LANDSCAPE & ECOLOGY

CH. 01 – INTRODUCTION
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• ECOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF DWELLING UNITS OF ORGANISMS.
• DERIVED FROM LATIN WORD – OIKOS (Home or Dwelling) &
LOGOS (Study).
• IT IS THE STUDY OF ECO-SYSTEMS & THE INTER-RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN ORGANISMS & THEIR ENVIRONMENT.
• CONCERNED WITH THE BIOLOGY OF GROUPS OF ORGANISMS
AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO THE ENVIRONMENT.
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• AN ‘ECOSYSTEM’ IS A GROUP OF BIOTIC COMMUNITIES OF

SPECIES INTERACTING WITH ONE ANOTHER AND WITH THEIR
NON-LIVING ENVIRONMENT, EXCHANGING ENERGY AND
MATTER.
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• ECOSYSTEM- A REGION WITH A SPECIFIC AND RECOGNIZABLE
LANDSCAPE FORM SUCH AS FOREST, GRASSLAND, DESERT,
WETLAND OR COASTAL AREA.
•THE GEOGRAPHICAL, CLIMATIC
AND SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
FORM ITS NON-LIVING (ABIOTIC)
COMPONENT.

•THE LIVING PART OF THE

ECOSYSTEM IS REFERRED TO AS
ITS BIOTIC COMPONENT.

DEFN: - THE LIVING COMMUNITY OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN ANY

AREA TOGETHER WITH THE NON-LIVING COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS SOIL, AIR AND WATER, CONSTITUTE THE
ECOSYSTEM
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TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS:
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ECOSYSTEM: - THE LIVING COMMUNITY OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN
ANY AREA TOGETHER WITH THE NON-LIVING COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS SOIL, AIR AND WATER, CONSTITUTE THE
ECOSYSTEM

POPULATION: - A GROUP OF INDIVIDUALS OF A SINGLE SPECIES.

BIOTIC COMMUNITY: - A COMMUNITY IN THE ECOLOGICAL SENSE.
COMMUNITY: - IT INCLUDES ALL POPULATION OCCUPYING A GIVEN
DEFINED PHYSICAL AREA.
AN ECOSYSTEM CONSISTS OF THE COMMUNITY PLUS THE PHYSICAL,
NON LIVING ENVIRONMENT.
BIOSPHERE (ECOSPHERE): - IT IS A COLLECTION OF ECOSYSTEMS OF
THE EARTH.
THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF LIVING SPACEON EARTH IN THE SOIL, WATER
AND AIR (ATMOSPHERE, LITHOSPHERE & HYDROSPHERE) IS REFERRED
TO AS BIOSPHERE.
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UNDERSTANDING ECOSYSTEMS:
• WHAT DOES THE ECOSYSTEM LOOK LIKE?
• WHAT IS IT’S STRUCTURE?
• WHAT IS THE COMPOSITION OF IT’S PLANT AND ANIMAL
SPECIES?
• HOW DOES THE ECOSYSTEM WORK?

MAKING CONNECTIONS..
 UNIT 1 – LANDSCAPE & ECOLOGY
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
• ABIOTIC FACTORS:
• CLIMATIC:
• TEMPERATURE (Affects growth, reproduction, etc.)
• Light (Photosynthesis)
• Water (solvent for food, agent for chemical
transformation).
• EDAPHIC:
• Soil (Penetrable foundation for plant growth).
• BIOTIC FACTORS:
• Factors which depend directly on the vegetation
• Interaction at all levels.
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UNDERSTANDING ECOSYSTEMS:

Biotic components (Living things) Abiotic Components (Non-living things)

1. Autotrophic components 1. Gases
2. Heterotrophic components 2. Habitat:
• autotrophs – producers • Terrestrial environment
•Heterotrophs – consumers & • Aquatic environment
Deomposers

