Hydrochemical Characterisation of Groundwater in Parts of the

Volta Basin, Northern Ghana*

Y. S. Loh, B. Banoeng-Yakubo, S. M. Yidana, D. Asiedu, T. Akabzaa, and N. O. Jørgensen.

Loh, Y. S., Banoeng-Yakubo, B., Yidana, S. M., Asiedu, D., Akabzaa, T. and Jørgensen, N. O. (2012),
“Hydrochemical Characterization of Groundwater in Parts of the Volta Basin, Northern Ghana”, Ghana Mining
Journal, pp. 24 - 32.

Abstract
Conventional graphical methods were applied to major ion concentrations and stable isotope data to determine the genesis and
evolution of the hydrochemistry of groundwater from fractured aquifers in the northern parts of Ghana. The analyses suggest
that groundwater hydrochemistry is controlled by the incongruent weathering of silicate minerals in the aquifers. Hierarchical
cluster analysis confirms the results and shows that anthropogenic factors also contribute to the groundwater chemistry. Mont-
morrillonite, apparently resulting from the incongruent dissolution of calcium and sodium rich feldspars in the rock matrix is
probably the most stable clay mineral phase in the system. Chloroalkaline indices (CAI) 1 and 2, calculated from the major ion
data suggest reverse cation exchange activity between Na+ and K+ in the water and Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the rock matrix. This
study finds that the groundwater in the area is classified into Ca-Mg-HCO3, mixed Ca-Mg-Na-HCO3 and Na-HCO3 water types,
which are typical of groundwaters influenced by silicate mineral weathering and ion exchange. Stable isotopes of oxygen and
hydrogen (δ18O and δ2H) show that groundwater originates from meteoric source, derived from rainfall which rapidly recharges
the aquifers through the weathered overburden and ingresses such as joints and fracture systems. Silicate mineral weathering,
which appears to be the main controlling process in the hydrochemistry, does not appear to influence the stable isotope data
since a plot of δ18O against EC is a straight line of zero slope.

1 Introduction (TDS) or salinity, temperature (T), and ions includ-

ing Ca2+, K+, Na+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42-, NO3- and HCO3-
The reliance on groundwater by farming communi- were examined. This is because these parameters
ties within the White Volta Basin for various pur- form the basic constituents of natural groundwater
poses cannot be over emphasized. A wide variety of and their respective variations help in characterising
uses of groundwater depend largely on its chemical the groundwater into different types. Krothe and
composition, which is controlled by natural and an- Bergeron (1981) noted that groundwater is classified
thropogenic factors. Naturally, the chemistry of into types based on prevalent chemical dominance in
groundwater is altered by a variety of geochemical milliequivalents per liter, such that groundwater of
processes as it moves along flow lines from recharge similar chemical composition form clusters, conse-
to discharge areas. According to Freeze and Cherry quently, characterising the aquifer into hydrochemi-
(1979), dissolved constituents in groundwater pro- cal facies (Fetter, 1994). The facies according to
vide clues on its geologic history, its interaction with Back (1960) reflect the effects of chemical processes
the soil or rock masses through which it has passed, in the lithologic environment and the contained
the presence of hidden ore deposits, and its mode of groundwater pattern. In this regard, Bajjali (2006)
origin within the hydrologic cycle. Various workers classified the water in the Nuaimeh area, Jordan as
(e.g., Hendry and Schwartz 1990; Hiscock et al., CaHCO3 type and explained that, it is a result of
1996 Arad and Evans, 1987; and Herczeg et al., short duration of water-rock interaction and dissolu-
1991, 1993) agree that the major ion chemistry of tion of carbonate aquifer. Karimi et al. (2005) simi-
groundwater is a powerful tool for determining sol- larly used the physical, chemical and isotopic char-
ute sources and for describing and understanding acteristics of spring water to characterise the main
groundwater evolution. Thus, understanding the evo- karst aquifers of the Alvand basin into two groups,
lution and origin of the groundwater in the fractured assessed the origin of the groundwater and settled on
aquifer within the basin is very crucial. Although the the geology, elevation and rate of karst development
quality of groundwater in Ghana is generally good as the main factors controlling the composition and
for multipurpose use, sanitary conditions around the seasonal variation of the groundwater. Major ion and
wellhead in most cases in the study area are very stable isotope geochemistry, was used by Tweed et
poor. This could lead to contamination from surface al. (2004) to define flow paths and inter-aquifer ex-
sources. change in fractured rock aquifer system in the Dan-
In this investigation, physical parameters such as pH, denong Ranges, Southeast Australia. The importance
electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids of the combined use of major and minor ions with

