Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.[1][2] Its subject matter includes the
behavior of humans and nonhumans, both conscious and unconscious phenomena, and
mental processes such as thoughts, feelings, and motives. Psychology is an academic
discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social
sciences. Biological psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of
brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As social scientists, psychologists aim to
understand the behavior of individuals and groups.[3][4]

A professional practitioner or researcher involved in the discipline is called a psychologist.

Some psychologists can also be classified as behavioral or cognitive scientists. Some
psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social
behavior. Others explore the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie
cognitive functions and behaviors.

Psychologists are involved in research on perception, cognition, attention, emotion,

intelligence, subjective experiences, motivation, brain functioning, and personality.
Psychologists' interests extend to interpersonal relationships, psychological resilience,
family resilience, and other areas within social psychology. They also consider the
unconscious mind.[5] Research psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and
correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Some, but not all, clinical and
counseling psychologists rely on symbolic interpretation.

While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental
health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several
spheres of human activity. By many accounts, psychology ultimately aims to benefit
society.[6][7][8] Many psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing
psychotherapy in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Other psychologists conduct
scientific research on a ide range of topics related to mental processes and beha ior
Typically the latter group of psychologists work in academic settings (e.g., universities,
medical schools, or hospitals). Another group of psychologists is employed in industrial and
organizational settings.[9] Yet others are involved in work on human development, aging,
sports, health, forensic science, education, and the media.

Etymology and definitions

The word psychology derives from the Greek word psyche, for spirit or soul. The latter part of
the word psychology derives from -λογία -logia, which means "study" or "research".[10] The
word psychology was first used in the Renaissance.[11] In its Latin form psychiologia, it was
first employed by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book Psichiologia
de ratione animae humanae (Psychology, on the Nature of the Human Soul) in the decade
1510-1520[11][12] The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by
Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary. The dictionary refers to "Anatomy, which
treats the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."[13]

Ψ (psi), the first letter of the Greek word psyche from which the term psychology is derived,
is commonly associated with the field of psychology.

In 1890, William James defined psychology as "the science of mental life, both of its
phenomena and their conditions."[14] This definition enjoyed widespread currency for
decades. However, this meaning was contested, notably by radical behaviorists such as
John B. Watson, who in 1913 asserted that the discipline is a natural science, the theoretical
goal of which "is the prediction and control of behavior."[15] Since James defined
"psychology", the term more strongly implicates scientific experimentation.[16][15] Folk
psychology is the understanding of the mental states and behaviors of people held by
ordinary people, as contrasted with psychology professionals' understanding.[17]

History
The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia all engaged in the
philosophical study of psychology. In Ancient Egypt the Ebers Papyrus mentioned
depression and thought disorders.[18] Historians note that Greek philosophers, including
Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise),[19] addressed the workings
[20]
that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes.[21] In 387 BCE, Plato
suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place, and in 335 BCE Aristotle
suggested that it was the heart.[22]

In China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and
Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism.[23] This body of knowledge involves
insights drawn from introspection and observation, as well as techniques for focused
thinking and acting. It frames the universe in term of a division of physical reality and mental
reality as well as the interaction between the physical and the mental. Chinese philosophy
also emphasized purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. An ancient text
known as The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine identifies the brain as the nexus
of wisdom and sensation, includes theories of personality based on yin–yang balance, and
analyzes mental disorder in terms of physiological and social disequilibria. Chinese
scholarship that focused on the brain advanced during the Qing dynasty with the work of
Western-educated Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), Liu Zhi (1660–1730), and Wang Qingren (1768–
1831). Wang Qingren emphasized the importance of the brain as the center of the nervous
system, linked mental disorder with brain diseases, investigated the causes of dreams and
insomnia, and advanced a theory of hemispheric lateralization in brain function.[24]

Influenced by Hinduism, Indian philosophy explored distinctions in types of awareness. A

central idea of the Upanishads and other Vedic texts that formed the foundations of
Hinduism was the distinction between a person's transient mundane self and their eternal,
unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines and Buddhism have challenged this hierarchy of
selves, but have all emphasized the importance of reaching higher awareness. Yoga
encompasses a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal. Theosophy, a religion
established by Russian-American philosopher Helena Blavatsky, drew inspiration from these
doctrines during her time in British India.[25][26]

Psychology was of interest to Enlightenment thinkers in Europe. In Germany, Gottfried

Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) applied his principles of calculus to the mind, arguing that
mental activity took place on an indivisible continuum. He suggested that the difference
between conscious and unconscious awareness is only a matter of degree. Christian Wolff
identified psychology as its own science, writing Psychologia Empirica in 1732 and
Psychologia Rationalis in 1734. Immanuel Kant advanced the idea of anthropology as a
discipline, with psychology an important subdivision. Kant, however, explicitly rejected the
idea of an experimental psychology, writing that "the empirical doctrine of the soul can also
never approach chemistry even as a systematic art of analysis or experimental doctrine, for
in it the manifold of inner observation can be separated only by mere division in thought, and
cannot then be held separate and recombined at will (but still less does another thinking
subject suffer himself to be experimented upon to suit our purpose), and even observation
by itself already changes and displaces the state of the observed object."

In 1783, Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752–1812) designated himself Professor of Empirical

Psychology and Logic and gave lectures on scientific psychology, though these
developments were soon overshadowed by the Napoleonic Wars.[27] At the end of the
Napoleonic era, Prussian authorities discontinued the Old University of Münster.[27] Having
consulted philosophers Hegel and Herbart, however, in 1825 the Prussian state established
psychology as a mandatory discipline in its rapidly expanding and highly influential
educational system. However, this discipline did not yet embrace experimentation.[28] In
England, early psychology involved phrenology and the response to social problems
including alcoholism, violence, and the country's crowded "lunatic" asylums.[29]

Beginning of experimental
psychology

James McKeen Cattell, the first

psychologist in the United States
 Wilhelm Wundt (seated), a German
psychologist, with colleagues in his
psychological laboratory, the first of
its kind, c. 1880

One of the dogs used in Russian

psychologist Ivan Pavlov's experiment
with a surgically implanted cannula to
measure saliva, preserved in the
Pavlov Museum in Ryazan, Russia

Philosopher John Stuart Mill believed that the human mind was open to scientific
investigation, even if the science is in some ways inexact.[30] Mill proposed a "mental
chemistry" in which elementary thoughts could combine into ideas of greater complexity.[30]
Gustav Fechner began conducting psychophysics research in Leipzig in the 1830s. He
articulated the principle that human perception of a stimulus varies logarithmically
according to its intensity.[31]: 61 The principle became known as the Weber–Fechner law.
Fechner's 1860 Elements of Psychophysics challenged Kant's negative view with regard to
conducting quantitative research on the mind.[32][28] Fechner's achievement was to show
that "mental processes could not only be given numerical magnitudes, but also that these
could be measured by experimental methods."[28] In Heidelberg, Hermann von Helmholtz
conducted parallel research on sensory perception, and trained physiologist Wilhelm Wundt.
Wundt, in turn, came to Leipzig University, where he established the psychological laboratory
that brought experimental psychology to the world. Wundt focused on breaking down
mental processes into the most basic components, motivated in part by an analogy to
recent advances in chemistry, and its successful investigation of the elements and structure
of materials.[33] Paul Flechsig and Emil Kraepelin soon created another influential laboratory
at Leipzig, a psychology-related lab, that focused more on experimental psychiatry.[28]
James McKeen Cattell, a professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania and
Columbia University and the co-founder of Psychological Review, was the first professor of
psychology in the United States.

The German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a researcher at the University of Berlin, was
a 19th-century contributor to the field. He pioneered the experimental study of memory and
developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting.[34] In the early 20th century,
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt
psychology of Fritz Perls. The approach of Gestalt psychology is based upon the idea that
individuals experience things as unified wholes. Rather than reducing thoughts and behavior
into smaller component elements, as in structuralism, the Gestaltists maintained that whole
of experience is important, and differs from the sum of its parts.

Psychologists in Germany, Denmark, Austria, England, and the United States soon followed
Wundt in setting up laboratories.[35] G. Stanley Hall, an American who studied with Wundt,
founded a psychology lab that became internationally influential. The lab was located at
Johns Hopkins University. Hall, in turn, trained Yujiro Motora, who brought experimental
psychology, emphasizing psychophysics, to the Imperial University of Tokyo.[36] Wundt's
assistant, Hugo Münsterberg, taught psychology at Harvard to students such as Narendra
Nath Sen Gupta—who, in 1905, founded a psychology department and laboratory at the
University of Calcutta.[25] Wundt's students Walter Dill Scott, Lightner Witmer, and James
McKeen Cattell worked on developing tests of mental ability. Cattell, who also studied with
eugenicist Francis Galton, went on to found the Psychological Corporation. Witmer focused
on the mental testing of children; Scott, on employee selection.[31]: 60

Another student of Wundt, the Englishman Edward Titchener, created the psychology
program at Cornell University and advanced "structuralist" psychology. The idea behind
structuralism was to analyze and classify different aspects of the mind, primarily through
the method of introspection.[37] William James, John Dewey, and Harvey Carr advanced the
idea of functionalism, an expansive approach to psychology that underlined the Darwinian
idea of a behavior's usefulness to the individual. In 1890, James wrote an influential book,
The Principles of Psychology, which expanded on the structuralism. He memorably
described "stream of consciousness." James's ideas interested many American students in
the emerging discipline.[37][14][31]: 178–82 Dewey integrated psychology with societal concerns,
most notably by promoting progressive education, inculcating moral values in children, and
assimilating immigrants.[31]: 196–200

A different strain of experimentalism, with a greater connection to physiology, emerged in

South America, under the leadership of Horacio G. Piñero at the University of Buenos
Aires.[38] In Russia, too, researchers placed greater emphasis on the biological basis for
psychology, beginning with Ivan Sechenov's 1873 essay, "Who Is to Develop Psychology and
How?" Sechenov advanced the idea of brain reflexes and aggressively promoted a
deterministic view of human behavior.[39] The Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov
discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and
applied the process to human beings.[40]

Consolidation and funding

One of the earliest psychology societies was La Société de Psychologie Physiologique in
France, which lasted from 1885 to 1893. The first meeting of the International Congress of
Psychology sponsored by the International Union of Psychological Science took place in
Paris, in August 1889, amidst the World's Fair celebrating the centennial of the French
Revolution. William James was one of three Americans among the 400 attendees. The
American Psychological Association (APA) was founded soon after, in 1892. The
International Congress continued to be held at different locations in Europe and with wide
international participation. The Sixth Congress, held in Geneva in 1909, included
presentations in Russian, Chinese, and Japanese, as well as Esperanto. After a hiatus for
World War I, the Seventh Congress met in Oxford, with substantially greater participation
from the war-victorious Anglo-Americans. In 1929, the Congress took place at Yale
University in New Haven, Connecticut, attended by hundreds of members of the APA.[35]
Tokyo Imperial University led the way in bringing new psychology to the East. New ideas
about psychology diffused from Japan into China.[24][36]