3. Inorganic / organic nutrients

4. Energy
5. Micro nutrients
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PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS & DECOMPOSERS
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STRUCTURAL ASPECTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
• INORGANIC ASPECTS – C, N, CO2, H20, ETC.
• ORGANIC COMPOUNDS – PROTIEN, CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS – LINK
BETWEEN ABIOTIC & BIOTIC ASPECTS.
• CLIMATIC REGIMES – TEMP, MOISTURE, LIGHT & TOPOGRAPHY.
• PRODUCERS – PLANTS
• MACRO CONSUMERS – LARGE ANIMALS
• MICRO CONSUMERS – ABSORBERS, FUNGI, ETC.
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FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
1. ENERGY
2. PRIMARY PRODUCTION
3. SECONDARY PRODUCTION
4. FOOD CHAIN
5. FOOD WEB
6. ENERGY FLOW
7. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
8. BIO-GEO CHEMICAL CYCLES
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1. ENERGY:
• ENERGY – THE ABILITY TO DO WORK.
• MAIN SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR AN ECOSYSTEM IS THE
RADIANT ENERGY OF THE SUN
• AMOUNT OF SOLAR RADIATION REACHING THE SURFACE OF
THE EARTH IS 2 CAL/CM2/MIN.
• UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS, MORE OR LESS CONSTANT AND
IS CALLED SOLAR CONSTANT OR SOLAR FLUX.
• PLANTS UTILIZE ONLY 0.02 % OF THE ENERGY THAT REACHES
THE EARTH. PLANTS CONVERT LIGHT ENERGY INTO CHEMICAL
ENERGY BY A PROCESS CALLED PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
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2. PRIMARY PRODUCTION:
•PRIMARY PRODUCTION REFERS TO THE AMOUNT AND RATE
OF ENERGY PRODUCED BY AUTOTROPHS IN AN ECOSYSTEM.

•EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF GRAMS OR KILOCALORIES PER

METER2 PER DAY OR PER YEAR.
3. SECONDARY PRODUCTION:
•ENERGY TRAPPED BY PRODUCERS IS UTILIZED BY A CONSUMER.
•PRODUCERS, DIRECTLY CONSUMED BY THE HERBIVORES, IN
TURN, EATEN BY THE PRIMARY CARNIVORES IN TURN,
CONSUMED BY SECONDARY CARNIVORES.
•CONSUMERS STORE SOME AMOUNT OF ENERGY IN THEIR
TISSUES.
•THIS ENERGY, STORED BY THE CONSUMERS, IS CALLED
SECONDARY PRODUCTION.
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4. FOOD CHAINS:
•TRANSFER OF ENERGY AND NUTRIENTS FROM ONE FEEDING
GROUP OF ORGANISMS TO ANOTHER IN A SERIES IS CALLED
FOOD CHAIN.
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4a. TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS:
•GRAZING FOOD CHAIN
•DETRITUS FOODCHAIN
•GRAZING FOOD CHAIN – STARTS FROM LIVING PLANTS,
THROUGH HERBIVORES AND ENDS IN CARNIVORES.

•DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN – STARTS FROM DEAD ORGANIC

MATTER AND ENDS IN IN-ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.

IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS, DETRITUS REFERS TO LEAF

LITTER AND OTHER ORGANIC MATTER INTERMIXED WITH
SOIL, HERE KNOWN AS HUMUS.
IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS, DETRITUS REFERS TO ORGANIC
MATERIAL SUSPENDED IN WATER, HERE KNOWN AS MARINE
SNOW.
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•GRAZING FOOD CHAIN

•DETRITUS FOODCHAIN
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5. FOOD WEB:
•A LARGE NUMBER OF INTERLINKED FOOD CHAINS IN AN ECO-
SYSTEM MAKE UP A FOOD WEB.
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6. ENERGY FLOW:
THE FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH THE ECOSYSTEM IS
GOVERNED BY THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS WHICH
STATES THAT:
I. ENERGY IS NEITHER CREATED NOR DESTROYED BUT MAY BE
TRANSFORMED FROM ONE FOOD TO ANOTHER
II.DURING ENERGY TRANSFER, THERE IS DEGRADATION OF
ENERGY FROM A CONCENTRATED FORM TO A MORE
DISPERSED FORM.
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7. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
•GRAPHIC REPRESENTATIONS OF THE NUMBER, BIOMASS AND
ENERGY OF THE SUCCESSIVE TROPHIC LEVELS OF AN
ECOSYSTEM.
•THE NUMBER, BIOMASS AND ENERGY OF ORGANISMS
GRADUALLY DECREASES FROM THE PRODUCTION LEVEL TO THE
CONSUMER LEVEL.
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•INVERTED PYRAMID – WHEN THE ECOSYSTEM CONTAINS

