CHAPTER ONE:

Nature, Origin, and Methods of Psychology

1.1 Definition of psychology
The word psychology is derived from two Greek words – ‘psyche’ and ‘Logos’ where
Psyche – means ‘soul’ and Logos – means ‘the study’. Hence, originally psychology was defined
as ‘the study of soul’ or the study of spirit. Later on philosophers defined psyche as mind.
Because of this psychology began to be regarded as the study of an individual mind or mental
process. This definition was given up due to unobserved and unmeasured nature of mind.
The modern and well accepted definition for many psychologists is that psychology is defined as
the scientific study of behaviour and the mind; it includes the application of this science to
human problems. This definition contains some elements which need further elaboration. The
first part of this definition calls psychology as science and the second part of the definition is
about the application of psychological principles to life’s problems.
*Why psychology is a science? Psychology as a science obtains knowledge through systematic
and objective methods of observation and experimentation. Psychology as a science deals
systematically with human behaviour, motives, feelings, emotions, thoughts and actions. It
develops different theories and principles to describe, explain, predict, and modify behaviour.
*What is behaviour? Behaviour refers to organism’s reaction to a particular stimulus in the
environment. It consists of physical response (movement, action) and mental or internal response
like (feelings, emotions, and all intellectual responses like thinking, perceiving, etc). Thus,
psychology is concerned with the study of both overt and covert aspects of human and animal
behaviour.
*It is important to note the 2nd part of the definition which states as psychology is often used to
solve “real-life” problems; which is an art.
1.2 Historical Development of Psychology

1.2.1 Philosophical Roots

From about 600 to 300 BC, Greek philosophers inquired about a wide range of psychological
topics. Socrates and his followers, Plato and Aristotle wrote about pleasure and pain knowledge,
beauty, desire, motivation, memory and the subjective nature of perception. They also theorized
about whether human traits are innate or product of experience. They probed a variety of
psychological questions like, Are people inherently good? How can people attain happiness?
What motives or drives do people have? Early thinkers also considered the cause of mental
illness they thought that mental illness resulted from supernatural causes. However, Socrates and
Plato focused on psychological forces as the cause of mental disturbance. For example, Plato
thought madness results when a person’s irrational; animal like psyche (mind or soul)
overwhelm the intellectual, rational psyche. The Greek physician Hippocrates viewed mental
disorders as stemming from natural causes and he developed the first classification system for
mental disorders.

In 1600 France Mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes theorized the body and mind are
separate entities. Later on he developed his position known as Dualism. According to dualism,
the behaviour of the body is determined by mechanistic laws and can be measured in a scientific
manner. But the mind, which transcends the material world, cannot similarly study. However,
most psychology rejects a rigid dualistic position. The English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and
John Locke also disagreed with the idea of Descartes and they argued at all human experiences
including sensation, images, thoughts and feelings- are physical processes occurring within brain
and the nervous system. Therefore, these experiences are valid subjects of study. Many
philosophers of the past also debated the question of whether human knowledge is in born or the
product of experience. Nativists believed that certain elementary truths are innate. In contrast,
empiricists believed that at birth, a person’s mind is like a tabula rasa, or black slate and that all
human knowledge ultimately comes from sensory experience. Hence, all psychologists agree that
both types of factors are important in the question of knowledge.
1.2.2 Physiological Roots
The second important factor for development of modern psychology is physiology (a branch of
biology that studies living organisms and their parts) and medicine. In the 19th c physiologists
began studying the human brain, nervous system and sensation. In the 1850 and 1860’s the
German scientist Helmholtz studied sensory receptors in the eye and ear. Another German
scientist, Fechner, founded psychophysics- the study of the relationship; between physical
stimuli and our subjective sensations of those stimuli. In 1859 English naturalist Charles Darwin
published on the origin of species, in which he set forth his revolutionary theory of evolution.
Darwin’s theory led to comparisons between humans and other animals and was influential in the
development of psychology. In medicine, physicians were discovered a new links between the
brain and language. Example, Paul Broca discovered specific brain damage (left hemisphere)
result in the loss of ability to produce fluent speech and the area is called Broca’s area. Other
physicians focused on the study of mental disorder. In the late 19th century, Jean Charcot
discussed that nervous disorder patients could be cured through hypnosis, a psychological not
medical-for of intervention.

1.2.3 Early Schools of Psychology and Modern Perspectives

Modern psychology is deeply rooted in the older disciplines of philosophy and physiology. But
the official birth of psychology is often traced to 1879, at the university of Leipzig,Germany.
There, physiologist Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated to the scientific
study of the mind. Wundt’s laboratory soon attracted leading scientists and students from Europe
and America. Compared to the philosophers who preceded him, Wundt’s approach to the study
of mind was based on systematic and rigorous observation. His primary method of research was
introspection. This technique involved training people to concentrate and report on their
conscious experiences as they reacted to visual displays and other stimuli. In his laboratory he
systematically studied topics such as attention span, reaction time, vision, emotion and time
perception. By recruiting people to serve as subjects, varying the condition of their experience
and then rigorously repeating all observations, want laid the foundation for the modern
psychology experiment.
1.2.3.1 Early Schools of Psychological Thoughts

* Structuralism- began in Germany in the laboratory of Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920).

Structuralists focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. They
believed that, the chief purpose of psychology was to describe, analyze, and explain conscious
experience, particularly feelings and sensations using method of introspection- to understand the
basic elements of consciousness. In this technique, subjects were trained to observe and report as
accurately as they could their mental processes, feelings, and experiences. Wilhelm Wundt, was
an advocate of this position and is often considered as the founder of structuralism, though it was
his student, Edward B. Titchener who first coined the term to describe this school of thought.

*Functionalism- In opposition to structuralists, William James suggested that psychology

should not concern itself with the structure of consciousness because, they argued, consciousness
was always changing so it had no basic structure. Instead, he said that psychology should study
the function or purpose of consciousness and how it leads to adaptive behaviour. This approach
to psychology was similar with Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which exerted a significant
impact on the character of psychology. James promoted the idea that the mind and consciousness
itself would not exist if it did not serve some practical, adaptive value. It had evolved because of
its survival advantage for the species. He also maintained that psychology should be practical
and developed in such a way that it makes deference in people’s lives.

*Behaviourism- John B. Watson, an American psychologist, introduced behaviourism in 1913.

Watson and his followers believed that observable behaviour, not inner experience, was the only
reliable source of information. This concentration on observable events was a reaction against
the structuralists emphasis on introspection. The behaviourists also stressed the importance of the
environment in shaping an individual's behaviour. They chiefly looked for connections between
observable behaviour and stimuli from the environment.
*Gestalt Psychology, like behaviourism, was developed as a reaction against structuralism.
Gestalt psychologists believed that human beings and other animals perceive the external world
as an organized pattern or as a whole, not as individual sensations.
For example, a film consists of thousands of individual still pictures, but we see what looks like
smooth, continuous movement. The German word Gestalt means pattern, form, or shape. Unlike
the behaviourists, the Gestalts believed that behaviour should be studied as an organized pattern
rather than as separate incidents of stimulus and response. The familiar saying, "The whole is
greater than the sum of its parts", expresses an important principle of the Gestalt movement.
Gestalt psychology was founded about 1912 by Max Wertheimer, a German psychologist.

*Psychoanalysis- Sigmund Freud, Austrian doctor found Psychoanalysis during the late 1800's
and early 1900's. Basically, Psychoanalysis was not early school of psychology but had great
influences on the thinking of many psychologists. According to psychoanalytic theory, behaviour
is determined by powerful inner forces, most of which are buried in the unconscious mind. For
Freud, and people repress childhood experiences, unfulfilled needs and wishes in the
unconscious part of their mind. The repressed feelings can cause personality disturbances, self-
destructive behaviour, or even physical symptoms. Freud developed several techniques to bring
repressed feelings to the level of conscious awareness. In a method called free association, the
patient relaxes and talks about anything that comes to mind while the therapist listens for clues to
the person's inner feelings. Psychoanalysts also try to interpret dreams, which they regard as a
reflection of unconscious drives and conflicts. The goal is to help the patient understand and
accept repressed feelings and find ways to deal with them.
1.2.3.2 Modern Perspectives in Psychology
*The Biological Perspective- This perspective is also known as biological psychology,
biopsychology or physiological psychology. This perspective focuses on the physical and
biological bases of behaviour more specifically, the role of glandular activities and nervous
systems in one’s behaviour. This perspective has grown significantly over the last few years,
especially with advances in our ability to explore and understand the human brain and nervous
system.
*The Behavioural Perspective- As founded by John Watson, the behavioural approach views
behaviour and mental processes as primarily the result of learning. Psychologists who take this
approach see rewards and punishment acting on the raw materials provided by genes, evolution
and biology to shape each individual. So, whether considering a person’s aggression or drug
abuse, behaviourists would look at that person’s learning history. Since people learn problem
behaviours, they can also learn to change or even prevent them by unlearning old habits and
developing new ones.
*The Cognitive Perspective- The cognitive perspective focuses on how people take in, mentally
represent and store information. Cognitive psychologists then relate perception and information
processing to patterns of behaviour. They study such areas as decision-making, problem-solving,
interpersonal attraction and intelligence. Aggression, for instance, might be viewed as a result of
poor problem solving. According to Cognitive perspective, processes and activities such as
information processing, mental representations, predictions, and expectations are central to the
cognitive interpretation of behaviour. According to cognitive perspective, the way people
understand something plays important role in one’s behaviour.

*Humanistic Perspective- This is the psychological perspective popularized by Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow that emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth. The Humanists
stated that the subject matter or psychology is the human subjective experience of the world -
how humans experience things, why they experience things, etc. This perspective emphasizes the
role of motivation on thought and behaviour. Concepts such as self-actualization are an essential
part of this perspective. Generally, according to the humanistic approach, our capacity to choose
how to think and act determines our behaviour. Each person’s unique perceptions- not instincts,
cognitive processes, or rewards and punishments- dictate the choices made. Humanistic
psychologists believe that people are essentially good, that they are in control of themselves, and
that they seek to grow toward their highest potential.