* Manuscript received July 12, 2010

Revised version accepted November 10, 2011

24 GMJ Vol. 13, January, 2012

stable and radiogenic isotopes in groundwater stud- May and 34°C in September. On the whole, the av-
ies have been expressed by Cartwright and Weaver erage annual temperature is about 30°C. Relative
(2005) who used the results to constrain flow sys- humidity during the wet season in the region gets to
tems, establish the criteria for identifying recently 40-70% and drops to about 15% during the rest of
recharged waters and assess groundwater use and the year with a mean annual relative humidity in the
vulnerability. In the same vein, sustainable ground- range of 37-46%. The guinea savannah woodland
water use in the White Volta Basin requires thor- vegetation belt is typical of the area and consists of
ough knowledge of basement hydrogeology and grass with scattered drought resistant trees such as
hydrochemistry so as to completely understand the the shea, the baobab, dawadawa, acacias and neem.
hydrochemical changes that are occurring in these
extensively exploited aquifers, establish the main
controls on the groundwater chemistry as well as to
understand the mode and rate of replenishment of
these aquifers.

The primary objective of this paper is to examine

hydrochemical and isotopic data of groundwater
acquired from hand-dug wells and boreholes with a
view to understanding the genesis and hydrochemi-
cal evolution of the groundwater from fractured aq-
uifers in parts of the Volta Basin. Conventional
graphical methods and Hierarchical cluster analysis
(HCA) have been used to characterize the ground-
water into various hydrochemical facies and to de-
fine the main controls on the groundwater chemistry.
Stable isotope values of oxygen (18O) and deuterium
(D) were used as important indicators to determine
the origin and to establish the recharge regimes of
the groundwater.

2 Description of the Study Area Fig. 1 Location Map of the Study Area
The study area is located within Longitudes 0º 30’
W - 3º 00’ W and Latitudes 9º 40’ N - 11º 00’ N and
3 Geological and Hydrological Setting
covers parts of three regions, namely, Upper East,
Upper West and the Northern regions of Ghana. The The area is extensively underlain by granite-
area is bordered to the north and west by the Repub- migmatite complex rocks grouped as Cape Coast
lic of Burkina Faso and Cote D’Ivoire respectively, granites (G1), Dixcove granites (G2) and undifferen-
south by the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana and the tiated granites and rocks of the Birimian Supergroup
east by the Republic of Togo (Fig. 1). of Early Proterozoic age (Leube et al., 1990) (Fig.
2). The Birimian Supergroup is made up of rocks of
The topography of the study area is generally undu- Birimian Sedimentary Basins and Birimian Volcanic
lating with gentle slopes. Except in areas where ma- Belts. These rocks outcrop in a N-S direction along
jor drainage interrupts their continuity, the undulat- the border with Burkina Faso at the western periph-
ing topography merges smoothly into one another. ery and in a NE-SW direction, the rocks of this su-
The drainage system of the area is composed of nu- pergroup lie at the central part of the Upper East
merous ephemeral streams. These streams form part Region. The rocks of the Birimian Sedimentary Ba-
of two main sub-basins; the Kulpawn and the Black sins are represented by great thicknesses of isocli-
Volta, which drain primarily into the Volta River. nally folded, steeply dipping, alternating phyllites,
While the Kulpawn is at the extreme east of the area, schistose greywackes, sheared conglomerates, slates
the Kamba and Bele River drain into the Black and argillaceous beds with some tuffaceous schist
Volta at the extreme west. and lava. The Birimian Volcanic Belts rock is domi-
The area falls within the tropical continental or sa- nantly of metabasalts and meta-andesites with vol-
vannah climatic zone and characterized by a single canic and pyroclastic origin. The rocks consist of
peak of rainfall and intense periodic droughts. The green lavas, tuffs and sediments with bands of phyl-
rains begin in March-April, with intermittent show- lites. They are largely folded and have undergone
ers until August-September when the rains are at low-grade metamorphism; where the basic volcanics
their best with monthly rainfalls as high as 200 mm. and pyroclastics have been altered extensively to
The daily temperature recorded in this region is at a chloritised and epidotised rocks that are termed
minimum of 18°C with maximum values of 42°C in greenstones (Kesse, 1985).

