Lecture 13

Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space

In this lecture you will learn:

• Electromagnetic wave equation in free space

• Uniform plane wave solutions of the wave equation

• Energy and power of electromagnetic waves

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

Basic Wave Motion

Consider a wave moving in the +x-direction:
The wave travels a distance equal to one wavelength
in one time period
a( x , t ) v

v = velocity of wave propagation

distance λ
λ = wavelength of the wave v = velocity = = = fλ
f = frequency of the wave time T
T = period = 1/f

Basic relation for wave motion: fλ =v

∂ 2a ( x , t ) 1 ∂ 2 a( x , t )
1-D wave equation: =
∂x 2 v2 ∂t 2
ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

1
 Electromagnetic Wave Motion - I
r
r r ∂ µoH
∇. ε o E = ρ ∇×E = −
∂t
r r
∇ . µo H = 0 r r ∂ε E
∇×H = J + o
∂t
Time varying electric and magnetic fields are coupled - this coupling is
responsible for the propagation of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic Wave Equation:

r
Assume free space: ⇒ ρ =J=0
r r r
⎛∂µ H⎞ ∂ µo ∇ × H
( )
r ∂2 E
∇ × ∇ × E = −∇ × ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ = − = − µo ε o 2
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ∂t
r
( )
r ∂ E
2 1
⇒ ∇ × ∇ × E = − µo ε o 2 c= ≈ 3 × 108 m/s
∂t ε o µo
r
( )
r 1 ∂2 E
⇒ ∇× ∇×E = − 2
c ∂t 2

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

Electromagnetic Wave Motion - II

r
( )
r 1 ∂2 E
( ) ( )
r r r
⇒ ∇× ∇×E = − 2 Use the vector Identity: ∇ × ∇ × F = ∇ ∇ . F − ∇ 2F
c ∂t 2
0 r
( )
r r 1 ∂2 E r
⇒ ∇ ∇ . E − ∇ 2E = − 2 ∇. ε o E = ρ = 0
c ∂t 2
r
r 1 ∂2 E
⇒ ∇ 2E = 2 Equation for a wave traveling at speed c in
c ∂t 2 free space

∂ 2E x ∂ 2E x ∂ 2E x 1 ∂2 Ex
(1) + + =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2
∂ 2E y ∂ 2E y ∂ 2E y Wave equation is essentially
1 ∂ Ey
2
(2) + + = three equations stacked
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2 together – one for each
component of the E-field
(3) ∂ E2z + ∂ E2z + ∂ E2z = 12 ∂ E2 z
2 2 2 2

∂x ∂y ∂z c ∂t

Wave must also satisfy: ∇. ε E = 0

r ∂E x ∂E y ∂E z
⇒ + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
o

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

2
 Electromagnetic Wave Motion - III
The H-field also satisfies a similar wave equation
r r
r ∂ µoH r r ∂ε E
Start from Maxwell’s equations: ∇ × E = − ∇×H = J + o
∂t ∂t
r
Assume free space: ⇒ ρ =J=0
r r r
⎛ ∂ ε oE ⎞ ∂ εo ∇ × E
( )
r ∂2 H
∇× ∇×H = ∇×⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎟=− = − µo ε o
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ∂t 2
r
( )
r ∂2 H
⇒ ∇ × ∇ × H = − µo ε o
∂t 2
r
( )
r 1 ∂2 H
⇒ ∇× ∇×H = − 2
c ∂t 2
0 r
∇ (∇ . H ) − ∇ 2H = − 2
r r
1 ∂ H 2
r
⇒ ∇ . µo H = 0
c ∂t 2
r
r 1 ∂2 H
⇒ ∇ H= 2
2
c ∂t 2

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

General Solutions of Electromagnetic Wave Equation

r
Assume only x-component of the E-field: E = xˆ E x
r ∂E x
∇. ε o E = 0 ⇒ =0 The x-component cannot
∂x have x-dependence
r
So assume: E = xˆ E x (z , t )
r
r 1 ∂2 E
And plug it into the wave equation: ∇ 2E = 2
c ∂t 2
∂ 2E x ( z , t ) 1 ∂ 2 E x ( z , t )
To obtain: = 2
∂z 2 c ∂t 2

Solution is: E x (z , t ) = g (z ± c t )
c
Any function g whose dependence on co-ordinate
z and time t is in the form of (z±ct ) will satisfy the
above equation

Example: E x (z , t ) = Eo exp (− α z − c t ) z

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

3
 Sinusoidal Solutions of Electromagnetic Wave Equation - I

∂ 2E x ( z , t ) 1 ∂ 2 E x ( z , t ) r
= 2 ⇒ E = xˆ E x (z − ct )
∂z 2 c ∂t 2
The most commonly used solutions are sinusoids, for example:
r ⎛ 2π
E = xˆ E x (z − ct ) = xˆ Eo cos⎜ (z − c t ) ⎞⎟
⎝ λ ⎠
This solution represents a wave that:

i) Has electric field pointing in x-direction c

ii) Has wavelength λ Eo
iii) Has frequency f = c/λ
iv) Is moving in the +z-direction z
λ

