PRELIM: MODULE 1-10

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 DEFINING PSYCHOLOGY
ETYMOLOGY
From the Greek words
psyche soul or mind
logos study
Thus, we have the definition of psychology as the
study of mind or soul.

Modern science offers a definition of psychology as the

study of behavior and mental processes. These
comprises three important terms: scientific study,
behavior and mental processes.
1. Scientific study psychology is neither simple common sense nor
mystical. It is a rigorous discipline that systematically investigates of
how and why of human behavior. It relies on objective measures
and data before making inferences about thoughts, motivations
emotions and many more.
2. Behavior any form of action or anything we do that can be
observed directly. Observations allow us to explain the occurrence
of certain behaviors and make predictions of its future occurrences.
3. Mental processes mental processes are any series of actions or
procedures that occurs in the mind such as thoughts, feelings and
emotions. Unlike behavior, mental processes cannot be observed
directly. However, we engage in many observable behaviors that
can be inferred as manifestations of certain mental processes:
crying may indicate sadness; sleeping in class may indicate
boredom.
 DESCRIBE BEHAVIOR by providing concrete or observable
details of the behavior being studied
EXPLAIN BEHAVIOR the descriptions of the behavior being
studied will help to explain or understand how and why the
behavior occurred. usually, explanations come in the form of
assumptions or hypotheses that are tested and retested in
psychological researches in order to validate its soundness and
probability.
PREDICT BEHAVIOR when and how it is likely to occur again.
CONTROL BEHAVIOR controlling the behavior does not mean
manipulating a person or making the person do what you want. It
is more like changing a behavior or learning a new one.
 HUMAN BEHAVIOR

STIMULUS RESPONSE
1. External 1. Physical
overt 2. Mental
(observable)
3. Glandular
2. Internal -
covert
(unobservable)
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: THE FORERUNNERS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Buddha

Ren Descartes
Socrates

John Locke Hippocrates

Confucius Plato Aristotle

Franz Josef Gall
 Buddha described ideas as gradual combinations of
sensations and perceptions

Confucius believed that thoughts and decisions are controlled by

the person and not by the gods and spirits.

Socrates believed that thoughts and knowledge came from

within us and that understanding the self allows one to live a
virtuous life.

Plato introduced to us the importance of rational thinking.

Aristotle stressed on the importance of inductive reasoning, that is

making generalizations from observations made, which came to be
a central part of scientific investigation.
 He believed that the body is like a
machine and can be studied using
mechanical laws, like physics, in
explaining how it moves in its
surroundings. His observations on the
movement of the body led him to
believe that people are mostly unaware
of their movements, which later came to
Ren Descartes be known as reflexes. In addition, his
most important contribution in
- body is like a psychology is his belief that some ideas
machine are innate. This belief that knowledge
and perception are innate is called as
- Reflexes nativist view. Modern nativism
- Modern emphasizes on genetics and heredity as
nativism influencing factor of behavior
 He believed that we are not born
with ideas; instead, our minds
are empty at birth. He compared
the mind of a newborn to a clear
white paper and the writing on the
paper (ideas) would only come
John Locke from experiences in life. Many
- we are not psychology books use the Latin
born with term tabula rasa, which means
ideas; instead, blank slate, to describe what
our minds are Locke meant. Thus, empiricism holds
empty at birth the belief that knowledge comes
- tabula rasa from experience and learning.
- Empiricism
 Hippocrates and
Franz Josef Gall

Their ideas have Pioneers in the

long been biological bases
criticized in the of behavior
past
 Hippocrates, the greatest physician
of antiquity and thus the father of
medicine. He believed that illnesses
have natural causes. Consequently,
he believed that mental illness is not
caused by evil spirits or demonic
Hippocrates
possessions but instead results of
imbalances in the bodily fluid he
- father of referred as humors. The distribution
medicine of theses humors in the body
- illnesses have determines our temperaments.
natural causes
His ideas on humors anticipate
- humors modern scientists discovery of
hormones as influencing behavior.
 He developed the system of
phrenology which is the study
of the size and indentation of
the skull in reference to
Franz Josef Gall intelligence and personality.
- system of Galls phrenology paved the
phrenology way for studying different parts
of the brain and its functions on
behavior and is now gaining
support in the field of
neuroscience, particularly the
principle of neuroplasticity.
1. BEGINNINGS OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
The scientific community started out in Western Europe
particularly in France, England and Germany. It was,
however in Germany that psychology as a science began.
a. Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) is credited
for being the one to measure speed of neural
impulse and study on reaction times. His main
contribution is his research on vision and audition. His
research on audition involved the perception of tones
and acoustical problems. He revised the theory of
color vision which was initially presented by Thomas
Young in 1802 (Young-Helmholtz theory of color
vision)
b. Ernst Weber (1795-2878). His researches contribute in
our understanding of sensory experiences particularly the
concept threshold. He introduced the concepts of two-point
threshold and just noticeable difference (JND).
two-point threshold finds out the proximate distance
between two points before they are actually felt as
two points.
just noticeable difference (JND) measures and
identifies the slightest difference between two stimuli.
Both experiments introduced a systematic investigation on
the concept of threshold which has varying application in
psychology even today.
c. Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) is best remembered for
his two important contributions that were ten years apart.
The first one was in 1850 when he had an insight on how to
experimentally study mental processes. He surmised that
mental processes can be studied through physical stimulation.
The second significant year was in 1860 when Fechner
published the Elements of Psychophysics which is the first
textbook of psychology as a science. Before Fechner, the
German philosopher Immanuel Kant believed that the study of
mind cannot become a scientific research because it was
impossible to measure process since they cannot be directly
observed. Fechner proved him in his experiments on
psychophysics and thus, made a connection between the mind
and the body. He described psychophysics as the study of
sensory perceptions (mental states) through physical stimulation
(objective measures).
d. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Leipzig, Germany
founder of modern psychology
wrote the first psychology textbook
applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind
He focused on the study of conscious experiences and used the
method of introspection in his experimentations. Introspection
involves the examination of the mind through observing and
inspecting ones thoughts, perceptions and feelings.
developed the first formal psychological approach in the
investigation of the mind Structuralism.
structuralismidentify atoms of the mind
focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes
measured reaction times
a. Structuralism as an early school of thought in psychology was
introduced and made famous in America by Edward Bradford
Tichener (1867-1927)
- Wundts student, professor at Cornell University
- He believed that in order to understand the mind, one should
study its components and structures, thus the term
structuralism which included perception consciousness
feelings and thoughts.
- He also employed introspection as a method of research. For
about two decades , structuralism was recognized in America
until it was eventually overthrown by newer approaches. There
are some reasons for its downfall:
1. Tichener insisted on his beliefs unwelcoming change at a time
when science was developing and progressing; and
2. Introspection slowly lost its credibility as a scientific method of
investigation. It turned out that it was too difficult to objectively
report and describe internal experiences through introspection
as well as make generalizations out of those observations.
b. Functionalism started out
in America in about 1900
with William James
(1824-1910) of Harvard
University as its leading
figure.
 - opposed Wundt and Titcheners approach, James focused
in the study on the functions of the mind as it adapts to
its environment. Its main interest is to understand what
the mind does, how it acquired those processes and
what are its uses (or functions) in human experiences.
- functionalism influenced by Charles Darwin and his
Theory of Evolution the main tenets are natural
selection and adaptation