25 GMJ Vol. 13, January, 2012

 (Banoeng-Yakubo, 2000). Also, quartz veins and
pegmatites that are fractured and to some extent
brecciated due to brittle deformational activities
which affected them contain groundwater. Norgbe
(1996) grouped the aquifer types in the area into
three categories: the weathered rock aquifer which is
fracture related, the fractured quartz vein and the
fractured unweathered rock aquifer. These aquifers
are inter-related and can occur together. Recharge to
the aquifers is dominantly by direct rainfall. Infiltra-
tion of recharge water and the subsequent percola-
tion into the groundwater system is made possible
only if the fractures, joints and fissures or a combi-
nation of these features are well distributed, oriented,
frequent and interconnected. The aquifers in the area
are characterised by low transmissivity and storativ-
Fig 2 Geological Map of the Study Area showing ity values. Transmissivity values ranged from 7.5m2/
the Sampling Points day to 30m2/day (Norgbe, 1996) and storativity val-
ues recorded in the region ranged from 3x10-4 to
8x10-3 (CIDA/GWSC, 1980).
The G1 granites form about 70% of the area and are
noted to be the most abundant granites that have
intruded the Birimian Sedimentary Basin, hence are 4 Methodology
sedimentary basin granitoids. They occur as large;
highly migmatized synorogenic foliated batholiths. Ninety-five (95) groundwater samples were col-
They are generally granodioritic in composition i.e. lected from boreholes and hand-dug wells for analy-
they are potash-rich boitite and muscovite granites sis of major and minor ions in this study. Out of this
and granodiorites, porphyroblastic biotite gneiss, number, fifty-four samples in addition to three (3)
aplites and pegmatites with biotite schist pendants. surface water samples and a rainfall sample were
These granites, usually with fresh feldspars are char- also analyzed for stable isotopes of oxygen-18 (18O)
acterized by enclaves of schist and gneisses. The G2 and deuterium (2H). Fig. 2 shows the location of the
complex intrude the Birimian metavolcanics, hence sampling sites. The samples were collected in 250
are volcanic belt granitoids. These rocks consist of ml sterilized polythene bottles. For all samples col-
soda-rich, hornblende-biotite granite or granodio- lected, parameters such as electrical conductivity
rites, which grade into quartz diorite and hornblende (EC), temperature (T) and pH values were measured
diorite and are commonly tonalitic in composition. in the field. On-site testing was necessary for these
Also found in association with these rocks are por- parameters since they are likely to change during
phyritic biotite and biotite gneisses (Leube et al., transport. These variables were measured using a
1990). WTW Universal Conductivity Meter MultiLine P4
set and probes. The pH-meter was calibrated against
The tectonic lines of weakness that developed during a standard solution of 3 mol KCl each morning and
the Eburnean orogenic event facilitated extensive also during field work if unusual readings were
and deep weathering of the rocks in the study area made. The water samples were analyzed at the Eco-
and are enhanced where the fractures, joints, quartz logical Laboratory (Ecolab) of the Department of
veins and pegmatites are many and dense. Thick Geography and Resource Development at the Uni-
decomposed zones reaching depths of approximately versity of Ghana, Legon. The parameters analyzed
30 m to 50 m occur and are greatest in the Birimian include ions of Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+, Cl-, SO42- and
rocks (Banoeng-Yakubo, 2000). The rocks, espe- NO3- in milligram per liter (mg/ℓ) using Dionex DX
cially the micaceous and feldspathic schists usually 120 ion chromatograph (I.C). The bicarbonate ion
weather to clays and permeability is reduced. How- concentration in the water was determined by titra-
ever, relatively high yields are obtained from quartz- tion. The dataset used for Hierarchical Cluster
schists in the moderately decomposed zones. This Analysis (HCA) was transformed (log-transformed
subsequently implies that significant aquifers devel- and standardised). Rummel (1970) contends that
oped within the weathered overburden i.e., the re- these transformations do not only normalize and
golith and fractured bedrock in the area. Thus, the reduce outliers but also tend to homogenise the vari-
mode of groundwater occurrence in the area is de- ance of the distribution. HCA was applied with the
pendent primarily on the presence and extent of the aim of grouping a system of variables into clusters
weathered overburden, the saturated thickness of the based on similarities or dissimilarities within the
weathered zone, the areal extent and interconnection dataset. This was made using the Euclidean distance
of joints and fractures in the underlying bedrock for similarity measurement and the Ward’s method