*Psychodynamic Perspective- Rooted in Freud’s theory, the psycho-dynamic approach

maintains that all behaviour and mental processes reflect the constant and mostly unconscious
psychological struggles that rage silently within each person. Usually, these struggles involve
conflict between the impulse to satisfy instincts or wishes and the need to play by the rules in
society. Anxiety, depression and other disorders are outward signs of this inner turmoil. This
perspective emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and
interpersonal relationships to explain human behaviour.

1.3 Sub-fields of Psychology

*Abnormal psychology-study of abnormal patterns of behaviour or functioning with the
objective of identifying the causes of these abnormal patterns of functioning. It also deals with
describing, predicting, explaining, and changing abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal
psychology studies the nature of abnormal behaviour and its causes, and this knowledge is
applied in clinical psychology to treat patients with psychological disorders.

*Biological psychology-deals with biological bases of behaviour and mental states. Biological
psychologists state that our behaviour is the result of nervous system, hormones and glandular
activities. This is the approach taken in behavioural neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and
neuro-psychology. Neuro-psychology is one of the different branches of psychology studies how
the structure and function of the brain relate to specific behavioural and psychological processes.

*Cognitive psychology-studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behaviour. It uses

information processing as a base for understanding the mind. It is associated with a school of
thought known as cognitivism.

*Comparative psychology-deals with the study of the behaviour and mental life of animals other
than human beings. This field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans. However, the
behaviour and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research,
either as a subject in its own right or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and
somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means
of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behaviour systems.

*Counselling psychology-deals with treating mild emotional problems. It seeks to facilitate

personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan with a focus on emotional, social,
vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns.
Traditionally, counselling psychology has focused more on normal developmental issues and
everyday stress rather than difficult psychological disorders.

*Clinical psychology-devoted to the study, diagnosis, and treatment of people with serious
mental illnesses and other psychological disorders.

*Developmental psychology-deals with age related development of the human mind and
behaviour through the life. It seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and
act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual,
cognitive, neural, social, or moral development.

*Educational psychology-is the study of human behaviour in educational settings. It deals with
how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the
psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of such
child psychologists as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in
creating teaching methods and educational practices.

*Evolutionary psychology-deals with the exploration of the genetic roots of mental and
behavioural patterns, and posits that common patterns may have emerged because they were
highly adaptive for humans in the environments of their evolutionary past-even if some of these
patterns are maladaptive in today's environments.

*Forensic psychology-covers a broad range of practices including the clinical evaluations of

defendants, reports to judges and attorneys, and courtroom testimony on given issues.

*Health psychology-deals with the application of psychology to health, illness and health care.
Clinical psychology, as we discussed above, focus on mental health and neurological illness,
health psychology on the other hands deals with the psychology of a much wider range of health-
related behaviour including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's
understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be
involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality
of life and in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.

*Industrial/organizational psychology- applies psychological concepts and methods to increase

human potential in the workplace. A subfield of I/O psychology, Personnel psychology applies
the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I/O psychology's
other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the impacts of work environments and
management systems on worker’s motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.

*Personality psychology-studies personality-enduring patterns of behaviour, thought, and

emotion in individuals. There are different theories of personality and vary across different
psychological schools and orientations. They put different assumptions about human beings.

*Social psychology- studies the nature and causes of social behaviour. It is the study of social
behaviour and mental processes, with an emphasis on how humans think about each other and
how they relate to each other. Social psychologists are especially interested in how people react
to social situations.
1.4 Research Methods in Psychology
Psychologists from all areas of specialization use the scientific methods to test their theories
about behaviour and mental process. In laboratory and field settings, psychologists conduct their
research using a variety of methods. Among the most common methods observation, case study,
correlation method survey, Experimental method and Archival studies will be discussed in the
flowing presentation.
1.4.1 Naturalistic Observation
In this method researchers observe their subjects as they go able their usual activities, which
often take place in natural setting observation method:
-Provide a wealth of information
-Seeing and recording behaviour give first hand information. However, subject’s behaviour may
be altered due to the presence of the observer, high observer bias and difficult to study the covert
behaviour by this method.
Naturalistic Observation-Refers to observation and recording behaviour in natural setting with
no influence or control it.
-Subjects are not aware that they are being observed
-This is accomplished by means of one-way mirrors technique
Naturalistic observation is advantageous because.
-Gives chances to study behaviour in its natural setting
-Behaviour occurs more naturally and spontaneously than it would under artificial and contrived
laboratory condition
-More feasible method to study impossible and unethical phenomena to investigate by other
methods.
-As draw backs this method has the following:
-Researchers must wait for events to occur – they cannot speed up or slow down
-There is no control over the situation and do not each conclusions about causes effect
relationship
-High observer bias
1.4.2. Case study
Case studies are conducted when researchers believe that on in-depth look at one individual will
reveal something important about people in general. For example a case studies on a man who
had multiple personality disorder.
-Case study uses many data gathering tools (like observations interview, testing, etc) flexible and
helpful to get insight in to behaviour.
-Case studies often take a great deal of time to complete and researcher get chance to explore
important variables and possible relationships among them.
-Lack of investigative control of important variables
-Researchers subjective bias
-Poor sampling technique limit generalization of finings
-Tendency for subjects to report earlier experience inaccurately one some of the weaknesses of
case study method.
1.4.3. Correlation Method
Observational, case study and surveys are used to describe behaviour – correlation studies are
designed to find statistical connection or correlations between two or more variables.
A correlation is a statistical measure of the extent to which two variables are associated. A
positive correlation exists when two variables increase or decrees together. For example,
frustration and aggression are positively correlated, as friction rises, sod acts of aggression.
A negative correlation exists when increase in one variable result in decreases in the other, and
vice versa.
-Correlation method do not show cause effect relationship
-Other variables are not controlled
-It is not effective to study qualitative variables.
1.4.4. Survey Method
Survey method involves asking people a series of questions about their behaviours, thoughts, or
opinions. Interview and questionnaire are used to gather data. Survey can conducted in person,
over the phone or through the mail. Study specific groups for example are collage students
working mothers, men or home workers. Rather than questioning every person in the group,
survey researchers choose a representative sample of people and generalize the findings to the
larger population.
Survey may pertain to almost any topic often in survey method people are asked to report for
example their feelings about various social and political issues, the TV shows they watch or the
consumer products they purchase, the amount of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs etc. For a
survey to be accurate, the sample being questioned must be representative of the population on
key characteristics such as sex, race, age, region and cultural background. To ensure similarity to
the larger population, survey researchers usually try to make sure that they have a random
sample, a method of selection in which every one in the population has an equal chance of being
chosen.

1.4.5. Experimental Method

In an experimental method the researcher manipulate on factor in a situation keeping other
aspects of the situation constant and then observes the effect of manipulation on the behaviour.
Experimenters with two groups of subjects: the experimental group a group exposed to the
experimental condition, and the control group which does not.
In experimental method the researcher examine the relationship between variables – is any
conditional factor that can be manipulated, controlled or measured. The variable that the
experimenter deliberately manipulates to determine its effect in the other is called independent
variable (IV).The one that is expected to change when the independent variable changes is called
the dependent variable (DV). In a test of the hypothesis that frustration triggers aggression, for
example frustration would be the independent variable (IV) and aggression is the dependent
variable (DV)
-Artificial nature of the laboratory condition and the influence on subject’s behaviour.
-Un generalizability of the finding
-Its costly nature is some drawbacks of this research method.

1.4.6. Archival studies

Archival studies are an examination of the existing records of human activities. Researchers
often examine old newspapers stories, medical records, birth certificates, prime report, popular
books, art works, personal files etc. They may also examine statistical trends of the past, such as
crime rate, birth rate marriage and divorce rate and employment rates. The strength of this
method is that by observing pole only second and, researchers cannot unwittingly influence the
subject by their presence. However, available records of human behaviour are not always
complete or detailed enough to be useful.

1.5 Psychology and Health

The relationship between psychology and health is numerous and diverse World health
organization (WHO) that “health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”

The contribution of psychology to health professions is worth to mention here

1. Psychology helps to understand oneself.
-It helps to make rational decisions on becoming a health professional.
-It helps to assess ones won abilities and limitation
-Enables to control situations in the college and attain goal through self-discipline.
2. Psychology assists in understanding other people
-The health professional works with patients, families, nurses, doctors and administrative staff.
-Equipped with the knowledge of psychology, the health professional will achieve greater
success in interpersonal relationships.
-Psychology helps the health professional to learn why others differ in their preference customs
and beliefs or cultural patterns.
3. It penlights to appreciate the necessity of change the environment and how to brining it:-
-By changing the environment, the heath professional can bring about change in the patient’s.
Another important point which indicates the relationship between psychology and health is its
practical application to the area of health. Today, many psychologists work in the emerging area
of health psychology the application of psychology to the promotion of physical health and the
prevention and treatment of illness.
Researchers in this area have shown that human health and well-being depends on biological
and psychological factors. Many psychologists in this area study psycho physiological disorders
(also called psychosomatic disorder) the conditions that are brought on or influenced by
psychological states, most often stress. These disorders include high blood pressure, headaches,
asthma and ulcers. It has been discovered that chronic stress is associated with an increase risk of
coronary heart disease.
 Health psychologists also study how people cope with stress. They have found that people who
have family, friends and other forms of social support are healthier and life longer than those
whole are more isolated. Others in this field examine the psychological factors that underlie
smoking, drinking, drug abuse, risky sexual practices and other harmful to health. Psychologists
have also found that immune system is affected by psychological factors. The immune system is
a complex surveillance system that fights bacteria, viruses and other foreign substances that
invade the body. This defence relies on the actions of specialized white blood cells called
lymphocytes, which circulate through the blood stream and secrete chemical antibodies.
Psychologies have discovered that the immune system is liked to other systems of the body,
including the brain and nervous system. Psycho neuron immunology is the study of the
relationship between psychological influences, the nervous system and the immune system.
Researchers in this field have found the psychological factors such as stress can influence
immune cell activity and increase vulnerability to the physical illness. In addition studies have
shown that immune cell activity changes in response to divorce, the death of a spouse, loss of
employment and other negative life events.

2. SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Psychologists argue that without sensation and perception life would seem like a meaningless jumble
of colours, shapes and sound. This implies a person with out any perceptual ability would not be able
to recognize someone, understand language, avoid threats etc… Such a person does not survive for
long.

2.1 Basic terms and concepts related to sensation and perception

To have a better understanding of the subject matter of sensation and perception, we need to define
and explore the two key concepts and related basic terms. Sensation and perception are two terms
used in psychology to refer to the influx of information from the environment. Not all psychologists
agree that a meaningful distinction can be made between sensation and perception. At best, the two
activities run together.
Sensation refers to the reception of informational input from the external environment. In simple
words, sensation is generally used in reference to the immediate effects of incoming stimulation
impinging on some sense organs, and includes the activity of the sense organ itself.

In contrast, perception involves more than the immediate stimulation. I.e. it is the process that
follows stimulation and involves more central cognitive functions. Perception refers to the further
processing, interpretation, and utilization of that input. Example, in sensation- we consider how
bright a stimulus appears. In perception-we might ask what it means to that person.

2.1.1 SENSATION

To understand the importance of perception, we must examine what sensation is. The word sensation
is used to describe the process by which an organism responds to the stimulus. Stimulus is a source
of physical energy that activates a sense organ. Our senses are the channels through which we
receive information. Although people have traditionally thought in terms of five senses,
psychologists found that the number is actually for greater. The activity of the sensory channel
usually results from a particular kind of stimulation. Different kinds of stimuli activate different
sense organs.

For instance,
 The stimulus for vision is light.
 The stimulus for hearing is sound pressure
 The stimulus for taste is chemical substance dissolved in saliva.
 The stimulus for smell is chemical substances in the air.
 The stimulus for skin senses is mechanical forces.

Every sensory channel consists of a sensitive element called the receptor. A receptor is a specialized
nerve cell that converts physical stimulation in to electrical information. The electrical information is
then transmitted to the brain by additional nerve cells. The locations for sensory receptors are:

 Vision – roads and cones in the retina.

  Hearing – Hair cells on basilar membranes of the inner ear.

 Taste – Taste buds on the tongue.

 Smell – receptors cells in the upper nasal cavity.

 Touch – nerve endings in the skin.

Each of these receptors responds primarily to a certain kind of physical energy. In other words,
based on the physical stimulation required to activate them, receptors may be classified in to types:
 Photoreceptors – in the eye (Sensitive to light energy)
 Chemo receptors – sensitive to chemical substances (Taste – chemical substances dissolved
in saliva; Smell – chemical substances in the air).

 Mechanoreceptors – sensitive to mechanical force and are found in touch (skin) and in the
inner ear.

We do not experience the physical energy directly rather what we experience is the activity in the
nervous system. Moreover, each receptor requires some minimum level of physical energy called
Absolute thresholds.

Absolute threshold is the point where something becomes noticeable to our senses. It is the softest
sound we can hear or the slightest touch we can feel. Anything less than this goes unnoticed. The
absolute threshold is therefore the point at which a stimulus goes from undetectable to detectable to
our senses. The technical definition for absolute threshold is the minimal amount of stimulus we can
detect 50 percent of the time, because researchers try to take into account individual variation in
sensitivity and interference from other sensory sources. Stimuli below our absolute threshold is said
to be subliminal. Some companies claim to produce subliminal message media that can change
unwanted behavior. Psychological research does not support their claim. In fact, a truly subliminal
message would not, by definition, affect behavior at all because if a message is truly subliminal, we
do not perceive it!
Difference Threshold: Once a stimulus becomes detectable to us, how do we recognize if this
stimulus changes. When we notice the sound of the radio in the other room, how do we notice when
it becomes louder. It's conceivable that someone could be turning it up so slightly that the difference
is undetectable. The difference threshold is the amount of change needed for us to recognize that a
change has occurred. This change is referred to as the just noticeable difference.

Sensory Adaptation refers to stimuli which has become redundant or remains unchanged for an
extended period of time. Ever wonder why we notice certain smells or sounds right away and then
after a while they fade into the background? Once we adapt to the perfume or the ticking of the
clock, we stop recognizing it. This process of becoming less sensitive to unchanging stimulus is
referred to as sensory adaptation, after all, if it doesn't change, why do we need to constantly sense
it? It is a change in the stimulation to which we have become adapted. We tend to adapt to the
stimulation around us. Example: If you are reading and if someone turns on the radio you are adapt
to acutely aware of it. After a short while it drops from your awareness. When the radio is turned off,
its absence arouses your attention.

PERCEPTION

Perception as mentioned in the introduction, it refers to interpretation of what we take in through our
senses. The way we perceive our environment is what makes us different from other animals and
different from each other. In this section, we will discuss the various theories on how our sensations
are organized and interpreted, and therefore, how we make sense of what we see, hear, taste, touch,
and smell. It is a process by which we sort out, interpret, analyze, and integrate stimuli to which our
senses are exposed. There are several factors that affect our perceptions. Some of these are:

SELECTIVITY OF PERCEPTION

One of the characteristics of perception is its selective nature. At any given time (moment) our
senses (organs) are bombarded by a multitude of stimuli. However, we receive only a few of them
clearly i.e. among various elements around us, we attend to only a few. Therefore, attention is a
basic factor in perception.
Attention divides our field of experience in to a focus and a margin. The events that we receive
clearly are in the focus of experience – since they are attended they stand out from the background.
In contrast, items, which are dimly perceived, are called margin. Though we are aware of their
presence, they exist vaguely. Example: When someone is with his opposite sex friend during the
cold night Walk he may not aware of the cold. It is only when he leaves that he Perceived how cold
it is. Attention is also characterized by constantly shifting from one stimulus to another. In other
words, what is at the focus of one time is marginal at other time. The direction of our attention
shifting is determined by two general classes of factors- Internal and external Factors:-

The internal factors that govern our attention are:

Motives – our needs and interests govern our attention.

Set or Expectancy – it is a readiness to react in a certain way.

 Our expectancy plays a major role in selecting what we shall perceive.
 What a person sees depends upon what he/she is set to see.

Example: When you are in a dark place you may assume the big stone as a hyena. External factors:
The external factors that govern our attention are:
Intensity and size: this factor refers the relative amount of the stimulus for attention getting.
 The louder a sound, the more likely a person is to attend it.
 The brighter a light, the more it tends to capture our attention.

Contrast: it is a marked difference in stimulation as light and dark, silence and noise, hot and cold.

Repetition – A stimulus that is repeated has a better chance of catching us as repetition increases our
sensitivity. We are more likely to hear our name if it is called twice. Example: People working in
advertisement repeat the name of the commodity.

Movement – Human beings are quite sensitive to objects that move and our eyes are involuntarily
attracted to movement. Example, when we are looking at a distance place, we become more sensitive
for something, which is moving.

ORGANIZATION AND INTERPRETATION

Organization is a process by which we tend to give shape or form to objects we perceive. The
stimulation that people constantly perceive comes into their awareness as shapes and patterns.
Different stimuli in the environment are perceived as having shapes, pattern of forms. Our perceptual
experience is filled with groups and patterns of stimuli which we call objects. Organizing tendencies
take several different forms such as Figure – ground perception, Grouping and Perceptual constancy.
Dear reader you will get the detail description of this topic under theories of perception.

Interpretation is the process by which incoming stimulation is analyzed and explained in some way.
Different people interpret the same situation in different ways. Among the major factors that
determine interpretation in perception are: -
1. Emotional factors – it refers to states within a person. When people are emotionally involved,
they tend to interpret in that way. Example: Whether a person is hungry, sad, happy, etc.
2. Learning or past Experience: this refers people’s background. Individuals tend to interpret
stimulation in the way they have learned. Example: If you show the stimulus presented bellow this
paragraph for different people such as farmer, engineer and medical person, they tend to interpret in
different ways.

 For a farmer = it is terracing.

 For an engineer = it is a road.
 For medical person = it is a worm.

THE GESTALT LAWS OF ORGANIZATION

Figure – ground perception-The most fundamental organizational tendency is the perception of

figure and ground. Figure and Ground Our visual system simplifies the visual scene into a figure that
we look at and a ground which is everything else and forms the background.The figure is what
appears to be in front (what comes first).The ground is what appears to be behind (what comes
next).Example, Pictures hang on a wall and Words are on a page.

 Pictures and words are seen as figure. Wall and page are seen as ground.
Contour-It states our ability to separate objects (figures) from the general ground is because of our
perception of the contours. Contours are formed whenever a marked difference occurs in the color of
background. Therefore, contours give shape to the objects (see the above reversible figure-ground
picture).
Gestalt Principles of Grouping: The German word "Gestalt" roughly translates to "whole" or
"form," and the Gestalt psychologist's sincerely believed that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts. In order to interpret what we receive through our senses, they theorized that we attempt to
organize this information into certain groups. This allows us to interpret the information completely
without unneeded repetition. For example, when you see one dot, you perceive it as such, but when
you see five dots together, you group them together by saying a "row of dots." Without this tendency
to group our perceptions, that same row would be seen as "dot, dot, dot, dot, dot," taking both longer
to process and reducing our perceptive ability. The Gestalt principles of grouping include four types:
similarity, proximity, continuity, and closure.
1. The law of similarity-It states that identical or similar things tend to be associated in a group.
Describe what you see in figure below. We tend to see two columns of x’s and columns of o’s not
rows of mixed x’s and o’s.

x o x o

x o x o
 x o x o

2. The law of nearness or proximity (belongingness). It states that items or elements which are close
together in spaces or time tend to be perceived as belonging together or as unit. Describe what you
see in the two figures below. In fires figure 1 we tend to see 4 pairs of x’s not 8x ‘s. in figure 2 we
tend to perceive three columns of two lines each rather than six different lines. The lines are grouped
together because of how close they are to each other, or their proximity to one another.