**The greatest contribution of functionalism is its practical

application to solving real world problems and this has
made an impact in the psychological community even to this
day.
c. Psychoanalysis was
founded by Sigmund
Freud (1895-1939) who
shifted the study of
conscious experiences to
unconscious ones
- Austrian physician that focused on illness
- psychoanalytic theory of mental disorders both a
method of treatment and a theory of the mind
Psychoanalytic approach
behavior reflects combinations of conscious and
unconscious influences
drives and urges within the unconscious component
of mind influence thought and behavior
- He believed that unconscious forces determine and
control our behavior. Psychoanalysis formally began in
1895 upon the publication of Studies on Hysteria
which he collaborated with Josef Breuer.
**Psychoanalysis is originally a theory for
understanding mental disorders which he developed
into a theory of personality development. Other than
the concept of unconscious, Freuds significant
contribution in the history of psychology is his main focus
of study scientist before him focused on the mind works
while Freud focused on how we become the person
that we are.
Divisions of the mind:
1. Id irrational and emotional part of the mind
2. Ego the rational part of the mind
3. Superego the moral part of the mind
d. Behaviorisms forerunners
were Edward L.
Thorndike(1874-1949)
and Ivan Pavlov (1849-
1936) who made
researches and
contributions on learning.
Its main proponent,
however, was John B.
Watson (1878-1958) who
insisted that if psychology
is to become a science ,
then the focus of study
must be observable and
measurable behaviors John B. Watson
only. (1878-1958)
- psychologists should study overt behavior
- Watsons ideas were well received because
behaviorism thrived and flourished in the United
States until the 1980s under the leadership of B.F.
Skinner.
B. F. Skinner (19041990)
American psychologist at
Harvard
studied learning and effect of
reinforcement
behaviorism
e. Gestalt psychology was becoming known in Germany at about
the same time that Behaviorism was becoming known in United
States. The proponents were:
1.Max Wertheimer (1880-1943),
2.Kurt Koffka (1886-19421) and
3.Wolfgang Khler (1887-1967)
They are credited for their contributions in the study of
perception believing that perception results from the
organization of perceptual experiences into coherent
wholes. Their basic premise states that the whole is different
from the sum of its parts because the whole depends on the
relationships among the parts. The gestalts believed that
perception is more than a simple summation of the different
elements of a pattern. Instead, when these elements are
organized, they form a completely different pattern.
 MODERN PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY
1. PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
- Developed by Sigmund Freud
- both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
behavior reflects combinations of conscious and
unconscious influences
drives and urges within the unconscious component
of mind influence thought and behavior
early childhood experiences shape unconscious
motivations
- Freud argued that forces beyond our
conscious awareness determine our
behavior. These forces, which reside in the
unconscious mind are inner desires, wishes
and motivations that are mostly
unacceptable to the self and are in conflict
with societal demands.
- Freud examined dreams and slips of the
tongue (Freudian slips) to prove his claim
because he believed that they are
gateways to the unconscious mind
2. BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE
- View of behavior based on experience or learning
- insisted on the study of overt and measurable behaviors
- The revolutionary movement was led by John B. Watson
who strongly believed that environmental influences
through conditioning and reinforcement shape our
behavior.
- It is generally believed that this perspective has a
pessimistic view on the nature of people because it is
highly mechanistic and its basic assumptions that we do
not have control over our behavior seem to suggest that
we are victims of circumstances. However, by examining
it closely, it appears that Watson provided a positive
view on people instead.
- Apparently, his assertions also suggest that we are
not restricted by our inherent abilities, nor are we
limited by some innate tendencies and especially not
controlled by forces outside our awareness. Instead
he argued that we can take some control over our
behavior through learning and the manipulation of
our environment.
- Behavioral perspective has widespread application
which includes understanding how we learn, dealing
with stress and anxiety and changing maladaptive
behaviors to name a few.
- Two Types of Conditioning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Basic principles of operant conditioning.
- Two significant changes in the history of psychology that led to the
gradual movement of the cognitive perspective:
1. People were starting to lose confidence in behaviorism because it
failed to explain complex behaviors like language. Language is not
simply shaped by environment, in fact in more recent researches,
led by Noam Chomsky, showed that language development is
even dependent on some innate dispositions. Eventually, although
Watson and Skinner were successful at directing people away from
focusing on mental states and consciousness, people were slowly
returning to focus on what Wundt emphasized on decades ago.
2. The advent of computer science. The cognitive perspective
assumes that the mind processes information similar to a computer.
Thoughts, motivations, and other mental states are encoded and
manipulated in the mind, stored or remembered and retrieved
when needed, similar to how a computer processes data
information processing approach.
- Influences included
Piaget studied intellectual development
Chomsky studied language
Cybernetics science of information processing