26 GMJ Vol. 13, January, 2012

for linkage. Guler et al. (2002) explained that the cium rich feldspars. The water in the area with re-
combined use of the Euclidean distance and Ward’s spect to the fingerprint diagram may be grouped as
method produces the most distinctive groups where various combinations of Ca-Mg-Na with HCO3- wa-
each member within a group is more similar to its ter types.
fellow members than any other member from out-
side the group.
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of the Concentra-
tions of the Water Quality Parameters.
The stable isotopes (2H and 18O) analyses were car-
ried out at the Geological Institute of the University Std.
of Copenhagen using the Delta E class mass spec- Parameters Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation
trometer. A 1-10 mg portion of the water was re- pH 5.85 7.55 6.71 0.38
duced with zinc in a zinc-reaction furnace at 400- EC (Us/cm) 95.00 1346.00 390.79 201.94
415°C to prepare hydrogen for isotopic analysis TDS (mg/l) 58.27 728.54 214.35 109.75
based on Coleman et al. (1982) and Florkowski +
Na (mg/l) 9.00 71.85 22.85 10.87
(1985). Measurement of δ 18O was based on Dugan
K+ (mg/l) 0.75 175.58 6.51 18.03
et al. (1985) technique. The isotopic compositions of
water are reported as the deviation of D/H or 18O/16O Mg2+ (mg/l) 0.97 56.79 14.84 9.37
ratio from that of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Wa- 2+
Ca (mg/l) 0.00 104.90 25.29 16.02
ter (VSMOW) in parts per thousand ‰. -
The resulting data were subjected to internal consis- F (mg/l) 0.07 3.12 0.71 0.63
tency tests to ascertain sampling and analytical accu- Cl- (mg/l) 0.21 55.22 9.17 8.84
racy. Optimal analysis results showed cation-anion
difference less than 5%. The graphical techniques NO3- (mg/l) 0.00 194.65 29.46 37.85
used in this study include fingerprint diagram, Piper SO42-
(mg/l) 0.00 66.45 6.55 9.54
Trilinear diagram etc. These were prepared to aid in HCO3-
interpretation of the data and were made possible (mg/l) 61.02 573.59 199.15 94.93
using softwares as Aquachem 4.0, SPSS and Micro-
soft Excel.