Figure- 1 xx xx xx xx
Figure-2,

3. Closure-It is the tendency to complete in perception what is physically incomplete pattern or

object. Our perceptual process tends to organize the world by filling in gaps in stimulation so that we
perceive a whole object.
We don’t perceive merely isolated dots, rather we see a triangle. The dots are somehow organized in
perception. Therefore, our perceptual experience is filled with groups and patterns of stimuli which
we call objects.
4. Simplicity- When we observe a pattern; we perceive it in the most common straight forward
manner.

PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES

Top-Down Processing: When we use top-down processing, we perceive by filling in gaps in what
we sense. Top-down processing occurs when you use your background knowledge to fill in gaps in
what you perceive. Our experience creates schemata, mental representations of how we expect the
world to be. Schemata can create a perceptual set, which is a predisposition to perceiving something
in a certain way.

Top-down processing allows our expectations to influence our perceptions. We expect to find certain
objects in certain situations, and look for just enough cues to confirm our suspicions.
. 3.3.2 Bottom-Up Processing: it is also called feature analysis, is the opposite of top-down
processing. Instead of using our experiences or knowledge to perceive an object as we do in top-
down processing, we use only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception.
According to feature analysis theory, to perceive an object in our environment, we first react to
individual aspects such as, shape, pattern, object or scene. We start from these individual
components and move to comprehend the overall nature of what we perceived (E.g., from letters to
words to phrases).

3. LEARNING

Definition of learning, characteristics and Factors that affect Individual Learning

Definition of learning
It is very difficult to give a universally acceptable definition of learning, because various theories
developed by psychologists attempt to define the term from different angles. Let us see some.
- Learning is an acquired tension – reduction (Murphy).
- Learning is to respond differently to a situation because of past experience to the situation
(Guthrie).
- Learning any relatively permanent change in an individual which results form experience (Hull).
- Melvin H. Marx defines learning as follows.
“Learning is a relatively enduring change in behaviour which is a function of prior experience or
behaviour.”
The above definition emphasizes four attributes of learning as a process.
1. Learning is a permanent change in behaviour. It does not include change due to illness, fatigue,
maturation and use of intoxication
2. Learning is not directly observable but manifests in the activities of the individual
3. Learning results in some change of enduring nature
4. Learning depends on practice and experience

Characteristics of Learning

The following are some important characteristics of learning

1. Learning is growth. Through his/her daily experiences the learner grows mentally and physically.
Learning is growth through experience.
2. Learning is Adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust him/herself adequately to the new
environment or situations. Individuals meet with new environment, which demand solution.
Repeated exercises are required to react to them effectively.
3. Learning is organizing Experience. Learning is not mere addition to the acquiring of knowledge,
facts or skills. It is the reorganization of experience.
4. Learning is purposeful. The process of learning is based on purpose. It plays a big role in learning.
5. Learning is Active. In the process of learning active involvement of the individual in his
environment is required. This can take place by questioning, problem solving, discussion etc.
6. Learning is both individual and social. Learning is more that an individual activity. It is a social
activity too. Social agencies like family, peers, teachers, social and religious institutions etc. They
have a tremendous influence on the individual and are always modelling and remodelling him or
her.
7. Learning the product of environment. Environment plays an important role in the individual’s
learning. It either enhances or stifles learning. In learning there is an interaction of the environment
with the organism.
8. True Learning Affects the Conduct of the Learner. There is a change in the mental structure of the
learner after every experience or learning.

Factors Affecting Individual Learning

There are many factors that hindered human learning. The problems for example are hereditary, the
physical conditions of the learner, health related problems, home environment, psychological and
pedagogical in nature.
See the following list of factors
- Objective/purpose of learning
- Readiness for learning
- Physical, emotional or social condition
- Lack of careful guidance
- Application of full attention
- Strong motivation to learn
- Active involvement of the learner
- Feedback to the learner

THEORIES OF LEARNING
Formalized learning theory developed in the late nineteenth century when proponent of various
approaches attempted to build their own theory to explain the problem of learning. A theory of learning
cannot be defined to satisfy all interested person.
There are three broad classification of learning theories. These are behavioural learning theory, social
learning theory and cognitive learning theory. In this section these three major learning theories will be
discussed one by one.

Behavioral Learning Theories

Behaviourism, as learning theory, is more interested in how behaviour changes as a result of a person’s
experiences. Behaviourism concentrates on the study of overt behaviours that can be observed and
measured.
Key proponents in the development of the behaviourist theory are:
1. Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning theory)
2. B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning theory)
Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov around the turn of the 20 th
century. Classical conditioning grew out of a tradition that can be traced back to Aristotle’s who believed
that learning depended, on contiguity the occurrence of events close together in time and space.
Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, won a Noble prize in 1904 for his research on digestion in dog. His
research stimulated worldwide scientific interest in the study of associative learning. In his research on
digestion, Pavlov would place meat powder on dog’s tongue, which stimulated reflexive salivation. He
found that after repeated presentations of the meat powder, the dog would salivate in response to stimuli
(that is environmental event) associated with the meat powder. A dog would salivate at the sight of its
food dish, the sight of the laboratory assistant who brought food, or sound of the assistant’s footsteps.
Pavlov has been studied this basic type of associative learning which is now called classical conditioning
or Pavlovian conditioning.
- Classical conditioning emphasized on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological
response such as fear, salivation or sweating.
- Classical conditioning also called respondent condition because automatic response transfers
from one stimulus to another.
- Classical conditioning occurs when a person form mental association between two stimuli. People
tend to form these mental association between events or stimuli that occur closely together in
space and time
Schematic presentation of the conditioning process
Before conditioning
Food Produce Salaiva
Step 1. Food unconditioned stimulus unconditioned Response
Food (UCS) (UCR)
Produce
Step 2 – Ringing of the bell No response
Neutral stimulus
(NS)

During Conditioning
Saliva
Steps 3 – NS (+) UCS (Neutral stimulus produces Unconditioned Respond
Plus unconditioned stimulus)
Ringing the bell plus food Saliva
(Repeated a number of times)
After conditioning Saliva
Step 4 – conditioned stimulus produce conditioned response
(CR)
(CS) Ringing the bell alone saliva
The term unconditioned stimulus (UCS) “food” and unconditioned response (UCR) “saliva” on the first
step indicate there is unlearned, or in born connection between the stimulus (food) and the response
(saliva)
The bell is called neutral stimulus (NS) on the second step because it does not initially produce any saliva
as a response.
Because the bell – food association over and over again (step 3) the bell alone eventually (CS) causes the
dog to salivate (CR) (Step – 4).
Some phenomena of classical conditioning
Pavlov and his associates discoed several phenomena during their experimental studies on the gastric
secretion in dog.
The main findings are:-
1. Acquisition 3. Spontaneous recovery 5. Discrimination
2. Extinction 4. Generalization
1. Acquisition:- The acquisition phases are the initial learning of the conditioned response. E.g., The
dog learning to salivate at eh sound of the bell. Order and timing of the stimuli affect the speed of
conditioning during the acquisition phase. The following conditionings are identified based on the
time interval between CS and UCS.
(a) Delayed conditioning- CS is presented first and remains until the on set of UCS
(b) Trace conditioning- The CS is first presented and ends before the on set of UCS
(c) Simultaneous conditioning- The CS and UCS begin together
(d) Backward conditioning- UCS is presented first and followed by CS
2. Extinction:- In Pavlov classical conditioning, if the conditioned stimulus (the bell) is repeatedly
presented without being followed by the unconditioned stimulus (the food) for a number of trials, the
conditioned response was found to “weaken” gradually and get “extinguished”. “Extinction is a process
of learning to inhibit the response acquired in conditioning”.

3. Spontaneous recovery:-When the dog is brought out of the experimental set-up and
again put in the set – up after a lapse of time, the dog responds to conditioned stimulus
(CS). This process is called spontaneous recovery. This process explains that there is
no complete extinction due to time interval but there is inhibition of CR.
4. Generalization:- Is a process in which a conditioned response to a stimulus is generalized to similar
category of stimuli? After the dog salivate in response to hearing one particular sound, it would also
salivate after hearing other similar sound.
5. Discrimination:- Refers to the ability to respond to one tone but not to others that are similar by
making sure that food always followed only by one tone, not others.
Applications of classical conditioning
Now it is time to see the applications of the principles of classical conditioning in various life situations.
1. Developing good habits: principles of classical conditioning can be used for developing good habits
in children such as cleanliness, respect for elders and punctuality etc.
2. Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fear. All learning is acquired in the social
environment. Acquired le may be reconditioned by using the principle of classical conditioning.
Principles of classical condition can be used to reconditioning anxiety, fear in maladjusted children,
developing risk free health behaviour.
3. Training of animals.
4. Use in psychotherapy. The principles of classical conditioning are used in reconditioning emotional
fears in mental patients.
5. Developing positive attitude: classical conditioning can be used to develop favourable or
unfavourable attitude towards something.
Operant conditioning
The founder of this theory is B.F. Skinner. He began with the belief that the principles of classical
conditioning account for only a small portion of learned behaviours. He suggested that most behaviour is
emitted or voluntarily enacted. The theory is called operant conditioning because it is based on certain
operations or actions. People actively “operate” on their environment to produce different kinds of
consequences. These deliberates are called operant.

An operant is a set of acts, which condition an organism in doing something. The learning process
involved in operant behaviour is called operant conditioning. In the process of operant conditioning,
operant responses are modified or changed by the consequences. Behaviour like response or action is
simply a word for what a person does in a particular situation.
To study the effects of consequences on behaviour under carefully controlled situations, skinner designed
a special cage like apparatus. The subject of this experiment was rat.

The typical Skinner box is a small enclosure containing only food tray and a liver or a bar. The lever is
connected to a food hopper. In one experiment a hungry rat is placed in the box and continue to explore it
since a rate tend to peck, the animal will eventually get a round to racking the liver. Then a small food
relent drop in to try backing the lever. Then a small food pellet drop in to tray. The hungry rat eat the
food, move around again and pecks the liver again more food dropped and eat continuously the next time
the rat is placed in the box, it will go directly to the liver and begin racking.