American psychology gained status upon the U.S.'s entry into World War I. A standing
committee headed by Robert Yerkes administered mental tests ("Army Alpha" and "Army
Beta") to almost 1.8 million soldiers.[41] Subsequently, the Rockefeller family, via the Social
Science Research Council, began to provide funding for behavioral research.[42][43]
Rockefeller charities funded the National Committee on Mental Hygiene, which
disseminated the concept of mental illness and lobbied for applying ideas from psychology
to child rearing.[41][44] Through the Bureau of Social Hygiene and later funding of Alfred
Kinsey, Rockefeller foundations helped establish research on sexuality in the U.S.[45] Under
the influence of the Carnegie-funded Eugenics Record Office, the Draper-funded Pioneer
Fund, and other institutions, the eugenics movement also influenced American psychology.
In the 1910s and 1920s, eugenics became a standard topic in psychology classes.[46] In
contrast to the US, in the UK psychology was met with antagonism by the scientific and
medical establishments, and up until 1939, there were only six psychology chairs in
universities in England.[47]

During World War II and the Cold War, the U.S. military and intelligence agencies established
themselves as leading funders of psychology by way of the armed forces and in the new
Office of Strategic Services intelligence agency. University of Michigan psychologist Dorwin
Cartwright reported that university researchers began large-scale propaganda research in
1939–1941. He observed that "the last few months of the war saw a social psychologist
become chiefly responsible for determining the week-by-week-propaganda policy for the
United States Government." Cartwright also wrote that psychologists had significant roles in
managing the domestic economy.[48] The Army rolled out its new General Classification Test
to assess the ability of millions of soldiers. The Army also engaged in large-scale
psychological research of troop morale and mental health.[49] In the 1950s, the Rockefeller
Foundation and Ford Foundation collaborated with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to
fund research on psychological warfare.[50] In 1965, public controversy called attention to
the Army's Project Camelot, the "Manhattan Project" of social science, an effort which
enlisted psychologists and anthropologists to analyze the plans and policies of foreign
countries for strategic purposes.[51][52]

In Germany after World War I, psychology held institutional power through the military, which
was subsequently expanded along with the rest of the military during Nazi Germany.[28]
Under the direction of Hermann Göring's cousin Matthias Göring, the Berlin Psychoanalytic
Institute was renamed the Göring Institute. Freudian psychoanalysts were expelled and
persecuted under the anti-Jewish policies of the Nazi Party, and all psychologists had to
distance themselves from Freud and Adler, founders of psychoanalysis who were also
Jewish.[53] The Göring Institute was well-financed throughout the war with a mandate to
create a "New German Psychotherapy." This psychotherapy aimed to align suitable Germans
with the overall goals of the Reich. As described by one physician, "Despite the importance
of analysis, spiritual guidance and the active cooperation of the patient represent the best
way to overcome individual mental problems and to subordinate them to the requirements
of the Volk and the Gemeinschaft." Psychologists were to provide Seelenführung [lit., soul
guidance], the leadership of the mind, to integrate people into the new vision of a German
community.[54] Harald Schultz-Hencke melded psychology with the Nazi theory of biology
and racial origins, criticizing psychoanalysis as a study of the weak and deformed.[55]
Johannes Heinrich Schultz, a German psychologist recognized for developing the technique
of autogenic training, prominently advocated sterilization and euthanasia of men considered
genetically undesirable, and devised techniques for facilitating this process.[56]

After the war, new institutions were created although some psychologists, because of their
Nazi affiliation, were discredited. Alexander Mitscherlich founded a prominent applied
psychoanalysis journal called Psyche. With funding from the Rockefeller Foundation,
Mitscherlich established the first clinical psychosomatic medicine division at Heidelberg
University. In 1970, psychology was integrated into the required studies of medical
students.[57]

After the Russian Revolution, the Bolsheviks promoted psychology as a way to engineer the
"New Man" of socialism. Consequently, university psychology departments trained large
numbers of students in psychology. At the completion of training, positions were made
available for those students at schools, workplaces, cultural institutions, and in the military.
The Russian state emphasized pedology and the study of child development. Lev Vygotsky
became prominent in the field of child development.[39] The Bolsheviks also promoted free
love and embraced the doctrine of psychoanalysis as an antidote to sexual
repression.[58]: 84–6 [59] Although pedology and intelligence testing fell out of favor in 1936,
psychology maintained its privileged position as an instrument of the Soviet Union.[39]
Stalinist purges took a heavy toll and instilled a climate of fear in the profession, as
elsewhere in Soviet society.[58]: 22 Following World War II, Jewish psychologists past and
present, including Lev Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, and Aron Zalkind, were denounced; Ivan Pavlov
(posthumously) and Stalin himself were celebrated as heroes of Soviet
psychology.[58]: 25–6, 48–9 Soviet academics experienced a degree of liberalization during the
Khrushchev Thaw. The topics of cybernetics, linguistics, and genetics became acceptable
again. The new field of engineering psychology emerged. The field involved the study of the
mental aspects of complex jobs (such as pilot and cosmonaut). Interdisciplinary studies
became popular and scholars such as Georgy Shchedrovitsky developed systems theory
approaches to human behavior.[58]: 27–33

Twentieth-century Chinese psychology originally modeled itself on U.S. psychology, with

translations from American authors like William James, the establishment of university
psychology departments and journals, and the establishment of groups including the
Chinese Association of Psychological Testing (1930) and the Chinese Psychological Society
(1937). Chinese psychologists were encouraged to focus on education and language
learning. Chinese psychologists were drawn to the idea that education would enable
modernization. John Dewey, who lectured to Chinese audiences between 1919 and 1921,
had a significant influence on psychology in China. Chancellor T'sai Yuan-p'ei introduced him
at Peking University as a greater thinker than Confucius. Kuo Zing-yang who received a PhD
at the University of California, Berkeley, became President of Zhejiang University and
popularized behaviorism.[60]: 5–9 After the Chinese Communist Party gained control of the
country, the Stalinist Soviet Union became the major influence, with Marxism–Leninism the
leading social doctrine and Pavlovian conditioning the approved means of behavior change.
Chinese psychologists elaborated on Lenin's model of a "reflective" consciousness,
i i i " i i "( i i h h li) bl d
material conditions through hard work and ideological struggle. They developed a concept
of "recognition" (pinyin: jen-shih) which referred to the interface between individual
perceptions and the socially accepted worldview; failure to correspond with party doctrine
was "incorrect recognition."[60]: 9–17 Psychology education was centralized under the Chinese
Academy of Sciences, supervised by the State Council. In 1951, the academy created a
Psychology Research Office, which in 1956 became the Institute of Psychology. Because
most leading psychologists were educated in the United States, the first concern of the
academy was the re-education of these psychologists in the Soviet doctrines. Child
psychology and pedagogy for the purpose of a nationally cohesive education remained a
central goal of the discipline.[60]: 18–24

Women in psychology

1900 - 1949
Women in the early 1900s started to make key findings within the world of psychology. In
1923, Anna Freud,[61] the daughter of Sigmund Freud, built on her father's work using
different defense mechanisms (denial, repression, and suppression) to psychoanalyze
children. She believed that once a child reached the latency period, child analysis could be
used as a mode of therapy. She stated it is important focus on the child's environment,
support their development, and prevent neurosis. She believed a child should be recognized
as their own person with their own right and have each session catered to the child's
specific needs. She encouraged drawing, moving freely, and expressing themselves in any
way. This helped build a strong therapeutic alliance with child patients, which allows
psychologists to observe their normal behavior. She continued her research on the impact of
children after family separation, children with socio-economically disadvantaged
backgrounds, and all stages of child development from infancy to adolescence.

Functional periodicity, the belief women are mentally and physically impaired during
menstruation, impacted women's rights because employers were less likely to hire them due
to the belief they would be incapable of working for 1 week a month. Leta Stetter
Hollingworth wanted to prove this hypothesis and Edward L. Thorndike's theory, that women
have lesser psychological and physical traits than men and were simply mediocre, incorrect.
Hollingworth worked to prove differences were not from male genetic superiority but from
culture. She also included the concept of women's impairment during menstruation in her
research. She recorded both women and men performances on tasks (cognitive, perceptual,
and motor) for three months. No evidence was found of decreased performance due to a
woman's menstrual cycle.[62] She also challenged the belief intelligence is inherited and
women here are intellectually inferior to men. She stated that women do not reach positions
of power due to the societal norms and roles they are assigned. As she states in her article,
"Variability as related to sex differences in achievement: A Critique",[63] the largest problem
women have is the social order that was built due to the assumption women have less
interests and abilities than men. To further prove her point, she completed another
experiment with infants who have not been influenced by the environment of social norms,
like the adult male getting more opportunities than women. She found no difference
between infants besides size. After this research proved the original hypothesis wrong,
Hollingworth was able to show there is no difference between the physiological and
psychological traits of men and women, and women are not impaired during
menstruation.[64]

The first half of the 1900s was filled with new theories and it was a turning point for
women's recognition within the field of psychology. In addition to the contributions made by
Leta Stetter Hollingworth and Anna Freud, Mary Whiton Calkins invented the paired
associates technique of studying memory and developed self-psychology.[65] Karen Horney
developed the concept of "womb envy" and neurotic needs.[66] Psychoanalyst Melanie Klein
impacted developmental psychology with her research of play therapy.[67] These great
discoveries and contributions were made during struggles of sexism, discrimination, and
little recognition for their work.