LESSER NUMBER AND BIOMASS OF PRODUCERS THAN THOSE
OF CONSUMERS, THE APEX OF THE PYRAMID IS DIRECTED
DOWNWARDS.
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BALANCE OF NATURE:

• Equillibrium is maintained in each ecosystem for it to function

well.
• If any one component to is affected, it destabilizes the whole
equillibrium, (as all components are inter-related.)
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BIO DIVERSITY

• BIODIVERSITY - THAT PART OF NATURE WHICH INCLUDES THE

DIFFERENCES IN GENES AMONG THE INDIVIDUALS OF A
SPECIES; THE VARIETY & RICHNESS OF ALL PLANT AND ANIMAL
SPECIES AT DIFFERENT SCALES IN SPACE – LOCALLY, IN A
REGION, IN THE COUNTRY & THE WORLD; AND THE TYPES OF
ECOSYSTEMS, BOTH TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC, WITHIN A
DEFINED AREA.
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ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

• BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION IS DONE AT TWO LEVELS:

• IN-SITU CONSERVATION
• National parks, zoos, sanctuaries, etc.
• EX-SITU CONSERVATION
• Tissue culture labs, seed banks, embryo banks, etc.
• Botanical gardens are meant for conservation of endangered
native species of plants and to display the species diversity of
the ecosystem.
• A denuded/ economically used (designed landscape) could be
transformed & re-introduce into the ecosystem, by careful
management over a period of time until it becomes self-
regulatory.
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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
• DEFN – AN ORDERLY PROCESS OF CHANGES IN THE
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION WITH TIME
MEDIATED THROUGH MODIFICATIONS IN THE PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT AND ULTIMATELY CULMINATING IN A
STABILIZED ECOSYSTEM KNOWN AS CLIMAX.

• SUCCESSION MAY BE INITIATED EITHER BY FORMATION OF

NEW, UNOCCUPIED HABITAT (EXAMPLE: A LAVA, OR A LAND
SLIDE) OR BY SOME FORM OF DISTURBANCE (FIRE,
WINDTHROW, LOGGING) OF AN EXISTING COMMUNITY.

SUCCESSION IS A PROCESS OF ECOLOGICAL CHANGE IN WHICH

A SERIES OF NATURAL COMMUNITIES ARE ESTABLISHED AND
THEN REPLACED OVER TIME.
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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
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EUTROPHICATION:
• WATER POLLUTION.
• ECOSYSTEM’S RESPONSE TO THE ADDITION OF ARTIFICIAL OR
NATURAL SUBSTANCES, SUCH AS NITRATES & PHOSPHATES,
THROUGH FERTILIZERS OR SEWAGE, TO AN AQUATIC SYSTEM.
• CAN CAUSE DEPLETION OF OXYGEN LEVEL IN WATER,
CAUSING DESTRUCTION OF FISH & OTHER AQUATIC
ORGANISMS.
• WATER BECOMES ACIDIC AND POTABLITY REDUCES.
• PUNGENT SMELL INCREASES; VISIBILITY REDUCES.
UNIT 1 – LANDSCAPE & ECOLOGY
 UNIT 1 – LANDSCAPE & ECOLOGY
LANDSCAPE:
• LAND BECOMES LANDSCAPE WHEN IT IS DESCRIBED OR SEEN
IN TERMS OF ITS PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CHARACTERISTICS.
• LANDSCAPE – A COMPOSITION OF NATURAL FORMS LIKE
LANDFORM, WATER AND VEGETATION.
• LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE – IS CONCERNED WITH THE
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF LAND AND WATER FOR USE BY THE
SOCIETY ON THE BASIS OF UNDERSTANDING OF NATURAL AND
SOCIAL SYSTEMS.
• IT IS THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE OF ALL DISCIPLINES IN THE
CREATION OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT.
• NOT JUST CONCERNED WITH HORTICULTURE/ PLANTING
PLANTS.
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LANDSCAPE:

• BEFORE 19TH CENTURY –

• ONLY GARDENS
• EX: GARDENS OF VERSAILLES
• GARDEN DESIGN OF SMALL SPACES

• AFTER INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION –

• TOWN STARTED GROWING
• PLANNED CITIES
• PUBLIC OPEN SPACES AS BREATHING SPACES
• ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS (GREEN HOUSE, GLOBAL
WARMING, ETC.)
• HIGH DENSITY DEVELOPMENT.
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LANDSCAPE:

• FREDRICK LAW OLMSTED –

• FATHER OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
• COINED THE TERM LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE IN 1858.

• GARDEN DESIGN IS A SMALL CONCEPT OF LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE.
• BASED ON SCALE:
• LANDSCAPE PLANNING
• REGIONAL & CITY LEVEL
• URBAN LANDSCAPE
• SITE PLANNING
• LANDSCAPE DESIGN
• SCHOOLS OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE.
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LANDSCAPE:
• FIELDS OF APPLICATION OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE:
• LANSCAPE PLANNING
• REGIONAL LEVEL
• CITY LEVEL

• LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION
• ECOLOGICAL CONSERVATION
• HISTORICAL CONSERVATION

•LANDSCAPE RECLAMATION

• URBAN LANDSCAPE

• SITE PLANNING

• DEVELOPMENT LANDSCAPES.
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LANDSCAPE:

• LANDSCAPE PLANNING:
• CONSIDERS THE LANDSCAPE AS A SERIES OF HABITATS IN WHICH
VARIOUS FORMS OF LIFE RESIDE.

• OBJECTIVE – TO ENSURE THAT LANDSCAPE CHANGES CONTINUE

TO PROVIDE HABITAT CONDITIONS THAT WILL ACCOMMODATE
VARIOUS FORMS OF LIFE EITHER IN THE EXISTING PATTERN OR IF
THE HABITAT CONDITIONS ARE CHANGED IN THE NEW PATTERN.

• LANDSCAPE IS SEEN AS A RESOURCE.

• DECISIONS ARE MADE ACCORDING TO PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL

SCIENCE AND ECOLOGY TO MEET PEOPLE’S BASIC NEEDS.
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LANDSCAPE:
• PROCESS OF LANDSCAPE PLANNING:
• UNDERSTAND NATURAL FACTORS AND PROCESSES THAT
CONSTITUTE THE LANDSCAPE.
• UNDERSTAND THE INTERACTION AND EFFECT OF THESE FACTORS
ON THE LANDSCAPE.
• ACCESS POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES OF CHANGES ON THE
LANDSCAPE.
• PROPOSALS AND RECOMMENDATIONS – CHANGES MAYBE EITHER
ABSORBED INTO THE EXISTING ECOLOGICAL SITUATION OR FORM
THE BASIS OF NEW ECOLOGICAL SITUATIONS RELATED TO HUMAN
DEMANDS.
• ADDITION TO L.ARCHITECTS, TEAM USUALLY INVOLVES
SCIENTISTS, GEOLOGISTS, ECONOMISTS, ETC.
• RESULT – LANDSCAPE PLAN OR POLICY
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USE OF LANDSCAPE PLANNING:
•TO FIND IMPACT OF SINGLE MAJOR USE ON ENVIRONMENT.
•IDENTIFICATION OF LAND SUITABLE FOR ONE MAJOR USE.