- One person has always been associated for its

eventual founding Ulric Neisser, who published the
first book on the approach aptly titled Cognitive
Psychology in 1967.
- The leading figures of this perspective are Carl Rogers and
Abraham Maslow who contradicted the views of behaviorism
and psychodynamic perspectives. For behaviorism, it rejected
the mechanical view of behaviorist suggesting instead that
humans are more than machines studied inside laboratories and
we are not simply shaped by our environment. For
psychodynamic, it focuses on the study of normal individuals
particularly in helping them live a better life. This is a shift from
Freuds emphasis on the study of individuals with mental
disorders.
- The main tenet of this perspective is that we have control over
our behavior something that Watson and Freud clearly did not
believed in.
- Rogers and Maslow believed that we all the natural tendencies
toward growth and the realization of our full potentials and
abilities.
 Carl Rogers (19021987) Abraham Maslow (19081970)
behavior reflects innate
focus on self-determination
actualization
and free will
theory of motivation
more positive view of basic emphasizing psychological
forces than Freuds growth
- It started at the time of Hippocrates with his work
on anatomy and Gall with his attempt on mapping
the brain
- It focuses on the influence of nervous system, the
brain , and other bodily functions on behavior.
- It emphasizes on the influence of genetics and
heritability.
- Two approaches in psychology that emerge out of this
perspective:
1. Cognitive neuroscience combination of cognitive
psychology and neuroscience which focuses on
mapping the brain, determining the functions of each
part and finding how those brain function give rise to
mental activities.
2. Evolutionary psychology rests on the assumption
that biology and evolution shape our behavior. This
view believes that behaviors, motivations, and
cognitions are wired or programmed in the brain and
passed on from one generation to another. It assumes
that behaviors are not simply learned but are
genetically predisposed.
1. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY studies the relationship
between biological functions and processes to behavior.
Approaches:
a.Behavioral genetics focuses on the influence of
genes and heritability on behavior
b.Behavioral neuroscience concentrates on the
mapping and functioning of the brain and their
relation to behavior.
c.Evolutionary psychology centers on the
biological underpinnings of behavior that are
genetically inherited from evolutionary ancestors.
2. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY study of
growth and change across the life span. Part of
understanding how we grow and change is also an
understanding our social and personality
development.
Related to the fields of:
a. Social psychology concerned with the
study of social relationships, interactions,
attitudes and perceptions
b. Personality psychology examines the
development of personal characteristics,
consistency of traits and dispositions and the
similarities or uniqueness of every individual
3. CLINICAL AND COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY
applied discipline of psychology that studies the origin
of maladaptive behavior and its corresponding
treatment. The two basically differ in terms of training,
setting, focus and client base. Clinical psychologists
usually receive training in the diagnosis and treatment of
people with mental disorders and work in a clinical
setting; while counseling psychologists usually receive
training in helping individuals, particularly students, make
adjustments in their lives or plan their career.
4. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY largely based on
either the behavioral or cognitive perspectives. It
examines behavior through experimentations and studies
how people perceive, learn, or think about the world.
5. SCHOOL AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
focuses on how children learn and the adjustments
they make in school. The difference between school
and educational psychology is that school
psychologists work directly with children and help
those with emotional or social problem; while
educational psychologists generally make
researches on teaching methods and learning
processes that help train teachers.
6. INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
an applied discipline of psychology that extends
psychological facts and principles in studying issues
and problems off individuals in the field of work.
 METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
As a science, it adheres to the scientific principles of empirical
investigations, objective collection and measurement of data, and
the ethical responsibilities of research. Another important feature
of psychological tests is the standardized procedure.
Standardization simply rest on the notion that a test must follow a
uniform procedure, administration, analysis and evaluation. This
allows the validity and reliability of any test.
Scientific investigation of any psychological event or construct
begins with the formation of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is simply
describes as an educated guess and remains as such until tests
prove or disprove it. there are two main tests of hypothesis in
psychological research, namely: descriptive and experimental
research.
1. Descriptive Research
- strategies for observing and describing behavior
- A systematic investigation of a person, group or
patterns of behavior that provides detailed
characteristics or classifications of psychological events
or issues being studied
- Describes a set of facts
- Looks for relationships between facts
- Predicts what may influence the facts
- May or may not include numerical data
Example: Measure The Percentage of New Students
From Out-of-state Each Year Since 1980
Methods:
a.Archival research researching on any existing document
and records from institution or media
b.Survey research uses survey questionnaires or interview;
designed to investigate opinions, behaviors, or
characteristics of a particular group. Usually in self-report
form.
Samples and Sampling
Populationlarge (potentially infinite) group represented
by the sample. Findings are generalized to this group.
Sampleselected segment of the population
Representative sampleclosely parallels the population
on relevant characteristics
Random selectionevery member of larger group has
equal change of being selected for the study sample
c. Case study - in depth investigation of a
single individual or a small group of persons
d. Naturalistic observation involves investigating
behaviors as they occur in natural situation or
environment
e. Correlational Research
- examines the relationship between two sets of variables from
which inferences can be made; provides insights on how two
variables are related
- Correlation cannot prove causation (i.e. 1. Does playing video
games cause a decline in academic achievement? 2. Does
playing video games cause more aggressive behavior?)
- Collects a set of facts organized into two or more categories
- Correlation reveals relationships among facts
- Correlation coefficient estimation of the degree of relationship
between variables; numerical indication of magnitude and
direction of the relationship between two variables
Positive correlationtwo variables vary systematically in the
SAME direction
Negative correlationtwo variables vary systematically in
OPPOSITE directions
 Hypothesis - tentative statement about the relationship
between variables
Operational definition - precise description of how the
variables will be measured
Experiments - Direct way to test a hypothesis about a
cause-effect relationship between factors called
variables (Variables are factors that can vary in ways
that can be observed, measured, and verified)
One variable is controlled by the experimenter
(i.e., type of video game--violent vs. non-violent)
The other is observed and measured (i.e.,
aggressive behavior)
- strategies for inferring cause and effect relationships
among variables
- Applies rigorous methods of standards procedures,
measures and interpretations
- Important concepts/terms to remember:
a.Experimental Variables- Independent Variable (IV) and
Dependent Variable (DV)
b.Experimental Manipulation and Treatment
c. Control group and experimental group
d.Experimental Design Random selection and random
assignment
e. Variations in Design - Placebo control group and
Double-blind study
a. Experimental Variables
Independent Variable (IV)
the controlled factor in an experiment
hypothesized to cause an effect on another
variable
Must have at least two levels
categories male vs. female
numeric ages 10, 12, 14
Dependent Variable(DV)
the measured facts
hypothesized to be affected
b. Experimental Manipulation and Treatment
Experimental Manipulation changes the
experimenter makes or maintains in the and the
environmental setting
Treatment experimental manipulations given
to a particular group in the experiment
c. Control group and experimental group
Experimental vs. control group
experimental group gets treatment while
control group does not. It is because control
group serves as the baseline of the
behavior.
 Random selectionevery member of the
population being studied should have an equal
chance of being selected for the study;
participants are selected randomly
Random assignmentevery subject in the study
should have an equal chance of being placed in
either the experimental or control group ;
participants are assigned to different groups on
the basis of chance alone
**Randomization helps avoid false results
 Placebo control groupexposed to a fake IV
(placebo), the effects of which are compared to group
receiving the actual IV.
 NATURE AND NURTURE: A FAKE DICHOTOMY