1950 - 1999
Women in the second half of the 20th century continued to do research that had large-scale
impacts on the field of psychology. Mary Ainsworth's work centered around attachment
theory. Building off fellow psychologist John Bowlby, Ainsworth spent years doing fieldwork
to understand the development of mother-infant relationships. In doing this field research,
Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation Procedure, a laboratory procedure meant to
study attachment style by separating and uniting a child with their mother several different
times under different circumstances. These field studies are also where she developed her
attachment theory and the order of attachment styles, which was a landmark for
developmental psychology.[68][69] Because of her work, Ainsworth became one of the most
cited psychologists of all time.[70] Mamie Phipps Clark was another woman in psychology
that changed the field with her research. She was one of the first African-Americans to
receive a doctoral degree in psychology from Columbia University, along with her husband,
Kenneth Clark. Her master's thesis, "The Development of Consciousness in Negro Pre-
School Children," argued that black children's self-esteem was negatively impacted by racial
discrimination. She and her husband conduced research building off her thesis throughout
the 1940s. These tests, called the doll tests, asked young children to choose between
identical dolls whose only difference was race, and they found that the majority of the
children preferred the white dolls and attributed positive traits to them. Repeated over and
over again, these tests helped to determine the negative effects of racial discrimination and
segregation on black children's self-image and development. In 1954, this research would
help decide the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, leading to the end of legal
segregation across the nation. Clark went on to be an influential figure in psychology, her
work continuing to focus on minority youth.[71]

As the field of psychology developed throughout the latter half of the 20th century, women in
the field advocated for their voices to be heard and their perspectives to be valued. Second-
wave feminism did not miss psychology. An outspoken feminist in psychology was Naomi
Weisstein, who was an accomplished researcher in psychology and neuroscience, and is
perhaps best known for her paper, "Kirche, Kuche, Kinder as Scientific Law: Psychology
Constructs the Female." Psychology Constructs the Female criticized the field of psychology
for centering men and using biology too much to explain gender differences without taking
into account social factors.[72] Her work set the stage for further research to be done in
social psychology, especially in gender construction.[73] Other women in the field also
continued advocating for women in psychology, creating the Association for Women in
Psychology to criticize how the field treated women. E. Kitsch Child, Phyllis Chesler, and
Dorothy Riddle were some of the founding members of the organization in 1969.[74][75]

The latter half of the 20th century further diversified the field of psychology, with women of
color reaching new milestones. In 1962, Martha Bernal became the first Latina woman to
get a Ph.D. in psychology. In 1969, Marigold Linton, the first Native American woman to get a
Ph.D. in psychology, founded the National Indian Education Association. She was also a
founding member of the Society for Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in
Science. In 1971, The Network of Indian Psychologists was established by Carolyn Attneave.
Harriet McAdoo was appointed to the White House Conference on Families in 1979.[76]

2000 - Current
Babette Rothschild, a clinical social worker, invented Somatic Trauma Therapy. Somatic
Trauma Therapy utilizes the body to experience, process, and heal from traumatic
i T dh h i h lb k h i b i
The Body Remembers: The Psychophysiology of Trauma, Trauma, and Trauma Treatment[77],
which was published in 2000.[78]

Dr. Tara Brach has written several bestselling books that combine Western and Eastern
psychology. She founded the Insight Meditation Community of Washington in 1998 and co-
founded two teaching programs, Banyan, and the Mindfulness Mediation Teacher Training
Program. The latter has served people from 74 different countries.[79]

Dr. Kay Redfield Jamison, named one of Time Magazine's "Best Doctors in the United States"
is a lecturer, psychologist, and writer. She is known for her vast modern contributions to
bipolar disorder and her books An Unquiet Mind[80] (Published 1995) and Nothing Was the
Same[81] (Published in 2009). Having Bipolar Disorder herself, she has written several
memoirs about her experience with suicidal thoughts, manic behaviors, depression, and
other issues that arise from being Bipolar.[78]

Dr. Angela Neal-Barnett views psychology through a Black lens and dedicated her career to
focusing on the anxiety of African American women. She founded the organization Rise
Sally Rise which helps Black women cope with anxiety. She published her work Soothe Your
Nerves: The Black Woman's Guide to Understanding and Overcoming Anxiety, Panic and
Fear[82] in 2003.[78]

In 2003 Kristin Neff founded the Self Compassion Scale, a tool for therapists to use to
measure their compassion for themselves. In addition to this, she has written several books
the most relevant being Self Compassion: The Proven Power to Being Kind to Yourself[83]
(Published in 2011) and Fierce Self-Compassion: How Women Can Harness Kindness to
Speak Up, Claim Their Power and Thrive[84] (Published in 2021).[78]

In 2002 Dr. Teresa LaFromboise, former president of the Society of Indian Psychologists,
received the APA's Distinguished Career Contribution to Research Award from the Society
for the Psychological Study of Culture Ethnicity, and Race for her research on suicide
prevention. She was the first person to lead an intervention for Native American children and
adolescents that utilized evidence-based suicide prevention. She has spent her career
dedicated to aiding racial and ethnic minority youth cope with cultural adjustment and
pressures.[85]

Dr. Shari Miles-Cohen, a psychologist and political activist has applied a black, feminist, and
class lens to all her psychological studies. Aiding progressive and women's issues, she has
been the executive director for many NGOs. In 2007 she became the Senior Director of the
Women's Programs Office of the American Psychological Association. Therefore, she was
one of the creators of the APA's "Women in Psychology Timeline" which features the
accomplishments of women of color in psychology. She is well known for co-editing
Eliminating Inequities for Women with Disabilities: An Agenda for Health and Wellness[86]
(published in 2016), her article published in the Women's Reproductive Health Journal about
women of color's struggle with pregnancy and postpartum (Published in 2018), and co-
authoring the award-winning "APA Handbook of the Psychology of Women" (published in
2019).[87]

Disciplinary organizations

Institutions
In 1920, Édouard Claparède and Pierre Bovet created a new applied psychology organization
called the International Congress of Psychotechnics Applied to Vocational Guidance, later
called the International Congress of Psychotechnics and then the International Association
of Applied Psychology.[35] The IAAP is considered the oldest international psychology
association.[88] Today, at least 65 international groups deal with specialized aspects of
psychology.[88] In response to male predominance in the field, female psychologists in the
U.S. formed the National Council of Women Psychologists in 1941. This organization
became the International Council of Women Psychologists after World War II and the
International Council of Psychologists in 1959. Several associations including the
Association of Black Psychologists and the Asian American Psychological Association have
arisen to promote the inclusion of non-European racial groups in the profession.[88]

The International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS) is the world federation of

national psychological societies. The IUPsyS was founded in 1951 under the auspices of the
United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO).[35][89]
Psychology departments have since proliferated around the world, based primarily on the
Euro-American model.[25][89] Since 1966, the Union has published the International Journal of
Psychology.[35] IAAP and IUPsyS agreed in 1976 each to hold a congress every four years, on
a staggered basis.[88]

IUPsyS recognizes 66 national psychology associations and at least 15 others exist.[88] The
American Psychological Association is the oldest and largest.[88] Its membership has
increased from 5,000 in 1945 to 100,000 in the present day.[37] The APA includes 54
divisions, which since 1960 have steadily proliferated to include more specialties. Some of
these divisions, such as the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues and the
American Psychology–Law Society, began as autonomous groups.[88]

The Interamerican Psychological Society, founded in 1951, aspires to promote psychology

across the Western Hemisphere. It holds the Interamerican Congress of Psychology and had
1,000 members in year 2000. The European Federation of Professional Psychology
Associations, founded in 1981, represents 30 national associations with a total of 100,000
individual members. At least 30 other international organizations represent psychologists in
different regions.[88]

In some places, governments legally regulate who can provide psychological services or
represent themselves as a "psychologist."[90] The APA defines a psychologist as someone
with a doctoral degree in psychology.[91]

Boundaries
Early practitioners of experimental psychology distinguished themselves from
parapsychology, which in the late nineteenth century enjoyed popularity (including the
interest of scholars such as William James). Some people considered parapsychology to be
part of "psychology." Parapsychology, hypnotism, and psychism were major topics at the
early International Congresses. But students of these fields were eventually ostracized, and
more or less banished from the Congress in 1900–1905.[35] Parapsychology persisted for a
time at Imperial University in Japan, with publications such as Clairvoyance and
Thoughtography by Tomokichi Fukurai, but it was mostly shunned by 1913.[36]

As a discipline, psychology has long sought to fend off accusations that it is a "soft"
science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall
was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking agreement on the type of overarching theory found in
mature hard sciences such as chemistry and physics.[92] Because some areas of
psychology rely on research methods such as self-reports in surveys and questionnaires,
critics asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Skeptics have suggested that
personality, thinking, and emotion cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from
subjective self-reports, which may be problematic. Experimental psychologists have devised
a variety of ways to indirectly measure these elusive phenomenological entities.[93][94][95]

Divisions still exist within the field, with some psychologists more oriented towards the
unique experiences of individual humans which cannot be understood only as data points
within a larger population. Critics inside and outside the field have argued that mainstream
psychology has become increasingly dominated by a "cult of empiricism", which limits the
scope of research because investigators restrict themselves to methods derived from the
physical sciences.[96]: 36–7 Feminist critiques have argued that claims to scientific objectivity
obscure the values and agenda of (historically) mostly male researchers.[41] Jean Grimshaw,
for example, argues that mainstream psychological research has advanced a patriarchal
agenda through its efforts to control behavior.[96]: 120

Major schools of thought

Biological

False-color representations of
cerebral fiber pathways affected, per
Van Horn et al.[V]: 3

Psychologists generally consider biology the substrate of thought and feeling, and therefore
an important area of study. Behaviorial neuroscience, also known as biological psychology,
involves the application of biological principles to the study of physiological and genetic
mechanisms underlying behavior in humans and other animals. The allied field of
comparative psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-
human animals.[97] A leading question in behavioral neuroscience has been whether and
how mental functions are localized in the brain. From Phineas Gage to H.M. and Clive
Wearing, individual people with mental deficits traceable to physical brain damage have
inspired new discoveries in this area.[98] Modern behavioral neuroscience could be said to
originate in the 1870s, when in France Paul Broca traced production of speech to the left
frontal gyrus, thereby also demonstrating hemispheric lateralization of brain function. Soon
after, Carl Wernicke identified a related area necessary for the understanding of
[99] 20 2
The contemporary field of behavioral neuroscience focuses on the physical basis of
behavior. Behaviorial neuroscientists use animal models, often relying on rats, to study the
neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie behaviors involved in learning,
memory, and fear responses.[100] Cognitive neuroscientists, by using neural imaging tools,
investigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in humans. Neuropsychologists
conduct psychological assessments to determine how an individual's behavior and
cognition are related to the brain. The biopsychosocial model is a cross-disciplinary, holistic
model that concerns the ways in which interrelationships of biological, psychological, and
socio-environmental factors affect health and behavior.[101]

Evolutionary psychology approaches thought and behavior from a modern evolutionary

perspective. This perspective suggests that psychological adaptations evolved to solve
recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. Evolutionary psychologists attempt to
find out how human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, the results of natural
selection or sexual selection over the course of human evolution.[102]

The history of the biological foundations of psychology includes evidence of racism. The
idea of white supremacy and indeed the modern concept of race itself arose during the
process of world conquest by Europeans.[103] Carl von Linnaeus's four-fold classification of
humans classifies Europeans as intelligent and severe, Americans as contented and free,
Asians as ritualistic, and Africans as lazy and capricious. Race was also used to justify the
construction of socially specific mental disorders such as drapetomania and dysaesthesia
aethiopica—the behavior of uncooperative African slaves.[104] After the creation of
experimental psychology, "ethnical psychology" emerged as a subdiscipline, based on the
assumption that studying primitive races would provide an important link between animal
behavior and the psychology of more evolved humans.[105]

Behaviorist
 Skinner's teaching machine, a
mechanical invention to automate the
task of programmed instruction

CC
3:21

The film of the Little Albert

experiment

A tenet of behavioral research is that a large part of both human and lower-animal behavior
is learned. A principle associated with behavioral research is that the mechanisms involved
in learning apply to humans and non-human animals. Behavioral researchers have
developed a treatment known as behavior modification, which is used to help individuals
replace undesirable behaviors with desirable ones.