5 Results and Discussion

5.1 Hydrochemical Characterization and Geo-
chemical Evolution of the Groundwater.
Table 1 shows a statistical summary of the hydro-
chemical parameters determined for the samples.
The study revealed a wide range of concentrations
and different compositions of the groundwater.
Schoeller’s fingerprint diagram (Fig. 3) gives a vis-
ual description of the comparative abundance pattern
of dissolved ions in each sample and also sorts the
hydrochemical data into groups. The compositional
variations of calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and
sodium (Na+) are such that it is very difficult to pin Fig. 3 Fingerprint Diagram of the Groundwater
point which one of them is commonly dominant Samples from the Study Area.
with the exception of UW19 where Ca>Mg and
clearly depicts a Ca-Mg-HCO3- water type.
The Piper diagram (Fig. 4) shows that the ground-
Potassium ion concentrations are generally low ex- water types that are significantly distinguished by
cept for UW28 where the value is high with corre- the positions they occupy in the diamond shape are
sponding high bicarbonate content, hence a K-Mg- Ca-Mg-HCO3, mixed water types and in a few cases,
HCO3- water type (Fig. 3). The concentration of the Na -HCO3. About 95% of the groundwater in the
K+ in the water is probably influenced by reverse area plot in the Ca2+ + Mg2+ and HCO3- + CO32 sec-
cation exchange activity with Ca2+. Bicarbonate ion tion of the diamond field. This water type is charac-
is the most dominant anion while chloride and sul- teristic of freshwaters generated from carbonate
phate ions (Fig. 3) are low in all the water samples. mineral weathering and the incongruent weathering
The dominance of the HCO3- ion in the groundwater of silicate minerals. Carbonate minerals are rarely
system is not unexpected since it is a by-product of present in the matrices of the aquifers in the study
the incongruent weathering of both albitic and cal- area. Therefore, the incongruent weathering of sili-

27 GMJ Vol. 13, January, 2012

cate minerals, and cation exchange processes are the 3.5

most probable sources of the observed water types 3.0

(Fig. 5). The observed water type also suggests ac-
tive recharge and short residence time waters 2.5

(Cloutier et al., 2006). Na-HCO3 waters form about

Na(meq/l)
3% of the total samples and those that represent 2.0

mixed water types form about 2%. This, according 1.5

1:1 Line
to Cloutier et al. (2006) may signify evolutionary
processes. 1.0

0.5

0.0
0 1 2 3

Cl (meq/l)

Fig. 6 A plot of Na vs. Cl for the Groundwater

Samples

2
a H+ against aMg2+/a2H+ would be a straight line of
slope 1 (Norton, 1974; Drever, 1988; Kumar et al.,
2008). Figure 7 is a plot of aCa2+/a2H+ against aMg2+/
2 +
a H for the study area. All the points plot close to
the 1:1 line and fall within the smectite
(montmorrillonite) stability field. Stability in the
montmorillonite field indicates arid to semiarid con-
ditions and groundwater flow under restricted condi-
Fig. 4 Piper Diagram for Hydrochemical Char-
tions. The plot cluster of the data within the Ca-
acterization of Groundwaters
smectite field implies the incongruent weathering of
high temperature feldspars which are present in the
aquifers in the area. Incongruent weathering of sili-
cate minerals to their clay mineral equivalents cre-
ates suitable sites for ion exchange activity. Two
indices of Base Exchange, chloroalkaline indices
(CAI) 1 and 2 were used in this study to constrain
the type of ion exchange occurring in the area. CAI 1
and 2 were calculated using Equations 1 and 2.

CAI 1 = (Cl- + (Na+ + K+))/Cl- Eq. (1)

CAI 2 = (Cl- + (Na+ + K+))/(SO42- + HCO3- + CO3- +

NO3-) Eq. (2)

where all species are measured in meq/l.