The above experiment explains that behaviour occurs in the environment as a result of active actions of
the animal upon the environment. What follows this action or behaviour is important.

Operations involved in operant conditioning

Some of the operations are: shaping, extinction, spontaneous recovery, reinforcement, and punishment.
Extinction and spontaneous recovery are discussed in relation to classical conditioning.

Shaping – is important mechanism used in operant conditioning. It is the judicious use of selection
reinforcement to bring change in desired behaviour, or it is the process of reinforcing each small step of
progress toward a desired goal. The basic process in shaping is successive approximation to the designed
goal.
Reinforcement – referees to the use consequences to strengthen the behaviour it follows. It is a stimulus
whose presentation or removal the probability of the occurrence of a response.
Types of reinforcement;
(1) Positive reinforcement:- It occurs when presenting positive value stimulus strengthens the
probability of the occurrence of a response (eg. Water, food, praise).
(2) Negative reinforcement:- is any stimulus the removal or withdrawal of which strength the
probability of the occurrence of a response (Eg. Loud noise, bright light, electric shock failure,
rejection, criticism).

Primary reinforces – are satisfy basic/ Biological needs – like food, water sex etc
Secondary reinforces: - learned, like praise, money social approval etc.
Punishment: - involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus or with holding of a positive stimulus to
decrees the probability of a response.

Schedules of Reinforcement
In real life situations, reinforcement does not occur every time a response makes a correct response to a
given stimulus. Reinforcement occurs according to a certain schedules. The schedules of reinforcement
may be made on the bias of number, time, rate of response between reinforcement or a combination of all
these. There are two major types of reinforcement schedules
 1. Continuous reinforcement schedule:- It is an arrangement of providing reinforcement after every
correct response
2. Intermittent or partial schedule. It is an arrangement where sometimes we provide reinforcement
and sometimes we withhold the reinforcement.

Types of intermittent or partial reinforcement

(i) Interval schedule:- It is an arrangement of giving reinforcement after an interval of time.
Example after every 2 minutes.
(ii) Ratio-schedule: reinforcement is administered based on the number of responses given between
reinforces.
(iii) Fixed interval schedule reinforcement is presented after prescribed interval of time.
Application of Fixed – interval schedule are many
(a) Students attend classes at certain fixed hours of the day
(b) We eat at regular Periods in the day
(c) Payment of salary on 1st day of every month
(d) Administration of quiz test on every Monday to the class
(iv) Variable Interval (VI): In this schedule the interval is randomly varied about some given item
value
(v) Fixed – ratio schedule: reinforcement is administered after a fixed number of correct response
In this schedule
- higher rate of response is recorded
- start with a low ratio and gradually increase the ration
Example of FR
(a) A man is paid after completing certain amount of work
(b) Commission agents receive commission after selling a certain amount of commodity
(c) Student learns 25 lines and gets a coffee

(vi)Variable ratio schedule: In this arrangement the number of response required for a reinforcement
varies around some average ratio:- It is characterised by a steady rate response with out breaks
and extremely high rate of response.

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning

Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
1. Conditioned stimulus is lined with the - Response is linked with reinforce
 unconditioned stimulus to produce - Response oriented
unconditioned response - Learning is through response
2. Stimulus oriented modification
3. Learning is through stimulus - Behaviour is emitted
4. Behavior is elicited - Response is voluntary
5. Response is force

Social learning Theory

The founder of social learning theory is Albert Bandura. He believed that the traditional behavioural
views of learning while accurate are incomplete. According to Bandura behaviour views give only a
partial explanation of learning viral views give only a partial explanation of learning and over looked
important aspects of the situation, particularity the important social influence on learning. Bandera
distinguished between the acquisition of leaning and the observable performance based on the knowledge
he suggested that we all may know more than we show.

Learning may have occurred and may not be demonstrated until suitable conditions take place. There are
internal and external factors that affect learning. External (environmental event) and internal (personal
factors, like thinking and motivation) and behaviour are interacting and influence each other in the
process of learning, and called by Bandura, Reciprocal Determinism.
People can learn through Modelling and imitation. If they learn by watching, they must be focusing their
attention, constructing images, remembering and making decisions that affect learning.

Learning by observing others: Two models

1. Observational learning can take place through vicarious reinforcement. This takes place when we see
others being rewarded or punished for particular action and modify our behaviour as it we had received
the consequence our selves.

In the 2nd type of observational learning we observe and imitate the behaviour of a model with no
reinforcement and punishment received by the model. The model show something the observer wants to
learn. Imitation also can take place when the observer wants to become more like an admired or high
status model. The observer may also use fictional characters as models and try to be have as we imagine
to model

Bandura’s steps to observational Learning

 Step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4
Paying Attention Remember Reproduction motivation
(Retention) and reinforcement)

Cognitive theory of Learning

Cognitive theorists believe that learning is the result of our attempt to make sense of the world using our
all mental tools. Cognitive theorists explain that, the way we think, out knowledge, expectations, feelings
and interaction with others influence how and what we learn. They emphasize on internal process.

Cognitive and behavioural views differ in their assumptions about what is learned. In cognitive view
knowledge is learned, and change in knowledge makes change in behaviour possible. In the behavioural
view the new behaviours themselves are learned. Both behavioural and cognitive theories believe
reinforcement is important in learning, but for different reasons. For behaviourists rein forcers strengthen
response and cognitivistes see reinforcement as a source of feedback about what is likely to happen if
behaviours are repeated.
The other point of difference is that cognitivistes see people as active learners who initiate experience,
seek out information to solve the problem and to recognize what they already know to achieve new
insights. However, in behaviourists the learner is passive influenced by environmental events.

Cognitive learning is an important form of learning that is different from classical conditioning and
operant conditioning. It involves the forming of new associations and the perceiving of new relationships
among events. Note, too, that it is not responses to particular stimuli, so-called stimulus-response (S-R)
associations, that are learned; instead, links are made among stimuli so that stimulus-stimulus (S-S)
associations are learned.

Why is this form of learning called cognitive?

Cognition refers to the processing of the information about the environment that is received through the
senses. Cognitive processes involve: (1) the selection of information, (2) the making of alterations in the
selected information, (3) the associations of items of information with each other, (4) the elaboration of
information in thought, (5) the storage of information in memory, and when needed, (6) the retrieval of
stored information.

Lbduearning, as we all know, refers to relatively permanent change in behaviour as result of experience.
Putting the term cognition and learning together gives a definition of cognitive learning: a change in the
way information is processed as a result of experience a person or animal has had. In other words, due to
past experience, the significance and meanings of events have been changed, new associations have been
formed, and these changes have been stored in memory for future use. Indeed, as you read this text, you
are doing some cognitive learning.
Types of Cognitive Learning
Cognitive psychologists have identified different types of cognitive learning. These include: (1) Cognitive
maps, (2) Latent learning, (3) Insight learning, and (4) Imitation. These are examples of cognitive
learning. They involve the formation of stimulus-stimulus (S-S) associations.
Cognitive maps: refer to the formation of internal mental representation of the environment as a result of
the person or animal experience with the respective social or physical environment.
Latent learning: the word latent means “hidden” and thus latent learning is learning that occurs but is not
evident in behaviour until latter, when the condition for its appearance are favourable. Latent learning is
said to occur without reinforcement of particular responses and seems to involve changes in the way
information is processed.
Insight Learning: in a typical insight situation, a problem is posed, a period follows during which no
apparent progress is made, and then the solution comes suddenly. A learning curve of insight learning
would show no evidence of learning for a time; then suddenly, learning would be almost complete. What
has been learned can also be applied easily to other similar situations; in other words, there is a great deal
of generalization of insightful solutions to similar problems. Human beings who solve a problem
insightfully usually experience a good feeling called an “aha experience”. “Aha!” we say as we suddenly
see the answer to the problem.
Imitation: Another cognitive learning situation situation-one that is very important in human learning-
occurs when we imitate another individual, or model our behaviour on that of someone else. We might
formally define imitation as a response that is like the stimulus triggering the response; a person or animal
watches or hears another and or say something, then responds in the same way.
 4. MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Definition of Memory

Memory refers to the processes by which people and other organisms encode, store, and retrieve
information. Encoding refers to the initial perception and registration of information. Storage is the
retention of encoded information over time. Retrieval refers to the processes involved in using stored
information.

Memory and learning are closely related, and the terms often describe roughly the same processes. The
term learning is often used to refer to processes involved in the initial acquisition or encoding of
information, whereas the term memory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of information.
However, this distinction is not hard and fast. After all, information is learned only when it can be
retrieved later, and retrieval cannot occur unless information was learned. Thus, psychologists often refer
to the learning/memory process as a means of incorporating all facets of encoding, storage, and retrieval

MODELS OF MEMORY PROCESS

In the memory processes varies strategies have proposed to assist an individual in his attempt to recalling
or remember learned and stored contents in LTM the strategies are discussed as follows.
Memory process an overview of a stage model
Memory is more than a single process. Memory allows as acquiring, retaining and recalling information
and the corresponding processes are encoding, storage and retrieval.
Encoding:- the process of converting information in to a form that can be entered and stored in memory.
Storage: - the process whereby an encoded memory is held for future use. Retrieval: - the process
whereby a stored memory is brought in to consciousness.

Information processing model of memory: stage model- Memory is currently thought to have three
stages: very short, short and long. These stages vary- In type of information, Function, Duration and
Capacity.
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin(1968) proposed the information processing or “stage” model of
memory in the stage model information is retained in LTM only if it is processed through sensory
memory and STM.
Diagrammatic presentation of information processing model of memory

The above Atkinson and Schifrin model, latter modified in to three component model, as indicated below.
Rehearsal

Sensory Encoding Working Encoding

Registers (Short-term Long
Sensory Memory) Term
Input Attention Memor
y
Retrieval

This model proposes that memory has three components: (1) Sensory register, which detect and briefly
hold incoming sensory information; (2) Working memory, which process certain information received
from sensory registers and information received from long-term memory; and (3) Long-term memory,
which stores information for long period of time.

