zone
7. Touchdown zone markings or
lights
 If you can see the (white)
approach light system and
nothing else, you can
descend down to 100'
above touchdown zone
elevation, regardless of the
type of approach you're
flying (even if it's a non-
precision approach)

But what allows you to descend

below 100' above the
Example:
touchdown zone elevation?

TDZE = 800 feet msl Answer: The red terminating

You can descend to 900 msl
bars or the red side row bars
To descend below 900’, you (or visual reference to rwy
must see the red bars or rwy lights and markings)
environment
FLYING A MISSED APPROACH:

Should be initiated anytime you lose visual reference to the runway

1) Should be initiated not lower than the DA/H in precision approach

procedures, or at a specified point in non-precision approach procedures not
lower than the MDA/H.

2) If initiated before arriving at the MAP, the pilot must proceed to the MAP
then follow the missed approach procedure in order to remain within the
protected airspace.

3) The MAP may be over flown at an altitude/height greater

than that required by the procedure; but in the case of a missed
approach with a turn, the turn must not take place before the
MAP, unless otherwise specified in the procedure.
 The Approach Lighting System

•The ALS helps you transition

from instrument to visual
references while landing

•The ALS extends from

2,400-3,000’ on precision
approach runways

•1,400-1,500 on non-
precision runways
MALSR: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment
Indicator Lights
MALSF: Medium-intensity Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing
lights
SALS: Short Approach Lighting System
SSALS: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System
SSALR: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Runway Alignment
Indicator Lights
SSALF: Simplified Short Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights
ODALS: Omni directional Approach Lighting System
ALSF-1: Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights configuration 1
ALSF-2: Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashing Lights configuration 2
LDIN: Lead-in lighting
REIL: Runway End Identification Lights
RAIL: Runway Alignment Indicator Lights

Blue Lights = Taxiway

***Know distance of each lighting system (to prove visibility)***

 RWY Centerline Lighting:

•Red/White = start of 3,000 ft

remaining

•All red = 1,000 ft remaining

(2000 ft)

RWY Edge Lighting:

White until last 2,000’
(or at halfway point if short rwy)

Centerline Lead-On Lights = Green

Taxiway Lights = Blue
IFR Enroute Charts
What is the database currency requirement needed for IFR or VFR?

AIM 1-1-19b3(b)(1) In many receivers, an up-datable database is used for navigation

fixes, airports and instrument procedures. These databases must be maintained to
the current update for IFR operations, but no such requirement exists for VFR use.
(2) However,...
AIM 1-1-19f1(b) For IFR Operations "All approach procedures to be flown must be
retrievable from the current airborne navigation database..."

AC 90-100 (RNAV) OPERATIONS, paragraph 8a(3): The onboard navigation data

must be current and appropriate for the region of intended operation and must
include the navigation aids, waypoints, and relevant coded terminal airspace
procedures for the departure, arrival, and alternate airfields.

Navigation databases are expected to be current for the duration of the flight. If
the AIRAC cycle will change during flight, operators and pilots should establish
procedures to ensure the accuracy of navigation data, including suitability of
navigation facilities used to define the routes and procedures for flight. Traditionally,
this has been accomplished by verifying electronic data against paper products. One
acceptable means is to compare aeronautical charts (new and old) to verify
navigation fixes prior to dispatch. If an amended chart is published for the procedure,
the database must not be used to conduct the operation."
• High-Altitude charts provide aeronautical information from
18,000' MSL to FL 450

• Includes Jet and RNAV routes, identification and frequencies of radio

aids, selected airports, distances, time zones, special use airspace, and
related information

• Low Altitude charts are the instrument equivalent of the sectional

chart

• When folded, the cover of the en route chart displays an index map of
the United States showing the coverage areas

• ARTCC = “Center”. Issues route assignments, may use RCO or GCO sites,
issues NOTAMS, SIGMETS, Center weather advisories

• En route charts are revised every 56 days

 Minimum Altitudes/Obstacle Clearance

Obstacle clearance within limits of the

airway:

• In designated mountainous areas: 2,000 feet

above the highest obstacle within a horizontal
distance of 4 nm either side of the airway

• Other than mountainous areas: 1,000 feet

above the highest obstacle within a horizontal
distance of 4 nm either side of the airway

OROCA is not intended for use to determine an off route, random RNAV route.
In addition, flight at the OROCA doesn’t guarantee communications, radar
reception, or navigation reception.
How can you identify intersections?