When there is an exchange between Na+ or K+ in the

Fig. 5 Variations in (Ca2++Mg2+) versus (SO42- +
rock and Ca2+ or Mg2+ in the groundwater, both indi-
HCO3-) for Groundwaters in the Area.
ces will be positive, and if there is reverse ion ex-
change prevalent in the area, both indices would be
negative (Schoeller, 1965; Kumar et al., 2008). A
A plot of Na versus Cl (Fig 6) revealed that Na in
scatter plot for CAI 1 and CAI 2 (Fig. 8) for the
the groundwater may have originated probably from
study area shows that almost all the points fall
the incongruent weathering of plagioclase particu-
within the negative portion for both indices, suggest-
larly albitic feldspar by CO2 charged meteoric re-
ing an exchange between Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the rock
charging waters or by ion exchange reactions since
with Na+ and K+ in the groundwater. Na+ ions are
most of the groundwater samples fall above the 1:1
most probably generated from the weathering of
line in the plot.
albitic feldspars in the rock and then undergoing
If silicate mineral weathering is an active process in cation exchange with Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions.
the hydrochemistry, then a plot of the logs of aCa2+/

28 GMJ Vol. 13, January, 2012

 
16
nure on farmlands and contribution of precipitation
14
to the water chemistry. All boreholes in the area
have troughs and receptacles where water is stored
12 for animal use. Many of these troughs and recepta-
cles are close to the boreholes and are poorly man-
Log(aCa 2+ /a 2 H + )

Ca-Smectite
10 Kaolinite aged. The source of high nitrate could, therefore, be
from animal droppings. Also the boreholes are

Mg-Smectite
8 mostly surrounded by farmyards which are manured
1:1 line
from animal droppings and, in some cases, inorganic
6
fertilisers such as NPK and sulphate of ammonia are
4
administered.

2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
2+ 2 +
Log (aMg /a H )

Fig. 7 An Activity Plot for the CaO-MgO-Al2O-

SiO2-H2O System in the Study Area.

Fig. 9 Dendogram (cluster tree) of the Hydro-

chemical Data from the Study Area

5.2 Environmental Isotopes

The δ18O and δ2H values for fifty groundwater sam-
ples, three surface water samples and a rainfall sam-
ple from the study area are presented on Table 2.
The δ2H and δ18O data points of the groundwater
Fig. 8 The Relationship between CAI 1 and CAI samples cluster around the GMWL (Fig. 10), sug-
2 for the Study Area gesting a meteoric recharge, derived from rainfall
which rapidly recharges the aquifers through the
weathered overburden and ingresses such as joints
The dendogram (Fig. 9) from the HCA performed and fracture systems. However, the relatively low
on the groundwater chemistry resulted in two main EC and TDS values of the groundwater in the study
clusters; one formed by EC, Mg2+ and HCO3- and area suggest that groundwater is relatively young. A
the other by Cl-, NO3- and SO42-. The clusters reflect plot of δ18O against EC for the study area is also
possible strong mutual correlations that exist among illustrated in Figure 11. The δ18O data does not ap-
these ions while the rest of the variables show little pear to change with increasing EC, suggesting that
correlation with each other. The first cluster, made the silicate mineral weathering which appears to
up of EC, Mg2+ and HCO3- shows that the chemistry influence the groundwater hydrochemistry in the
of the groundwater may probably be derived mainly area does not appear to affect the isotopic signature
from leaching of minerals and weathering of rocks, of the water. Generally, δ2H values are not affected
particularly, the biotite-rich granitic gneiss underly- by reactions within the aquifer materials at low tem-
ing the area. It also indicates that EC in the ground- peratures (Drever, 1988). In addition, silicate min-
water has a dominant contribution from Mg2+ and eral weathering in aquifers do not appreciably affect
HCO3-. δ18O signatures at low temperatures over short peri-
ods of time (less than 1 million years or so) (Clayton
The second cluster, which comprises Cl-, NO3- and et al., 1966; Drever, 1988). In Fig. 11, the δ18O val-
SO42-, most likely reflects the input from contami- ues plot along a horizontal line (slope = 0) against
nants arising from poor sanitary conditions around EC, indicating that the contact between groundwater
the boreholes, the use of organic and inorganic ma- and the rock material has not been long enough to
affect the δ18O.