Developmental Psychology is a branch of

psychology that studies group and change all
throughout the life span .
Nature nervous system, genes and
hereditability
Nurture environmental factors or experiences
 Fundamental Issues:
What is role of heredity vs. environment in
determining psychological makeup?
Is IQ inherited or determined early
environment?
Is there a criminal gene?
Is sexual orientation a choice or genetically
determined?
Mistake to pose as either/or questions
 Interactionists position interaction of nature
and nurture in the development of an individual
Genetic predispositions determine our
potentials and limitations in terms of
development
Environmental factors play a crucial role in
allowing us to reach those potentials as far as
genetic background would permit it to be
Example: motor development of an infant
How can we tell the extent of influence between
genes and environment?
Researches:
1. TWIN STUDIES
2. ADOPTION STUDIES
3. COMBINATION OF TWIN AND ADOPTION
STUDIES
 Heredity of traits
Human body contains billions of cells and each cell
contains nucleus.
Nucleus
Central part of the cell
Two important roles of nucleus:
1.Contains genetic information
2.Sustains the life of a cell
Contains 48 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs
and each of every pair is from each parent
- Rod-shaped structure that carries all genetic
information which determines our sex
- First 22 pairs are called autosomes (appear to
look the same for both males and females) while
the 23rd pair is called sex chromosome
(determines our sex)
- Females have two copies of x chromosomes, while
males have one copy of x and a smaller copy of y
chromosome
- Chromosomes contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),
a nucleic acid molecule that contains all our genetic
information
- Basic unit of heredity
- Give us instructions to the cell in performing
activities
- Manufacture proteins to sustain all the life-
supporting activities of the cell.
Heredity
- Passing of genetic traits and characteristics
Pattern of inheritance
1. Dominant-recessive gene principle
2. Sex-linked traits
- The manifestation of a trait or likelihood that a trait will
be exhibited, depends on whether the trait is dominant or
not.
- Dd: both pairs are dominant; the trait will surely be
displayed
- Dr: ONE PAIR IS DOMINANT AND THE OTHER IS
RECESSIVE; THE DOMINANT TRAIT WILL BE DISPLAYED
AND NOT THE RECESSIVE ONE
- Phenotypes traits that are actually displayed
- Genotypes genetic coding of trait or set of traits that
one inherits
Phenotype: white skin color of both parents
Genotype : WW
 MOTHERS SKIN COLOR
(WHITE SKIN COLOR FROM BOTH GENETIC
PARENTS) CHANCE
WW
W W
FATHERS SKIN WW
W WW 50%
COLOR (HOMOGENOUS)
(COMBINATION OF
WHITE AND DARK Wd
SKIN COLOR d dW (HETEROGENOUS) 50%
FROM PARENTS)
Wd

DOMINANT TRAIT RECESSIVE TRAIT

GENOTYPE : W d
PHENOTYPE : WHITE DARK
 MOTHERS SKIN COLOR
(COMBINATION OF WHITE AND DARK GENETIC
SKIN COLOR FROM PARENTS) CHANCE
Wd
W d
FATHERS SKIN WW Wd
COLOR W (HOMOGENOUS: (HETEROGENOUS 25%
(COMBINATION OF WHITE SKIN) CARRIER)
WHITE AND DARK dd
SKIN COLOR dW
(HOMOGENOUS:
FROM PARENTS) d (HETEROGENOUS 25%
DARK DKIN)
Wd CARRIER)