Open triangle indicates the location of an ATC reporting point

Solid triangle is a compulsory reporting point

Localizers and off-route VORs

A localizer course used to identify an intersection is depicted by a feathered

arrowhead symbol on the en route chart

A hollow arrowhead indicates DME is authorized for intersection

identification

DME

Approved IFR GPS units can also be used to report intersections

T

Altitude change
Changeover Point: Switch to next NavAid
(Bend in Airway; DME distance; Signal reception; Halfway point)
*MOCA: Guarantees obstruction clearance, but does not
guarantee navigational signal reception, except within 22 nm of
a VOR (the only time ATC can assign it to you). It’s the absolute
lowest altitude you should fly.

MEA: Guarantees obstacle clearance and navigational signal

coverage, but not always communications. Obstacle clearance =
1,000’ AGL non-mountainous; 2,000’ designated mountain
areas.

MRA: Lowest altitude at which an intersection can be

determined from an off-course NAVAID. DME may define the
fix.

MCA: Indicates when approaching a higher altitude. Must be at

the MCA before crossing the intersection.

MAA: Maximum altitude that guarantees nav signals.

 By-Pass Route:
Route centerline that by-passes a facility
which is not part of the specific route

https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/aero_guide/media/C
hart_Users_Guide_12thEd.pdf
 Some Special Emphasis Areas (not all). Refer to the PTS

•Operations to/from/within/near Class A, B, C, D, E airspace

•Land And Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)
Proper use of flight controls/brakes on the ground - crosswind landings
•Positive exchange of flight controls
Collision Avoidance, avoidance of objects in the air & on the ground (Hot
Spots)
• CFIT
• Stall/spin awareness - spatial disorientation
Use of stabilized approach/flight path procedures
•Wake turbulence avoidance
•Low level wind shear
•Forced landings (emergency procedures)
•ADM & risk management
•Checklist usage
•Temporary Flight Restrictions, Special Use Airspace, Aviation Security
•Single-pilot competence if the aircraft is type certificated for single-pilot
operations
You have now completed the IFR EOC/FAA
Review

Congratulations on attending this review

course and GOOD LUCK on your
CHECKRIDE
 Practice IFR Review Questions
Pilot currency/IPC-where do you find the required items?
What class medical do you need for IFR flight?
Required instrument checks
Aircraft equipment codes (C172/G…what do you put if equipment inop?)
Aircraft performance charts (short field, top of climb, interpretation, density altitude…)
Determine freezing level
How does ice affect the airplane? Wings, prop, performance…
Induction icing
Thunderstorm hazards
Weather Charts/Forecasts:
METAR vs TAF
How long is each chart good for? Time issued?
When is surface analysis updated?
Are winds true or magnetic on winds aloft chart?
How to read freezing level chart, radar chart, wx depiction chart…
All Enroute chart symbols and altitudes-know all symbols
lost comm procedures (routes/altitudes)
why should you always plan to a feeder route?
how wide is a victor airway?
which airports on the chart have instrument approaches?
mandatory reporting points
SIDS/STARS/preferred routes
ODP
Where do you find if a VOR is inop?
How to avoid CFIT? = situational awareness. Give examples. What aircraft system helps reduce CFIT?
Read an approach plate from top to bottom and explain everything on it (T and A symbols; altitudes)
Airport diagram (hot spots)
ILS components/VOR range/GPS sensitivity
System errors/malfunctions:
pitot-static
alternate static source-where does air come from? How does it work? how does it affect altimeter?
compass
gyroscopic – what is tumbling? Canted gyro? Turn coordinator vs turn indicator
How does AHRS work? Magnetometer? Failures? Use of autopilot with failures?
What’s an ADC? How does it work?
Explain autopilot limitations
Anti-ice/de-ice systems
Electrical failures; know items on main and essential busses
What’s a HSI?? RMI? Do you have one on G1000?
How does GPS work? RAIM? WAAS? Expired database?
How does TAWS work?
TCAS
GPWS
TIS

Approaches-Precision; Non-precision;APV
LNAV vs VNAV
LPV vs LP
LDA vs LOC vs SDF
GLS/GBAS – just need to know basics
LAAS/TLS/MLS – just know basics
Backcourse-when would you have reverse sensing with G1000?
Missed approach – when can you start turn?
Do you have to fly to your filed alternate?
What do minimums have to be at alternate when you get there?