29 GMJ Vol. 13, January, 2012

Table 2 Results of δ18O and δ2H on Groundwater isotope data may be a result of differences in re-
Samples from the Study area. charge elevation and seasonal and climatic factors
(Dansgaard, 1964). Because of shifts in climatic
Sample ID δ18O δ 2H Sample ID δ18O δ2H Sample ID δ18O δ 2H patterns, precipitation during the Pleistocene and
NG3
NG4
-4.14
-4.14
-22.5
-23.1
NG25
NG26
-3.9
-3.7
-20.2
-21.1
UW4
UW5
-3.75
-4.02
-19.8
-21.3
Tertiary differed cyclically in isotopic composition
NG6 -4.22 -24.4 NG27 -3.53 -19.3 UW6 -3.57 -19 from present day precipitation (Drever, 1988).
NG8 -4.24 -23.6 NG28 -3.76 -21.5 UW7 -3.59 -18.9
NG9 -4.21 -23.6 NG29 -2.17 -6.9 UW8 -4.02 -23.4
NG11 -4.7 -26.4 NR1 -4.11 -21.5 UW9 -3.77 -20.1 The deviations of the surface water samples from the
NG12 1.52 -1 NR2 -3.83 -19.9 UW10 -3.82 -20.2 GMWL are a result of evaporative enrichment of the
NG13 -3.82 -20.6 NR3 -3.97 -20.1 UW11 -3.86 -20.8
NG14 -4.07 -22.4 NR4 -4.27 -21.2 UW12 -3.67 -21.2 heavier isotopes. The groundwater sample that plots
NG16 -4.38 -25.1 NR6 -3.83 -22.9 UW28 -4.25 -23.7 in line with the surface waters (Fig. 10) gives evi-
NG17 -4.36 -24.1 NR7 -3.72 -19.6 UW39 -4.42 -25
NG18 -4.37 -25 NR8 -3.46 -17.8 UW39a -4.25 -23.9 dence of an evaporative feature.
NG19 -4.19 -22.9 NR9 -3.81 -20.2 UW57 -3.77 -20.3
NG20 -3.72 -21.3 NR10 -4.09 -22 UW58 -3.4 -18.2
NG21 -3.69 -20.4 NR11 -3.6 -19 NG2 (Surface Water) 5.33 33.7 6 Conclusions
NG22 -1.63 -11.9 UW1 -4.19 -22.8 NG30 (Surface Water) 2.69 10
NG23 -3.58 -19.7 UW2 -3.59 -19 NG20A (Surface Water) 1.23 1.8 Conventional graphical methods applied to the water
NG24 -0.87 -5.6 UW3 -3.8 -20.6 RN (Rain) -2.99 -7.5
samples from the study area identify three hydro-
chemical facies - Ca-Mg-HCO3, mixed Ca-Mg-Na-
HCO3 and Na-HCO3- and finds that groundwater
hydrochemistry in the study area is largely con-
trolled by the incongruent weathering of silicate
minerals in the aquifers, and reverse cation exchange
activity. Hierarchical cluster analysis confirms the
results and shows that the contribution of organic
and inorganic manure from agricultural activities
and unhygienic sanitation around wellhead in the
area also control the chemistry of the groundwater.
HCA indicates that EC in the groundwater has a
dominant contribution from Mg2+ and HCO3-. An
activity diagram plotted for the CaO-MgO-Al2O-
SiO2-H2O system suggests stability in the smectite
field which is indicative of arid – semiarid condi-
tions prevalent in the area.