NOTE: A TOTAL OF 50% CHANCE FOR HETEROGENOUS CARRIERS

- The trait is most likely be exhibited by particular
gender
- Men: one x chromosome contains the recessive
genes that have no matching gene on y
chromosome. Meaning there is no dominant trait
to counter it with (from the 22 chromosomes)
- Women: two x chromosomes, one pair (from the
22 chromosomes) may override the effect of the
less dominant trait
*SEX-LINKED CHARACTERISTICS
DOMINANT TRAITS RECESSIVE TRAITS
EYE COLORING BROWN EYES GRAY, GREEN, HAZEL, BLUE
FARSIGHTEDNESS NORMAL VISION
NORMAL VISION NEARSIGHTEDNESS
VISION
NORMAL VISION NIGHT BLINDNESS
NORMAL VISION *COLOR BLINDNESS
DARK HAIR BLONDE, LIGHT, RED HAIR
NON- RED HAIR RED HAIR
HAIR CURLY HAIR STRAIGHT HAIR
HEAD FULL OF HAIR *BALDNESS
WIDOWS PEAK NORMAL HEADLINE
DIMPLES NO DIMPLES
UNATTACHED EARLOBES ATTACHED EARLOBES
FACIAL FEATURES
FRECKLES NO FRECKLES
BROAD LIPS THIN LIPS
 *SEX-LINKED CHARACTERISTICS
DOMINANT TRAITS RECESSIVE TRAITS
EXTRA DIGITS NORMAL NUMBER
FUSED DIGITS NORMAL DIGITS
SHORT DIGITS NORMAL DIGITS
APPENDAGES FINGERS LACK ONE JOINT NORMAL JOINTS
LIMB DRAFTING NORMAL PROPORTION
CLUBBED THUMB NORMAL THUMB
DOUBLE-JOINTEDNESS NORMAL JOINTS
IMMUNITY TO POISON IVY SUSCEPTIBILITY TO POISON IVY
NORMAL PIGMENTED SKIN ALBINISM
NORMAL BLOOD CLOTTING *HEMOPHILIA
OTHER
NORMAL HEARING CONGENITAL DEAFNESS
NORMAL HEARING AND SPEAKING DEAF MUTISM
NORMAL NO PKU PHENYLKETONURIE (PKU)
PRENATAL PERIOD
- All of us start with a single cell, zygote, or a fertilized egg
- Zygote union between the egg cell and sperm cell
- Moment of conception- moment when the sperm fertilizes
the egg
Stages of Prenatal Development
Conception
Gestation
Germinal periodfirst two weeks after
conception
Embryonic periodweeks three through
eight after conception
Fetal periodtwo months after
conception
until birth
 Conception occurs when a sperm cell penetrates
and fertilizes an egg cell
Successful conception depends on
ovaries releasing one healthy egg cell
egg cell migrates most of the way down the
fallopian tube
One sperm must penetrate the ovum to form a
zygote
 Germinal Stage
Fertilized egg is not yet implanted in the
uterus
Upon initial cell division the fertilized egg
becomes a zygote
At approximately 12 days following
fertilization, zygote is implanted in the
lining of the uterus
Cells specialize into what will become
organs
 Embryonic Stage
Differentiation of tissues into what will become
organs (organogenesis)
Movements to stimuli based on hard-wired
reflexes;
Critical period of pregnancy in that as
organogenesis occurs, anomalies can result in
miscarriage
Umbilical cord and placenta develop and provide
nutrition and oxygen to and remove waste from the
embryo
Developmental patterns:
Cephalocaudal Patterns - head-to-tail
Proximodistal Patterns - near-to-far
 Fetal Period
Begins approximately 8 weeks post
fertilization
Organogenesis is complete
At approximately 3 months, genitalia can be
identified
At approximately 4 months, movements can
be felt by the mother
At approximately 7 months fetus may be
viable (can survive outside the womb with
nutrition and temperature regulation support).
 Points at which key transitions occur tend to
be the most critical
Attachment to the uterine wall
Organogenesis tends to most vulnerable to
major malformations. (Germinal Stage)
Chronic exposure to toxins during fetal
stage linked to delay in fetal growth and
deficits in intellectual potential (fetal stage)
a. Genetic Factors
b. Maternal Condition
1. Mothers age Down syndrome
2. Mothers socioeconomic status - schizophrenia
3. Mothers emotional state
4. Mothers nutrition
5. Mothers illness
Rubella (German measles)can be transmitted
from pregnant mother to fetus; can result in
blindness, other physical problems, and death
HIVwithout medication can be transmitted from
pregnant mother to fetus
 Definition: substance increasing risk
for prenatal abnormalities
Critical periods: time when organ or
body part is most susceptible
Interaction effects
Caution is best
 Teratogens: Toxins that impact the developing
organism prenatally
Nicotine exposureincreased heart rate;
low birth weight; sudden infant death (SIDS)
Maternal Alcoholfetal alcohol syndrome
(mental retardation, physical abnormalities)
Drug use the fetus sort of become drug
dependent and suffer from withdrawal-like
symptoms (i.e. excessive crying and tremors)
upon birth
Teenage Pregnancy Domestic Violence
Babies having Seven to eight
babies--own growth percent of pregnant
is not complete women are beaten by
Pelvic cradle not partners; most more
ready than once
Threat to education High rate of
Responsibility not yet miscarriage
learned
Maternal malnutrition
VULNERABILITUY OF PRENATAL HAZARDS
week 8 of an embryo
 About 15 percent of couples are unable to
conceive or carry a pregnancy to term after
one year of unprotected intercourse.
Causes of male infertility involve the quantity or
strength of sperm produced.
Causes of female infertility involve structural
abnormalities in the Fallopian tubes or uterus or
a failure to ovulate and release mature eggs.
New technologies are now available to help
overcome infertility
Sensory abilities of the newborn
Neonate
Newborn (until four weeks)
- Visual acuity is anywhere between 20/200 and
20/600 which makes them very nearsighted till the
age of 2
- With good sense of hearing which is develop in the
last trimester of pregnancy
- Sense of touch is also fully developed
- Sense of taste and smell
 20/600 at birth, near adult levels
Visual Acuity
by 1 year

Color Sees some colors by 2 months,

has preferences by 4 months

Perceiving Patterns Prefer patterns at birth; face

scanning improves by 2 months
Depth Perception Developed by 7-8 months

Visual Begins by 4 months; all know

Expectations visual cliff by 6-to-12 months
 Perception of Patterns and Forms
Early Pattern Perception (0 to 2 Months)
Prefer high contrast patterns
Prefer moderately complex patterns
Prefer patterns that move