Early behavioral researchers studied stimulus–response pairings, now known as classical

conditioning. They demonstrated that when a biologically potent stimulus (e.g., food that
elicits salivation) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) over several
learning trials, the neutral stimulus by itself can come to elicit the response the biologically
potent stimulus elicits. Ivan Pavlov—known best for inducing dogs to salivate in the
presence of a stimulus previously linked with food—became a leading figure in the Soviet
Union and inspired followers to use his methods on humans.[39] In the United States, Edward
Lee Thorndike initiated "connectionist" studies by trapping animals in "puzzle boxes" and
rewarding them for escaping. Thorndike wrote in 1911, "There can be no moral warrant for
studying man's nature unless the study will enable us to control his acts."[31]: 212–5 From
1910 to 1913 the American Psychological Association went through a sea change of
opinion, away from mentalism and towards "behavioralism." In 1913, John B. Watson coined
the term behaviorism for this school of thought.[31]: 218–27 Watson's famous Little Albert
experiment in 1920 was at first thought to demonstrate that repeated use of upsetting loud
[15][106]
i ld i till h bi ( i t th ti li) i i f th lth h
such a conclusion was likely an exaggeration.[107] Karl Lashley, a close collaborator with
Watson, examined biological manifestations of learning in the brain.[98]

Clark L. Hull, Edwin Guthrie, and others did much to help behaviorism become a widely used
paradigm.[37] A new method of "instrumental" or "operant" conditioning added the concepts
of reinforcement and punishment to the model of behavior change. Radical behaviorists
avoided discussing the inner workings of the mind, especially the unconscious mind, which
they considered impossible to assess scientifically.[108] Operant conditioning was first
described by Miller and Kanorski and popularized in the U.S. by B.F. Skinner, who emerged
as a leading intellectual of the behaviorist movement.[109][110]

Noam Chomsky published an influential critique of radical behaviorism on the grounds that
behaviorist principles could not adequately explain the complex mental process of language
acquisition and language use.[111][112] The review, which was scathing, did much to reduce
the status of behaviorism within psychology.[31]: 282–5 Martin Seligman and his colleagues
discovered that they could condition in dogs a state of "learned helplessness", which was
not predicted by the behaviorist approach to psychology.[113][114] Edward C. Tolman
advanced a hybrid "cognitive behavioral" model, most notably with his 1948 publication
discussing the cognitive maps used by rats to guess at the location of food at the end of a
maze.[115] Skinner's behaviorism did not die, in part because it generated successful
practical applications.[112]

The Association for Behavior Analysis International was founded in 1974 and by 2003 had
members from 42 countries. The field has gained a foothold in Latin America and
Japan.[116] Applied behavior analysis is the term used for the application of the principles of
operant conditioning to change socially significant behavior (it supersedes the term,
"behavior modification").[117]

Cognitive
 The Müller–Lyer illusion.
Psychologists make inferences about
mental processes from shared
phenomena such as optical illusions.

Cognitive psychology involves the study of mental processes,

Green Red Blue
including perception, attention, language comprehension and
Purple Blue Purple
production, memory, and problem solving.[118] Researchers in the
field of cognitive psychology are sometimes called cognitivists.
They rely on an information processing model of mental functioning. Blue Purple Red
Cognitivist research is informed by functionalism and experimental Green Purple Green
psychology.

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques developed by The Stroop effect is
Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others re-emerged as experimental the fact that naming
psychology became increasingly cognitivist and, eventually, the color of the first
constituted a part of the wider, interdisciplinary cognitive set of words is easier
science.[119][120] Some called this development the cognitive and quicker than the
revolution because it rejected the anti-mentalist dogma of second.
[120]
behaviorism as well as the strictures of psychoanalysis.

Albert Bandura helped along the transition in psychology from behaviorism to cognitive
psychology. Bandura and other social learning theorists advanced the idea of vicarious
learning. In other words, they advanced the view that a child can learn by observing the
immediate social environment and not necessarily from having been reinforced for enacting
a behavior, although they did not rule out the influence of reinforcement on learning a
behavior.[121]

Technological advances also renewed interest in mental states and mental representations.
English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used
experimental methods to link psychological phenomena to the structure and function of the
brain. The rise of computer science, cybernetics, and artificial intelligence underlined the
value of comparing information processing in humans and machines.

A popular and representative topic in this area is cognitive bias, or irrational thought.
Psychologists (and economists) have classified and described a sizeable catalog of biases
which recur frequently in human thought. The availability heuristic, for example, is the
tendency to overestimate the importance of something which happens to come readily to
mind.[122]

Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form cognitive

behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by
American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck.

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise involving cognitive

psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, linguists, and researchers in artificial intelligence,
human–computer interaction, and computational neuroscience. The discipline of cognitive
science covers cognitive psychology as well as philosophy of mind, computer science, and
neuroscience.[123] Computer simulations are sometimes used to model phenomena of
interest.

Social
Social psychology is concerned with how behaviors, thoughts, feelings, and the social
environment influence human interactions.[124] Social psychologists study such topics as
the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity, persuasion) and the
formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about other people. Social cognition fuses
elements of social and cognitive psychology for the purpose of understanding how people
process, remember, or distort social information. The study of group dynamics involves
research on the nature of leadership, organizational communication, and related
phenomena. In recent years, social psychologists have become interested in implicit
measures, mediational models, and the interaction of person and social factors in
accounting for behavior. Some concepts that sociologists have applied to the study of
psychiatric disorders, concepts such as the social role, sick role, social class, life events,
culture, migration, and total institution, have influenced social psychologists.[125]
Psychoanalytic

Front row: Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley

Hall, Carl Jung]. Back row: Abraham
A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi
at Clark University in 1909.

Psychoanalysis is a collection of theories and therapeutic techniques intended to analyze

the unconscious mind and its impact on everyday life. These theories and techniques inform
treatments for mental disorders.[126][127][128] Psychoanalysis originated in the 1890s, most
prominently with the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely
based on interpretive methods, introspection, and clinical observation. It became very well
known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the
unconscious.[58]: 84–6 Freud pioneered the methods of free association and dream
interpretation.[129][130]

Psychoanalytic theory is not monolithic. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers who

diverged from Freud include Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W.
Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, Freud's daughter Anna Freud, and Harry
Stack Sullivan. These individuals ensured that psychoanalysis would evolve into diverse
schools of thought. Among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and
interpersonal, Lacanian, and relational psychoanalysis.

Psychologists such as Hans Eysenck and philosophers including Karl Popper sharply
criticized psychoanalysis. Popper argued that psychoanalysis was not falsifiable (no claim it
made could be proven wrong) and therefore inherently not a scientific discipline,[131]
whereas Eysenck advanced the view that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by
experimental data. By the end of the 20th century, psychology departments in American
universities mostly had marginalized Freudian theory, dismissing it as a "desiccated and
dead" historical artifact.[132] Researchers such as António Damásio, Oliver Sacks, and
Joseph LeDoux; and individuals in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis have
defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds.[133]

Existential-humanistic

Psychologist Abraham Maslow in

1943 posited that humans have a
hierarchy of needs, and it makes
sense to fulfill the basic needs first
before higher-order needs can be
met.[134]

Humanistic psychology, which has been influenced by existentialism and

phenomenology,[135] stresses free will and self-actualization.[136] It emerged in the 1950s as
a movement within academic psychology, in reaction to both behaviorism and
psychoanalysis.[137] The humanistic approach seeks to view the whole person, not just
fragmented parts of the personality or isolated cognitions.[138] Humanistic psychology also
focuses on personal growth, self-identity, death, aloneness, and freedom. It emphasizes
subjective meaning, the rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather
than pathology. Some founders of the humanistic school of thought were American
psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl
Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy.

Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific study. Positive

psychology is the study of factors which contribute to human happiness and well-being,
focusing more on people who are currently healthy. In 2010, Clinical Psychological Review
published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude
journaling and the physical expression of gratitude. It is, however, far from clear that positive
psychology is effective in making people happier.[139][140] Positive psychological
interventions have been limited in scope, but their effects are thought to be somewhat
The American Association for Humanistic Psychology, formed in 1963, declared:

Humanistic psychology is primarily an orientation toward the whole of

psychology rather than a distinct area or school. It stands for respect for the
worth of persons, respect for differences of approach, open-mindedness as to
acceptable methods, and interest in exploration of new aspects of human
behavior. As a "third force" in contemporary psychology, it is concerned with
topics having little place in existing theories and systems: e.g., love, creativity,
self, growth, organism, basic need-gratification, self-actualization, higher
values, being, becoming, spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness,
warmth, ego-transcendence, objectivity, autonomy, responsibility, meaning,
fair-play, transcendental experience, peak experience, courage, and related
concepts.[141]

Existential psychology emphasizes the need to understand a client's total orientation

towards the world. Existential psychology is opposed to reductionism, behaviorism, and
other methods that objectify the individual.[136] In the 1950s and 1960s, influenced by
philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger, psychoanalytically trained American
psychologist Rollo May helped to develop existential psychology. Existential psychotherapy,
which follows from existential psychology, is a therapeutic approach that is based on the
idea that a person's inner conflict arises from that individual's confrontation with the givens
of existence. Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George
Kelly may also be said to belong to the existential school.[142] Existential psychologists tend
to differ from more "humanistic" psychologists in the former's relatively neutral view of
human nature and relatively positive assessment of anxiety.[143] Existential psychologists
emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that
meaning can be shaped by myths and narratives; meaning can be deepened by the
acceptance of free will, which is requisite to living an authentic life, albeit often with anxiety
with regard to death.[144]

Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of
meaning's therapeutic power from reflections upon his own internment.[145] He created a
variation of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy, a type of existentialist analysis
that focuses on a will to meaning (in one's life), as opposed to Adler's Nietzschean doctrine
of will to power or Freud's will to pleasure.[146]
Themes

Personality
Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and
emotion. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools of thought.
Each theory carries different assumptions about such features as the role of the
unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is
based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego.[147] By contrast, trait
theorists have developed taxonomies of personality constructs in describing personality in
terms of key traits. Trait theorists have often employed statistical data-reduction methods,
such as factor analysis. Although the number of proposed traits has varied widely, Hans
Eysenck's early biologically based model suggests at least three major trait constructs are
necessary to describe human personality, extraversion–introversion, neuroticism-stability,
and psychoticism-normality. Raymond Cattell empirically derived a theory of 16 personality
factors at the primary-factor level and up to eight broader second-stratum
factors.[148][149][150][151] Since the 1980s, the Big Five (openness to experience,
conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) emerged as an important
trait theory of personality.[152] Dimensional models of personality are receiving increasing
support, and a version of dimensional assessment has been included in the DSM-V.
However, despite a plethora of research into the various versions of the "Big Five"
personality dimensions, it appears necessary to move on from static conceptualizations of
personality structure to a more dynamic orientation, acknowledging that personality
constructs are subject to learning and change over the lifespan.[153][154]

An early example of personality assessment was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet,
constructed during World War I. The popular, although psychometrically inadequate, Myers–
Briggs Type Indicator[155] was developed to assess individuals' "personality types" according
to the personality theories of Carl Jung. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI), despite its name, is more a dimensional measure of psychopathology than a
personality measure.[156] California Psychological Inventory contains 20 personality scales
(e.g., independence, tolerance).[157] The International Personality Item Pool, which is in the
public domain, has become a source of scales that can be used personality
assessment [158]
Unconscious mind
Study of the unconscious mind, a part of the psyche outside the individual's awareness but
that is believed to influence conscious thought and behavior, was a hallmark of early
psychology. In one of the first psychology experiments conducted in the United States, C.S.
Peirce and Joseph Jastrow found in 1884 that research subjects could choose the minutely
heavier of two weights even if consciously uncertain of the difference.[159] Freud popularized
the concept of the unconscious mind, particularly when he referred to an uncensored
intrusion of unconscious thought into one's speech (a Freudian slip) or to his efforts to
interpret dreams.[160] His 1901 book The Psychopathology of Everyday Life catalogs
hundreds of everyday events that Freud explains in terms of unconscious influence. Pierre
Janet advanced the idea of a subconscious mind, which could contain autonomous mental
elements unavailable to the direct scrutiny of the subject.[161]

The concept of unconscious processes has remained important in psychology. Cognitive

psychologists have used a "filter" model of attention. According to the model, much
information processing takes place below the threshold of consciousness, and only certain
stimuli, limited by their nature and number, make their way through the filter. Much research
has shown that subconscious priming of certain ideas can covertly influence thoughts and
behavior.[161] Because of the unreliability of self-reporting, a major hurdle in this type of
research involves demonstrating that a subject's conscious mind has not perceived a target
stimulus. For this reason, some psychologists prefer to distinguish between implicit and
explicit memory. In another approach, one can also describe a subliminal stimulus as
meeting an objective but not a subjective threshold.[162]

The automaticity model of John Bargh and others involves the ideas of automaticity and
unconscious processing in our understanding of social behavior,[163][164] although there has
been dispute with regard to replication.[165][166] Some experimental data suggest that the
brain begins to consider taking actions before the mind becomes aware of them.[167] The
influence of unconscious forces on people's choices bears on the philosophical question of
free will. John Bargh, Daniel Wegner, and Ellen Langer describe free will as an
illusion.[163][164][168]
Motivation
Some psychologists study motivation or the subject of why people or lower animals initiate
a behavior at a particular time. It also involves the study of why humans and lower animals
continue or terminate a behavior. Psychologists such as William James initially used the
term motivation to refer to intention, in a sense similar to the concept of will in European
philosophy. With the steady rise of Darwinian and Freudian thinking, instinct also came to be
seen as a primary source of motivation.[169] According to drive theory, the forces of instinct
combine into a single source of energy which exerts a constant influence. Psychoanalysis,
like biology, regarded these forces as demands originating in the nervous system.
Psychoanalysts believed that these forces, especially the sexual instincts, could become
entangled and transmuted within the psyche. Classical psychoanalysis conceives of a
struggle between the pleasure principle and the reality principle, roughly corresponding to id
and ego. Later, in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud introduced the concept of the death
drive, a compulsion towards aggression, destruction, and psychic repetition of traumatic
events.[170] Meanwhile, behaviorist researchers used simple dichotomous models
(pleasure/pain, reward/punishment) and well-established principles such as the idea that a
thirsty creature will take pleasure in drinking.[169][171] Clark Hull formalized the latter idea
with his drive reduction model.[172]

Hunger, thirst, fear, sexual desire, and thermoregulation constitute fundamental motivations
in animals.[171] Humans seem to exhibit a more complex set of motivations—though
theoretically these could be explained as resulting from desires for belonging, positive self-
image, self-consistency, truth, love, and control.[173][174]

Motivation can be modulated or manipulated in many different ways. Researchers have

found that eating, for example, depends not only on the organism's fundamental need for
homeostasis—an important factor causing the experience of hunger—but also on circadian
rhythms, food availability, food palatability, and cost.[171] Abstract motivations are also
malleable, as evidenced by such phenomena as goal contagion: the adoption of goals,
sometimes unconsciously, based on inferences about the goals of others.[175] Vohs and
Baumeister suggest that contrary to the need-desire-fulfillment cycle of animal instincts,
human motivations sometimes obey a "getting begets wanting" rule: the more you get a
reward such as self-esteem, love, drugs, or money, the more you want it. They suggest that
this principle can even apply to food, drink, sex, and sleep.[176]
Development psychology

Developmental psychologists engage

a child with a book and then make
observations based on how the child
interacts with the object.

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why the thought processes,
emotions, and behaviors of humans change over the course of their lives.[177] Some credit
Charles Darwin with conducting the first systematic study within the rubric of developmental
psychology, having published in 1877 a short paper detailing the development of innate
forms of communication based on his observations of his infant son.[178] The main origins
of the discipline, however, are found in the work of Jean Piaget. Like Piaget, developmental
psychologists originally focused primarily on the development of cognition from infancy to
adolescence. Later, developmental psychology extended itself to the study cognition over
the life span. In addition to studying cognition, developmental psychologists have also come
to focus on affective, behavioral, moral, social, and neural development.

Developmental psychologists who study children use a number of research methods. For
example, they make observations of children in natural settings such as preschools[179] and
engage them in experimental tasks.[180] Such tasks often resemble specially designed
games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful.
Developmental researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental
processes of infants.[181] In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also
study aging and processes throughout the life span, including old age.[182] These
psychologists draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their research.[177]
Genes and environment
All researched psychological traits are influenced by both genes and environment, to varying
degrees.[183][184] These two sources of influence are often confounded in observational
research of individuals and families. An example of this confounding can be shown in the
transmission of depression from a depressed mother to her offspring. A theory based on
environmental transmission would hold that an offspring, by virtue of their having a
problematic rearing environment managed by a depressed mother, is at risk for developing
depression. On the other hand, a hereditarian theory would hold that depression risk in an
offspring is influenced to some extent by genes passed to the child from the mother. Genes
and environment in these simple transmission models are completely confounded. A
depressed mother may both carry genes that contribute to depression in her offspring and
also create a rearing environment that increases the risk of depression in her child.[185]

Behavioral genetics researchers have employed methodologies that help to disentangle this
confound and understand the nature and origins of individual differences in behavior.[102]
Traditionally the research has involved twin studies and adoption studies, two designs
where genetic and environmental influences can be partially un-confounded. More recently,
gene-focused research has contributed to understanding genetic contributions to the
development of psychological traits.

The availability of microarray molecular genetic or genome sequencing technologies allows

researchers to measure participant DNA variation directly, and test whether individual
genetic variants within genes are associated with psychological traits and psychopathology
through methods including genome-wide association studies. One goal of such research is
similar to that in positional cloning and its success in Huntington's: once a causal gene is
discovered biological research can be conducted to understand how that gene influences
the phenotype. One major result of genetic association studies is the general finding that
psychological traits and psychopathology, as well as complex medical diseases, are highly
polygenic,[186][187][188][189][190] where a large number (on the order of hundreds to thousands)
of genetic variants, each of small effect, contribute to individual differences in the behavioral
trait or propensity to the disorder. Active research continues to work toward understanding
the genetic and environmental bases of behavior and their interaction.

Applications
Psychology encompasses many subfields and includes different approaches to the study of
mental processes and behavior.

Psychological testing

Francis Galton, a pioneer of the

experimental psychology field

Psychological testing has ancient origins, dating as far back as 2200 BC, in the
examinations for the Chinese civil service. Written exams began during the Han dynasty
(202 BC – AD 200). By 1370, the Chinese system required a stratified series of tests,
involving essay writing and knowledge of diverse topics. The system was ended in
1906.[191]: 41–2 In Europe, mental assessment took a different approach, with theories of
physiognomy—judgment of character based on the face—described by Aristotle in 4th
century BC Greece. Physiognomy remained current through the Enlightenment, and added
the doctrine of phrenology: a study of mind and intelligence based on simple assessment of
neuroanatomy.[191]: 42–3

When experimental psychology came to Britain, Francis Galton was a leading practitioner. By
virtue of his procedures for measuring reaction time and sensation, he is considered an
inventor of modern mental testing (also known as psychometrics).[191]: 44–5 James McKeen
Cattell, a student of Wundt and Galton, brought the idea of psychological testing to the
United States, and in fact coined the term "mental test".[191]: 45–6 In 1901, Cattell's student
Clark Wissler published discouraging results, suggesting that mental testing of Columbia
and Barnard students failed to predict academic performance.[191]: 45–6 In response to 1904
orders from the Minister of Public Instruction, One example of an observational study was
run by Arthur Bandura. This observational study focused on children who were exposed to
an adult exhibiting aggressive behaviors and their reaction to toys versus other children who
were not exposed to these stimuli. The result shows that children who had seen the adult
acting aggressively towards a toy, in turn, were aggressive towards their own toy when put in
a situation that frustrated them.[192] psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon
developed and elaborated a new test of intelligence in 1905–1911. They used a range of
questions diverse in their nature and difficulty. Binet and Simon introduced the concept of
mental age and referred to the lowest scorers on their test as idiots. Henry H. Goddard put
the Binet-Simon scale to work and introduced classifications of mental level such as
imbecile and feebleminded. In 1916, (after Binet's death), Stanford professor Lewis M.
Terman modified the Binet-Simon scale (renamed the Stanford–Binet scale) and introduced
the intelligence quotient as a score report.[191]: 50–56 Based on his test findings, and
reflecting the racism common to that era, Terman concluded that intellectual disability
"represents the level of intelligence which is very, very common among Spanish-Indians and
Mexican families of the Southwest and also among negroes. Their dullness seems to be
racial."[193]