•NATURAL FACTORS:
•GEOLOGY
• SOILS
• HYDROLOGY
• TOPOGRAPHY
• CLIMATE
• VEGETATION
• ANIMAL LIFE

• HUMAN FACTORS:
• PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE.
• CULTURAL VARIATIONS ON THE USE AND APPRECIATION OF OPEN
SPACES.
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LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION:
•PRESERVATION OF THE INHERENT STATE OF ANYTHING.
• DONE AT TWO (2) LEVELS:
• MICRO LEVEL:
• DONE AT A SITE HAVING A HIGH COMMUNAL OR URBAN VALUE,
BUT MAY OR MAY NOT HAVE MUCH VEGETATION. EXISTING
VEGETATION HOWEVER NEEDS TO BE CONSERVED.
• EX: IN RESIDENCES – TREES MAY NEED TO BE PRESERVED
• EX: IN CAMPUSES – OPEN SPACE PLANNING VS. BUILT UP AREAS.
• NEW/ PROPOSED VEGETATIONS/ LANDSCAPE SHOULD BLEND
WITH EXISTING VEGETATION.
•MACRO LEVEL:
• DONE IN ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREAS.
• EX: BHARATPUR – BIRD SANCTUARY WITH A NATURAL WATER
BODY & LAND. LAYING OF ROADS DAMAGES THE ECOSYSTEM.
• PITCHAVARAM – MANGROVE FORESTS.
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LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION:
•CULTURAL LANDSCAPE:
• DEFN: A GEOGRAPHIC AREA, INCLUDING BOTH CULTURAL AND
NATURAL RESOURCES AND WILDLIFE AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS
THEREIN, ASSOCIATED WITH A HISTORIC EVENT, ACTIVITY OR PERSONS
OR EXHIBITING OTHER CULTURAL AND AESTHETIC VALUES.
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LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION:
•CULTURAL LANDSCAPE:
• CAN RANGE FROM THOUSANDS OF ACRES TO SMALL YARDS.

•LANDSCAPE UNTOUCHED BY HUMAN INFLUENCE OTHER THAN PURE

NATURE.

• INCLUDES:
• HISTORICAL LANDSCAPE
• LANDSCAPES EVOLVED FROM PATTERNS OF AGRICULTURE,
FORESTRY, LAND OWNERSHIP & SUBDIVISION.

• CULTURAL LANDSCAPE S FASHIONED FROM A NATURAL LANDSCAPE

BY A CULTURAL GROUP.
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LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION:
•SELECTION OF CONSERVATION AREAS:
• RELIGIOUS OR HISTORICAL SITES:
• TYPE 1 – SITES WITH RITUALS STILL TAKING PLACE
• EG: PUSHKAR MELA, KUMABKONAM, ETC.
• TYPE 2 – SITES ASSOCIATED WITH IMPORTANT EVENTS IN HISTORY.
• EG: JALIANWALA BAGH, ETC.
• EXTENT TO WHICH THEY DETERMINE THE VISUAL CHARACTERISTICS:
• OF AN AREA/ ZONE
• OF PHYSICAL DEFINITION OF SPACE WITHIN A CITY.
• ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SCENIC QUALITY:
• COULD BE TAKEN FOR DEVELOPMENT AS NATURE RESERVES OR
REGIONAL PARKS TO SERVE FOR RECREATION, EDUCATION, ETC.
• THIS IS BASED ON OUTSTANDING SCENIC QUALITY RELATIVE TO
REGIONAL ECOLGY.
• LOCATION W.RT. ACCESSIBILITY AT REGIONAL LEVEL – POTENITAL
FOR RECREATIONAL/ CULTURAL USE.
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LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION:
• RECLAMATION & REHABILITATION OF DERELICT LAND:
• DERELICT LAND – LANDSCAPE THAT HAS BEEN DRASTICALLY
DISTURBED OR ALTERED.
• IT IS NOT VISUALLY ATTRACTIVE, STABLE OR PRODUCTIVE.
• EG: LANDS MINED FOR MINERALS.
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RECLAMATION AND REHABILITATION OF DERELICT LANDSCAPE:

AFFORESTATION IN ISTANBUL

LANDSCAPING OF MINE FIELD IN WEST VIRGINIA.