Teknologi Audit Infrastruktur

Ni Nyoman Kencanawati
Magister Teknik Sipil
Unram
 Equipment and Methods
• Basic mechanical properties of materials
• Beton dan bahan getas lainnya
Benda uji : Silinder beton
Ukuran: diameter 150 mm dan tinggi 300 mm
• Baja dan bahan daktail lainnya
Benda uji : baja tulangan, baja
profile
Ukuran: baja tulangan dipotong
sepanjang 50 cm
 Yield
Plastic

0.2% proof
stress Failure

Stress

0.2% Strain
• Modulus Elastisitas

σ
E=
ε

Baja (steel) : 200 000 MPa

Beton (concrete) : 20 000 MPa
• Poisson ratio
• The value lies in the range 0.15-0.2
Investigation of damage in reinforced
concrete using NDT
Rebound Hammer
Principle
The Schmidt rebound hammer is principally a surface hardness tester with
little apparent theoretical relationship between the strength of concrete
and the rebound number of the hammer.
Description
The hammer weighs about 1.8 kg and is suitable for use both in a
laboratory and in the field.
• SNI 03-4430-1997
• permukaan bidang uji yang kasar harus
digerinda halus sebelum diuji
• jarak terdekat antara titik-titik pukulan 25 mm
• Correlation Procedure — Each hammer is furnished with
correlation curves developed by the manufacturer using
standard cube specimens. However, the use of these curves
is not recommended because material and testing
conditions may not be similar to those in effect when the
calibration of the instrument was performed. Kalibrasi
-90
R W

11 12
12 25
13 39
14 54
15 68
16 82
17 97
18 112
19 126
20 141
21 157
22 172
23 187
24 203
25 219
Limitation

Although the rebound hammer provides a quick, inexpensive means of

checking the uniformity of concrete, it has serious limitations and these
must be recognized. The results of the Schmidt rebound hammer are
affected by:

1. Smoothness of test surface

Surface texture has an important effect on the accuracy of the test results.
When a test is performed on a rough textured surface, the plunger tip causes
excessive crushing and a reduced rebound number is measured. More accurate
results can be obtained by grinding a rough surface to uniform smoothness
with a carborundum stone.
2. Size, shape, and rigidity of the specimens
If the concrete section or test specimen is small, such as a thin beam,
wall, 152-mm cube, or 150 × 300- mm cylinder, any movement under
the impact will lower the rebound readings. In such cases the member
has to be rigidly held or backed up by a heavy mass.

3. Age of test specimens

• Kolek10 has indicated that the rate of gain of surface hardness of
concrete is rapid up to the age of 7 days, following which there is
little or no gain in the surface hardness; however, for a properly
cured concrete, there is significant strength gain beyond 7 days. It is
emphasized that when old concrete is to be tested, direct
correlations are necessary between the rebound numbers taken on
the structure and the compressive strength of cores taken from the
structure.
4. Surface and internal moisture conditions of the concrete
The degree of saturation of the concrete and the presence of surface
moisture have a decisive effect on the evaluation of test hammer
results. Zoldners has demonstrated that well-cured, air-dried
specimens, when soaked in water and tested in the saturated surface-
dried condition, show rebound readings 5 points lower than when
tested dry.

5. Type of coarse aggregate

It is generally agreed that the rebound number is affected by the type
of aggregate used. According to Klieger et al., for equal compressive
strengths, concretes made with crushed limestone coarse aggregate
show rebound numbers approximately 7 points lower than those for
concretes made with gravel coarse aggregate, representing
approximately 7 MPa difference in compressive strength.
 The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method
This method can be used for detecting internal cracking and
other defects as well as changes in concrete such as
deterioration due to aggressive chemical environment and
freezing and thawing. By using the pulse velocity method it
is also possible to estimate the strength of concrete test
specimens and in-place concrete.

The pulse velocity method is a truly nondestructive method,

as the technique uses mechanical waves resulting in no
damage to the concrete element being tested. A test
specimen can be tested again and again at the same
location, which is useful for monitoring concrete undergoing
internal structural changes over a long period of time.
• The transmitting transducer of the pulse velocity instrument
transmits a wave into the concrete and the receiving
transducer, at a distance L, receives the pulse through the
concrete at another point.

• The pulse velocity instrument display indicates the transit

time, Δt, it takes for the compressional wave pulse to
travel through the concrete. The compressional wave pulse
velocity V, compression waves traveling the fastest arrive
first at the receiver.
The test instrument consists
of a means of producing and
introducing a wave pulse into
the concrete (pulse generator
and transmitter) and a means
of sensing the arrival of the
pulse (receiver) and
accurately measuring the time
taken by the pulse to travel
through the concrete. The
equipment may also be
connected to an oscilloscope,
or other display device, to
observe the nature of the
received pulse. Standard:
ASTM Test Method C 597
• To transmit or receive the pulse, the transducers must be in full
contact with the test object; otherwise an air pocket between the
test object and transducer may introduce an error in the indicated
transit time.

• Many couplants available in the market can be used to eliminate air

pockets and to assure good contact; petroleum jelly has proved to be
one of the superior couplants. Other couplants are grease, liquid soap,
and kaolin-glycerol paste.