Fig. 10 Plot of δ2H against δ18O of the Ground- The stable isotope (δ2H and δ18O) signatures of the
water Samples in the Study Area showing the groundwater show that groundwater in the area
GMWL originates from meteoric source. Groundwater of
meteoric origin generally have low dissolved solids
and are of good quality suggesting short residence
times and low contact surface area. The groundwater
samples have more negative isotope signatures rela-
tive to the rain sample. This can be attributed to cli-
matic and seasonal differences.

References
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hydrochemistry and environmental isotopes of
the Campaspe River aquifer system, north-
central Victoria, Australia, Journal of Hydrology,
95, pp. 63-86.
Back, W. (1960), Origin of hydrochemical facies in
Fig. 11 A Plot of δ18O against EC for the Study groundwater in the Atlantic coastal plain. Pro-
Area. ceedings, International Geological Congress
(Copenhagen), I, pp. 87-95.
Bajjali, W. (2006), Recharge mechanism and hydro-
The more negative isotope data of most of the chemical evaluation of groundwater in the
groundwater samples relative to the rain sample in Nuaimeh area, Jordan, using environmental iso-
the area (Fig. 10) can be attributed to climatic and tope techniques. Hydrogeology Journal, 14, pp.
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30 GMJ Vol. 13, January, 2012

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Authors
Yvonne Sena Akosua Loh holds an M.Phil in
Geology from the University of Ghana, Legon.
She is a Lecturer and researcher in Geology
specializing in hydrogeology with particular
interest in hydrochemistry of surface and
groundwater systems. Mrs Loh has been in-
volved in a number of projects such as the
DANIDA-ENRECA Hydrogeological Project at
the Department of Earth Science, University of Ghana.

Professor Bruce Banoeng-Yakubo holds a

PhD in Geology with emphasis on hydrogeol-
ogy, GIS, and Remote Sensing. He is the head
of the hydrogeology research group at the De-
partment of Earth Science and has over 40 peer
reviewed journal articles and several other
publications. His research interests are in the
areas of hydrogeology, hydrochemistry, remote
sensing, GIS, and structural geology. He has offered consultancy
services in a wide variety of fields in geology.

Dr. Sandow Mark Yidana holds a PhD in

Environmental Management with concentration
in Hydrogeology. His core research interests
are in the areas of numerical groundwater flow
and contaminant transport modeling and the
application of advanced statistical and geosta-
tistical techniques to multivariate datasets. He
teaches hydrogeology and geostatistics at the
Department of Earth Science, University of
Ghana, and has over 30 peer reviewed publications in interna-
tional journals.

Professor Thomas Akabzaa is a mineral

economist and Environmental Geoscientist. He
holds a PhD in Geology from the University of
Ghana and has offered consultancy services in a
wide range of fields in geology and environ-
mental geology. Prof. Akabzaa has researched
widely on the environmental consequences of
mining and mineral processing and has pub-
lished severally on acid mine/rock drainage, and the environ-
mental effects of mine spoils and tailings damns.

Daniel Asiedu is a Professor of Geology spe-

cializing in sedimentary geology and geochem-
istry, with particular interest in provenance of
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. His current
research activities focus on three main areas: (1)
petrology and geochemistry of siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks; (2) geochemistry and petro-
genesis of igneous rocks, and (3) hydrochemical
and water quality studies in sedimentary and
crystalline basement rocks. Research activities in these areas have
resulted in over 40 peer reviewed publications.

Niel Jørgensen is an Emeritus Professor at the Department of

Geography and Geology at University of Copenhagen. His re-
search interests are in hydrogeology and hydrochemistry and
application of stable isotopes (18O and 2H) and strontium isotopes
(87Sr/86Sr) as environmental natural tracers in groundwater stud-
ies. The research is focussed on the occurrences of saline ground-
water and infiltration of seawater in near coastal aquifers and
intrusion of saline formation water. A special topic is artificial
recharge and transport in the unsaturated zone. Research is in
particular conducted in development countries, Ghana and Na-
mibia, and funded by DANIDA, the Danish International Devel-
opment Authority.

32 GMJ Vol. 13, January, 2012