What patterns look
like to the young eye.
By the time these two
checkerboards are
processed by eyes
with poor vision, only
the checkerboard on
the left (6x6) may
have any pattern left
to it. Poor vision in
early infancy helps to
explain a preference
for moderately
complex rather than
highly complex
stimuli. ADAPTED
FROM BANKS &
SALAPTEK, 1983.
Development of Depth
Perception
Use of visual cliff
Most infants at 6
months (crawling)
perceived depth
2 month-olds
showed decrease in
heart rate a sign
of interest, but not
fear
Experience through
motor development
is important
 Signs of vision problems:
Rubbing eyes, blinking, squinting.
Irritability at games requiring distance vision.
Closing one eye, tilting head to see, thrusting
head forward to see.
Cataracts thickening eye lens that causes vision to
become cloudy, opaque, distorted
Glaucoma damage to optic nerve because of
pressure created by buildup of fluid in eye
Macular degeneration involves deterioration of
retina
 Fetus hears in last 2 months of pregnancy
Newborns
Discriminate sounds based on loudness, duration, direction, and
frequency (cannot hear soft sounds well)
display auditory preferences (Prefer mothers voice than
other women)
sensitive to human speech (Sensitive to phonemes, even
better than adults especially if sounds are not part of the
adults spoken language)
Infants less sensitive to sound pitch
Hearing loss can adversely affect development (often due to ear
infections)
Most childrens hearing is inadequate
Otitis Media: middle ear infection
 Taste and Smell
Prefer sweet over sour, bitter, or salty
Avoid unpleasant odors
Recognize mother by smell (if breast-
fed)
Touch, Temperature, and Pain
Touch enhances development, allows
exploration of environment
Sensitive to temperature
Sensitive to pain even at 1 day
Reflexes
Built-in reactions to stimuli:
Govern newborns movements
Genetically carried survival mechanisms
Allow adaptation to environment
Provides opportunity to learn
1. Rooting turning the head and opening the mouth in the
direction of a touch on the cheek. Reaction when infants
cheek is stroked or side of mouth touched
2. Sucking sucking rhythmically in response to oral
stimulation.
3. Gag reflex clearing the throat
4. Moro reflex startle response in reaction to sudden,
intense noise or movement
5. Babinski reflex fanning out of the toes when you ran
your fingers down the sole of the foot
6. Palmar/Grasping reflex curling the fingers around an
object. Occurs when something touches infants palms;
infant response is to grasp tightly.
7. Other reflexes swallowing, burping, swimming, walking
1. Gross Motor Skills motor skills that
involve large-muscle activities (milestones
achieved)
2. Fine Motor Skills more finely tuned
movements, such as finger dexterity.
 Motor skills that involve large-muscle
activities (milestones achieved)
Infancy
Development of posture
Locomotion and crawling
Learning to walk
Help of caregivers important; cultural
variation exists
More skilled and mobile in second year
Milestones in Gross Motor Development
 Involves more finely tuned movements, such as
finger dexterity.
Infancy: Reaching and grasping
Size and shape of object matters
Experience affects perceptions and vision
Early Childhood: Pick up small objects
Some difficulty building towers
Age 5: hand, arm, fingers move together
 Genetic inheritance proposed, unproven
Preference of using one hand over other
Right-handedness dominant in all cultures
Right hand preference in thumb-sucking
begins in the womb
Head-turning preference in newborns
Preference later leads to handedness
 95% of right-handed primarily process
speech in left hemisphere.
Left handed:
Are more likely to have reading problems
Show more variation
Have better spatial skills
More common among mathematicians,
musicians, artists, and architects
 Temperament early indicator of
personality; basic and innate inborn
predisposition to consistently behave and
react in a certain way; not learned
Patterns of Temperament
1. Easy
2. Difficult
3. Slow-to-warm-up
Patterns of Temperament
Easyregular rhythmicity (pattern of
wakefulness or sleepiness);adaptable,
positive mood, regular habits
Difficult irregular rhythmicity, intense
emotions, irritable, cry frequently
Slow-to-warm-up between easy and
difficult temperament; low activity,
somewhat slow to adapt, generally
withdraw from new situations
 Crying
Smiling
Laughing
Babbling
Fear
- Manifested in the forms of anxiety (6-7
months)
1. Stranger anxiety fear of strangers
2. Separation anxiety being away from the
primary caregiver
ATTACHMENT
- affectionate relation/emotional bond
between child and primary caregiver
- a reciprocal relationship rather than linear
MISCONCEPTIONS:
1. Belief that it is only between mother and
child
2. Belief that attachment is often initiated
by an adult.
1. Konrad Lorenz
- animal ethologist who became famous for his research
investigations on goslings
- Imprinting
He discovered that upon hatching , the gosling will
become attach to the first moving object it sees, which
usually is the mother. Instinctively, the gosling will follow
the mother everywhere it goes and copies mostly
everything she does.
- His theory suggests that in humans, attachment is also a
form of adaptive mechanism a behavior that is
programmed in the brain through our long history of
evolution
2. John Bowlby
- Believed that attachment is an innate process
- Babies have natural tendency to cling, smile,
and make cooing sounds which attracts most
adults to develop close emotional bond with
them
3. Harry Harlow
- known for his experiments on rhesus
monkeys
- *see next slide for the application of
scientific method in his investigation
1. QUESTION
Why infants become attach 5. REPORT RESULTS
to their mothers?
On human infants, the kind
of nursing (breastfeeding)
that the mother gives her
baby makes it difficult to
2. HYPOTHESIS isolate food and security
Attachment results from the
mother providing food to the
infant.