Following the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests, which was developed by psychologist
Robert Yerkes in 1917 and then used in World War 1 by industrial and organizational
psychologists for large-scale employee testing and selection of military personnel.[194]
Mental testing also became popular in the U.S., where it was applied to schoolchildren. The
federally created National Intelligence Test was administered to 7 million children in the
1920s. In 1926, the College Entrance Examination Board created the Scholastic Aptitude
Test to standardize college admissions.[191]: 61 The results of intelligence tests were used to
argue for segregated schools and economic functions, including the preferential training of
Black Americans for manual labor. These practices were criticized by Black intellectuals
such a Horace Mann Bond and Allison Davis.[193] Eugenicists used mental testing to justify
and organize compulsory sterilization of individuals classified as mentally retarded (now
referred to as intellectual disability).[46] In the United States, tens of thousands of men and
women were sterilized. Setting a precedent that has never been overturned, the U.S.
Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of this practice in the 1927 case Buck v.
Bell.[195]

Today mental testing is a routine phenomenon for people of all ages in Western
societies.[191]: 2 Modern testing aspires to criteria including standardization of procedure,
consistency of results, output of an interpretable score, statistical norms describing
population outcomes, and, ideally, effective prediction of behavior and life outcomes outside
f i i i [191]: 4–6 P h l i l i i l l di f i
aid legal judgments and decisions.[196] Developments in psychometrics include work on test
and scale reliability and validity.[197] Developments in item-response theory,[198] structural
equation modeling,[199] and bifactor analysis[200] have helped in strengthening test and scale
construction.

Mental health care

The provision of psychological health services is generally called clinical psychology in the
U.S. Sometimes, however, members of the school psychology and counseling psychology
professions engage in practices that resemble that of clinical psychologists. Clinical
psychologists typically include people who have graduated from doctoral programs in
clinical psychology. In Canada, some of the members of the abovementioned groups usually
fall within the larger category of professional psychology. In Canada and the U.S.,
practitioners get bachelor's degrees and doctorates; doctoral students in clinical psychology
usually spend one year in a predoctoral internship and one year in postdoctoral internship. In
Mexico and most other Latin American and European countries, psychologists do not get
bachelor's and doctoral degrees; instead, they take a three-year professional course
following high school.[91] Clinical psychology is at present the largest specialization within
psychology.[201] It includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of
understanding, preventing, and relieving psychological distress, dysfunction, and/or mental
illness. Clinical psychologists also try to promote subjective well-being and personal growth.
Central to the practice of clinical psychology are psychological assessment and
psychotherapy although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching,
consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.[202]

Credit for the first psychology clinic in the United States typically goes to Lightner Witmer,
who established his practice in Philadelphia in 1896. Another modern psychotherapist was
Morton Prince, an early advocate for the establishment of psychology as a clinical and
academic discipline.[201] In the first part of the twentieth century, most mental health care in
the United States was performed by psychiatrists, who are medical doctors. Psychology
entered the field with its refinements of mental testing, which promised to improve the
diagnosis of mental problems. For their part, some psychiatrists became interested in using
psychoanalysis and other forms of psychodynamic psychotherapy to understand and treat
the mentally ill.[41][203]
Psychotherapy as conducted by psychiatrists blurred the distinction between psychiatry and
psychology, and this trend continued with the rise of community mental health facilities.
Some in the clinical psychology community adopted behavioral therapy, a thoroughly non-
psychodynamic model that used behaviorist learning theory to change the actions of
patients. A key aspect of behavior therapy is empirical evaluation of the treatment's
effectiveness. In the 1970s, cognitive-behavior therapy emerged with the work of Albert Ellis
and Aaron Beck. Although there are similarities between behavior therapy and cognitive-
behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy required the application of cognitive constructs.
Since the 1970s, the popularity of cognitive-behavior therapy among clinical psychologists
increased. A key practice in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy is exposing patients
to things they fear, based on the premise that their responses (fear, panic, anxiety) can be
deconditioned.[204]

Mental health care today involves psychologists and social workers in increasing numbers.
In 1977, National Institute of Mental Health director Bertram Brown described this shift as a
source of "intense competition and role confusion."[41] Graduate programs issuing
doctorates in clinical psychology emerged in the 1950s and underwent rapid increase
through the 1980s. The PhD degree is intended to train practitioners who could also conduct
scientific research. The PsyD degree is more exclusively designed to train practitioners.[91]

Some clinical psychologists focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury.
This subspecialty is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical
psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The emerging field of disaster
psychology (see crisis intervention) involves professionals who respond to large-scale
traumatic events.[205]

The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic

approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client
(usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). Typically, these approaches encourage
new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are
psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy.
There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches,
especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality,
and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding
psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies have equal effectiveness,
with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[206][207] Because of this,
more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic
orientation.[208][209][210][211][212]
Diagnosis in clinical psychology usually follows the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM).[213] The study of mental illnesses is called abnormal psychology.

Education

An item from a cognitive abilities test

used in educational psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the
effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social
psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychologists can be found in
preschools, schools of all levels including post secondary institutions, community
organizations and learning centers, Government or private research firms, and independent
or private consultant.[214] The work of developmental psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky,
Jean Piaget, and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and
educational practices. Educational psychology is often included in teacher education
programs in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.

School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical

psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the
intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and
otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School
psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention,
prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.[215]

Work
Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology involves research and practices that apply
psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals' work-lives.[216] In the
field's beginnings, industrialists brought the nascent field of psychology to bear on the study
of scientific management techniques for improving workplace efficiency. The field was at
first called economic psychology or business psychology; later, industrial psychology,
employment psychology, or psychotechnology.[217] An influential early study examined
workers at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois from 1924 to 1932. Western
Electric experimented on factory workers to assess their responses to changes in
illumination, breaks, food, and wages. The researchers came to focus on workers' responses
to observation itself, and the term Hawthorne effect is now used to describe the fact that
people's behavior can change when they think they are being observed.[218] Although the
Hawthorne research can be found in psychology textbooks, the research and its findings
were weak at best.[219][220]

The name industrial and organizational psychology emerged in the 1960s. In 1973, it
became enshrined in the name of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
Division 14 of the American Psychological Association.[217] One goal of the discipline is to
optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology is a subfield of I/O
psychology. Personnel psychologists apply the methods and principles of psychology in
selecting and evaluating workers. Another subfield, organizational psychology, examines the
effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job
satisfaction, and productivity.[221] Most I/O psychologists work outside of academia, for
private and public organizations and as consultants.[217] A psychology consultant working in
business today might expect to provide executives with information and ideas about their
industry, their target markets, and the organization of their company.[222][223]

Organizational behavior (OB) is an allied field involved in the study of human behavior within
organizations.[224] One way to differentiate I/O psychology from OB is that I/O psychologists
train in university psychology departments and OB specialists, in business schools.

Military and intelligence

One role for psychologists in the military has been to evaluate and counsel soldiers and
other personnel. In the U.S., this function began during World War I, when Robert Yerkes
established the School of Military Psychology at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia. The school
provided psychological training for military staff [41][225] Today U S Army psychologists
perform psychological screening, clinical psychotherapy, suicide prevention, and treatment
for post-traumatic stress, as well as provide prevention-related services, for example,
smoking cessation.[226] The United States Army's Mental Health Advisory Teams implement
psychological interventions to help combat troops experiencing mental problems.[227][228]

Psychologists may also work on a diverse set of campaigns known broadly as psychological
warfare. Psychological warfare chiefly involves the use of propaganda to influence enemy
soldiers and civilians. This so-called black propaganda is designed to seem as if it
originates from a source other than the Army.[229] The CIA's MKULTRA program involved
more individualized efforts at mind control, involving techniques such as hypnosis, torture,
and covert involuntary administration of LSD.[230] The U.S. military used the name
Psychological Operations (PSYOP) until 2010, when these activities were reclassified as
Military Information Support Operations (MISO), part of Information Operations (IO).[231]
Psychologists have sometimes been involved in assisting the interrogation and torture of
suspects, staining the records of the psychologists involved.[232]

Health, well-being, and social

change

Social change
An example of the contribution of psychologists to social change involves the research of
Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark. These two African American psychologists studied
segregation's adverse psychological impact on Black children. Their research findings
played a role in the desegregation case Brown v. Board of Education (1954).[233]

The impact of psychology on social change includes the discipline's broad influence on
teaching and learning. Research has shown that compared to the "whole word" or "whole
language" approach, the phonics approach to reading instruction is more efficacious.[234]

Medical applications
Medical facilities increasingly employ psychologists to perform various roles. One aspect of
health psychology is the psychoeducation of patients: instructing them in how to follow a
medical regimen. Health psychologists can also educate doctors and conduct research on
patient compliance.[235][236] Psychologists in the field of public health use a wide variety of
interventions to influence human behavior. These range from public relations campaigns
and outreach to governmental laws and policies. Psychologists study the composite
influence of all these different tools in an effort to influence whole populations of
people.[237]

Worker health, safety and wellbeing

Psychologists work with organizations to apply findings from psychological research to
improve the health and well-being of employees. Some work as external consultants hired
by organizations to solve specific problems, whereas others are full-time employees of the
organization. Applications include conducting surveys to identify issues and designing
interventions to make work healthier. Some of the specific health areas include:

Accidents and injuries: A major

contribution is the concept of safety
climate, which is employee shared
perceptions of the behaviors that are
encouraged (e.g., wearing safety gear)
and discouraged (not following safety
rules) at work.[238] Organizations with
strong safety climates have fewer
work accidents and injuries.[239]
Cardiovascular disease:
Cardiovascular disease has been
related to lack of job control.[240]
Mental health: Exposure to
occupational stress is associated with
mental health disorder.[241]
Musculoskeletal disorder: These are
injuries in bones, nerves and tendons
due to overexertion and repetitive
strain. They have been linked to job
satisfaction and workplace stress.[242]
Physical health symptoms:
Occupational stress has been linked to
physical symptoms such as digestive
distress and headache.[243]
 Workplace violence: Violence
prevention climate is related to being
physically assaulted and
psychologically mistreated at
work.[244]
Interventions that improve climates are a way to address accidents and violence.
Interventions that reduce stress at work or provide employees with tools to better manage it
can help in areas where stress is an important component.