In space the electric field looks x c

as shown here (remember that
the density of field lines
correspond to the strength of
the E-field) z

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

Sinusoidal Solutions of Electromagnetic Wave Equation - II

The sinusoidal solution,
r ⎛ 2π
E = xˆ E x (z − ct ) = xˆ Eo cos⎜ (z − c t ) ⎞⎟
⎝ λ ⎠
can also be written as:
r ⎛ 2π c ⎛ z ⎞⎞ ⎛ 2π c 2π ⎞
E = xˆ Eo cos⎜ ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎟ = xˆ Eo cos⎜ t− z⎟
⎝ λ ⎝ c ⎠⎠ ⎝ λ λ ⎠

Define:
2π c 2π
ω= = 2π f and k=
λ λ
To get: ω = angular frequency (units: radians/sec)
r
E = xˆ Eo cos(ω t − k z ) k = wave-vector (units: 1/m)

Note that:

fλ =v ⇒ ω = kc A dispersion relation

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

4
 Sinusoidal Solutions of Electromagnetic Wave Equation - III
r
What about the magnetic field?
r ∂ µoH
∇×E = −
∂t
Recall the E and H-fields are coupled
r
r ∂ εo E
So an E-field must be accompanied by an H-field ∇×H =
which can be calculated from the equation: ∂t
r r
r ∂ µoH ⎛ r ∂ εo E ⎞
∇×E = − ⎜⎜ or even from ∇ × H = ⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
r
Plug in the following solution for the E-field: E = xˆ Eo cos(ω t − k z )
r
∂H 1 r k
=− ∇ × E = − yˆ E sin(ω t − k z )
∂t µo µo o
r k µoω µo
⇒ H = yˆ E cos(ω t − k z ) = µo c = = ηo
µo ω o k εo
r E
⇒ H = yˆ o cos(ω t − k z ) ηo = impedance of free space ≈ 377 Ω
ηo

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

Sinusoidal Solutions of Electromagnetic Wave Equation - IV

x
E c
r
E = xˆ Eo cos(ω t − k z )
r E
H = yˆ o cos(ω t − k z ) z
ηo
H
y

E x̂
Cartoon depiction: ẑ
H ŷ

• These solutions of the wave equation are called uniform plane waves

• The E-field (and the H-field as well) is constant over any infinite plane that is
parallel to the x-y plane – in more technical terms, the surfaces of constant phase
are infinite planes
ω
• The pattern shown above moves with a velocity equal to =c
k
ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

5
 Sinusoidal Solutions of Electromagnetic Wave Equation - V
Consider the plane wave:
r r
E = xˆ Eo cos(ω t − k z ) E
H = yˆ o cos(ω t − k z )
ηo

If a person takes a snapshot of the wave in space at any time, say at t = 0, he will
see E-field look like:

λ r ⎛ 2π ⎞
E = xˆ Eo cos(k z ) = xˆ Eo cos⎜ z⎟
⎝ λ ⎠
If a person sits at one location, say z = 0, he will see an oscillating E-field in time that
looks like:

T r ⎛ 2π ⎞
E = xˆ Eo cos(ω t ) = xˆ Eo cos⎜ t⎟
⎝T ⎠
ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

Plane Waves in 3D - I
E x̂
So far we have found one solution: ẑ
H ŷ
What about plane waves with E-field pointing in direction n̂ and traveling in
some arbitrary direction in 3D ?
E n̂

The answer is: H r

k = k x xˆ + k y yˆ + k z zˆ
( )
r r r r r r
E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r ⇒ k . k = k 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2
r
r = x xˆ + y yˆ + z zˆ

Lets see if this solution satisfies the wave equation:

r
r 1 ∂2 E
∇ 2E = 2
c ∂t 2
r r
[ rr
( ω2
)]
⇒ − k . k nˆ Eo cos ωt − k .r = − 2 nˆ Eo cos ωt − k .r
c
rr
[ ( )]
( )
r r
⇒ ω 2 = k . k c 2 = k 2c 2
⇒ ω = kc The solution can only be correct if: ω = k c
ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

6
 Plane Waves in 3D - II
r
The solution for a plane wave in 3D is: k = k x xˆ + k y yˆ + k z zˆ
r r
( )
r r r r
E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r ⇒ k . k = k 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2
r
r = x xˆ + y yˆ + z zˆ
The solution must also satisfy: ω = kc
r
∇. ε o E = 0
Plug in the solution to check:
r
[ (
r r
∇. ε o E = ε o ∇. nˆ Eo cos ω t − k . r ) ] = ε o (k . nˆ )Eo cos(ω t − k . rr )
r r

r r
∇. ε o E = 0 provided k . nˆ = 0
r
The solution can only be correct if the unit vector n̂ is perpendicular to k
r
The solution in fact corresponds to a plane wave traveling in the direction: k
With E-field pointing in the direction: n̂ r
k
r E n̂
k . nˆ = 0 ⇒ E-field is perpendicular
to the direction of travel
H
ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