The model, however, doesn’t assume that each component corresponds to specific structure with in the
brain. Rather, the components may involve interrelated neural sites, and memory researchers use these
terms in a more abstract sense.
The summary table
Stage Sensory Short-term memory GTN Long-term memory
(working) (LTM)
Type of Sense data Information sensory or long- Encoded information
information term memory from working memory
(STM)
Function Register immediate Process input from sensory Store lasting memories
sensation 1 memory and retrieve long
term memory
Duration 0-2 seconds About 30 seconds Potentially life long

Sensory memory (Very short)

Sensory memory briefly holds the tremendous amount of information coming in from the senses –unless
one focus his attention on some part of that information, the memory disappears in about one second.
Short Term Memory-STM (short)
Short-term memory or working memory holds your current thought.
Short-term memory can contain input from two sources:
a) The contents sensory memory that you are paying attention may enter short-term memory.
b) Information recalled from long-term memory is processed in short-term memory.
STM- is the work place of the mind where sensory information and /or long-term memories can be
combined STM-holds the data used for conscious cognitive activities. STM- or the working memory is
the problem- solving area of the mind. This is where you remember, imagine or figure things out. Most of
the contents of working memory are lost after about 30 seconds, but some is converted to long-term
memories. The duration of the contents of STM can be protected from disappearing within 30 seconds.
This is possible by repeating them to one self over and over. Maintenance rehearsal is the conscious
repetition of the contents to STM is useful to increase the duration of contents in STM. The capacity of
STM can be increased by Chunking- chunking is a method of grouping letters or digits for easy
remembrance.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
LTM holds what we usually think of as our memories Encoded information from working memory
(STM) is stored have previously stored material can be retrieved from LTM in to working memory. Long-
Term memory is apparently limitless in capacity and duration. LTM is limited by encoding and retrieval.

Encoding;- is the process whereby information is put in to long-term memory. Simple repetition
(maintenance rehearsed) may help keep thing in STM, but it does not work especially well at getting
things in to LTM. It is more effective to repeat the information in some new meaningful way. This is
called elaborative rehearsal because you elaborate on the materials. Retrieval is the process of putting the
contents of LTM in to working memory. Retrieval often depends on retrieval cues, a hint or prompt that
triggers the memory.

Explicit Vs Implicit Memories

IMPLICIT MEMORIES are memories that guide or affect our behaviour without our conscious (or verbal)
involvement (also called non declarative memories or procedural memories).

Procedural memories tell as how to perform particular activities. Procedural memories usually do not
include where and when the procedure was learned. Also, we usually cannot easily describe the contents
of procedural memory in words. For that reason procedural memories are considered to be implicit
memories.

EXPLICIT MEMORIES are memories that can be consciously recalled and described (also known as
declarative memories). Declarative memories involve factual knowledge, and include two subcategories:
episodic and semantic memories.

Episodic memories refer to episodes or events in the past also called biographical details. It usually
includes what happened along with when and where it occurred.

Semantic memories are facts, figures, concepts and definitions. Facts are usually stored without
information about when and where they were learned. Semantic and episodic memories are considered to
be explicit memories.
FORGETTING
 Can you list at leas three reasons why you forget answers to test or exam question?
 The name of your classmates in the primary schools?
On the basis of empirical studies conducted on forgetting by psychologists five different explanations
have been given as the cause of forgetting. In the following pages we will see the approaches to the
problem of for getting briefly.
1. Decay
It is a common view that for getting is the process of fading with the passage of time. It is believed by
many people that forgetting is happened by time factor. According to this view, impressions created by
learning in the cortex fade away as the time passes. This widely held view is called the theory of disuse or
decay.
2. Interference
Psychologists have recognized that our memory is influenced by intervening activities. The interference
may be of two types.

B. Retroactive interference: occurres when a new memory interference with the recall of an
older one
C. Proactive interference: Occurs when an older memory interferes with the recall
(encoding) of newer one. In proactive interference, previous learning interferes the recall
of the present learning.
Forgetting, we experience in daily life is more due to proactive interferences. Our ability to recall what
we learn is reduced by the experiences we have learned previous.
3. Motivated Forgetting
Memories that would cause unhappiness or suffering if brought to mind are often forgotten. There may be
cases in which we would like to forget so making, such as a trauma, painful insult, threats to our like,
high way collision and other such experiences.
Freud was the first person who emphasized the influence of motives upon retention. He used the term
repression refers to unconscious, but motivated blocking of memories.
4. Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
We experience in our daily life that sometimes we want to recall name of or some piece of information.
We fail to recall that information at that time but when conditions were different, the name or information
comes back more or less spontaneously.
This phenomenon is called TOT (tip-of the tongue) - Tip- of-the-tongue shows how non-availability of
appropriate events hinders retention. According to this approach, forgetting is very often a temporary
rather than a permanent phenomenon. E.g, when events that were present at the time of learning are not
available at the time of recall and retention.

5. Abnormal or pathological Forgetting

So far we were discussing the normal kind of forgetting that is common with most people. Abnormal or
pathological forgetting is called Amnesia. Here recall is completely blocked. The cause for this abnormal
forgetting can be studied under two categories.

A. Exogenic Amnesia- Exogenic- means arising from external factors. A severe injury to the brain due to
accident on shock during war bombing might result in total loss of memory. It is neurological and need
medical attention. Head injuries give rise to immediate acute reactions. It disrupts circulatory system and
results in a momentary loss of consciousness.

B. Endogenic Amnesia- Endogenic- means arising from internal factors. “Endogenic” means arising
from causes within. In psychopathology Freud has stressed the role of the “unconscious” and the
phenomenon of “repression” causing memory-loss.

Improving Memory
The following are some of the conditions that could help individuals to utilize their memory power.
a) A non-threatening atmospheres free from cut throat competition helps remembering
b) Organization of the subject matter
c) Over learning ensures good remembrance than minimal or superficial learning.
d) Strong motivation, absorbing interest, proper assimilation must be cultivated.
e) Learning a subject for the love of it than for passing an examination yield, better result.
f) Utilize as many sensory modalities as possible to reinforce impressions.
g) Arrange better learning conditions
h) Sometimes forgetting is a blessing in disguise unwanted and unpleasant things need to be flushed
out.
i) Periodic revision and review would help remembrance than last minute preparation for
examination.
j) Better not to complain of poor memory.
Motivation and Emotion
Motivation
The Meaning and Concepts of Motivation
Behaviour is goal-oriented, purposive, meaningful and functional. A motivated organism will
engage in an activity more vigorously and more efficiently than the unmotivated one. In addition
to energizing the behavior of an organism, motivation directs a behavior towards a goal. For
instance, a person in pain would try to escape from the painful stimulus.

Motivation is the dynamics of behavior or a force that initiates, energizes, directs and sustains
activities of a person toward a goal. Just as a force moves an object, motivation moves energizes
a person. Motivation is a cycle of three stages: a motivating state within the organisms, behavior
aroused and directed by this state, and an intended goal toward which the behavior is directed.
When the goal is achieved, the state, which caused the behavior, subsides, ending a cycle until
the state is aroused in some way.
The first stage, this state has various names; needs and drives. Needs are specific states with the
organism which is based on some deficit and that may elicit behavior. They are inner
physiological or psychological deficits. Many motivated behaviors are thought of as beginning
with needs. Drives are internal states with the organism which pushes the organism into action
towards a particular goal. Needs causes a psychological state called a drive. Drives activate
responses designed to attain a goal that will satisfy the need. Incentives are also concept related
to motivation. They are external motivating stimulus such as money, praise, fame or attention.
Unlike drive, incentives pull a person toward a goal.
The second stage of the motivational cycle is the behavior that is activated by the motive. This
behavior is usually instrumental in reducing the motive. For example, hunger motivates and
individual to explore for food.
The third stage of the motivational cycle is the reduction or satisfaction of the motives. This is
ordinarily achieved by reaching some goal. In thirst, for example, lack of water in the body is a
need motivating the individual. This need arouses exploratory behavior to find water. The goal of
drinking water when it is found satisfy the thirst and terminates the motivational cycle until the
need for water builds up again.
Primarily, goals depend on the motive that is active. If an individual is motivated by sex drive,
his goal is sexual satisfaction. For the basic physiological motives, goals are relatively fixed and
unchangeable. If one is hungry, for instance, food is the only goal that will do. All motivation, of
course, does not have an immediate physiological basis, and many needs, especially complex
social needs can go unsatisfied without resulting in death.

Types of Motives:
Motivation can take a form either primary and secondary; or extrinsic and intrinsic.

A. Primary and Secondary Motives

Primary/Biological Motives:- They are motives based on physiological needs or tissue deficits
within the body. They are regulated within the organism by homeostasis, a basic motivational
phenomena underlying primary drives. Homeostasis the process by which the body maintain a
steady, stable condition of physiological processes like internal organs, the blood, the hormones, etc.
The most important primary motives are hunger, thirst, sex, pain avoidance, and needs for air,
warmth, sleep, and elimination of wastes.
Secondary/Social Motives: These are motives that are learned in the social environment. They
are rooted in physiological motives and emerge out of them gradually with advancing of age.
They are also called social motives because they are learned in social groups usually involving
other people. Some of the important social motives are social approval, affiliation, affection,
respect, status, prestige, money, achievement, power, etc. The most studied social motives are
the need for achievement, the need for affiliation and the need for power.

The Need for Achievement: is to do better, to improve performance, to accomplish tasks, to

rival and surpass others. Individuals with achievement need choose and perform better at
challenging tasks, prefer personal responsibilities, seek and utilizes feedback on performance
quality, innovates to improve.

The Need for Affiliation (relatedness): It is to seek and enjoy cooperation with others, to make
friends. It is a concern to establish, maintain, and repair friendly relations with important people
in our lives. It is characterized by making more local calls, visits, seeking approval, liking and
agreeing with people, etc.
The Need for power (power Motivation): It is the motive of a person to produce intended effects
on the behaviour or emotions of another person. The goals of power motivation are to influence,
control, persuade, and charm others to enhance one’s own reputation in the types of others.

B. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation (source)

These can also be considered as the sources of motivation. You may study law to get a good job
and salary; the other may enjoy learning law for its own sake as reading the course by itself gives
pleasure for him/her. Why this difference? Such motivation can be described in two broad
categories extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end, whereas

intrinsic motivation is motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation
is the desire to perform a task to gain external rewards, such as others’ approval, praise, grades or
money. For example, you might join your department because you find it interesting (intrinsic
motivation) or because it has better job opportunities and therefore, greater salary (extrinsic
motivation). In contrast, intrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a task for its own sake or
within a person.
Researchers indicated that we are more apt to persevere, work hard, and produce work of higher
quality when motivation for a task is intrinsic rather than extrinsic.
Theories of Motivation
The complexity of motivation has led to the development of a variety of conceptual approaches
to its understanding. Although they vary in the degree to which they focus on, all seek to explain
the energy that guides people’s behavior in particular directions.

A. Instinct theory: Born to Be Motivated

This theory assumes that motivation is the result of biological or genetic program. Instinct is complex,
inherited (unlearned) pattern of behaviour. It is a biologically determined characteristic of species.
Instinct is at work when birds build nests, spiders wave webs, etc.

B. Drive–Reduction Theory: Satisfying our Needs

This theory suggests that motivation is driven by internal biological needs, i.e. drives. Drive: is a
motivational tension that energizes behavior in order to fulfill some end, the restoration of
homeostasis. Drive motivates the individual to reduce the tension. For example, the thirst drive
motivates us drinking, and hunger for eating etc.
C. Arousal Theories: Beyond Drive–Reduction
Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain or increase excitement.
They suggest that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of arousal that is pleasurable.
If arousal is less than the optimal level, we do something to stimulate it; if arousal exceeds the
optimal level, we seek to reduce the stimulation. Emotional feelings are negative at both extremes
(lowest and highest) of arousal continuum, we generally feel better emotionally when our arousal
level is somewhere in the middle of the continuum. A number of things such as fear or anxiety,
exposure to a loud noise, driving a car, watching a violent movie, or taking such drugs as caffeine
can increase arousal.

D. Incentive Theory: Motivation’s pull: pull Theory

In this view, our motivation is influenced by external goals or stimuli which are known as
incentives. In a work day world, motivation seems to be more a matter of expected incentives
like wages, salaries, bonuses, and vacations, than of drives and their reduction. Incentives are
often associated with drives.
For example, your thirst drive motivates you to replenish your body’s water, but incentives
determine what you choose to drink. You could satisfy your thirst by drinking, say, water, coke,
mango juice or Ambo water. Your thirst would push you to drink, but your favourite flavour
would pull you toward a particular beverage.

E. Psychodynamic Theory
As part of S. Freud’s theory of personality, humans have only two basic drives: Eros and
Thanatos, or the Life and Death drives respectively. Freud believed that everything we think,
feel, and do has one of two goals: to help us survive (Life drive) or prevent our destruction
(Death drive). According to him, the Life instinct (Eros) and Death instinct (Thanatos)
unconsciously motivate our behavior.
F. Cognitive Theories: The thoughts behind Motivation
We are sometimes motivated to reduce cognitive than physiological drives. These theories
assume that our thoughts, expectations, and understanding about the world or ourselves influence
our motivation. For example, the degree to which we are motivated to study for a test will be
based jointly on our expectation of how well our studying will pay off (in terms of a good grade)
and the value we place on getting a good grade. If both expectation and value are high, we will
be motivated to study diligently; but if either one is low, our motivation to study will be
relatively lower.

G. Humanistic Theories of Motivation

According to this theory, humans are driven to achieve their maximum potential and will always
do so unless obstacles, such as hunger, thirst, lack of finance or safety, are placed in their ways. It
assumes that individual’s perceptions, responses to internal needs, interpersonal factors, and the
drive for “self-actualisation,” affect motivation. The best way to describe this theory is to use the
pyramid developed by Abraham Maslow called “Hierarchy of Needs”.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Ordering Motivational Needs

According to Abraham Maslow, our motivational needs are ordered in a hierarchy of needs
based on urgency. His theory can be conceptualized as a pyramid in which the more basic needs
are at the bottom and the higher – level needs are at the top. In order for a particular need to be
activated and there by guide a person’s behaviour, the more basic needs in the hierarchy must be
met first and then more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be satisfied.

Abraham Maslow said that each person has an innate “growth potential” that energises and
directs his/her own behaviour. The ultimate needs to Maslow are needs for self-actualization
(achievement of all your potentials) and transcendence (Spiritual fulfilment).

Figure 1. Maslow’s Self–actualization needs

Hierarchy of Needs
Self-esteem needs

Love and belongingness needs

 Safety and security needs

Physiological Needs

1. Self–Actualization Needs:- A state of self–fulfilment in which people realize their highest potential
in their own unique way. Self–actualization and fulfilment is enrichment, adaptive, flexibility, life
patterns, creatively, legacies and transcendence, recreation and leisure.
2. Esteem Needs:- In Maslow’s thinking, esteem relates to the need to develop a sense of self-worth
by knowing that others are aware of one’s competence and value. Ego-strength and self-esteem
includes effective coping, intelligence, maintaining autonomy and control, assertiveness, and
culture of cohorts.
3. Love and Belongingness Needs:- These are the needs to obtain and give affection and to be a
contributing member of some group or society, such as communication, relationships (intimates,
family, friends, groups, commonalities), and sexuality.
4. Safety Needs:- Maslow suggests that people need a secure environment in order to function
effectively. Safety includes sensory function, environmental safety, legal and economic protection.
5. Physiological Needs:- are the most basic needs (primary drives) such as needs for water, food,
sleep, sex, and the like. In order to move up the hierarchy, a person must have these basic
physiological needs met.
 5. Emotions
The Meaning and Concepts of Emotions
All of us have experienced the strong feelings that accompany both very pleasant and very
unpleasant experiences. Perhaps it was the thrill after getting a sought job, the joy of love, the
sorrow over someone’s death, or the anguish of inadvertently hurting someone.
Moreover, we experience such reactions on a less intense level throughout our daily lives: the
pleasure of a friendship, the enjoyment of a movie, or the embarrassment of breaking a borrowed
item. Emotion is a physical departure from homeostasis that is subjectively experienced in strong
feeling like love, hate, desire, or fear and manifests itself in neuromuscular respiratory,
cardiovascular, hormonal and other bodily changes preparatory to overt act which may or may
not be performed.

Though it is easy to recognize an emotion, it is difficult to provide a formal definition. However,

most psychologists have agreed that emotion consists of three components: Physiological
change, subjective cognitive state (mental state) and expressive behaviour.

Physiological change is internal bodily change accompanied by certain changes that you
experience. Subjective mental states are our beliefs or expectances towards certain things that we
feel and label as emotion. And, expressive behaviour refers to out-ward or overt manifestation of
behaviour, by using verbal or non-verbal channels.

Consider an angry man, his heart might pound (a sign of physiological arousal) and he might feel
enraged (an intense, unpleasant mental experience). Note here that feeling (enraged) is only one
component of emotions. And other components are physiological arousal and expressive
behaviour. Hence, in trying to study emotions, some psychologists prefer to study the biological
level (the physiology of emotion), others the mental level (the experience of emotion).

The physiology of Emotion

When you are feeling frustrated or anxious you say, “My nerves are on edge” when you are
overjoyed you say, “I am flying”. These are your expression what psychologists demonstrated
that strong emotions are associated with physiological arousal.
The Expression of Emotion
Since our emotional experiences are private, they cannot be directly observed by other people.
Instead, emotions are inferred from expressive behaviours and are called non-verbal expressions.
These include vocal qualities, body movements (body languages), and facial expressions.
When you speak, both your words and your voice convey emotion. The vocal features of speech,
other than the words themselves, are called prosody. Prosodic features include rate, pitch, and
loudness. Thus, the same statement can sound sincere or sarcastic, depending on its vocal qualities.

Body movements or gestures convey your positive and negative emotional states in dramatic ways.
A sad or depressed person does not move his hands when he speaks. A happy person, on the
contrary, shows a splendid body movement when talking and walking. In the same way, an angry
person makes or shows a violent body movement, and anxious person makes restless body
movements, which are disorganized.
Facial expressions are emotions that our faces give away. Look a person’s face to whom you are
speaking; he can direct his words more easily than his expression. Knowledge of the relationship
between facial expressions and emotion enable us to distinguish honest emotional expressions
from fake ones, e.g. the difference between sincere and false smiles.
The Experience of Emotion: Emotions as subjective states.
Emotion is not only a physiological arousal but also a subjective, internal or mental experience of
different kinds of feelings. Though we have hundreds of words for such emotional experiences,
there seems to be only few basic emotions, from which all other are derived. These basic emotions
are joy, fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, acceptance and anticipation. More complex
emotions (e.g. anxiety, worry, curiosity) arise from mixtures of these basic ones. Example, anxiety
is a combination fear and disgust. Curiosity is a combination of joy and surprise.
The experience of emotion in general varies both in its intensity and pleasantness. People who
tend to experience intensely pleasant emotions (such as elation) also tend to experience intensely
unpleasant emotions (such as despair). Happiness is the most important thing is life and each
person has his or her personal definition of happiness. But many people would agree that
happiness is an enduring, positive emotional state that includes satisfaction with one’s life as
well as active pleasures and accomplishments.
Theories/Dimensions of Emotions
Different theories have emerged to explain our emotional experiences. These differ in the
emphasis they place on physiology, behaviour, and cognition. And let us now discuss these
theories accordingly.
Biological Dimension
Biological theorists suggest that there are specific bodily reactions that cause us to experience a
particular emotion. One of dimension that focuses on the physiological component is arousal. It
states that the autonomic nervous system and its two subsystems called sympathetic and par
sympathetic arouses and calms the body respectively are involved in emotion.
The James–Lange Theory:
James-Lange theory states that environmental stimuli trigger a psychological state or emotions,
which in turn give rise to physiological responses.
Environmental influence Physiological change (arousal) Emotion
The Cannon–Bard Theory
The Cannon-Bard theory states that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. It
claims that the part of the brain called thalamus plays a key role in experiencing emotion. An
emotion is produced when an event or object is perceived by the thalamus. The processes
involved in emotional experience are firstly an emotion–arousing situation stimuli from the
senses are passed to thalamus. Then the thalamus simultaneously transmits the information to
two parts of the body: upwards to the cerebral cortex resulting emotion and downwards, by way
of the autonomic nervous system, to the body’s internal organs resulting in physiological arousal.
Arousal
Environmental stimuli
Emotion
Cognitive Dimension
Cognitive theorists assume that body and thought are involved in emotion. They hold that
understanding how people interpret events is one key to understanding on our subjective
interpretations in which we find ourselves.
The Schachter–Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory): it states that emotion is determined by two
main factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labelling. An event first causes physiological
arousal, then we finding reasons for this, and finally we experience emotion and label it.
Physiological arousal
Perceived Emotion
External stimuli Cognitive labelling