• The couplant layer should be as thin as possible. If the concrete

surface is very rough, thick grease should be used as a couplant. In
some cases, the rough surface may have to be ground smooth or
suitable quick-setting cement paste or quicksetting epoxy mortar. A
smooth surface is still required for the transmitting transducer.
• The pulse velocity for ordinary concrete is typically 3700 to
4200 m/s. Therefore, for a 300-mm path length, the travel
time is approximately 70 to 85 μs.
Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity
• the pulse velocity of cement paste is lower than that of
aggregate,
• concrete with rounded gravel has lower pulse velocity than
the crushed one,
• concrete having the higher aggregate content gave a higher
pulse velocity
• The pulse velocity for saturated concrete is higher than for
air-dry concrete.
• Steel reinforcement
One of the most significant factors that influences the pulse
velocity of concrete is the presence of steel reinforcement.
The pulse velocity in steel is 1.4 to 1.7 times the pulse velocity
in plain concrete. Therefore, pulse velocity readings in the
vicinity of reinforcing steel are usually higher than that in plain
concrete. Whenever possible, test readings should be taken
such that the reinforcement is avoided in the wave path.
If reinforcements cross the wave path, correction factors
should be used. The correction factors that are used are those
recommended by RILEM23 and British Standards.22
Applications
• Estimation of Strength of Concrete
The strength can be estimated from the pulse velocity by a pre-
established graphical correlation between the two parameters. The
relationship between strength and pulse velocity is not unique, and is
affected by many factors, e.g., aggregate size, type, and content;
cement type and content; water–cement ratio; and moisture content.
• Establishing Homogeneity of Concrete
Heterogeneity is defined as interior cracking, deterioration,
honeycombing, and variations in mixture proportions. Heterogeneities
in a concrete member will cause variations in the pulse velocity. For
example, the diffraction of a wave pulse around an internal air void
will cause an increase in the time of propagation for an assumed
path through the void center. Thus, the apparent velocity will
decrease.
• Studies on the
Hydration of Cement

• Determination of Dynamic
Modulus of Elasticity

• Studies on Durability of Concrete

Aggressive environments will damage the structure of concrete and
decrease the pulse velocity. Deterioration caused by freezing and
thawing, sulfate exposure, alkali-silicate reactivity, and corrosion of
embedded items can be detected by the pulse velocity method and
have been studied by various investigators. Progressive deterioration
of either a test specimen or in situ concrete can be monitored by
conducting repetitive tests on the same concrete element.
Deterioration of concrete due to fire exposure has also been
investigated by the pulse velocity method
• Measurement of Surface Crack Depth
If a pulse traveling through the concrete comes upon an air-filled crack
or a void whose projected area perpendicular to the path length is larger
than the area of the transmitting transducer, the pulse will diffract
around the defect. Thus, the pulse travel time will be greater than that
through similar concrete without any defect. The pulse velocity method,
therefore, is effective in characterizing surface cracks. It should be
pointed out that the application of this technique in locating flaws has
serious limitations. For example, if cracks and flaws are small or if they
are filled with water or other debris thus allowing the wave to propagate
through the flaw, or if the crack tip is not well defined, the pulse velocity
will not significantly decrease, implying that no flaw exists.

• Determination of Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity

• Cover Meter / Rebar Detector
Covermeter is the generic term for equipment
used to locate steel reinforcing bar in concrete
and to estimate the thickness of the concrete
cover over the reinforcement.
Unlike concrete, steel bars interact strongly with
low-frequency lectromagnetic waves applied at
the surface of the concrete, making it easy to
identify their location.
• Half Cell Potential
Half-cell potential can be used to assess the corrosion conditions in
a reinforced concrete structure. The standard test method is given in
ASTM C 876.
The apparatus includes a copper–
copper sulfate half-cell, connecting
wires, and a high-impedance voltmeter.
This halfcell is composed of a copper
bar immersed in a saturated copper
sulfate solution. It is one of many half
cells that can be used as a reference to
measure the electrical potential of
embedded bars. The positive terminal of
the voltmeter is attached to the
reinforcement and the negative terminal
is attached to the copper–copper
sulfate halfcell..
Data analysis
• If the potential is more positive than –200 mV
(relative to the copper–copper sulfate half-cell),
there is a high likelihood that no corrosion is
occurring at the time of the measurement.
• If the potential is more negative than –350 mV, there
is a high likelihood that there is active corrosion.
Data from a half-cell potential survey can be presented
in two ways: as an equipotential contour map or
as a cumulative frequency diagram.
• Limitations
a surface layer with high resistance results in
less negative surface potentials; this can mask
underlying corrosion activity.
Acoustic Emission Testing

• AE is able to be applied to detect a failure at a very

early stage, long before a structure completely fails
(Ohtsu M. and Grosse CU, 2008).
• AE signals can be analyzed into two major methods
which are parameter-based method and signal-based
method.
• AE Parameter Based Analysis
 Crack Classification

buried water-pipeline under road

Damage Quantification
Amplitude Distribution
• AE Hit

600 40 600 40
AEhit AEhit
Compressive stress 35 Compressive stress 35
500 500

Compressive stress （MPa）

Compressive stress （MPa）

30 30
400 400
25 25
AEhit

AEhit
300 20 300 20

15 15
200 200
10 10
100 100
5 5

0 0 0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (second) Time (second)
• AE Signal based Analysis

Localization techniques
x2 x0 xN
0 x3 xs x1
x
y0 T0
a
yN
T3
y3 R0 TN
S RN
ys
R3
R1
y1 R2
T1
y2

y T2
b
• X-ray Method
 Destructive testing
• ASTM C 42/C 42M – 03 Standard Test
Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled
Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete

• SNI 03-2492-2002 Metode Pengambilan Dan

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