Plane Waves in 3D - III

The solution for a plane wave in 3D is:
r
k = k x xˆ + k y yˆ + k z zˆ
r r
⇒ k . k = k 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2
( )
r r r r
E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r
ω = kc
r
k . nˆ = 0

r
k

E
2π 2π
n̂ λ= =
k k x2 + k y2 + k z2
x

H λ

y
ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

7
 Plane Waves in 3D - IVr
If the E-field for a plane wave solution in 3D is: k = k x xˆ + k y yˆ + k z zˆ
r r
( )
r r r r ⇒ k . k = k 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2
E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r
ω = kc
Then what is the magnetic field? r
k . nˆ = 0
Use the same old equation:
r r
r ∂ µoH ⎛ r ∂ εo E ⎞
∇×E = − ⎜⎜ or even from ∇ × H = ⎟
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎟⎠
( )
r r r r
Plug in the following solution for the E-field: E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r

( )
r r
( )
∂H 1 r k × nˆ r r
=− ∇×E = − Eo sin ω t − k . r
∂t µo µo
v
r (k × nˆ )
( )
r r r
⇒ H= Eo cos ω t − k . r k = k kˆ
µo ω
Direction of H-field given by kˆ × nˆ
( )η
r
(
r r
⇒
E
H = kˆ × nˆ o cos ω t − k . r ) is also perpendicular to the
o
direction of travel

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

Plane Waves in 3D - V
E-field for a plane wave solution in 3D: r
k = k x xˆ + k y yˆ + k z zˆ
( )
r r r r
E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r r r
⇒ k . k = k 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2
H-field for a plane wave solution in 3D: ω = kc
( )η ( )
r r E r r
H (r , t ) = kˆ × nˆ o cos ω t − k . r r
o
k . nˆ = 0

E n̂
k̂

H
kˆ × nˆ

Questions:

i) What about energy and power?

ii) How much power per unit area does a plane wave carry?
iii) What is the energy density of a plane wave?

r r r r r r
Try using the Poynting vector: S (r , t ) = E (r , t ) × H (r , t ) (units: Joules/(m2-sec)
or: Watts/m2 )
ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

8
 Power Carried By Plane Waves
E-field and H-field for a plane wave solution in 3D:

( )η ( )
r r r r
( )
r r r r E
E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r H (r , t ) = kˆ × nˆ o cos ω t − k . r
o

Poynting vector for a plane wave:

r r r r r r
S (r , t ) = E (r , t ) × H (r , t ) Use the vector identity:

( ) ( )
r r r r r r r r r
(
= nˆ × kˆ × nˆ )η
Eo2
(
r r
cos2 ω t − k . r ) A × B × C = B A .C − C A . B ( )
o
E n̂
( )
Eo2 r r k̂
= kˆ cos2 ω t − k . r
ηo
H
Power flows in the direction of the wave-vector kˆ × nˆ

Time average power per unit area of a plane wave:

cos2 (ω t + θ )
Usually one is interested in the time-average
2π ω
1
∫ cos (ω t + θ ) dt
power per unit area:
= 2

r r 2π ω
( )
E2 r r Eo2 0
S (r , t ) = kˆ o cos2 ω t − k . r = kˆ
ηo 2 ηo =
1
2
ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

Power and Energy Density of Plane Waves

E-field and H-field for a plane wave solution in 3D:

( )η ( )
r r r r
( )
r r r r E
E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r H (r , t ) = kˆ × nˆ o cos ω t − k . r
o

( )
r 1 r r r r 1 r r
Electric field energy density = We (r , t ) = ε o E (r , t ) . E (r , t ) = ε o Eo2 cos2 ω t − k . r
2 2

( )
r 1 r r r r 1 E2 r r
Magnetic field energy density = Wm (r , t ) = µo H (r , t ) . H (r , t ) = µo o2 cos2 ω t − k . r
2 2 ηo

Notice that:
r r x
We (r , t ) = Wm (r , t ) E c
r r r r
S (r , t ) = c (We (r , t ) + Wm (r , t ))

The electric and magnetic z

energy densities are moving at
H
the speed c and this constitutes
y
the power of an electromagnetic
plane wave

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

9
 Example: Plane Wavesr
If the fields for a plane wave solution in 3D is: k = k x xˆ + k y yˆ + k z zˆ
r r
( )
r r r r ⇒ k . k = k 2 = k x2 + k y2 + k z2
E (r , t ) = nˆ Eo cos ω t − k .r r
k . nˆ = 0
( )η ( )
r r E r r
H (r , t ) = kˆ × nˆ o cos ω t − k . r
o ω = kc

Lets try to write solution for a plane wave that:

i) Is moving in the -x-direction

ii) Has E-field pointing in the y-direction
iii) Has E-field amplitude Ro
iv) Has wavelength λo

r 2π
(i) And (iv) imply: k = − k xˆ and k= Wavevector is in the -x-direction
λo
r r
Answer is: E (r , t ) = yˆ Ro cos(ω t + k x ) − ẑ H
E
r r R
H (r , t ) = − zˆ o cos(ω t + k x ) ŷ
ηo − x̂

ECE 303 – Fall 2007 – Farhan Rana – Cornell University

10