Behavioral Dimension
The most interest in behavioural component has focused on facial expression.
The Facial–feedback Theory: This theory states that facial expressions can influence emotions
as well as reflect them. In this view, facial muscles send signals to the brain, which help
individuals, recognize the emotion they are experiencing. A particular facial expression alters the
flow of blood to particular regions of the brain, thereby evoking particular emotional
experiences.
6. PERSONALITY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The Concepts, Definition, Types, and Structures of Personality

Think of yourself for a moment. What are you really like? Are you outgoing or shy? Aggressive
or calm? Considerate or uncaring? In compiling this list, you chose personality characteristics that
you probably feel are traits- enduring parts of your makeup as a person. Personality in general is a
psychological concept that represents who the person is. No matter how personality is viewed,
there are certain points to be considered in describing what it is.
First, there is an integration, organization or system in the behaviors of an individual. Second,
personality is an identity of individual. And perhaps, we find a consistent, unifying, and articulate
philosophy of life. According to All port Personality is defined as the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his/her thoughts, feelings and
behaviors, unique adjustment to the environment.
Theories of Personality
Trait theory and the Big-Five Model
Trait theorists seek to identify the basic predisposition that underlies our behavior (personality).
Traits are enduring dimensions of personality characteristics along which people differ. Studies
indicate that certain personality traits seldom relate with average social behavior across many
situations. Recently, the attention of personality study has focused on the “Big-Five” dimensions
of personality traits which are characterized by various behavioral patterns. The following table
describes the major features of personality.
The “Big Five” personality factors
Factors of personality Descriptions
Agreeableness Soft-hearted Vs suspicious, Helpful Vs uncooperative
Conscientiousness Careful Vs careless, Well-organized Vs disorganized
Emotional stability Calm Vs anxious, secure Vs insecure
 Extraversion Sociable Vs retiring, affectionate Vs reserved, Fun loving Vs sober
Openness Imaginative Vs practical, preference for variety Vs routine

Learning Approaches
A. Behavioral theories
Behaviorists explain personality in terms of reactions to external stimuli. According to
behaviorists, personality is patterns of learned behaviors through association, reinforcement, and
modeling. For brief explanation refer to learning theories in unit two.
B. Cognitive theories
Cognitive theorists explain behavior as guided by cognitions about the world, i.e. our thinking
style determines our personality.

C. Humanistic theories
Humanistic psychologists emphasized that people have free will and that they play an active role
in determining how they behave. They focus on subjective experiences of persons instead of
factors that determine behavior.
D. Psychoanalytic Theories
Theory of psychosexual (Sigmund Freud)
Psychoanalysis theories explain behavior in terms of interaction between the various components
of personality. In Freud’s view, behavior and personality are simply the results of the mental
functioning of an individual. According to him, much more of our mind is unconscious than
conscious and that held the key to understand personality. He said that each of our lives is filled
with tension and conflict; to reduce these we keep information locked in our unconscious mind
which later appear influencing our behavior when the unconscious forces them behind.

Freud’s Structures of Personality

Freud broke the human personality down to three components: the ID, EGO and SUPER EGO,
which he called as constructs of the mind. According to him, personality is shaped by the
interactions of these three components. The ego- “I”- sits at the center some pretty powerful
forces: reality; society as represented by the superego; biology, as represented by the id. When id
and superego make conflicting demands upon the poor ego, you feel threatened, overwhelmed,
feel as it were about to collapse under the weight of it all.
Id is the biological, primitive and animalistic part of human being that ensures our survival and
operates on pleasure principle.
Ego is the executive part of personality governed with the reality principle that creates a balance
between the impulsive id and perfect superego by seeking acceptable means of gratification in
dealing with the real world.
Superego is moral branch of personality that represents socially approved values, social
components of human beings: dos and don’ts of the family and society by operating on the
perfection principle (idealistic).

Ego Defense Mechanisms

In Freud’s view, there is a continuous inner war (intra psychic conflict) between the demands of
id and superego in which the ego control the conflicts through ego defense mechanisms. When
the ego fails to manage the ongoing inner fight, the result is anxiety. Thus ego protects itself
from anxiety with distorting reality. He identified different ego defense mechanisms some of
which include:

1. Repression:- The master defense mechanism; the ego pushes unacceptable impulses out of
awareness. Example, a young girl was sexually abused by her uncle. As an adult she can’t
remember anything about the traumatic experience.

2. Rationalization:- using fallacious and plausible reasons to make things justifiable. Example,
A college student does not get in to fraternity of his choice. He says that if he had tried harder he
could have gotten it.

3. Displacement:- The ego shifts feelings toward an unacceptable object to another, more
accessible object. Example, a woman can’t take her anger out on her boss so she goes home and
takes it out on her husband.

4. Sublimation:- The ego replaces an acceptable impulse with a socially acceptable one.
Example, A man with strong sexual urges becomes an artist who paints nudes.

5. Projection:- The ego attributes personal shortcomings, problems and faults to others. E.g., a
man who has strong desire to have an extra marital affair accuses his wife flirting with other men.
6. Reaction Formation:- The ego transforms an unacceptable motive in to its opposite. Example,
A woman who fears her sexual urges becomes a religious person.

7. Denial:- The ego refuses to acknowledge anxiety producing realities. Example, a man won’t
acknowledge that he has cancer even though a team of doctors has diagnosed his cancer.
8. Regression:- The ego seeks the security of an earlier developmental period in the face of
stress. E.g., a person returns home and every time he/she has a big argument with someone.
Theory of Psychosexual Development (S. Freud)
Freud claims that development is a change in personality because of psychosexual changes
through the process of learning to reduce tension and frustration imposed by the body. He
emphasized on the role of hidden, “unconscious” aspects of the mind and early childhood
experiences.
Freud believed that adulthood personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between
the early experiences of pleasure and the demands of reality. When the conflicts are not resolved,
a person is said to be fixated at a particular stage of development. Fixation refers to the defense
mechanism that occurs when a person remains locked in an earlier developmental stage, because
needs are under–or over gratified.
Freud’s posited five maturational stages of psychosexual development: oral stage, anal stage,
phallic stage, latency, and genital stage. At each stage; a person experiences pleasure in one
part of the body, known as erogenous zone.

Table 3: Freud’s stages of psychosexual development

Stage Approximate age Center of pleasure Sources of Pleasure
Oral birth-18 months Mouth Sucking, biting
Anal 18 mnths-3/4yrs Anus holding & letting faces
Phallic 3/4-7 yrs Genitalia touching or rubbing genitalia
Latency 6/7-12 years No specific area playing, language skill, social skills
Genital Puberty Genital sexuality outside a family member

The Oral stage: During this stage, the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through
gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning
process. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, and
smoking or nail biting habits.

The Anal stage: During this stage, the primary focus of the libido is anal region on controlling
bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to
learn to control his/her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment
and independence. Freud believed that positive experiences such as praise and rewards for toilet
training during this stage served as the basis for competent, productive and creative adults,
whereas, punishment, ridicule, or shame can result in negative outcomes

The phallic stage: During this stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. Children
discover the differences between male and female sexes. Freud believed that boys begin to view
their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex, for boys, describes
these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the
child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed
castration anxiety. The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls but he used a term penis envy. Eventually, the child realizes begins to
identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent.

The latent period: At this stage no specific region for pleasure and a child become more
concerned with play. The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still
present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual (language, arithmetic) pursuits and
social interactions.

The genital stage: During this stage, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex outside a family. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the
individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas.

Theory of Psychosocial Development (E. Erikson)

Erikson believed that ego is free of intra psychic conflicts rather conflicts arise between the
individual and the society. As a result, ego is susceptible in its development to psychosocial
rather than psychosexual. He assumes that individuals develop socio emotionally through
interactions and understanding of each other.
Hence, his theory emphasizes on the role of culture on shaping individuals behavior (personality)
which fits with their achievement oriented culture. Erikson believed that we progress through a
series of eight personality stages over human life span. Each stage represents positive and
negative aspects of developmental tasks (crisis) that necessitate resolution.
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

Stages Age Positive outcomes Negative outcomes

Trust vs. Mistrust Infancy-1st year Trust and confidence Dependence and suspicious
Autonomy vs. Shame Infancy-2nd year A sense of independence Uncertainty, embarrassment
and Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt 3-5 years Eager or ready to do activity Self blame
Industry vs. Inferiority 6 years-puberty Hard worker, turn energy to A sense of inadequacy,
activities incompetent
Identity vs. Confusion 10-20 years Confidence and sure about Insecure about new roles
themselves and their lives and adult statuses
Intimacy vs. Isolation 20s and 30s Good interpersonal relations Loneliness, social exclusion
(friendship) with partners or withdrawal
Generativity vs. 40s and 50s Productive and useful for a Unproductive, worthless or
Stagnation society no function for a generation
Integrity vs. Despair 60s & above A sense of satisfaction and A sense of misery or
success about past lives sadness about past lives