4. DRAW CONCLUSION
Between the two surrogate
3. TEST HYPOTHESIS mothers, the infant rhesus
Provide two kinds of monkeys became attached
surrogate mothers for the to the terry cloth mother
rhesus monkeys because of the soft contact
comfort it provides
a. Bare white monkey that
provided milk Milk is not enough; a sense
of security is more
b. Covered with terry cloth important
material and does not have
milk
 Used to study quality of attachment in infants
Ainsworth believed that the kind of reaction that
the infant displays is a reflection of the kind of
attachment the infant has to their mother
Observe childs reaction when mother is present
with the child in a strange room
Observes the childs reaction when mother leaves
Observes the childs reaction when mother returns
1. Securely attached infants who were upset whenever the
mother left the room but were happy when she returned; infants
calmed down when the mother soothes them
2. Insecurely attached
a. Avoidant type infants did not cry when the mother left the
room nor seek contact upon her return
b. Ambivalent type infants reactions are mixed infants
were already anxious even before the mother left the
room; they get upset when the mother left; seek contact
upon her return but angry at the same time and resistant at
the mothers attempt to calm them down.
3. Disorganized-disoriented type upset when the mother left,
but displayed a confused reaction whether to avoid or
approach the mother when she returned
 It influences academic competence and social behaviors
1. Securely attached basically competent; with good
social skills; and tend to develop close friends
2. Insecurely attached tend to be less prepared for the
demands of the school; exhibit hostile behavior; and
become bullies to other children while other become
inhibited and shy away from other people
3. Disorganized-disoriented type children who are
unable to bond with other people
The kind of attachment the infant has with the primary
caregiver/mother becomes the template for adult
relationship
 Ainsworth believed that it depends on the type
of caregiving provided by the primary
attachment figure
Types of Caregiving
1. Sensitive responsiveness attends to the needs
of the infant whenever the infant needs it;
results to secure attachment
2. Insensitive responsiveness the needs of the
infant are not satisfied; produces insecure
attachment
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD
Jean Piaget (18961980) Swiss psychologist who
became leading theorist in 1930s (observed the
developmental changes of his own children which
was mainly concerned with how the mind
(cognition) of a child develops)
According to Piaget, children do not passively
receive information from their environment but
instead actively construct an understanding of
their world (cognitive adaptation)
 Jean Piaget was born in 1896 in Neuchtel,
Switzerland, and died in 1980 in Geneva,
Switzerland.
At age 11, he wrote a paper on an albino
sparrow, which was published and was the
start of his famous career.
After graduating high school, he attended
the University of Zurich, where he became
interested in psychoanalysis.
He married in 1923 and had three children,
Jacqueline, Lucienne and Laurent.
Piaget studied his childrens intellectual
development from infancy.
 Cognitive adaptation allows the formation of
cognitive structures called schemes (refers to
mental representation of the world or reality) ,
through the complimentary process of
assimilation and accommodation
Assimilationprocess of taking in new
knowledge or a new experience by
integrating the new thing he discovered
Accommodationprocess by which we
change our way of thinking because of new
knowledge
A new information that does not fit an existing
scheme (confusion) is called as disequilibrium.
 According to Piaget, the natural response of the child
is to gain equilibrium (a balanced cognitive state) by
trying to adapt to the situation either by choosing to
accept the new information or ignoring it all together.
Cognitive development is a function of both age and
experiences
Piagets approach
Primary method was to ask children to solve
problems and to question them about the reasoning
behind their solutions
Discovered that children think in radically different
ways than adults
Proposed that development occurs as a series of
stages differing in how the world is understood
1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth 2)
2. Preoperational Stage (age 27)
3. Concrete Operational Stage (age 712)
4. Formal Operational Stage (age 12 adulthood)
 Information is gained through the senses
and motor actions
Child perceives and manipulates but does
not reason
Symbols become internalized through
language development
Object permanence is acquired
During this stage, the child begins to
develop:
Reflexes
Habits
Hand-eye coordination
Object Permanence (knowing something
exists, even though it cant be seen)
Experimentation and creativity. Piaget
referred to the children in this stage as
little scientists.
Trial and error experiments
 Emergence of symbolic thought (mental
representation)
Pretend play plays which are highly
imaginative and symbolic (i.e. playing as doctor)
Animism pretending that objects (i.e. dolls) are
alive by talking to them or treating them as a
family member
Lack of the real concept of conservation
(Principle of Conservation physical appearance
or form of an object does not tell its physical
properties)
 Limited problem solving ability
Egocentrism thinking about the world is entirely
dependent on their own perspective
During this stage, the child begins to develop:
Ability to represent objects with images and
words
Language skills
Imagination
Children learn through imitation and play during
this stage. They begin to use reasoning, however it
is mainly intuitive, instead of logical.
 Increasingly logical thought
Less egocentric
Ability to understand that physical
quantities are equal even if appearance
changes (conservation)
Limited to problem solving based on
concrete experiences; inability to reason
abstractly or hypothetically
 Concept of reversibility making changes
or undoing changes by simply reversing an
earlier action
During this stage, the child begins to
develop the fundamentals of logic:
a. Classification ability to sort objects
b. Categorization ability to classify
objects
 Hypothetico-deductive reasoning emerges
gradually
Formal logical and analytical reasoning
Ability to engage in abstract thinking
Continues to develop into adulthood
During this stage, the child begins to develop:
Ability to hypothesize, test and reevaluate
hypotheses
 PARENTING STYLES BY DIANA BAUMRIND
1.AUTHORITARIAN STYLE parenting style with rigid and
strict rules wherein children are expected to follow
completely; whenever their child to do so , they engage
in punitive form of punishment
- Possible behaviors of children: unfriendly, timid,
unsociable
2.PERMISSIVE STYLE parents are undemanding and very
lax or inconsistent in the rules and regulations they set
- Possible behaviors of children: immature, dependent,
and have little self-control
3. AUTHORITATIVE STYLE governed by democracy;
parents set firm rules but encourage children to have
some form of independence
- Possible behaviors of children: good social skills,
self-reliant and independent