Industrial psychology became interested in worker fatigue during World War I, when
government ministers in Britain were concerned about the impact of fatigue on workers in
munitions factories but not other types of factories.[245][246] In the U. K. some interest in
worker well-being emerged with the efforts of Charles Samuel Myers and his National
Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP) during the inter-War years.[247] In the U. S. during the
mid-twentieth century industrial psychologist Arthur Kornhauser pioneered the study of
occupational mental health, linking industrial working conditions to mental health as well as
the spillover of an unsatisfying job into a worker's personal life.[248][249] Zickar accumulated
evidence to show that "no other industrial psychologist of his era was as devoted to
advocating management and labor practices that would improve the lives of working
people."[248]

Occupational health psychology

As interest in the worker health expanded toward the end of the twentieth century, the field
of occupational health psychology (OHP) emerged. OHP is a branch of psychology that is
interdisciplinary.[49][250] OHP is concerned with the health and safety of workers.[49][250] OHP
addresses topic areas such as the impact of occupational stressors on physical and mental
health, mistreatment of workers (e.g., bullying and violence), work-family balance, the
impact of involuntary unemployment on physical and mental health, the influence of
psychosocial factors on safety and accidents, and interventions designed to
improve/protect worker health.[49][251] OHP grew out of health psychology, industrial and
i ti l h l d ti l di i [252] OHP h l b i f db
disciplines outside psychology, including industrial engineering, sociology, and
economics.[253][254]

Research methods
Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses.
Although the field makes abundant use of randomized and controlled experiments in
laboratory settings, such research can only assess a limited range of short-term
phenomena. Some psychologists rely on less rigorously controlled, but more ecologically
valid, field experiments as well. Other research psychologists rely on statistical methods to
glean knowledge from population data.[255] The statistical methods research psychologists
employ include the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of
variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and
hierarchical linear modeling. The measurement and operationalization of important
constructs is an essential part of these research designs.

Although this type of psychological research is much less abundant than quantitative
research, some psychologists conduct qualitative research. This type of research can
involve interviews, questionnaires, and first-hand observation.[256] While hypothesis testing
is rare, virtually impossible, in qualitative research, qualitative studies can be helpful in
theory and hypothesis generation, interpreting seemingly contradictory quantitative findings,
and understanding why some interventions fail and others succeed.[257]

Controlled experiments
 Flowchart of the four phases,
enrollment, intervention allocation,
follow-up, and data analysis, of a
parallel randomized trial of two
groups modified from the CONSORT
2010 Statement[258]

The experimenter (E) orders the

teacher (T), the subject of the
experiment, to give what the latter
believes are painful electric shocks to
a learner (L), who is actually an actor
and confederate. The subject believes
that for each wrong answer, the
learner was receiving actual electric
shocks, though in reality there were
no such punishments. Being
separated from the subject, the
confederate set up a tape recorder
integrated with the electro-shock
generator, which played pre-recorded
sounds for each shock level etc.[259]

A true experiment with random assignment of research participants (sometimes called

subjects) to rival conditions allows researchers to make strong inferences about causal
relationships. When there are large numbers of research participants, the random
assignment (also called random allocation) of those participants to rival conditions ensures
that the individuals in those conditions will, on average, be similar on most characteristics,
including characteristics that went unmeasured. In an experiment, the researcher alters one
or more variables of influence, called independent variables, and measures resulting
changes in the factors of interest, called dependent variables. Prototypical experimental
research is conducted in a laboratory with a carefully controlled environment.

A quasi-experiment is a situation in which different conditions are being studied, but random
assignment to the different conditions is not possible. Investigators must work with
preexisting groups of people. Researchers can use common sense to consider how much
the nonrandom assignment threatens the study's validity.[260] For example, in research on
the best way to affect reading achievement in the first three grades of school, school
administrators may not permit educational psychologists to randomly assign children to
phonics and whole language classrooms, in which case the psychologists must work with
preexisting classroom assignments. Psychologists will compare the achievement of
children attending phonics and whole language classes and, perhaps, statistically adjust for
any initial differences in reading level.

Experimental researchers typically use a statistical hypothesis testing model which involves
making predictions before conducting the experiment, then assessing how well the data
collected are consistent with the predictions. These predictions are likely to originate from
one or more abstract scientific hypotheses about how the phenomenon under study actually
works.[261]

Other types of studies

Surveys are used in psychology for the purpose of measuring attitudes and traits,
monitoring changes in mood, and checking the validity of experimental manipulations
(checking research participants' perception of the condition they were assigned to).
Psychologists have commonly used paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also
conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Web-based surveys are increasingly used to
conveniently reach many subjects.

Observational studies are commonly conducted in psychology. In cross-sectional

observational studies, psychologists collect data at a single point in time. The goal of many
cross-sectional studies is the assess the extent factors are correlated with each other. By
contrast, in longitudinal studies psychologists collect data on the same sample at two or
more points in time. Sometimes the purpose of longitudinal research is to study trends
across time such as the stability of traits or age-related changes in behavior. Because some
studies involve endpoints that psychologists cannot ethically study from an experimental
standpoint, such as identifying the causes of depression, they conduct longitudinal studies a
large group of depression-free people, periodically assessing what is happening in the
individuals' lives. In this way psychologists have an opportunity to test causal hypotheses
regarding conditions that commonly arise in people's lives that put them at risk for
depression. Problems that affect longitudinal studies include selective attrition, the type of
problem in which bias is introduced when a certain type of research participant
disproportionately leaves a study.

One example of an observational study was run by Arthur Bandura. This observational study
focused on children who were exposed to an adult exhibiting aggressive behaviors and their
reaction to toys versus other children who were not exposed to these stimuli. The result
shows that children who had seen the adult acting aggressively towards a toy, in turn, were
aggressive towards their own toy when put in a situation that frustrated them.[192]

Exploratory data analysis includes a variety of practices that researchers use to reduce a
great many variables to a small number overarching factors. In Peirce's three modes of
inference, exploratory data analysis corresponds to abduction.[262] Meta-analysis is the
technique research psychologists use to integrate results from many studies of the same
variables and arriving at a grand average of the findings.[263]

Direct brain
observation/manipulation
 An EEG recording setup

Artificial neural network with two

layers, an interconnected group of
nodes, akin to the vast network of
neurons in the human brain

A classic and popular tool used to relate mental and neural activity is the
electroencephalogram (EEG), a technique using amplified electrodes on a person's scalp to
measure voltage changes in different parts of the brain. Hans Berger, the first researcher to
use EEG on an unopened skull, quickly found that brains exhibit signature "brain waves":
electric oscillations which correspond to different states of consciousness. Researchers
subsequently refined statistical methods for synthesizing the electrode data, and identified
unique brain wave patterns such as the delta wave observed during non-REM sleep.[264]

Newer functional neuroimaging techniques include functional magnetic resonance imaging

and positron emission tomography, both of which track the flow of blood through the brain.
These technologies provide more localized information about activity in the brain and create
representations of the brain with widespread appeal. They also provide insight which avoids
the classic problems of subjective self-reporting. It remains challenging to draw hard
conclusions about where in the brain specific thoughts originate—or even how usefully such
localization corresponds with reality. However, neuroimaging has delivered unmistakable
results showing the existence of correlations between mind and brain. Some of these draw
on a systemic neural network model rather than a localized function model.[265][266][267]

Interventions such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and drugs also provide information
about brain–mind interactions. Psychopharmacology is the study of drug-induced mental
effects.

Computer simulation
Computational modeling is a tool used in mathematical psychology and cognitive
psychology to simulate behavior.[268] This method has several advantages. Since modern
computers process information quickly, simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for
high statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the
functional organization of mental events that could not be directly observed in a human.
Computational neuroscience uses mathematical models to simulate the brain. Another
method is symbolic modeling, which represents many mental objects using variables and
rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.

Animal studies

A rat undergoing a Morris water

navigation test used in behavioral
neuroscience to study the role of the
hippocampus in spatial learning and
memory
Animal experiments aid in investigating many aspects of human psychology, including
perception, emotion, learning, memory, and thought, to name a few. In the 1890s, Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-
human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, and rats and other rodents are often used in
psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent
variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These
conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments
and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult
to control important variables for human subjects. There are pitfalls, however, in
generalizing findings from animal studies to humans through animal models.[269]

Comparative psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-
human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance,
and development of behavior. Research in this area explores the behavior of many species,
from insects to primates. It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior
such as ethology.[270] Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light
on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for
example the Sociobiology of E.O. Wilson.[271] Animal models are often used to study neural
processes related to human behavior, e.g. in cognitive neuroscience.

Qualitative research
 Phineas P. Gage survived an
accident in which a large
iron rod was driven
completely through his
head, destroying much of
his brain's left frontal lobe,
but the injury altered his
personality and
behavior.[272]

Qualitative research is often designed to answer questions about the thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors of individuals. Qualitative research involving first-hand observation can help
describe events as they occur, with the goal of capturing the richness of everyday behavior
and with the hope of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been
missed if only more cursory examinations are made.

Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and

participant observation. Creswell (2003) identified five main possibilities for qualitative
research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded
theory. Qualitative researchers[273] sometimes aim to enrich our understanding of symbols,
subjective experiences, or social structures. Sometimes hermeneutic and critical aims can
give rise to quantitative research, as in Erich Fromm's application of psychological and
sociological theories, in his book Escape from Freedom, to understanding why many ordinary
Germans supported Hitler.[274]

Just as Jane Goodall studied chimpanzee social and family life by careful observation of
chimpanzee behavior in the field, psychologists conduct naturalistic observation of ongoing
human social, professional, and family life. Sometimes the participants are aware they are
being observed, and other times the participants do not know they are being observed. Strict
ethical guidelines must be followed when covert observation is being carried out.
Program evaluation
Program evaluation involves the systematic collection, analysis, and application of
information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs, particularly about
their effectiveness.[275][276] In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to
know the extent which the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving, or
objecting to are producing the intended effects. While program evaluation first focuses on
effectiveness, important considerations often include how much the program costs per
participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile,
whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the
program goals are appropriate and useful.[277]

Contemporary issues

Metascience
Metascience involves the application of scientific methodology to study science itself. The
field of metascience has revealed problems in psychological research. Some psychological
research has suffered from bias,[278] problematic reproducibility,[279] and misuse of
statistics.[280] These findings have led to calls for reform from within and from outside the
scientific community.[281]

Confirmation bias
In 1959, statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and
discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying possible
publication bias.[282][283][284] Similarly, Fanelli (2010)[285] found that 91.5% of
psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, and concluded
that the odds of this happening (a positive result) was around five times higher than in fields
such as space science or geosciences. Fanelli argued that this is because researchers in
"softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases.
Replication
A replication crisis in psychology has emerged. Many notable findings in the field have not
been replicated. Some researchers were even accused of publishing fraudulent
results.[286][287][288] Systematic efforts, including efforts by the Reproducibility Project of the
Center for Open Science, to assess the extent of the problem found that as many as two-
thirds of highly publicized findings in psychology failed to be replicated.[289] Reproducibility
has generally been stronger in cognitive psychology (in studies and journals) than social
psychology[289] and subfields of differential psychology.[290][291] Other subfields of
psychology have also been implicated in the replication crisis, including clinical
psychology,[292][293][294] developmental psychology,[295][296][297] and a field closely related to
psychology, educational research.[298][299][300][301][302]

Focus on the replication crisis has led to other renewed efforts in the discipline to re-test
important findings.[303][304] In response to concerns about publication bias and data
dredging (conducting a large number of statistical tests on a great many variables but
restricting reporting to the results that were statistically significant), 295 psychology and
medical journals have adopted result-blind peer review where studies are accepted not on
the basis of their findings and after the studies are completed, but before the studies are
conducted and upon the basis of the methodological rigor of their experimental designs and
the theoretical justifications for their proposed statistical analysis before data collection or
analysis is conducted.[305][306] In addition, large-scale collaborations among researchers
working in multiple labs in different countries have taken place. The collaborators regularly
make their data openly available for different researchers to assess.[307] Allen and
Mehler[308] estimated that 61 per cent of result-blind studies have yielded null results, in
contrast to an estimated 5 to 20 per cent in traditional research.

Misuse of statistics
Some critics view statistical hypothesis testing as misplaced. Psychologist and statistician
Jacob Cohen wrote in 1994 that psychologists routinely confuse statistical significance with
practical importance, enthusiastically reporting great certainty in unimportant facts.[309]
Some psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather
than sole reliance on p-values.[310]
WEIRD bias
In 2008, Arnett pointed out that most articles in American Psychological Association
journals were about U.S. populations when U.S. citizens are only 5% of the world's
population. He complained that psychologists had no basis for assuming psychological
processes to be universal and generalizing research findings to the rest of the global
population.[311] In 2010, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan reported a bias in conducting
psychology studies with participants from "WEIRD" ("Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich,
and Democratic") societies.[312][313] Henrich et al. found that "96% of psychological samples
come from countries with only 12% of the world's population" (p. 63). The article gave
examples of results that differ significantly between people from WEIRD and tribal cultures,
including the Müller-Lyer illusion. Arnett (2008), Altmaier and Hall (2008) and Morgan-
Consoli et al. (2018) view the Western bias in research and theory as a serious problem
considering psychologists are increasingly applying psychological principles developed in
WEIRD regions in their research, clinical work, and consultation with populations around the
world.[311][314][315] In 2018, Rad, Martingano, and Ginges showed that nearly a decade after
Henrich et al.'s paper, over 80% of the samples used in studies published in the journal
Psychological Science employed WEIRD samples. Moreover, their analysis showed that
several studies did not fully disclose the origin of their samples; the authors offered a set of
recommendations to editors and reviewers to reduce WEIRD bias.[316]

STRANGE bias
Similar to the WEIRD bias, starting in 2020, researchers of non-human behavior have started
to emphasize the need to document the possibility of the STRANGE (Social background,
Trappability and self-selection, Rearing history, Acclimation and habituation, Natural
changes in responsiveness, Genetic makeup, and Experience) bias in study conclusions.[317]

Unscientific mental health training

Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular,
the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices.[318] Critics say there has been
an increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific
competence.[319] Practices such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism";
memory-recovery techniques including body work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing
and reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity.[320] These
practices, however, are outside the mainstream practices taught in clinical psychology
doctoral programs.

Ethics
Ethical standards in the discipline have changed over time. Some famous past studies are
today considered unethical and in violation of established codes (the Canadian Code of
Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report). The American
Psychological Association has advanced a set of ethical principles and a code of conduct
for the profession.[321]

The most important contemporary standards include informed and voluntary consent. After
World War II, the Nuremberg Code was established because of Nazi abuses of experimental
subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki.
In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in
1966, and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these measures
encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in
experimental studies. A number of influential but ethically dubious studies led to the
establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT-Harvard Fernald School
radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley
Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.

Humans
Universities have ethics committees dedicated to protecting the rights (e.g., voluntary nature
of participation in the research, privacy) and well-being (e.g., minimizing distress) of
research participants. University ethics committees evaluate proposed research to ensure
that researchers protect the rights and well-being of participants; an investigator's research
project cannot be conducted unless approved by such an ethics committee.[322]

The ethics code of the American Psychological Association originated in 1951 as "Ethical
Standards of Psychologists". This code has guided the formation of licensing laws in most
American states. It has changed multiple times over the decades since its adoption. In 1989,
the APA revised its policies on advertising and referral fees to negotiate the end of an
investigation by the Federal Trade Commission. The 1992 incarnation was the first to
distinguish between "aspirational" ethical standards and "enforceable" ones. Members of
the public have a five-year window to file ethics complaints about APA members with the
APA ethics committee; members of the APA have a three-year window.[323]

Some of the ethical issues considered most important are the requirement to practice only
within the area of competence, to maintain confidentiality with the patients, and to avoid
sexual relations with them. Another important principle is informed consent, the idea that a
patient or research subject must understand and freely choose a procedure they are
undergoing.[323] Some of the most common complaints against clinical psychologists
include sexual misconduct.[323]

Other animals
Research on other animals is governed by university ethics committees. Research on
nonhuman animals cannot proceed without permission of the ethics committee, of the
researcher's home institution. Ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for
scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to
animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research.[324] Psychologists can use certain
research techniques on animals that could not be used on humans.

Comparative psychologist Harry Harlow drew moral condemnation for isolation experiments
on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the 1970s.[325] The
aim of the research was to produce an animal model of clinical depression. Harlow also
devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal
monkey mating posture.[326] In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that,
"Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after
decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be
destroyed by destroying their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the
criticism of the morality of his work.[327]

Animal research is influential in psychology, while still being debated among academics.
The testing of animals for research has led to medical breakthroughs in human medicine.
Many psychologists argue animal experimentation is essential for human advancement, but
must be regulated by the government to ensure ethicality.

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Badcock, Christopher R. (2015). "Nature-

Nurture Controversy, History of".
International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 340–344.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03136-6
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097
086-8.03136-6) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Cascio, Wayne F. (2015). "Industrial–
Organizational Psychology: Science and
Practice". International Encyclopedia of the
Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 879–884.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.22007-2
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097
086-8.22007-2) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Chryssochoou, Xenia (2015). "Social
Psychology". International Encyclopedia of
the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 532–
537. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.24095-6 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB97
8-0-08-097086-8.24095-6) . ISBN 978-0-08-
097087-5.
Deakin, Nicholas (2015). "Philosophy,
Psychiatry, and Psychology". International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences. pp. 31–36. doi:10.1016/B978-0-
08-097086-8.27049-9 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.27049-9) .
ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Demetriou, Andreas (2015). "Intelligence in
Cultural, Social and Educational Context".
International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 313–322.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92147-0
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097
086-8.92147-0) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Gelso, Charles J. (2015). "Counseling
Psychology". International Encyclopedia of
the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 69–
72. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.21073-8 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB97
8-0-08-097086-8.21073-8) . ISBN 978-0-08-
097087-5.
Henley, Tracy B. (2015). "Psychology,
History of (Early Period)". International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences. pp. 406–411. doi:10.1016/B978-
0-08-097086-8.03235-9 (https://doi.org/10.
1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.03235-9) .
ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Knowland, Victoria C.P.; Purser, Harry;
Thomas, Michael S.C. (2015). "Cross-
Sectional Methodologies in Developmental
Psychology". International Encyclopedia of
the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 354–
360. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.23235-2 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB97
8-0-08-097086-8.23235-2) . ISBN 978-0-08-
097087-5.
Louw, Dap (2015). "Forensic Psychology".
International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences. pp. 351–356.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.21074-X
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097
086-8.21074-X) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
McWilliams, Spencer A. (2015).
"Psychology, History of (Twentieth
Century)". International Encyclopedia of the
Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 412–417.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.03046-4
(https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-097
086-8.03046-4) . ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Pe-Pua, Rogelia (2015). "Indigenous
Psychology". International Encyclopedia of
the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 788–
794. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.24067-1 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB97
8-0-08-097086-8.24067-1) . ISBN 978-0-08-
097087-5.
Peterson, Roger L.; Peterson, Donald R.;
Abrams, Jules C.; Stricker, George;
Ducheny, Kelly (2015). "Training in Clinical
Psychology in the United States:
Practitioner Model". International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences. pp. 517–523. doi:10.1016/B978-
0-08-097086-8.21086-6 (https://doi.org/10.
1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.21086-6) .
ISBN 978-0-08-097087-5.
Poortinga, Ype H. (2015). "Cross-Cultural
Psychology". International Encyclopedia of
the Social & Behavioral Sciences. pp. 311–
317. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
8.24011-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB97
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Spinath, Frank M.; Spinath, Birgit; Borkenau,
Peter (2015). "Developmental Behavioral
Genetics and Education". International
Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral
Sciences. pp. 320–325. doi:10.1016/B978-
0-08-097086-8.92009-9 (https://doi.org/10.
1016%2FB978-0-08-097086-8.92009-9) .
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433. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-
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External links

Library resources about

Psychology
Online books (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-
bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Psychology&library=OL
BP)
Resources in your library (https://ftl.toolfo
rge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Psycholog
y)
Resources in other libraries (https://ftl.too
lforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Psycholo
gy&library=0CHOOSE0)
Wikisource has the text of the 1911
Encyclopædia Britannica article
"Psychology".

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Psychology (https://curlie.org/Scienc
e/Social_Sciences/Psychology/) at
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(http://www.apa.org/)
 Association for Psychological Science
(http://www.psychologicalscience.or
g/)

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