PARENTING STYLES BY ELEANOR MACCOBY AND

JOHN MARTIN
4. UNINVOLVED STYLE parent is hardly involved in
the rearing of the children; parents tend to be
emotionally detached to their children
- Possible effects on children: development of some
behavioral problems
1. FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Early experiences play a large role in personality
development and continue to influence behavior later in
life.
personality develops through a series of childhood
stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of
the Id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This
psychosexual energy, or libido (sex drive), was
described as the driving force behind behavior.
2. ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Behavior is based on cultural experiences.
Each person has the ability to choose their path when it
comes to his eight stages.
FREUDS PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
According to him from birth on, we have an innate
tendency to seek pleasure, especially through physical
stimulation and particularly through stimulation of
parts/zones of the body which are sensitive to touch
(erogenous zone) :
The mouth
The anus
The genitals
Various body zones are active as per the age and
stage or there occur shift of dominant erogenous zone
from one age/ stage to other.
 If the child needs at one of the psychosexual
stages were either unsatisfied or over satisfied,
fixation would take place.
This means the child would show continued
attachment to an old stage even after moving on
to a new one as per his/her age.
This results into problematic behavior patterns
 The oral stage
The anal stage
The phallic stage
The latency stage
The genital stage
 In this stage the infant obtains sensual pleasure
first by sucking and later by biting. The center
of libido is mouth.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through
gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
Also the infant is entirely dependent upon
caretakers, the infant also develops a sense of
trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
 Ways to satisfy the oral needs:
Feeding and contact with the mother.
Mouthing new objects.
relief of teething pain by biting.
A conflict at this stage occurs with a child being
weaned off the mothers breast
Signs of Fixation or effects on adult personality in
this stage are:
Overeating or Pessimism
Smoking Envy
Gullibility Suspicion
Dependency Passivity
 The region around the anus become highly sensitive
to the stimulation of holding on and letting go.
Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido
was on controlling bladder and bowel movements.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the
child has to learn to control his or her bodily
needs.
Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.
Toilet training is childs first encounter with
authority.
 First part of this stage involves pleasure
from expulsion of feces; latter part
involves pleasure from retention.
Fixation at first part
Messiness
Disordered
Fixation at second part
Excessive compulsiveness
Over conformity
Exaggerated self control.
 Parenting play a very important role in success of
this stage and development of personality.
Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using
the toilet at the appropriate time encourage
positive outcomes and help children feel capable
and productive.
Positive experiences during this stage served as
the basis for people to become
Competent
Productive
Creative
 If parent punish, ridicule or shame a child
for accidents or other inappropriate parental
responses can result in negative outcomes.
If parents take an approach that is too lenient,
Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality
could develop in which the individual is: messy ;
wasteful; destructive
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too
early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive
personality develops in which the individual is
Stringent - Rigid
Orderly - Obsessive
 The child grow more interested in their
genitals. At this age, children also begin to
discover the differences between males and
females.
In this stage, the focus of libido, where
pleasure is found, is in (pleasure of
genitalia):
Awareness of sexual organs
Love-hate relationship with the same-sex
parent
 Some critical episodes for development
occur during this stage, but these episodes
occur differently for boys (Oedipus
complex) and girls (Electra complex).
Signs of Fixation or effects on adult
personality in this stage are:
Reckless or afraid of love
Narcissistic
Self-Assured or Selfish
Poor Opposite sex relationships
 Occurs in boys
Desire for stimulation or masturbation of
his own genitals.
Have sexual/sensual desires for his
mother.
Boys begin to view their fathers as a rival
for the mothers affections. The Oedipus
complex describes these feelings of
wanting to possess the mother and the
desire to replace the father.
 The child also fears that he will be punished by the
father for these feelings, an unconscious fear Freud
termed castration anxiety.
Starts identifying with father
The child will use identification as a defense
mechanism to protect himself/ego from anxiety
Identification with father
Reduces anxiety.
Behave like his father
Take up his ideas of right and wrong.
Tries to dress like his father.
 Occur in girls.
Attraction towards the father.
Notice that she does not have the sex organs
like her father and brother.
Feeling of being castrated by her mother which
makes her angry and she starts devaluating her
mother.
Still identify with her mother with the feeling
that by doing so she will stand better chance in
her own romantic relationship
 Identification with
mother in girls being
with feeling that by
doing so she will
stand better chance
in her own romantic
relationship.
It is well said saying
A father is a
daughters first love
 No erogenous zone of the body requires any form
of satisfaction
Sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into
other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social
interactions. Thus, it is called as sleeping period
Child usually becomes interested in making same
sex friends
This stage is important in the development of social
and communication skills and self-confidence.
A sign of fixation in this stage is a lack of close
friends
 Marked by puberty
Mature heterosexual interests appears.
A person becomes interested in making
intimate relationship
The more libidal energy that a child has at
this stage, the greater his or her capacity
will be to develop normal relationships with
the opposite sex.
 If the other stages have been completed
successfully, the individual should now be well-
balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this
stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas.
Signs of fixation in this stage include:
Guilt about sexuality
Feelings of inadequacy
Poor sexual relationships
Anxious feelings regarding the opposite sex
 Emphasizes the effects of social interactions
that occurs in life in personality
development
Biological because of belief that there are
innate drives to develop social relationships
and that these promote survival (Darwinism)
 Divided life span into eight psychosocial
stages, each associated with a different
drive and a developmental crisis to
resolve
Outcome of each stage varies along a
continuum from positive to negative
**Refer to pages 70-71 for the positive
and negative outcomes of each stage
 Infants must rely on others for care
Consistent and dependable caregiving
and meeting infant needs leads to a
sense of trust
Infants who are not well cared for will
develop mistrust
 Children are discovering their own
independence
Those who are given the opportunity to
experience independence will gain a sense
of autonomy
Children that are overly restrained or
punished harshly will develop shame and
doubt of making their choices or themselves
 Children are exposed to the wider social world
and given greater responsibility
Play age- child has the ability to engage in
more physical activities, become more
imaginative and able to set goals in the
activities
Sense of accomplishment leads to initiative,
whereas feelings of guilt can emerge if the
child is made to feel too anxious or
irresponsible
 Stage of life surrounding mastery of
knowledge and intellectual skills
School age
Sense of competence and
achievement leads to industry
Feeling incompetent and unproductive
leads to inferiority
 Ones identity is a mixture of traits of
people
Developing a sense of who one is and
where one is going in life
Successful resolution leads to positive
identity
Unsuccessful resolution leads to identity
confusion or a negative identity
 Identity development is important in
the development of intimacy
Time for sharing oneself with another
person
Capacity to hold commitments with
others leads to intimacy
Failure to establish commitments leads
to feelings of isolation
 Generativity comes from caring for others in
family, friends, and work leads to sense of
contribution to later generations
Stagnation comes from a sense of boredom and
meaninglessness
Stagnation is manifested by midlife crisis wherein
it seems that the middle adult engages in
inappropriate behaviors, wearing inappropriate
clothes for ones age, or seeking very young sexual
partners in a futile attempt to feel and look young
 Successful resolutions of all previous
crises lead to integrity and the ability
to see broad truths and advise those in
earlier stages
Despair arises from feelings of
helplessness and the bitter sense that
life has been incomplete
PHYSICAL CHANGES
- Growth spurt: sudden increase in height in weight; girls
experience this two years earlier than boys
- Gradual development of the reproductive organ which
leads to first menstruation (menarche - onset is between 1
to 17 years old; 12 as average) and first ejaculation
(spermarche - onset is between 12 to 16 years old; 13 as
average)
- Secondary sex characteristics
Girls: development of breast and rounding of the hips
Boys: deepening of the voice, development of muscles,
and growth of facial and chest hairs
 Genital period (Freuds Psychosexual Theory of
Development): adolescent begins to form intimate
relationship with the opposite sex
Stage 5 (Adolescence: 12-20) Identity formation vs.
Role Confusion (Erik Eriksons Psychosocial Theory of
Development)
Marcias Identity Status
- Proposed by James Marcia
- Crisis- conscious need to make a decision on
anything
- Commitment- result of a crisis; a personal investment
out of the decision made
1. Identity Achievement the person had experience a
crisis that eventually led to a commitment on the
decision made by himself in order to deal with the
crisis
2. Moratorium some adolescents are aware of the
crisis but postpone a sense of commitment indefinitely
3. Foreclosure adolescents who never went through a
crisis but have a commitment on a decision made for
them by other people
4. Identity confusion the individual experiences no crisis
and consequently does not feel the need to make a
commitment on something
 Two prominent figures:
1. Lawrence Kohlberg
- Assumes that moral reasoning is dependent on
the cognitive development of the individual
- His theory is highly biased on males moral
reasoning
- His experiments on moral dilemmas led to the
assumption that the males moral reasoning
are based on the principles of justice and
fairness
 Preconventionalmoral reasoning is based on
external rewards and punishments; wanting rewards
and avoiding punishments
Conventionallaws and rules are upheld simply
because they are laws and rules; wanting to be a
good member of the society
Postconventionalreasoning based on moral
standards (principles of justice, dignity and
equality); living as an individual based on moral
standards and not based on conventions of the
society
 A focus on direct consequences
Negative actions will result in
punishments
Positive actions will result in rewards
 Reflects the understanding that
different people have different self-
interests, which sometimes come in
conflict
Getting what one wants often
requires giving something up in return
 An attempt to live up to the
expectations of important others
Positive actions will improve relations
with significant others
Negative actions will harm those
relationships
 To maintain social order, people must
resist personal pressures and follow
the laws of the larger society
 A balance is struck between respect
for laws and ethical principles that
transcend specific laws
Laws that fail to promote general
welfare or that violate ethical
principles can be changed,
reinterpreted, or abandoned
 ethical principles
Profound respect for sanctity of human
life
Moral principles take precedence over
laws that might conflict with them, i.e.,
conscientious objectors
2. Carol Gilligan
- Observed in her studies that the moral
reasoning of women is based on
compassion and their ability to take
responsibility and care for their loved
ones
- Suggested that women are willing to
make sacrifices to protect their loved ones.
PHYSICAL CHANGES
- Blurry vision
- Decreased in the ability to hear sounds
- Slower gait
- Susceptibility to fall
- Gray hair
- Wrinkles on the skin
 In general, anxiety about dying tends to
decrease in late adulthood
Kubler-Ross stages of dying
Denial
Anger
Bargain
Depression
Acceptance
Not universally demonstrated